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THE    NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA 


SUPPLEMENT 
COURSES  OF  READING 


VOLUME  XXV 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 
«  1928 


Copyright,  1924 
BY  DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 


All  right*  reserved 


VAIL-BALLOU  PIMI,  INC.,  BIMGBAMTOX,  N.  y. 
J.   F.  TAPLBY  Co ,   LONG  ISLAND  CITT,   N.   Y. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  VOLUME  XXV 

MAPS 

VACOTO  FACB 

CENTRAL  EUEOPE  BEFORE  AND  SINCE  THE  WAR 988 

WAR  AREA  OP  WESTERN  EUROPE 1398 

WAR  AREA  OF  EASTERN  EUROPE 1420 

ENGRAVINGS 

NAVIES — British  Battle  Cruiser  "Hood" 910 

NAVIES — Japanese    Battleship    "Mutsu" 911 

NEW  YORK — Airplane  View 934 

ORDNANCE — IT.  S.  Army  High  Power  Guns 960 

ORDNANCE — U.  S.  Army  Projectiles 961 

ORPEN,    SIR  WILLIAM — "The   Costermonger" 964 

PAINTING — Joseph  Stella,  "Brooklyn  Bridge";  Ernest  Lawson,  "Winter  Scene"  .     972 
PAINTING — Boris  Anisfeld,  "Le  Eoi  de  Lahore";  Daniel  Garber,  "Hawk's  Nest"    973 

RADIO   BROADCASTING 1094 

RADIO  COMMUNICATION 1095 

V 

ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE 1136 

SCULPTURE— James  Earl  Frazer,  "The  End  of  the  Trail" 1188 

SHIPBUILDING — Motor  Vessels 1200 

SHIPBUILDING — British  Steamship  "Majestic" 1202 

TELEPHONY 1280 

THEATRE — Modern  Stagecraft 1292 

THEATRE — "The  Miracle" 1294 

TUNNELS — Drawings  of  Tunnelling  Operations 1312 

TUNNELS — Interior  of  Hudson  River  Vehicular  Tunnel 1313 

VESSEL,  NAVY — U.  S.  Airplane  Carriers  and  Auxiliary  Vessels 1360 

VESSEL,  NAVY— U.  S.  Light  Cruiser  "Richmond" 1361 

VESSEL,  NAVY— U.  S.  Battleship  "Maryland" 1362 

WASHINGTON — Lincoln  Memorial 1450 

WATER   POWER— Hydro-Electric   Installation  at  Niagara  Falls 1460 

WILSON,    WOODROW 1474 

TALE  UNIVERSITY — Branford  Court  of  Harkness  Memorial  Building  .     .     .     ,  1488 


THE   NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
lENCYCLOP^DIA 


started  at 
create  was  zni 
incorporated 
services,  rend 
tinually  augm 
increase    in    i 
ness,   and   tax 


TTNICTPAIi      QOVEBNKENT. 

The  outstanding  feature  in  mu- 
nicipal government  from  1014 
to  1924  was  the  rapid  advance 
of  the  commission-manager  plan, 
which  was  only  fairly  well 
'  lining  of  1914.  A  rapid  in- 
n umbers  and  population  of 
in  the  United  States;  their 
at  public  expense,  were  con- 
1;  and  there  was  a  consequent 
icipal  expenditures,  indebted- 
lies.  All  three  increases  were 
accelerated  by  he  War  and  post-war  condi- 
tions during  the^O  years.  No  true  picture  of 
these  increases  in  be  gained  without  taking 
into  account  the\diminished  purchasing  power 
of  the  dollar  aii  the  greatly  increased  com- 
modity and  conduction  cost  index.  Besides 
the  movement  of  titles  toward  the  adoption  of 
the  commission-iinager  city  charter,  other 
changes  were  mae,  to  effect  more  efficient 
municipal  governnfot  and  at  the  same  time  to 
make  it  more  restnsive  to  the  wishes  of  the 
people.  Where  thacommission  or  the  commis- 
sion-manager planjwith  its  small  governing 
body,  had  not  bee^ adopted,  there  were  many 
changes  to  councilsbf  much  smaller  size  than 
formerly,  with  abolion  also  of  the  bicameral 
or  two-chamber  citytmncil  where  that  was  still 
in  existence.  The  rate  notable  example  was  the 
substitution  at  Philifelphia  on  Jan.  1,  1920,  of 
a  single  council  of  el  members  for  the  old 
double-chambered  coicil  of  144. 

The  census  of  1920howed  that  the  50  largest 
cities  of  the  country  \d  a  population  of  nearly 


38,000,000.    The  60 
States  in  1870  had 
000,  or  only  163,000 
of    New    York    in    1! 
States  had  only  14  c 
or  more,  compared  w 
including  the  census 
between  urban  and 
By  1880  urBan  life 
intense   that  the 
tended   to  embrace 
2500  population  and 
sise,  in  certain 


cities  of  the  United 
population  of  5,773,- 
than  the  population 
In    1870    the    United 
f  100,000  population 
in  1920.    Up  to  and 
1870  the  dividing  line 
population  was  8000. 
[become  so  much  more 
.ssiftcation   was    ex* 
corporated   places   of 
d  all  towns  of  that 

„ ,  .  land  States.    On  this 

basis  the  urban  populatilof  the  United  States 
cm  Jan.  1,  1920,  totaledl,300,000,  or  51.4  per 
cent  of  the  entire  popujion  of  the  country; 
these  people  lived  in  27(plaees.  Smaller  in- 


urbai 


2-30 


8Q5 


corporated  places,  each  functioning  municipally 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  numbered  12,905  in 
1920  and  had  a  population  about  9,000,000. 
For  1924  it  is  safe  to  assume  some  16,000  in- 
corporated places  with  a  total  population  of 
about  65,000,000,  or  nearly  60  per  cent  that  of 
the  entire  country.  A  preliminary  statement  by 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  reporting  taxes  col- 
lected in  1922  and  1912  shows  that  incorporated 
places  of  more  than  2500  population  collected 
a  total  of  $1,532,000,000  taxes  in  1922  against 
$850,000,000  in  1912,  an  increase  of  80  per  cent. 
The  corresponding  figures  for  taxes  levied  by 
counties  are  $745,000,000  and  $308,000,000,  an 
increase  of  142  per  cent.  The  net  debt  of  cities 
(gross-debt  sinking-fund  assets)  for  all  incor- 
porated places  in  the  United  States  was  $4,709,- 
000,000  or  $70.80  per  capita  in  2922,  against 
$2,885,000,000  or  $54.07  per  capita  in  1912. 

Charters  and  Municipal  Home  Rule.  One 
by  one  the  various  State  Legislatures  of  the 
Union  have  given  up  the  early  and  long-prevail- 
ing practice  of  enacting  separate  charters  for 
individual  cities.  In  some  places  it  is  still  with- 
in the  power  of  a  Legislature  to  do  this,  al- 
though the  power  is  rarely  exercised.  A  number 
of  State  constitutions  prohibit  all  legislation  ap- 
plying to  one  city  only.  Some  years  ago  New 
York  State  made  such  legislation  subject  to 
local  veto  by  the  mavor  or  in  smaller  places 
by  the  local  legislative  body.  New  York  in 
1914  and  Massachusetts  in  1915  passed  option- 
al charter  acts  under  which  municipalities  can 
by  popular  vote  choose  between  six  types  of 
charter  in  New  York  and  four  types  in  Massa- 
chusetts. The  three  main  types  in  each  State 
are  the  federal  or  mayor-ana-council  type,  with 
varying  degree  of  separation  between  legislative 
and  executive  functions;  the  commission  plan, 
and  the  commission-manager  plan.  In  1915  the 
voters  of  New  York  State  defeated  municipal 
home-rule  amendments  to  the  State  constitution 
which  had  been  drawn  by  a  constitutional  con- 
vention. After  persisting  in  an  attempt  to  the 
same  end,  New  York  State  in  1924  became  the 
thirteenth  in  the  Union  to  grant  more  or  less 
extensive  home-rule  powers  to  its  municipalities. 
The  New  York  home-rule  constitutional  amend- 
ment was  adopted  by  a  popular  majority  of 
426,000  at  the  November  election  in  1923.  The 
necessary  enabling  act  specifying  the  details  of 
home-rule  powers  and  methods  of  exercising  them 
was  pasted  by  the  Legislature  of  1984  and  ap- 


MUNICIPAL  GOVEBNHBNT 

proved  by  Governor  Smith  on  April  24.  The 
amendment  added  several  flections  to  Article 
XII  of  the  New  York  State  constitution,  which 
makes  it  the  duty  of  the  Legislature  to  provide 
for  the  government  of  municipalities. 

The  Enabling  Act  (Chapter  363,  Laws  of 
1024)  extends  broadly  to  all  kinds  of  strictly 
local  legislation,  including  the  making  and 
amending  of  municipal  charters,  but  leaves  un- 


896  MUNICIPAL  QOVEBWMENT 

adopted  in   the   State,  but  repeated  efforts  to 
secure  the  manager  plan  were  defeated. 

Rapid  Progress  of  City-Manarer  Plan. 
Up  to  1914  the  city-manager  plaa  had  teen 
adopted  by  only  23  municipalities;  fhe  first  of 
these  was  Staunton,  Va.,  which  crested  the  of- 
fice of  business  manager  by  ordinance  in  1908 
From  1915  on,  there  was  first  slow  and  steady 
and  then  more  rapid  progress  in  the  adoption  of 


o  _»__.-»  .  , — r     "~     f'-vjj.m.HM     *«      V*l*}   U.UVSUIJUJ1     Ul 

altered  the  power  of  the  Legislature  to  pass  cer-      the  manager  plan.    The  official   Ytar  Book  of 

tain   kinds  of    lawn  nnnliralilp  to  All   munipinal-        *fc«    d*»i    \tn«*nno*>a>     A  «n«^x.^?«^.     *._    m^-i 


tain  kinds  of  laws  applicable  to  all  municipal- 
ities.    The  amendment  also  authorizes  the  Legis- 

CITY  MANAGER  CITIES 

(From  The  City  Manayer  Magazine,  April,  1924.) 
The  following  represents  the  growth  of  the  manager 
plan  by  years. 

Put  in  effect                           By  charter     By  ord.       Total 
1908      0  1  1 

1912     1  2  3 

1913     8  8  11 

1014     15  6  21 

1915  13  7  20 

1916  15  5  20 

1917  13  6  18 

1918  20  8  28 

1919  20  11  81 

1920  23  12  85 

1921  41  7  48 

1922  28  10  88 

1923 40  8  48 

1924     6  1  7 

1925 1  0  1 

1926     1  0  1 


Totals     245 


86 


331 


la tii re  to  pass  special  legislation  by  a  two- 
thirds  concurrent  vote  of  each  house,  on  receipt 
of  an  emergency  message  from  the  Governor. 
Every  city  is  granted  constitutional  "power  to 
adopt  and  amend  local  laws  not  inconsistent 
with  the  constitution  and  laws  of  the  State/' 
These  laws  may  relate  to  a  wide  range  of  sub- 
jects. The  amendment  makes  it  the  duty  of 
the  Legislature  to  provide  by  general  law  for 
putting  the  amendment  into  effect.  The  En- 
abling Act  authorizes  any  local  legislative  body 
to  pass  local  acts  superseding  existing  State 
legislation  applying  to  the  municipality  in  ques- 
tion alone  The  act  makes  compulsory  a  refer- 
endum vote  on  certain  charter  changes  and  local 
ordinances  suoh  as  those  changing  the  veto 
power  of  the  Mayor,  creating  a  new  executive 
office,  abolishing  a  branch  of  the  legislative  body, 
or  alienating  city  property.  Other  kinds  of 
local  acts  are  subject  to  referendum  on  petition. 
Provision  is  made  for  local  drafting  of  new 
charters.  The  municipal  assembly  is  prohibited 
by  the  Enabling  Act  from  passing  any  law  re- 
moving or  raising  debt  or  tax  limits  and  vari- 
ous other  matters  retained  under  State  control. 
In  the  case  of  New  York  City  and  in  recognition 
of  the  large  legislative  powers  vested  in  the 
Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  the  En- 
abling Act  gives  the  power  to  enact  local  laws 
to  a  bicameral  body  known  as  the  Municipal 
Assembly,  consisting  of  the  Board  of  Estimate 
and  Apportionment  and  the  Board  of  Aldermen. 
Before  they  are  approved  by  the  Mayor,  he  must 
give  a  hearing  on  all  local  laws  passed  by  the 
Assembly.  The  Mayor's  veto  of  such  laws  may 
be  reconsidered  by  the  Municipal  Assembly  and 
passed  over  the  veto  by  a  two-thirds  vote  On 
reconsideration  the  Mayor  is  not  allowed  to  vote. 
The  New  Jersey  Legislature  of  1023  granted 
to  any  municipality  in  that  State  the  right  to 
adopt  the  eommiasion-nisjiager  form  of  city  char- 
ter. A  plain  commission  plan  enabling  act  was 
passed  some  years  earlier  and  had  been  widely 


the  City  Managers'  Association  frr  1924,  re- 
vised to  March  15,  showed  that  3J9  municipal- 
ities in  the  United  States  and  Oinada  and  7 
in  foreign  countries  had  adopted  the  manager 
plan.  Of  the  319  cities,  240  had  adopted  the 
plan  by  charter  and  73  by  ordinance.  The  char- 
ter method  is  considered  the  betfrr  of  the  two 
because  it  is  more  stable  and  rests  on  the 
referendum  vote. 

The  population  of  cities  opera  ing  under  the 
city-manager   plan   in    1924   was  nearly    5,000  - 
000  in  the  United  States,  130,000in  Canada  and 
470,000  in  other  countries.     Thi  largest  Amer- 
ican city  under  the  plan  was  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
with  a  1920  population  of  797,00.    Other  Amer- 
ican manager  cities  with  popultions  in  excess 
of    100,000   in    1920   were:      Nofolk,   Va,     159- 
000;    Dayton,    Ohio,    153,000;. Grand    Rapids, 
Mich.,  137,000.      By  far  the  largf  number  of  man- 
ager cities  are  relatively  small ,  The  largest  for- 
eign city  listed  in  the  Year  tiok  already  men- 
tioned   is   Leeds,    England,    \ih    a    population 
about   430,000.     The   total   nutter   of  manager 
cities  given  does  not  include  those   that  have 
abandoned  the  plan.    Of  thec,  there  are  alto- 
gether 76  that  were  reported  is  having  adopted 
the  plan,  but  of  that  numbe  the  reports  were 
unfounded  in  many  cases.     <f  the  70  cities,  72 
either   never    really   adopted  the   plan    or    el«e 
adopted  and  abandoned  it  uner  ordinance.     The 
plan  has  been  abandoned  b  only  4  cities  that 
adopted  it  under  charter,     he  largest  of  these 
was  Akron,  Ohio,  which  ad*ted  a  manager  plan 
not  wholly  as  standard  in  020  and  gave  it  up 
four     years     later.     The    -her     charter     cities 
which  abandoned  the  manajr  plan  are  Waltham, 
Mass ,  Hot  Springs,  Ark.,  nd  Lawton,  Okla. 

Promotions  of  city  maigers  have  been  com- 
mon, with  72  instances.    €  to  Mar.  15,  1924,  the 
Year  Book  already  cited  *ates  that  259  mana- 
gers were  serving  in  theirirst  cities,  30  in  their 
second,  6  in  their  third,    in  their  fourth,  and 
one  in  his  fifth.     The  o^er  13  of  the   72  pro- 
motions   were   of    men    't    now    following   the 
profession  of  city  mana^r.     The  leading  man- 
agers command  high   series,   not  always  pro- 
portioned to  the  populson  of  the  city.     There 
were,  however,  many  m/agers  giving  good  serv- 
ice at  modest  salaries,  -n  14  cities  the  salaries 
paid  to  managers  wer<P10,000  or  over.     Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  where  the  an  went  into  effect  Jan. 
1,    1924,    pays    $25,00' a   year     Norfolk,    Va., 
and  Stockton,  Cal ,  pa$20,000;  their  respective 
populations  in  1920  we  159,000  and  40,000      In 
the  $16,000  class  wer-Knoxville,  Tenn.,  with  a 
population  of  78,000,  id  Sacramento,  Cal.,  with 
a    population    of    66/0.     Pasadena,    Cal.,    and 
Lynchburg,  Va.,  pay  12,000  a  year.     The  cities 
in   the   $10,000   claswere   Long   Beach,    Cal.; 
Miami,   Fla.;    Dubue,    Iowa;    Portland,    Me.; 
Beaumont,  Texas;   tersburg,  Va.;    and  Blue- 
field,  W.  Va.     The  *t  named  had  the  smallest 
population  of  any  /the  $10,000  class — 16,000. 
See    CITT    PLANWG,    GARBAGE,    MUNICIPAL 
OWNERSHIP,  SBWE^I,  WATERWOBKB, 


MUNICIPAL  L&AGTTE  897 

MUNICIPAL  LEAGUE,  NATIONAL.  An 
organization  founded  in  1894  for  the  study  of 
municipal  problems  and  the  dissemination  of 
information  on  the  subjects  relating  to  them. 
The  society  was  active  in  the  decade  1014-1924. 
Annual  meetings  are  held  in  different  cities.  The 
twenty-first  meeting  was  held  in  Dayton,  Ohio, 
in  1915.  During  this  year  several  important 
volumes  were  published,  including  Lower  Living 
Coats  in  Cities,  by  Clyde  L.  King;  The  City 
Manager,  by  H.  A.  Toulmin,  Jr.  In  1916  the 
meeting  was  held  in  Springfield,  Ohio.  There 
was  an  important  discussion  on  the  influence 
of  politics  in  city  government.  Lawson  Purdy 
succeeded  Wl  W.  Foulke  as  president.  The 
meeting  in  1917  discussed  many  other  subjects, 
including  the  experience  of  American  and  Ca- 
nadian cities  during  war  time.  A  survey  com- 
mission to  examine  different  phases  of  municipal 
government  was  appointed,  as  was  also  a  Con- 
ference of  State  Leagues  of  Municipalities  to 
act  as  a  separate  organization.  Lawson  Purdy 
was  reflected  president.  In  this  year  the  so- 
ciety published  many  other  volumes,  including 
Municipal  Functions,  by  H.  G.  James.  The 
session  of  1918,  held  in  New  York  City,  gave 
the  major  part  of  its  time  to  the  discussion  of 
various  phases  of  Bolshevism.  In  November 
of  the  same  year,  a  conference  on  reconstruction 
was  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  society,  in 
Rochester.  In  1019  the  meeting  at  Cleveland 
took  the  form  of  a  moot  constitutional  conven- 
tion, at  which  sundry  questions  on  constitu- 
tional reform  were  discussed  at  length.  Clinton 
Rogers  Woodruff  retired  as  secretary  after 
twenty-live  years  of  service.  He  was  appointed 
honorary  secretary.  Hon.  Charles  E.  Hughes 
was  elected  president  at  this  meeting  In  In- 
dianapolis, in  1920,  the  society  discussed  the 
report  of  a  commission  on  State  government. 
President  Hughes  delivered  an  address  on  the 
fate  of  the  direct  primary  At  this  meeting  the 
society  voted  to  unite  with  the  American  Civic 
Association.  H.  W.  Waite  was  elected  presi- 
dent. A  feature  of  the  meeting  in  Philadelphia 
in  1022  was  an  address  delivered  by  Albert 
Shaw  on  the  history  of  the  work  of  the  society, 
entitled  A  Thirty  Years'  View.  A  committee 
on  electoral  reform  was  appointed  at  this  ses- 
sion. At  the  meeting  in  Washington,  in  1923, 
many  phases  of  municipal  government  were  dis- 
cussed. Through  its  committee  on  State  gov- 
ernment it  has  prepared  a  Model  State  Consti- 
tution which  was  debated  and  accepted  at  three 
successive  annual  conventions.  The  constitu- 
tion is  published  in  pamphlet  form  with  ex- 
planatory articles.  The  League  has  also  pre- 
pared a  number  of  pamphlets  designed  for  classes 
in  high  schools,  and  many  others  on  technical 
subjects.  Its  official  organ  is  The  National 
Municipal  Review,  monthly.  The  secretary  is 
H.  W.  Dodds. 

MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP.  Waterworks 
lead  public  utilities  in  percentage  of  plants  un- 
der municipal  ownership  and  even  more  marked- 
ly in  percentage  of  population  supplied.  All  of 
the  10  largest  cities  of  the  United  States  own 
their  works.  In  the  second  group  of  10  all  but 
San  Francisco  and  Indianapolis,  and  every  one 
in  the  third  group  of  ten,  have  them  un- 
der public  ownership.  In  cities  ranging  from 
thirty-first  to  fiftieth  in  population,  all  but 
six  have  municipally  owned  works.  There  are 
only  nine  examples  of  private  ownership  in  the 
50  largest  cities  of  the  country.  In  the  second 


MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP 

group  of  50  cities,  only  six  Lave  them  under 
private  ownership.  Out  of  the  100  largest 
cities,  15  had  private-owned  works.  No  figures 
for  the  whole  country  have  been  compiled  since 
those  given  in  the  MoOraw  Waterworks  Direc- 
tory for  1915.  Of  4400  works  there  listed  for 
the  United  States,  a  number  probably  too  small 
to  include  all  works  then  built,  3045,  or  nearly 
70  per  cent,  were  municipally  owned.  For 
Canada,  figures  published  by  the  Canadian  Con- 
servation Commission  in  1915  showed  that  of 
528  waterworks,  306,  or  about  75  per  cent,  were 
under  municipal  ownership,  In  some  of  the 
provinces,  all  of  the  works  were  publicly  owned. 
Denver,  Colo.,  after  many  years  of  effort  and 
agitation  to  that  end,  acquired  its  waterworks 
from  private  owners  in  1018.  San  Francisco, 
which  had  also  been  struggling  for  municipal 
ownership  for  a  long  time,  had  not  succeeded 
up  to  1924  in  taking  over  the  distribution  sys- 
tem, but  had  completed  what  was  formerly 
known  as  the  Hetch  Hetchy  Dam  and  now  called 
the  O'Shaughnessy  Dam,  to  form  a  large  im- 
pounding reservoir  on  the  Tuolumne  River.  It 
also  had  well  under  way  the  construction  of  a 
large  aqueduct  from  the  reservoir  to  the  city. 
(See  AQUEDUCTS  and  DAMS.)  Extensive  hydro- 
electric power  development  is  a  part  of  the  proj- 
ect, and  this  is  also  true  of  the  water  supply 
brought  to  Los  Angeles  by  a  notable  aqueduct. 
A  notable  event  in  1923  was  the  transfer  on 
December  15  to  the  city  of  Morristown,  N.  J., 
of  the  waterworks  originally  built  in  1799  by 
the  proprietors  of  the  Morris  Aqueduct.  By  this 
transfer  there  passed  to  municipal  ownership 
the  last  of  15  privately  owned  waterworks  in 
the  United  States  built  up  to  the  close  of  the 
year  1800.  On  the  date  last  named  there  was  in 
existence  only  one  municipally  owned  water- 
works in  the  United  States,  at  Winchester, 
Va. 

Next  to  waterworks  in  public  ownership  in 
the  United  States  stand  electric  light  and  power 
stations.  A  summary  published  in  the  Elec- 
trical World  of  Aug.  11,  1923,  based  on  the 
1923  edition  of  the  McGraw  Central  Station  Di- 
rectory, shows  that  on  Oct.  1,  1922,  there  were 
in  the  United  States  5974  central  station  sys- 
tems; of  this  number  2019,  or  33.7  per  cent, 
were  municipally  operated.  The  largest  number 
of  municipal  central  stations  was  reported  from 
the  west  north  central  States,  in  which  of  1460 
stations,  693  were  municipally  operated. 

Gas  works  in  the  United  States  make  a  very 
small  showing  for  municipal  ownership.  Ac- 
cording to  figures  compiled  by  the  American 
Gas  Association,  based  on  the  1923  edition  of 
Brown's  Directory  of  American  Gas  Companies, 
of  966  gas  works  in  the  United  States  in  1923 
only  51,  or  5  per  cent,  were  municipally  owned, 
and  the  plants  under  municipal  ownership  sup- 
plied only  1.6  per  cent  of  the  total  output  of 
gas  for  the  year  to  less  than  2  per  cent  of  the 
entire  population  supplied  by  gas ;  662,000  popu- 
lation were  supplied  by  municipally  owned  works 
out  of  a  total  of  45,000,000  people  served.  The 
51  municipally  owned  gas  works  were  located 
in  21  States,  with  six  in  Minnesota,  five  in 
Virginia,  and  four  each  in  Georgia,  Iowa,  and 
Massachusetts.  The  largest  of  these  was  that 
supplying  the  Omaha  metropolitan  district  in 
Nebraska;  this  was  taken  over  by  the  district 
in  1920.  The  two  next  largest  were  at  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  and  Duluth,  Minn. 

Street  railways  are  but  rarely  under  munici- 


MUNICIPAL  TAXATION 


898 


MUSCLE  SHOALS 


pal  ownership  in  the  United  States,  but  more 
commonly  in  Canada,  and  still  more  generally 
in  Great  Britain.  In  point  of  magnitude  of 
works  and  capital  investment,  the  subways  and 
other  railways  forming  part  of  the  rapid  transit 
system  of  New  York  City  lead  the  country. 
These,  however,  are  privately  operated,  and  so 
are  the  municipally  owned  subways  and  elevated 
lines  of  Boston  and  Philadelphia.  Important 
extensions  to  the  New  York  and  the  Philadel- 
phia rapid  transit  systems  were  still  under 
way  and  projected  in  1924.  Within  the  pre- 
ceding decade,  San  Francisco,  Seattle,  and  De- 
troit went  extensively  into  municipal  owner- 
ship of  street  railways.  San  Francisco  had 
either  built  or  acquired  by  purchase  over  60 
miles  of  single  track  up  to  June  30,  1923.  Seat- 
tle on  Mar.  1,  1919,  took  over  by  purchase  from 
the  Puget  Sound  Traction  Light  and  Power 
Company  203  miles  of  railway  track  at  a  pur- 
chase price  of  $15,000,000;  this  had  been  au- 
thorized by  a  popular  vote  of  4  to  1  in  Novem- 
l>er,  1918.  Detroit  acquired  an  extensive  street 
railway  system. 

In  Canada,  15  municipalities  have  gone  into 
municipal  ownership  of  street  railways.  The 
entire  street  railway  system  of  Toronto  was 
under  municipal  ownership  early  in  1924  and 
some  suburban  lines  also,  although  the  latter 
were  operated  by  the  Ontario  Hydro-electric 
Commission.  Sewerage  systems,  though  not  usu- 
ally regarded  as  a  public  utility,  i.e.  subject  to 
private  franchise  and  operation  for  private  prop- 
erty, are  owned  by  a  few  cities  in  the  United 
States,  the  chief  of  which  is  Atlantic  City ;  they 
are  similarly  owned  in  some  foreign  countries, 
as  in  the  city  of  Valparaiso,  Chile.  The  Public 
Ownership  League  of  America,  with  national 
headquarters  in  Chicago,  is  devoted  to  the  pro- 
motion of  public  ownership  and  democratic  con- 
trol of  public  utilities  and  natural  resources 
and  issues  various  bulletins  on  the  subject. 

MUNICIPAL  TAXATION.  See  TAXATION 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

MUNITIONS    OF    WAR.    See    ORDNANCE. 

MUNSEY,  FBANK  ANDREW  (1854-1926).  An 
American  publisher  (see  VOL.  XVI).  During 
the  decade  1914-24  he  was  especially  active  in 
the  newspaper  field  and  established  and  acquired 
by  purchase  several  newspapers,  including  the 
Washington  Times,  Baltimore  News,  New  York 
flt/n.  New  York  Globe,  New  York  Mail,  New 
York  Evening  Telegram,  and  New  York  Herald. 
The  last  he  sold  in  1924  to  Ogden  Reid,  who 
consolidated  it  with  the  New  York  Tribune. 

MURDOCH,  VICTOR  (1871-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican legislator  (see  VOL.  XVI).  In  1917  he 
was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Federal  Trade 
Commission.  He  was  reappointed  for  the  term 
expiring  1925.  During  the  War  he  served  as 
a  member  of  the  meat  commission  of  the  United 
States  government.  From  1914  to  1916  he  was 
chairman  of  the  Progressive  national  committee. 
He  wrote  China,  the  Mysterious  and  Marvelous 
(1920),  and  Folks  (1921). 

MURMANSK  COAST  EXPEDITION.  See 
RUSSIA,  History. 

MURBAY,  (GEORGE)  GILBERT  (AiMt) 
(1866-  ).  A  noted  English  philologist  (see 
VOL.  XVI).  He  has  published  since  1914  Stoic 
Philosophy  (1915);  Failh,  War  and  Policy 
(1918)  ;  Euripides  and  His  Age  (1918)  ;  Satan- 
ism and  the  World  Orders  (1920),  and  Prob- 
lems of  Foreign  Policy  (1921). 

MUSCLE  SHOALS.    A  location  on  the  Ten- 


nessee River  2.7  miles  above  the  railway  bridge 
at  Florence,  Ala.,  and  a  few  miles  from  Sheffield. 
During  the  War  the  United  States  put  under 
way  a  notable  development  there  for  the  'manu- 
facture of  nitrates  for  use  in  military  explosives 
and  also  a  large  power  plant  involving  the  con- 
struction of  a  hundred-foot  dam  across  the 
river.  (See  DAMS,  Wilson  Dam.)  Under  the 
terms  of  the  National  Defense  Act  of  1910  the 
site  for  the  dam  at  this  point  was  acquired,  and 
in  the  following  year  United  States  Nitrate 
Plants  No.  1  and  No.  2  were  planned,  the  lat- 
ter directly  at  Muscle  Shoals.  This  was  done 
in  order  to  secure  an  adequate  supply  of  nitrate 
for  the  manufacture  of  munitions  in  case  the 
United  States  should  be  cut  off  from  the  ma- 
terial imported  from  Chile.  The  reason  foi 
locating  such  plants  at  Muscle  Shoals  was  the 
great  power  to  be  obtained  from  the  Tennessee 
River,  the  fourth  in  size  of  the  rivers  of  the 
United  States,  having  a  flow  of  8000  to  500,000 
cubic  feet  per  second  and  in  this  vicinity  a  fall 
of  over  134  feet  in  37  miles.  The  Tennessee 
River  is  navigable  from  its  mouth  to  the  foot 
of  Muscle  Shoals,  and  the  completion  of  the 
No.  2  or  Wilson  Dam  at  this  point  with  its  lock 
and  the  construction  of  No.  1  Dam,  a  small  dam 
for  navigation  only  two  miles  below  the  Wilson 
Dam,  would  extend  navigation  for  a  distance  of 
15  miles.  The  building  of  the  proposed  Dam 
No.  3,  50  feet  high,  would  extend  navigation 
65  miles  further  and  supply  additional  power 
Up  to  1924  navigation  of  the  river  had  been 
slight,  but  much  interest  centred  in  the  develop- 
ment of  power,  particularly  at  Dam  No.  2,  the 
Wilson  Dam  Here  for  12  months  in  the  year 
there  would  be  available  87,300  horae  power 
and  for  97  per  eent  of  the  time  100,000  horse 
power,  while  for  21X>  months  the  available  power 
would  increase  up  to  000,000  horse  power.  The 
United  States  No  2  Nitrate  Plant  at  Muscle 
Shoals  was  completed  so  that  operation  could 
begin  on  Oct.  27,  1918,  and  it  continued  for  a 
sufficient  time  after  the  Armistice  to  show  that 
it  could  be  run  successfully.  It  had  a  capacity 
of  220,000  tons  of  eyanamid  or  110,000  tons  of 
ammonium  nitrate  per  annum.  This  plant  was 
of  course  operated  by  steam  power;  there  is  a 
60,000  kilowatt  steam-power  plant  at  Muscle 
Shoals.  Electricity  was  supplied  over  a  00-mile 
transmission  line  from  a  30,000  kilowatt  steam 
plant  on  the  Warrior  River.  The  plant  at 
Muscle  Shoals  cost  approximately  $70,000,000 
and  the  Warrior  River  plant  and  transmission 
line  about  $5,000,000  additional.  The  raw  ma- 
terials required  for  nitrogen  fixation  were  eoke 
from  the  Birmingham  district  or  eastern  Ten- 
nessee, limestone  from  the  Waco  quarry,  30 
miles  distant,  and  nitrogen  from  the  air.  The 
principal  item  was  the  cost  of  power;  85,000 
kilowatts  was  required,  and  the  steam  plants 
were  used  pending  the  completion  of  the  large 
dam  across  the  river.  The  No.  2  plant  could 
supply  the  nitrogen  for  12  infantry  divisions  at 
the  rate  it  was  used  in  the  War,  or  more  than 
one-third  of  the  inorganic  nitrogen  used  in  the 
production  of  fertilizers  in  the  United  States  at 
this  time.  Consequently  in  the  latter  connection 
after  the  end  of  the  War  the  farmers  became 
interested  in  the  utilization  of  the  plant  as  an 
agency  to  increase  the  supply  and  decrease  the 
cost  of  fertilizer.  Accordingly  after  the  War 
the  future  of  this  great  power  and  manufactur- 
ing development  became  a  matter  of  considerable 
debate.  After  a  curtailment  of  construction 


MUSIC 


899 


MUSIC 


work  on  the  Wilson  Dam  in  1021,  it  was  de- 
cided to  proceed  vigorously  with  its  completion, 
but  no  decision  was  reached  as  to  the  method 
of  utilizing  the  power  that  would  be  developed, 
up  to  the  autumn  of  1924.  Offers  were  made 
by  Henry  Ford,  the  Combined  Power  Compan- 
ies, in  which  the  Alabama  Power  Company  was 
a  leading  interest,  a  Mr.  Hooker,  and  the  Union 
Carbide  Company,  all  of  whom  submitted  to  the 
government  detailed  proposals  of  plans  for  the 
utilization  of  the  present  and  future  power  re- 
sources, the  manufacturing  of  fertilizer,  and  the 
conditions  under  which  it  would  be  sold.  The 
Ford  proposal  for  a  while  attracted  much  pub- 
lic attention,  but  it  was  not  altogether  favor- 
able to  the  government  according  to  many 
engineers.  The  various  schemes  were  all  under 
discussion  in  1923  and  1924,  but  the  question 
of  disposing  of  the  government-owned  property 
at  Muscle  Shoals  was  not  definitely  decided  at 
the  session  of  Congress  ending  June  7,  1924, 
although  at  that  time  the  sentiment  was  rather 
in  favor  of  the  government's  retaining  and  oper- 
ating the  property  than  of  turning  it  over  to 
Henry  Ford  to  operate.  There  also  were  changes 
in  the  aspect  of  preparedness  in  this  field  as 
well  as  in  the  production  and  cost  of  fertilizer 
materials  so  that  the  conditions  seemed  to  in- 
dicate that  the  power  consideration  might  be 
preeminent  over  other  considerations. 

MUSIC.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  futur- 
ism was  just  making  its  appearance,  and  the 
majority  of  musicians,  as  well  as  music-lovers, 
then  regarded  the  new  movement  as  an  aber- 
ration of  taste  not  worthy  of  serious  considera- 
tion. The  decade  1914-24,  however,  witnessed 
such  a  rapid  and  general  spread  of  the  new 
cult  that  futurism  was  no  longer  to  be  ignored. 
To  understand  the  situation  at  the  close  of  this 
period  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  im- 
pressionism and  futurism.  Impressionism  began 
as  a  reaction  against  the  all-pervading  influence 
of  Wagner.  For  the  fundamental  principle  of 
thematic  development  the  impressionists  sub- 
stituted the  mere  statement  of  themes,  which 
followed  one  another  in  kaleidoscopic  succession, 
without  systematic  repetition  or  development. 
But  the  necessity  of  themes  as  basic  material 
was  still  recognized.  The  conscious  employment 
of  the  higher  overtones,  while  extending  the 
possibilities  of  harmonic  combinations  and 
progressions  for  the  attainment  of  special  ef- 
fects, was  carried  to  excess  from  the  very  be- 
ginning, with  the  result  that  impressionistic 
music  rests  not  on  the  foundation  of  consonance, 
which  was  formerly  the  foundation  of  all  music, 
but  on  dissonance.  Around  Debussy  as  their 
leader,  a  group  of  younger  composers  sprang 
up  who  soon  made  a  caricature  of  impressionism 
and  whose  tendencies  were  dubbed  futurism. 
These  innovators,  dispensing  altogether  with 
thematic  invention,  employed  mere  rhythmical 
figures.  Kegularly  defined  rhythm  was  soon 
scorned  as  monotonous,  and  constant  variation 
of  rhythm  was  adopted  as  a  fundamental  prin- 
ciple. Different  instruments  played  different 
rhythms  simultaneously,  so  that  each  instru- 
mental part  was  entirely  independent  of  all 
the  others.  This  brought  with  it  the  complete 
and  intentional  disregard  of  the  harmonic  re- 
lations of  sounds.  The  preponderant  use  of 
dissonance  by  the  impressionists  had  already 
obliterated  the  dividing  line  between  euphony 
and  cacophony,  and  now  the  futurists  denied  the 
essential  difference  between  consonance  and  dis- 


sonance, proclaiming  a  system  of  "free  har- 
mony" which  permitted  the  combination  and 
juxtaposition  of  all  sounds,  irrespective  of  re- 
lationship. This  system  frankly  adopted  caco- 
phony as  its  basic  principle.  As  compositions 
were  no  longer  written  in  a  recognizable  tonal- 
ity, key  signatures  disappeared  and  each  ac- 
cidental was  marked  individually,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  printed  page  is  as  bewildering  to 
the  eye  as  the  actual  sounds  to  the  ear.  This 
method  of  writing  soon  became  known  as  atonal- 
ism.  However,  some  futurists  insist  on  a  dis- 
tinction between  atonalism,  the  negation  of  the 
diatonic  scale  and  the  triad,  and  polytonalism, 
the  superposition  or  interlocking  of  various 
tonalities.  Thus,  in  a  string  quartet  by  Casella 
the  first  violin  plays  in  Eb  minor,  the  second 
violin  in  Bb  major,  the  viola  in  F#  minor,  and 
the  'cello  in  D  minor.  The  constant  change 
of  rhythm  quite  naturally  led  to  the  abolition 
of  time  signatures  and  bar  lines.  The  next 
step  was  the  introduction  of  quarter-tones; 
the  scores  of  Alois  Haba  were  actually  pub- 
lished in  the  new  quarter-tone  notation.  The 
craze  for  novel  effects  also  led  to  an  ab- 
normal augmentation  of  the  mechanical  means 
of  sound-production.  Orchestral  instruments 
were  exploited  in  unusual  registers  and  in  still 
more  unusual  combinations.  As  an  extreme  ex- 
ample of  overloaded  orchestration  may  be  cited 
Schonberg's  Gurrelieder,  scored  for  6  solo  voices, 
2  choruses  of  eight  and  12  parts  respectively, 
and  114  different  orchestral  parts — altogether 
140  distinct  parts!  In  the  employment  of  this 
huge  apparatus,  SchOnberg  defeats  his  very  pur- 
pose and  produces  less  startling  and  grotesque 
effects  than  Stravinsky  does  in  his  Histoire  du 
tioldat,  scored  for  an  absurdly  inadequate  or- 
chestra of  one  violin,  one  clarinet,  one  bassoon, 
one  cornet,  one  trombone,  and  several  drums. 

The  outbreak  of  the  War  created  conditions 
exceedingly  favorable  to  the  spread  of  futurism, 
especially  in  Europe.  It  happened  that  impres- 
sionism had  already  made  great  headway  in 
Russia,  England,  and  the  Latin  countries, 
whereas  in  Germany  and  Austria  the  traditions 
of  the  classic  and  romantic  masters  had  proved 
an  effective  check  against  the  new  influence. 
With  German  music  banished,  or  at  least  con- 
siderably curtailed,  in  all  countries  politically 
arrayed  against  Germany,  the  impressionists  as- 
sumed undisputed  leadership,  and  in  their  wake 
the  futurists  developed  such  an  active  campaign 
that  in  a  very  short  time  they  succeeded  to  the 
dominating  position.  Debussy,  who  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  War  had  been  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  radicals  or  ultramodern ists,  was 
deposed  as  too  conservative,  and  his  "place  taken 
by  the  futurists  Skriabin  and  Stravinsky.  The 
futurists  now  became  the  ultramodernists,  while 
the  impressionists  were  relegated  to  the  rank 
of  mere  modernists.  In  Germany  and  Austria 
the  new  gospel  began  to  spread,  and  Schiinberg, 
whose  partisans  before  the  War  had  made  some 
futile  attempts  at  recognition,  suddenly  found 
himself  elevated  to  a  place  by  the  side  of  Skri- 
abin  and  Stravinsky.  As  early  as  1915  an 
Italian,  Pratella,  formulated  the  new  futuristic 
creed:  "Young  composers,  revolt  against  the 
tyranny  of  the  publishers,  the  stupid  presump- 
tion of  the  public,  and  the  insipid  gossip  of 
critics  all  more  or  less  bought.  .  .  .  Let  us  at- 
tack the  prejudice  for  music  that  is  well  made, 
and  despise  that  popular  phrase,  'We  must  go 
liack  to  older  music.'  .  .  .  Let  us  destroy  the 


MUSIC 


popular  taste  for  old  operas,  whose  exhumation 
encumbers  the  progress  of  new  musicians.  Let 
us  compel  the  public,  by  assiduous  propaganda, 
to  be  interested  in  all  that  teems  with  orig- 
inality and  revolution  in  music.  .  .  .  We  hear 
on  every  side  that  we  are  fools.  It  is  from  the 
window  ot  a  glorious  madhouse  that  we  pro- 
claim as  an  essential  principle  of  our  futuristic 
revolution  that  counterpoint  and  fugue,  foolishly 
considered  one  of  the  most  important  branches 
of  musical  instruction,  are  no  more  in  our 
night  than  the  ruins  of  the  old  science  of 
polyphony  that  extends  from  the  Flemish  mas- 
ters to  Bach.  .  .  .  We  declare,  moreover,  the 
values  of  consonance  and  dissonance  as  abso- 
lutely inconsistent.  From  innumerable  com- 
binations and  from  the  diverse  relations  that 
result  from  them  will  arise  the  £reat  futuristic 
melody.  This  melody  will  be  simply  the  syn- 
thesis of  harmony  and  in  a  way  will  resemble 
the  ideal  line  formed  by  the  continuous  expand- 
ing of  a  thousand  sea  waves  with  irregular 
crests.  .  .  .  We  have  liked  for  a  long  time  the 
enharmonic  intervals  produced  by  an  orchestra 
that  sounds  out  of  tune  in  playing  on  diverse 
tonalities  and  that  we  hear  in  popular  songs 
intoned  without  any  knowledge  of  art.  The 
rhythm  of  the  dance  will  have  to  renounce  the 
domain  of  polyphony  for  a  free  polyrhythmic 
manner.  .  .  .  The  aesthetic  intuition  of  the  cre- 
ative artist  will  be  sufficient  to  balance  the 
succession  and  alternation  of  all  tempi  and  of 
all  possible  rhythms.  .  .  .  The  musician  ought 
to  listen  only  to  his  soul  singing  in  synthetic 
explanation  of  his  musical  ideas.  .  .  .  The 
purely  symphonic  composer  writes  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  his  fantasy,  neglecting  all  principles  and 
laws,  to  obey  only  the  futuristic  equilibrium. 
.  .  .  We  must  be  careful  not  to  consider  as  ab- 
solute symphonic  forms  the  traditional  schemes 
of  the  symphony  used  to-day,  which  are  decayed 
and  surpassed.  ...  We  must  express  the  mu- 
sical soul  of  the  multitude,  of  the  great  indus- 
trial factories,  of  trains,  transatlantic  steamers, 
warships,  automobiles,  and  aeroplanes.  We 
must  add  to  the  great  dominant  motifs  of  the 
musical  poem  the  glorification  of  the  machine 
and  the  victorious  kingdom  of  electricity.  .  .  . 
All  this  will  become  possible  when  conserv- 
atories, lyceums,  and  academies  of  music  will 
finally  be  deserted  and  closed,  and  when  the 
study  of  music  will  have  taken  the  character 
of  absolute  liberty/'  This  programme  was  ac- 
cepted by  most  futurists,  irrespective  of  na- 
tionality. 

After  the  War  the  new  movement  continued 
throughout  Europe  with  unabated  vigor.  A 
host  of  writers  now  appeared  who  effectively 
aided  the  composers,  and  in  almost  every  coun- 
try were  established  periodicals  devoted  exclu- 
sively to  the  cause  of  futurism.  Through  these 
persistent  and  systematic  efforts  a  new  public 
was  recruited,  sufficiently  numerous  to  insure 
the  success  of  a  futuristic  festival  held  in  Salz- 
burg in  August,  1922.  The  immediate  result  of 
tli is  festival  was  the  formation  of  the  Interna- 
tional Society  for  Contemporary  Music  (I.  S. 
C.  M.),  with  headquarters  in  London,  for  the 
purpose  of  spreading  the  new  cult  by  means  of 
annual  festivals.  At  the  first  official  festival, 
which  took  place  according  to  schedule  at  Salz- 
burg in  August,  1023,  35  composers  of  14  dif- 
ferent nationalities  were  represented  on  the 
programme. 

On  the  older  composers  whose  reputation  had 


900  MUSIC 

been  firmly  established  early  in  the  century,  the 
War  seems  to  have  had  a  blighting  effect. 
Strauss,  Puccini,  Elgar,  and  Sibelius  were  not 
silent,  but  they  produced  in  the  decade  1914-24 
not  a  single  work  even  remotely  approaching 
the  best  of  their  earlier  efforts.  In  fact,  the 
beginning  of  their  decadence  antedated  the  out- 
break of  the  War  by  several  years.  Different  is 
the  case  of  Rachmaninov,  by  all  odds  the 
greatest  of  living  Russian  composers,  who  sud- 
denly, without  having  given  any  indication  of 
declining  power,  deserted  the  career  of  the  cre- 
ative artist  for  that  of  the  virtuoso.  If  these 
men  of  pronounced  individuality,  whose  earlier 
works  have  permanently  enriched  the  literature 
of  music,  were  unable  to  stem  the  rising  tide  of 
futurism,  it  is  vain  to  hope  for  any  counteract- 
ing influence  from  men  of  lesser  ability,  who 
almost  without  exception  exhibit  some  phase  or 
other  of  futurism. 

In  the  musical  development  of  the  United 
States  during  the  decade  futurism  played  a 
secondary  rfile.  Futuristic  tendencies,  it  must 
be  admitted,  were  quite  noticeable  among  the 
younger  American  composers;  but  as  yet,  with 
the  exception  of  Leo  Ornstein,  these  manifesta- 
tions avoided  the  furthest  extremes  and  could 
still  be  regarded  as  advanced  Impressionism. 
The  chief  reason  why  the  influence  of  these 
composers  on  the  public  taste  was  negligible  is 
the  conservative  attitude  of  the  general  public 
and  of  our  great  musical  institutions,  whose 
programmes,  in  the  main,  were  still  drawn  from 
the  works  of  recognized  masters.  While  im- 
pressionists had  frequent  hearings,  futurists 
were  represented  but  sparingly,  and  only  very 
rarely  by  extreme  works.  Of  the  musical  cen- 
tres, New  York,  the  most  important,  is  also  the 
most  conservative.  Bach,  Beethoven,  Schubert, 
Brahms,  Wagner,  and  Tchaikovsky  still  held  un- 
disputed sway,  and  despite  determined  efforts 
on  the  part  of  certain  conductors,  the  New  York 
public  had  not  yet  become  convinced  of  the 
merits  of  Bruckner,  Mahler,  or  Reger.  This 
state  of  affairs  led  a  small  group  of  futurists 
to  establish,  in  1921,  the  International  Com- 
posers' Guild  for  the  purpose  of  producing  ex- 
clusively works  of  extreme  tendencies,  because 
"the  standard  symphony  orchestras  present 
only  the  most  timid  and  anaemic  of  contempo- 
rary productions,  leaving  absolutely  unheard  the 
composers  who  represent  the  true  spirit  of  our 
time."  In  spite  of  very  active  and  noisy  prop- 
aganda this  group  made  few  converts,  and  the 
works  produced  at  their  special  concerts  did  not 
find  their  way  to  the  programmes  of  our  recog- 
nized institutions.  Although  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  century  there  had  arisen  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  States  numerous  composers 
whose  efforts  had  been  duly  recognized  and  en- 
couraged by  the  leading  orchestras  and  choral 
societies,  they  had  not  succeeded  in  reaching 
their  common  goal,  the  creation  of  a  national 
school  of  music  that  should  be  recognized  as 
typically  American.  Numerous  and  earnest  at- 
tempts to  force  such  a  consummation  by  means 
of  prizes,  competitions,  and  special  organiza- 
tions producing  exclusively  works  of  native  com- 
posers had  not  yielded  the  expected  results. 
Nevertheless,  the  efforts  put  forth  by  this  gen- 
eration of  composers  were  by  no  means  futile; 
they  were  preparing  the  soil  from  which,  at 
some  future  day,  will  spring  the  longed-for  na- 
tional art.  Until  the  outbreak  of  the  War, 
Berlin  had  been  the  centre  of  the  world's  musical 


MUSIC 


901 


activity.  American  artists  seldom  risked  ap- 
pearances in  their  own  country  unless  they  had 
met  with  approval  in  a  Berlin  de*but.  In  this 
respect  a  complete  change  took  place  within  the 
decade,  so  that  a  New  York  debut  had  come  to 
be  a  passport  not  only  for  American  artists, 
but  also  for  many  a  European  aspirant.  As 
a  natural  consequence  of  the  War  a  vast  num- 
ber of  the  world's  most  famous  interpretative 
artists  sought  and  found  success  in  extended 
tours  of  the  United  States  The  presence  of 
HO  many  celebrities  at  the  same  time  compelled 
managers  to  extend  the  field  of  operation,  so 
that  even  smaller  towns  were  visited,  with  the 
result  that  interest  was  stimulated  throughout 
the  country.  Tangible  proof  of  this  new  in- 
terest is  found  in  the  large  number  of  newly 
established  musical  organizations  of  all  kinds 
in  towns  which  had  formerly  never  considered 
such  institutions  a  necessity. 

Chamber  Music.  The  widespread  interest  in 
chamber  music  throughout  the  United  States 
during  the  decade  furnishes  conclusive  evidence 
of  the  steadily  growing  appreciation  of  the  best 
music.  In  all  parts  of  the  country  numerous 
new  organizations  not  only  had  been'  formed  but 
also  successfully  maintained  themselves.  The 
most  notable  event  was  the  establishment  of  the 
annual  Berkshire  Festival,  which  was  inaugu- 
lated  Sept.  Itf-lH,  1018.  During  the  summer 
of  1917  Airs  F.  S  Coolidge  began  the  erection 
on  South  Mountain,  near  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  of 
the  Temple  of  Music,  a  small  concert-hall  with 
a  seating  capacity  of  500,  to  be  devoted  exclu- 
sively to  the  performance  of  chamber  music.  At 
the  same  time  she  offered  a  pri/e  of  $1000  for 
the  best  string  quartet  to  be  performed  at  the 
inaugural  festival  Not  less  than  82  manu- 
scripts, many  from  European  composers,  were 
submitted.  After  the  success  of  the  first 
festival  the  $1000  prize  was  made  a  regular 
feature.  The  programmes  of  the  festivals  are 
given  by  famous  chamber  music  organizations 
fiom  all  parts  of  the  Union.  On  two  occasions 
European  quartets  participated,  the  London 
String  Quartet  (1020)  and  the  Stuttgarter 
Streichquartett  (1922).  The  programmes  of- 
fered were  remarkable  for  variety  and  cath- 
olicity of  taste,  favoring  no  nation  and  no  pe- 
riod, and  ranging  from  Bach  to  the  moderns  of 
the  day.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  festival  of 
1022  announcement  was  made  that  the  cash 
prize  thereafter  would  be  awarded  biennially,  in 
the  even  years.  In  the  odd  years  new  works 
were  to  be  commissioned  from  prominent  com- 
posers. The  first  composers  to  be  honored  with 
such  commissions  were  Eugene  Goossens  (string 
sextet)  and  Rebecca  Clarke  (Rhapsody  for 
'cello  and  piano),  both  performed  at  the  festival 
of  1923.  The  list  of  prize  winners  was  as  fol- 
lows: 1918,  Tadeus  larecki,  string  quartet; 
1910,  Ernest  Bloch,  suite  for  viola  and  piano; 
1020,  Francesco  Malipiero,  string  quartet;  1921, 
H.  Waldo  Warner,  piano  trio;  1022,  Leo 
Weiner,  string  quartet;  1924,  Wallingford  Riejy- 
ger,  La,  Belle  Dame  flaws  Mrrci,  for  vocal 
quartet  and  chamber  orchestra.  An  event  that 
should  not  pass  unrecorded  is  the  dissolution 
of  the  famous  Kncisel  Quartet,  which  played 
its  last  concerts  at  Boston  (Mar.  13,  1917)  and 
New  York  (April  3).  Founded  in  1880,  with 
Franz  Kneisel,  Otto  Roth,  Louis  Svecenski,  and 
Fritz  Giese  as  its  original  members,  it  plaved 
32  consecutive  seasons  in  Boston  and  25  in  New 
York,  besides  making  numerous  tours  of  the 


MUSIC 

United  States  and  two  of  Europe.  Its  influence 
in  practically  creating  and  then  cultivating 
taste  for  chamber  music  in  America  can  scarcely 
be  overestimated.  For  many  years  it  had  en- 
joyed the  reputation  of  one  of  the  finest  quar- 
tets in  the  world. 

Community  Music.  Community  music,  at 
least  as  the  term  had  come  to  be  understood, 
was  a  direct  result  of  the  War.  Previously 
there  had  existed,  especially  in  Philadelphia  and 
Chicago,  isolated  associations  of  factory  work- 
ers organized  into  choral  societies,  some  of 
which  had  attained  sufficient  proficency  to  ap- 
pear in  public  concerts.  During  the  War  the 
soldiers,  under  regular  leaders,  were  trained  in 
choral  singing,  and  this  practice  developed  a 
genuine  liking  for  music.  Manv  ex-soldiers, 
after  return  to  civil  life,  communicated  the  en- 
thusiasm aroused  in  them  bv  the  camp  songs  to 
their  fellow  workers,  with  the  result  that  in 
an  incredibly  short  time  employees  of  the  larg- 
er companies  in  many  industrial  centres  banded 
together  for  the  cultivation  of  singing.  Com- 
munity choruses  sprang  up  even  in  the  smaller 
towns  and  villages  throughout  the  country. 
The  interest  in  music  was  not  confined  to  sing- 
ing; it  immediately  embraced  the  field  of  in- 
strumental music,  and  numerous  amateur  or- 
chestras and  bands  were  established.  By  the 
end  of  1920  the  Bethlehem  steel  workers  had 
recruited  from  among  their  own  numbers  not 
only  a  large  chorus  but  also  a  complete  sym- 
phony orchestra  of  almost  100  players.  In  the 
same  year  the  employees  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
Bank  in  New  York  gave  a  complete  stage  per- 
formance of  The  Bohemian  Girl  without  the  as- 
sistance of  an  outsider  even  in  the  principal 
roles  or  orchestra.  In  some  of  the  larger  cities, 
where  musical  appreciation  naturally  had  been 
spread  before  the  War,  the  new  movement  led 
to  the  establishment  of  community  opera  (Wash- 
ington, Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati). 
In  1920  New  York  celebrated  its  first  Music 
Week  (February  1-7),  when  all  musical  or- 
ganizations, churches,  hotels,  theatres,  and 
many  individuals  combined  to  bring  music  in 
some  form  or  other  home  to  everybody.  At  the 
Grand  Central  Palace  an  exhibition  of  musical 
instruments  was  held  throughout  the  entire 
week,  with  lectures  and  recitals.  The  interest 
aroused  was  so  general  that  Music  Week  was 
made  a  regular  annual  institution,  and  a  per- 
manent committee  of  eminent  musicians  was  ap- 
pointed. The  example  was  followed  immediately 
by  almost  all  neighboring  communities,  who 
had  their  Music  Week  before  the  end  of  the 
year.  Within  three  years  the  idea  had  been 
adopted  by  the  entire  country.  This  wide- 
spread interest  in  music  induced  several  munic- 
ipalities to  appropriate  public  funds  for  fur- 
thering various  musical  projects.  Baltimore 
established  a  special  department  of  Municipal 
Music,  St.  Louis  a  municipally  subventioned 
summer  opera,  Chicago  and  Philadelphia  mu- 
nicipal symphony  orchestras,  etc.  In  New  York 
a  movement  was  on  foot  in  1924  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  municipal  conservatory,  and  the  Music- 
al Alliance  of  the  United  States  had  launched  a 
movement  for  the  establishment  of  a  ministry 
of  fine  arts  and  a  national  conservatory  in 
Washington. 

Festivals.  After  the  sudden  interruption  of 
the  performances  in  the  summer  of  1914,  the 
theatre  dedicated  to  Wagner  in  Bayreuth  re- 
mained closed  for  10  years.  During  1023  Sieg- 


MTD8XC 


903 


MUSIC 


fried  Wagner  gave  concerts  in  many  German 
cities,  raising  funds  for  the  restoration  of  the 
theatre  and  the  resumption  of  the  performances. 
For*  the  same  purpose  ne  made  a  concert  tour  of 
the  United  States  early  in  1924.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1924  the  festival  was  resumed  (July  22- 
August  20)  with  performances  of  the  Ring 
dramas,  Meister  singer,  and  Parsifal.  After 
1914  the  chorus  of  the  Bethlehem  (Pa.)  Bach 
Festivals  was  gradually  augmented,  until  in 
1924  it  numbered  250.  Up  to  1920  the  pro- 
grammes had  been  selected  exclusively  from  the 
choral  works  of  Bach,  but  in  that  year  in- 
strumental works  were  included.  The  innova- 
tion was  received  with  favor  and  was  adopted 
as  a  fixed  policy.  In  1917  the  chorus  partic- 
ipated in  a  Bach-Beethoven  festival  in  New  York 
arranged  by  the  Philharmonic  Society,  and  in 
the  following  year  in  a  Bach -Wagner  festival 
of  the  Symphony  Society. 

Albert  A.  Stanley,  conductor  of  the  Ann 
Arbor  festivals  since  their  inception  (1893), 
resigned  in  1921  and  was  succeeded  by  Earle 
V.  Moore.  An  annual  festival  lasting  four 
days  was  founded  in  Newark  in  1915  by  Mor- 
timer C.  Wiske  and  conducted  by  him  thereafter. 
At  the  North  Shore  Festival  in  Evanston,  111., 
a  prize  of  $1000  was  established  in  1921.  It 
was  to  be  awarded  annually  for  the  best  orches- 
tral score  submitted  by  an  American  composer, 
the  successful  work  to  have  its  first  performance 
at  the  festival  and  then  to  be  included  in  one  of 
the  regular  concerts  of  the  Chicago  Symphony 
Orchestra  during  the  following  winter.  The 
winners  were  Camille  Zeckwer  with  Jade  Butter- 
flies (1922),  Felix  Borowski  with  Youth  (1923), 
and  Charles  M.  Loeffler  with  Memories  of  Child- 
hood (1924).  For  the  first  time  in  its  history, 
the  annual  festival  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  was 
omitted  in  1918,  on  account  of  an  epidemic  of 
influenza  that  swept  the  eastern  States  in  the 
fall  of  that  year.  There  was  no  festival  in 
1922,  because  the  time  was  permanently  changed 
from  September  to  April.  Arthur  Mees  resigned 
as  conductor  in  1919,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Nelson  P.  Coffin,  who  died  shortly  before  the 
festival  of  1923.  The  latter  was  under  the  di- 
rection of  Arthur  J.  Bassett  and  J.  Vernon 
Butler.  In  1924  Henry  Hadley  was  elected 
regular  conductor. 

Mechanical  ^Reproduction  of  Music.  There 
is  not  the  least  doubt  of  the  fact  that  the  in- 
troduction and  rapid  perfection  of  the  player- 
piano  and  phonograph  contributed  in  a  large 
measure  to  the  development  of  the  public  taste 
for  better  music.  The  former  had  been  brought 
practically  to  perfection  even  before  the  War. 
This  is  true  of  the  Welte-Mignon  Duo-Art  and 
Ampico  reproducing  pianos,  which  differ  from 
player-pianos  in  that  they  faithfully  reproduce 
that  subtle  quality  termed  the  individuality  of 
the  artist.  On  Dec.  10,  1918,  the  Chicago  Sym- 
phony Orchestra  performed  Saint-Saens's  con- 
certo in  G  minor  for  piano  and  orchestra  with 
Harold  Bauer  as  soloist.  The  latter,  however, 
was  not  actually  present,  but  was  represented 
by  his  Duo-Art  record.  At  a  concert  of  the 
New  York  PMlharmenic  Society  (Apr.  23, 
1919),  the  soloist,  Leo  Orn stein,  sat  motionless 
on  the  stage  listening  to  his  own  reproduction 
of  the  first  movement  of  Mendelssohn's  Con- 
certo in  G  minor,  after  which  he  took  his  seat 
at  the  instrument  and  played  the  remaining 
movements  in  person.  In  records  for  the 
p*»onograph,  the  decade  witnessed  a  tremendous 


improvement.  It  may  be  said  that  up  to  1914 
satisfactory  records  had  been  made  only  of  solo 
voices  or  solo  instruments.  The  accompani- 
ment, whether  for  piano  or  orchestra,  left  much 
to  be  desired  in  regard  to  clearness  and  proper 
balance  with  the  solo  part.  Reproductions  of 
choruses  sounded  blurred,  while  orchestral  rec- 
ords failed  to  reproduce  the  timbre  of  the  dif- 
ferent instruments.  Especially  wonderful  was 
the  progress  made  since  then  in  the  reproduc- 
tion of  orchestral  masses,  so  that  in  the  best 
records  a  practiced  ear  can  detect  such  subtle 
differences  in  timbre  as  between  an  oboe  and 
an  English  horn.  Almost  all  the  great  sym- 
phony orchestras  had  played  for  the  recording 
companies.  One  great  problem,  however,  still 
remained  for  the  manufacturers  to  solve.  So 
far  no  one  had  succeeded  in  reproducing  the 
real,  resonant  tone  of  the  piano;  even  the  best 
records  sounded  as  if  the  artists  were  playing 
on  a  harpischord  or  a  harp. 

Almost  from  the  day  of  its  inception  broad- 
casting by  radio  became  an  important  factor 
in  the  dissemination  of  good  music.  The  first 
concert  heard  over  the  radio  was  broadcast 
by  Station  KDKA  in  Pittsburgh,  on  Nov.  3, 
1920,  and  soon  stations  all  over  the  country 
were  broadcasting  music.  The  beginning  was 
made  with  dance  music  and  popular  songs  of 
the  day,  but  before  long,  in  response  to  numerous 
requests,  symphony  concerts  and  entire  operatic 
performances  were  broadcast.  The  demand  for 
the  better  music  rapidly  assumed  such  propor- 
tions that  managers,  especially  those  of  famous 
-artists,  fearing  a  decrease  of  attendance  at  con- 
certs, inserted  a  clause  in  all  contracts  restrain- 
ing their  artists  from  giving  their  services 
gratis.  Composers  and  publishers  also  began 
to  demand  payment  of  the  usual  fees  on  all 
works  controlled  by  them.  These  demands  the 
radio  companies  declared  themselves  unable  to 
meet,  as  they  derived  no  income  whatever  from 
the  host  of  listeners  The  result  was  that  dur- 
ing the  last  months  of  1923  there  was  a  decided 
dearth  of  good  music  transmitted  by  radio. 
However,  frequent  conferences  of  representatives 
of  the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph  Com- 
pany (Station  VVEAF,  New  York)  and  of  man- 
agers and  musicians  finally  resulted  in  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  committee  who  issued  a  general 
appeal  for  voluntary  contributions  from  inter- 
ested listeners.  The  public  responded  quickly 
and  generously.  With  a  considerable  fund  at 
hand  a  plan  was  worked  out  for  the  broadcast- 
ing of  concerts  of  famous  stars,  beginning  with 
the  opening  of  the  concert  season  in  the  fall  of 
1924. 

Opera.  The  history  of  opera  during  the  dec- 
ade is  a  record  of  almost  feverish  activity  bar- 
ren of  any  artistic  results.  Of  the  enormous 
number  of  new  works  produced  in  all  the  opera 
houses  of  the  world,  especially  after  the  Armi- 
stice, not  one  achieved  an  emphatic  and  general 
success  promising  an  addition  to  what  may  be 
termed  the  standard  oneratic  repertoire.  The 
vast  majority  of  these  novelties  did  not  even 
outlive  the  year  of  their  original  production. 
Of  the  two  foremost  living  dramatic  composers, 
Puccini  brought  out  La  Rondine  (1917)  and 
the  triptych  II  Tabarro,  Suor  Angelica,  Gianni 
Schicchi  (1918);  Strauss,  a  revised  version  of 
Ariadne  auf  ATofl?o«  (1916)  and  Die  Frau  ohne 
Schatten  (1919),  winning  in  each  case  only  a 
suooes  d' €8 time.  To  the  already  formidable  list 
of  his  failures  Mascagni  added  Lodoletta  (1917) 


Htrsic 


903 


MUSIC 


and  II  Piccolo  Marat  (1921).  The  more  promi- 
nent among  the  composer!  whose  works  sur- 
vived for  several  seasons  and  were  heard  in 
more  than  one  city  were  d'Albert,  with  Die 
Toten  Augen  (1010;  in  the  United  States, 
1023),  Die  Revolut  ionshochzeit  (1910),  Sirocco 
(1021),  and  Marieken  von  Nymwegen  (1023); 
Pfitzner,  Palestrina  (1017);  Schillings,  Mona 
Lisa  (1015;  in  the  United  States,  1023),  Zan- 
donai,  La  Ma  delta  Fineatra  (1910)  and  Qiuli- 
etta  e  Romeo  (1022).  On  May  1,  1024,  the 
much  heralded  and  long  delayed  premiere  of 
Boito's  Nerone  actually  took  place  at  La  Scala, 
in  Milan  What  had  excited  international  in- 
terest in  this  event  was  the  fact  that  for  the 
last  25  years  there  had  been  constant  reports 
of  all  kinds  regarding  this  work,  of  which  no 
one,  not  even  the  composer's  intimate  friends, 
had  seen  or  heard  a  note.  Expectation  had 
been  raised  so  high  that  nothing  less  than  a 
masterpiece  of  Wagnerian  poxver  could  have 
survived  the  ordeal.  The  consensus  of  critical 
opinion  was  that  the  premiere  was  a  "magnif- 
icent failure."  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  the 
United  States  opera  received  a  large  share  of 
puhlic  attention,  New  York  and  Chicago  were 
still  the  only  cities  supporting  a  permanent 
operatic  institution  Other  cities  were  depend- 
ent on  short  visits  from  traveling  companies, 
some  of  which,  especially  the  San  Carlo  Opera 
Company  and  the  Society  of  American  Ringers, 
were  notable  for  the  excellence  of  their  en- 
semble. The  taste  of  the  general  public  showed 
a  decided  preference  for  the  standard  works, 
so  that  the  production  of  novelties  was  left  al- 
most exclusively  to  the  two  permanent  organiza- 
tions. Neither  of  these  institutions  was  fortu- 
nate with  new  works;  not  one  of  their  novelties 
maintained  itself  in  the  repertoire.  The  fiasco 
of  the  only  futuristic  opera  attempted  so  far, 
Prokofiev's  Lore  for  Three  Oranges,  by  the  Chi- 
cago company  (1021),  was  such  as  to  deter 
American  managers  from  further  experiments 
in  this  line,  at  least  in  the  immediate  future. 

Chicago  Opera  Association.  After  the  death 
of  the  general  manager,  Cleofonte  Campanini 
(1010),  his  duties  were  divided  between  IT.  M. 
Johnson  and  Gino  Marinuzxi,  as  executive  and 
artistic  director  respectively.  Complications 
arising  from  this  dual  directorship  led,  early  in 
1021,  to  the  appointment  of  Mary  Garden  as 
sole  director.  Under  her  management  the  fric- 
tion became  even  more  acute,  and  a  deficit  of 
$800,000  at  the  end  of  the  season  brought  about 
the  dissolution  of  the  company  (1022),  after 
12  years  of  splendid  artistic  achievement.  Im- 
mediately the  Chicago  Civic  Opera  Company, 
with  Samuel  Insull  as  president,  was  organized 
and  acquired  all  the  properties  and  practically 
the  entire  personnel  of  its  predecessor.  While 
there  was  no  change  in  regard  to  artistic  poli- 
cies, a  radical  departure  in  administration  was 
inaugurated  by  vesting  the  executive  power  in 
the  finance  committee  rather  than  in  a  single 
individual.  Giorgio  Polacco  was  made  artistic 
director. 

During  the  War  the  works  of  Warmer  had 
been  excluded  from  the  repertoire.  In  1920 
Lohengrin  was  restored,  in  an  English  version, 
and  was  followed  by  Die  Walkure  (1021). 
After  that,  these  and  other  works  were  sung 
again  in  the  original  German.  During  1018-22 
the  regular  season  included  a  four  weeks1  visit 
to  New  York.  The  year  1922  is  memorable  for 
a  transcontinental  tour  (January- April),  which 


was  as  brilliant  artistically  as  it  proved  disas- 
trous financially.  Three  operas  by  foreign  com- 
posers had  their  world  premiere  in  Chicago: 
Lazzari's  Le  Sauteriot  (1918),  FeVrier's  Gis- 
monda,  (1019),  and  Prokofiev's  Love  for  Three 
Oranges  (1921).  Native  composers  were  en- 
couraged by  the  production  of  Buchhalter's  A 
Lover's  Knot  (1016),  Hadley's  Axora  (1917), 
Nevin's  The  Daughter  of  the  Forest  (1918),  De 
Koven's  Rip  Van  Winkle  (1920),  and  Stearns's 
The  Snow  Bird  (1023).  Two  ballets  by  Amer- 
ican composers  were  given  in  1010,  Borowski's 
Boudour  and  Carpenter's  The  Birthday  of  the 
Infanta.  The  following  foreign  works  were 
given  for  the  first  time  in  the  United  States: 
Gnecchi's  Cassandra  (1014);  Saint-SaSns's  De- 
janire  (1015);  Massenet's  ClfopAtre  (1010); 
Gunsbourg's  Le  Vieil  Aigle  (1017);  Catalini's 
Lorclry  and  Montemezzi's  La  Wave  (1010); 
Ravel's  VHeure  Espagnole,  Messager's  Madame 
Chrysantheme,  Erlanger's  Aphrodite,  Marinuz- 
zi's  Jacquerie  and  Leoncavallo's  Edipo  Rd 
(1020) 

Metropolitan  Opera  House  (New  York).  The 
decade  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  under 
Giulio  Gatti-Casazza  as  general  manager,  was  a 
period  of  unexampled  prosperity.  There  was  no 
annual  deficit  to  be  met.  Year  by  year  the 
number  of  subscribers  increased.  No  promises 
were  made  that  were  not  strictly  fulfilled. 
During  the  period  of  the  War  the  works  of 
Wagner  and  Strauss  were  temporarily  with- 
drawn, but,  beginning  in  1020,  they  were  re- 
stored, one  after  the  other,  to  the  repertoire. 
The  policy  of  producing  every  season  a  work  by 
an  American  composer,  inaugurated  in  1010, 
was  maintained  until  1020,  except  for  the  years 
1915  and  1016.  Thus  the  following  operas 
were  brought  out:  De  Koven,  The  Canterbury 
Pilgrims  (1017);  Cadman,  Shanewis  (1018); 
Breil,  The  Legend,  and  Hugo,  The  Temple 
Dancer  (1010);  Hadley,  Cleopatra's  Night 
(1920).  A  ballet  by  an  American,  Gilbert's 
The  Dance  in  Place  Congo,  was  performed  in 
1018.  Four  world  premieres  of  works  by  for- 
eign composers  are  to  be  recorded:  Giordano, 
Madame  tians  Ge/ne  (1015)  ;  Granados,  Ooyes- 
cas  (1910)  ;  Puccini,  II  Tabarro,  8uor  Angelica, 
and  Gianni  ftchicchi  (1018);  Wolff,  I'Oiseau 
Bleu  (1010).  Following  are  the  foreign  operas 
given  their  American  premierefl:  Montemez/i's 
L'Amore  <lei  tre  Re,  Charpentier's  Julien,  and 
Wolf- Ferrari's  VAmore  Medico  (1014);  Lcorii's 
L'Oracolo  and  Borodin's  Prince  Igor  (1015); 
Bizet's  Les  Pecheurs  des  Perles,  G luck's  Iphi- 
(jenie  auf  Tauris,  and  Zandonai's  Francesca  da 
'Rimini  (1010);  Rabaud's  Marouf  (1017); 
Liszt's  The  Legend  of  Kt  Elizabeth  and  Mas- 
cagni's  Lodoletta  (1018)  ;  Leroux's  La  Reine 
Fiammette  (1910);  Leoncavallo's  Zaza  and 
Tchaikovsky's  Eugen  Oniegin  (1020)  ;  Weiss's 
The  Pohsh  Jeir  and  Korngold's  Die  tote  Ktadt 
(1021);  Mozart's  Cost  Fan  Tutte  (1022);  Vit- 
tndini's  Anima-  Allegra  and  Schillings's  Mona 
Lisa  (1023);  Riccitelli's  Compagnacci  (1924). 
The  following  operas,  produced  by  other  or- 
ganizations than  the  Chicago  and  Metropolitan 
companies,  complete  the  list  of  American  premi- 
eres during  the  decade:  1914,  Mozart's  Bastien 
et  Bastienne  (New  York)  ;  1016,  Parker's  Fairy- 
land (Los  Angeles) ;  1916,  Moniuszko's  Verbum 
Nobile,  (Philadelphia)  and  Mozart's  The  Tm* 
presasrio  (New  York)  ;  1917,  Donizetti's  Cam- 
panella  di  Xotte,  Pergolesi's  La  Servo-  Padrona, 
c*oiinoir«  Le  Mfderin  malgrt  Lui  (all  in  New 


MUSIC 


9<>4 


MUSIC 


York);  1918,  Hadley's  Bianca  (New  York); 
1919,  Vives's  Maruwa  and  Los  Bohemias  and 
Mesaager's  Monsieur  Beaucaire  (both  in  New 
York) ;  1922,  Da  rgomyzb  sky's  Russalka  and 
Rimsky-Koraakov's  Tsarskaya  Xeviesta  (San 
Francisco) ;  1923,  Moniuszko's  Halka,  d' Al- 
bert's Die  Tot  en  Augen,  and  Kienzl's  Der  Evan- 
gelimann  (all  in  Chicago). 

Oratorio.  The  steady  decline  of  public  inter- 
est in  orator ia,  which  began  long  before  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  went  on  unchecked 
after  1914,  witli  the  result  that  the  few  works 
written  in  this  form  were  produced  by  serious 
musicians  mostly  little  known  to  the  public 
Even  the  masterpieces  of  Httndel,  Haydn,  and 
Mendelssohn  were  heard  less  and  less  fre- 
quently. 

Orchestras.  While  in  the  United  States  the 
opera  formerly  engaged  the  principal  interest 
of  the  general  public,  the  decade  1914-24 
wrought  a  change  in  favor  of  orchestral  music. 
All  the  older  organizations  vastly  increased  the 
number  of  their  concerts,  so  that  the  orchestral 
season  extended  from  October  to  May.  In  1914 
the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra  had  no  rival  in 
this  country.  Even  then  it  was  no  secret  that 
the  perfection  of  its  ensemble  was  due  to  daily 
rehearsing.  Unfortunately  no  other  orchestra 
at  that  time  had  a  patron  like  Colonel  Higgin- 
son  who  would  bear  the  enormous  expense  in- 
volved The  longer  musical  season  provided  the 
natural  solution  of  the  problem,  so  that  in 
1024  we  could  boast  not  one  but  several  premier 
orchestras  unsurpassed  anywhere  in  the  world. 
Daily  rehearsals  had  produced  the  identical 
result  in  all  cases  Visits  of  orchestras  to 
other  cities  and  exchange  of  conductors  had 
engendered  a  spirit  of  rivalry  which  makes  for 
supreme  efficiency  The  soloist,  formerly  an  in- 
dispensable attraction  at  every  symphony  con- 
cert, had  come  to  occupy  a  secondary  position. 
In  1912  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra,  under 
Dr.  Muck,  made  the  first  successful  experiment 
in  giving  concerts  without  the  aid  of  soloists. 
From  that  time  the  practice  became  so  common, 
that  in  1924  soloists  were  engaged  for  perhaps 
not  more  than  half  the  season's  concerts.  This 
widespread  and  intelligent  interest  in  the  music 
itself,  rather  than  in  the  executant,  had  cre- 
ated a  new,  collective  method  of  subvention  ing 
orchestras.  The  cost  of  maintaining  a  first-class 
organization  is  so  heavy  that  the  income  from 
admissions  is  in  every  case  insufficient  to  meet 
expenses.  The  burden  of  the  inevitable  annual 
deficit,  formerly  borne  by  some  wealth v  patron 
especially  interested  (e.g.,  Higginson,  Carnegie, 
Flagler),  was  being  assumed  by  several  guaran- 
tors, each  contributing  a  relatively  small 
amount  In  the  latter  years  more  than  one  of 
our  premier  orchestras  was  threatened  with 
dissolution  because  of  inability  to  meet  the  high 
coat  of  maintenance.  In  every  case  a  sufficient 
number  of  public  spirited  citizens  came  forward 
to  avert  a  serious  loss  to  the  community  And 
when  one  considers  that  from  the  conclusion  of 
the  War  every  year  new  symphony  orchestras 
were  established  throughout  the  country,  he 
cannot  but  be  impressed  with  the  development 
of  public  taste  during  the  decade 

Boston  Symphony  Orchestra.  The  refusal  of 
Dr  Muck,  in  the  fall  of  1917,  to  play  the  na- 
tional anthem  before  the  concert,  was  the  be- 
ginning of  a  period  of  storm  and  stress.  He 
resigned  at  the  end  of  the  season.  At  the  same 
time  Colonel  Higginson  severed  his  relations 


with  the  orchestra,  delegating  his  powers  and 
responsibilities  to  a  board  of  nine  directors. 
More  than  20  German  players,  who  had  failed 
to  take  out  naturalization  papers,  were  dis- 
missed. In  1918-19  Henri  R  a  baud  was  the 
conductor;  under  him  the  orchestra  rapidly 
deteriorated.  When  Pierre  Monteux,  in  the 
fall  of  1919,  assumed  control,  he  found  a  de- 
moralized body  of  men,  many  of  whom  rebelled 
and  deserted  before  the  end  of  the  season,  so 
that  out  of  a  total  of  100  performers  only  67 
remained  for  the  final  concerts.  In  addition,  a 
deficit  of  $131,000  brought  the  organization  to 
the  verge  of  dissolution  (April,  1920).  An 
appeal  by  the  directors  secured  not  only  this 
amount  but  also  a  guarantee  fund,  pledged  by 
200  contributors,  for  five  years.  With  a  thor- 
oughly reorganized  and  practically  new  or- 
chestra Monteux  began  the  difficult  task  of  re- 
gaining the  lost  prestige  When  Sergei  Kus- 
sevitsky  became  conductor,  in  1924,  he  found 
that  his  predecessor's  efforts  had  been  crowned 
with  success 

Chicago  Symphony  Orchestra.  In  1914  a 
pension  fund  was  established  through  the  gift 
of  $100,000  by  Mrs.  E.  S.  Coolidge,  who  donated 
the  same  amount  also  the  next  year.  In  1923 
Clyde  M.  Carr  bequeathed  to  the  organization 
$T,000,000  to  be  used  at  the  discretion  of  the 
trustees.  Tn  the  spring  of  1923  a  number  of 
music  lovers  saved  the  orchestra  from  disband- 
ing by  assuming  responsibility  for  a  consider- 
able increase  in  the  salary  of  the  men  demanded 
by  the  musical  union 

Cincinnati  Symphony  Orchestra.  After  the 
internment  of  the  conductor.  Dr.  Kunwald 
(January,  1918).  the  remaining  concerts  of  the 
season  were  given  under  guest  conductors  In 
1918-22  Eugene  Ysaye  was  conductor.  His  suc- 
cessor was  Fritz  Reiner 

Minneapolis  Symphony  Orchestra.  In  1922 
Max  Oberhoffer  resigned  and  was  succeeded  by 
Henri  Verbrugghen.  At  the  same  time  the  or- 
chestra widened  its  field  of  activity  by  adding  a 
series  of  16  concerts  in  St.  Paul,  a  aeries  of 
25  popular  Sunday  concerts  and  5  educational 
concerts  for  young  people 

National  Symphony  Orchestra.  This  organ 
ization  was  founded  in  New  York  in  1910  as 
the  New  Symphony  Orchestra,  under  Edgar 
Varese,  for  the  exclusive  production  of  futuristic 
works.  The  complete  failure  of  the  first  con- 
cert (April  11)  so  alarmed  the  guarantors  that 
they  dismissed  Varese  and  engaged  Bodan/ky, 
who  played  only  standard  works  at  the  remain- 
ing concerts.  His  success  led  to  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  orchestra  as  the  National  Symphony 
Orchestra,  beginning  its  career  in  October.  1919 
In  the  summer  of  1920  it  was  engaged  for  the 
series  of  open-air  concerts  at  the  Stadium  of 
the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  under 
Walter  Rothwell  as  guest  conductor.  As  Bo- 
da  nzky's  duties  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House  did  not  allow  him  sufficient  time,  the 
directors  engaged  Mengelberg  for  the  second 
half  of  the  season  (January-March,  1921) 
He  made  a  sensational  success  and  remained 
with  the  organization  after  its  amalgamation 
with  the  Philharmonic  Society. 

New  York  Philharmonic  Society.  The  amal- 
gamation of  the  society  with  the  National 
Symphony  Orchestra  in  1921  led  to  a  complete 
reorganization  Many  of  the  older  men  were 
retired  on  pension,  the  personnel  was  increased 
to  125  per  former  s,  and  a  new  schedule  for  in- 


MUSICAL  BBCOBBS 


905 


MYCENJB 


tensive  rehearsals  was  adopted.  Mengelberg 
was  engaged  as  coordinate  conductor  with 
Stransky,  the  former  directing  the  last  half  of 
the  season,  the  latter  the  first  half.  In  1923 
Stransky  resigned  and  was  succeeded  by  Willem 
Van  Hoogstraten.  From  1910-20  William 
Humiston  was  associate  conductor;  after  those 
years  the  position  was  filled  by  Henry  Hadley. 
During  the  summer  of  1022  the  entire  orchestra 
was  engaged  for  the  open-air  concerts  at  the 
Stadium;  the  first  half  of  the  series  was  led  by 
Hfldley;  the  second,  by  Van  Hoogstraten  In 
1923  Van  HoogRtraten  was  conductor  of  the  en- 
tire series.  With  the  proceeds  of  two  festival 
concerts  celebrating  the  eightieth  anniversary 
of  the  foundation  of  the  Society  (April,  1922) 
a  benefit  fund  was  established  for  the  mem- 
bers. 

New  York  Symphony  Orchestra.  Under  its 
regular  conductor,  Walter  Damro»ch,  the  or- 
chestra made  a  most  successful  tour  of  France, 
Italy,  Belgium,  and  England  in  May  and  June, 
1920  In  1921  and  1922  Albert  Coates  directed 
several  concerts  as  guest  conductor.  Bruno 
Walter  appeared  in  the  same  capacity  in  1923- 
24,  and  Vladimir  Golschmann  in  1024. 

Philadelphia  Symphony  Orchestra.  In  1916 
Edward  Bok  donated  to  the  orchestra  $250,000 
and  pledged  himself  to  pay  any  deficit  for  the 
next  five  years.  In  1918  a  regular  series  of  five 
conceits  in  New  York  was  established,  the 
number  of  which  was  increased  to  10  in  1921. 
D":  ing  the  absence  of  Leopold  Stokowski  as 
guest  conductor  in  Paris,  in  1923,  his  place  was 
taken  by  Georges  Enesco. 

HI.  Loins  Symphony  Orchestra.  After  the 
death  of  Max  Zach,  in"l921,  the  remaining  con- 
certs of  the  season  were  led  by  guest  conductors. 
Fiom  the  fall  of  1921  Rudolf  Ganz  was  regular 
conductor 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  more  important 
new  symphony  orchestras  established  during  the 
decade.  1914:  Detroit  S.  OM  Weston  Gales 
1914-18,  then  Ossip  Oahrilowitsch ;  191G:  Balti- 
more S.  O,  Gustav  Strube;  1918:  Cleveland 
S.  O.,  Nikolai  Sokolov;  1919-  Los  Angeles 
Philh.  O.,  Walter  Tlotliwell;  1920:  Nashville  S. 
O.,  F.  A.  Henkel;  Toledo  S.  O.,  Lewis  Clement; 
1921:  Erie  S.  O.,  Henry  Vincent,  Buffalo  S.  O, 
Arnold  Cornelissen  ;  1922-  Svracuse  S.  O.,  Wil- 
liam Berwald;  Watertown  $.  O,  Patrick  Con- 
way,  Rait  Lake  City  Philh.  O.,  Charles  Shep- 
ard;  Wichita  S.  O ,  P  II.  Flath,  1923:  State 
S  O.  (New  York),  Josef  Stransky;  Rochester 
Philh.  O.,  Eugene  Goossens  and  Albert  Coates 
aa  guest  conductors;  Civic  S.  O.  of  Philadelphia, 
Vassili  Leps;  Atlantic  City  Philh.  Soc.,  Louis 
Colmans;  American  National  O.  (New  York), 
Howard  Barlow. 

MUSICAL  RECORDS.  See  Music,  Mechan- 
ical Reproduction. 

MUSIC  WEEK.  See  Music,  Community 
Music. 


MUSSOLINI,  BENITO  (1884-  ).  An  Ital- 
ian statesman,  founder  of  the  Fascisti.  He  was 
born  at  Predappio-Forli  and  educated  at  the 
Salesian  College  in  Faenza  and  the  University 
of  Lausanne  (Switzerland).  When  he  began 
his  career  he  was  a  Marxian  socialist  and  was 
expelled  from  Switzerland  and  also  from  Aus- 
tria on  account  of  his  views.  He  returned  to 
his  birthplace  and  there  started  Lotta  di  Classe 
and  later  became  the  editor  of  the  Avanti.  He 
was  also  a  director  of  the  Italian  Communist 
party.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  War  in  1914,  he 
took  the  side  of  the  Allies  and  urged  that  Italy 
enter  the  conflict  against  Germany.  He  was  ex- 
pelled from  the  Socialist  party  and  at  once 
started  a  new  paper,  the  famous  Popolo  d'ltalia. 
Fighting  in  the  War  as  a  corporal  in  the  in- 
fantry, he  was  wounded,  decorated,  and  dis- 
charged. Later  he  returned  to  his  editorial 
desk.  In  1919,  when  the  wave  of  communism 
swept  over  Italy  and  the  government  at  Rome 
seemed  unable  to  combat  the  disorder  prevalent 
in  the  country,  Mussolini  raged  against  the 
traitors  who  were  ruining  Italy;  on  Mar  23, 
1919,  he  founded  the  first  "Fascio  di  Combat- 
timento,"  which  was  later  to  be  known  collec- 
tively as  the  Fascisti,  from  the  Roman  fasces. 
Officers  and  soldiers  rallied  to  his  support,  and 
by  1922  there  were  about  4,000,000  Fascisti  in 
Italy.  Civil  war  raged  during  1922  between  the 
Fascisti  and  the  Communists.  Mussolini's  le- 
gions reopened  factories,  stopped  strikes,  and 
broke  up  trade  unions.  By  August  the  power 
of  communism  was  broken  In  October,  1922, 
Mussolini  declared  he  would  take  the  govern- 
ment by  force  if  it  were  not  given  to  him  will- 
ingly. On  Oct  30,  1922,  the  King  made  him 
prime  minister.  He  made  drastic  reforms  dur- 
ing 1923,  and  in  the  April  elections  of  1924  the 
Fascisti  received  65  per  cent  of  the  votes  cast. 
See  FASCISM  and  ITALY. 

MUTATION  THEORY.     See  ZOOLOGY. 

MUZZEY,  DAVID  SAVILLE  (1870-  ).  An 
American  historian  and  author,  born  at  Lex- 
ington, Mass.,  and  educated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York 
and  Columbia  Universities,  and  in  Berlin  and 
Paris.  After  serving  as  tutor  in  mathematics 
at  Robert  College  in  Constantinople  for  one 
year,  he  became  a  teacher  of  Latin  and  Greek 
in  the  Ethical  Culture  School  of  New  York.  In 
1905  he  was  appointed  head  of  the  department 
of  history  at  Barnard  College  and  was  succes- 
sively associate,  associate  professor,  and  profes- 
sor; the  last  office  he  assumed  in  1920.  He 
was  a  member  of  several  learned  societies  and 
wrote  Rise  of  the  New  Testament  (1900); 
Spiritual  Heroes  (1902)  ;  Beginners9  Latin 
Book  (1907);  American  History  (1911);  State, 
Church,  and  School  in  France  (1911);  Life  of 
Thomas  Jefferson  (1918);  and  The  United 
States  of  America  (1922). 

See  ARCHAEOLOGY. 


N 


N&NSEN,     FBIDTJOF     (1861-        ). 
A  Norwegian  Arctic  explorer   (see 
VOL.   XVI).     He   was   active   dur- 
ing the  War  and  was  chairman  of 
the  Norwegian  Association  for  the 
Nations  in  1918.     In  the  following 
year  he  proposed  to  the  Allies  the  formation  of 
a  central  commission  for  the  supply  of  food  to 
Russia.     This    was    rejected    by    the    Bolshevist 
government,  which  would  not  agree  to  the  Al- 
lies'   conditions    that    hostilities     should     first 
cease.     He   was    asked   by   the    Council    of   the 
League  of  Nations  in  1920  to  investigate  prob- 
lems   in    connection    with    the    repatriation    of 
prisoners  of  war;   on   this  subject  he  prepared 
an   exhaustive  report.     From   1920   to    1923   he 
had  general  charge  of  the  direction  of  relief  for 
Russian    refugees.     He    published    Through    Si- 
beria in  1914. 

NAPHTHA.  See  PETROLEUM. 
NASHVILLE.  The  capital  of  Tennessee. 
The  population  rose  from  110,364  in  1910  to 
118,342  in  1920,  and  to  121,128,  by  estimate  of 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for  1923.  The  city 
changed  its  form  of  government  to  the  commis- 
sion-manager plan  in  1918.  A  nine-hole  munic- 
ipal golf  course  was  constructed  in  1923.  In 
1924  the  city,  in  cooperation  with  Davidson 
County  and  the  State  of  Tennessee,  was  engaged 
in  building,  at  a  cost  of  $2,225,000,  a  memorial 
to  the  soldiers  in  the  late  War,  which  occupied 
two  blocks  in  the  centre  of  the  city  and  was 
to  contain  an  auditorium  seating  2500  persons. 
A  temporary  replica  of  the  Parthenon  which 
had  been  built  some  years  previously,  was  re- 
constructed in  more  permanent  form  during  the 
decade. 

NATAL  PROVINCE.  See  SOUTH  AFRICA, 
UNION  OF. 

NATHAN,  GEORGE  JEAN  (1882-  ).  An 
American  author  and  dramatic  critic,  born  in 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  and  educated  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity and  the  University  of  Bologna,  Italy. 
From  1905  he  has  been  connected  with  various 
newspapers  He  was  dramatic  critic,  with 
Huneker,  of  Puck  (1915-16),  and  of  the  Smart 
Set  Magazine  (1908-23).  During  1914-23  he 
was  editor  of  Smart  Set  with  H.  L.  Mencken, 
and  in  1924  he  started  with  Mencken  a  new 
magazine.  The  American  Mercury.  His  knowl- 
edge of  the  French,  German,  and  English  stage, 
and  his  keen  observation,  perspicacity,  and  dis- 
criminating sense  of  humor,  have  made  him  one 
of  the  leaders  in  criticism  in  the  United  States 
Some  of  his  books  are  The  Eternal  Mystery 
(1913);  Another  Book  on  the  Ttieatre  (1916): 
Bottoms  Up  (1917)  ;  Mr.  George  Jean  Nathan 


906 


Presents  (1917);  A  Book  Without  a  Title 
(1918);  The  Popular  Theatre  (1918);  Comedi- 
ans All  (1919)  ;  Heliogabolus,  with  H.  L.  Menck- 
en (1920);  The  American  Credo,  with  H.  L. 
Mencken  (1920);  The  Theatre,  the  Drama,  the 
Girls  ( 1921 )  ;  The  Critic  and  the  Drama  ( 1922) . 

NATHAN,  ROBERT  (1894-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican author,  born  in  New  York  City.  He  was 
educated  in  private  schools  in  the  United  States 
and  Switzerland  and  took  graduate  courses  at 
Harvard.  His  published  writings  include  Peter 
Kindred  (1919);  Autumn  (1920);  Youth  Grow* 
Old  (1922);  and  The  Puppet  Master  (1923) 
He  also  composed  songs  and  a  sonata  for  the 
violin. 

NATIONAL  AERONAUTIC  FEDERA- 
TION. See  Af'JiONAVTics 

NATIONAL  ARMY.  See  ARMIES  AND  ABMY 
ORGANIZATION. 

NATIONAL  CATHOLIC  WELFARE 
COUNCIL.  See  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 

NATIONAL  CONFERENCE  ON  UNI- 
FORM STATE  LAW.  See  LAW,  PROGRESS 

OF  THE. 

NATIONAL  DEFENSE  ACTS.  See  ARMIES 
AND  ARMY  ORGANIZATION 

NATIONAL  FORESTS.     See  FORESTRY. 

NATIONAL  GUARD.  See  ARMIES  AND 
ARMY  ORGANIZATION. 

NATIONALIST    TURKS.     See    CALIPHATE 

NATIONAL  PARKS.  See  PARKS,  NA- 
TIONAL. 

NATIONAL  PROBATION  ASSOCIATION. 
See  JUVENILE  COURTS. 

NATIONAL  SAFETY  COUNCIL.  A  co 
operative,  noncommercial  organization  estab- 
lished in  1913  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  safety 
congress  held  under  the  auspices  of  the  Associa- 
tion of  Iron  and  Steel  Engineers  in  Milwaukee. 
The  council  consists  of  an  association  of  com- 
panies and  individuals  active  in  promoting 
safety  in  industrial  establishments,  on  the 
streets,  and  in  the  homes.  Annual  meetings  are 
held  in  which  matters  relating  to  this  object 
are  discussed.  The  meeting  of  1915  was  held 
in  Philadelphia.  There  were  present  representa- 
tives from  the  mines,  railroads,  public  utilities, 
and  industrial  establishments.  Each  of  these 
groups  held  sectional  meetings  to  discuss  their 
technical  problems.  The  Eighth  Annual  Safety 
Congress  was  held  in  Cleveland  in  October,  1919. 
There  were  meetings  of  the  19  sections  of  the 
Council  representing  the  various  industries  of 
the  United  States.  The  programme  for  1919 
included  the  extension  of  the  work  into  many 
new  fields.  In  1920  the  National  Safety  News, 
orpran  of  the  Council,  was  enlarged  from  a  one- 


NATIONAL  SYMPHONY  OBCHESTBA 


907 


NATURAL  SELECTION 


sheet  bulletin  to  a  12-page  magazine  and  began 
an  active  campaign  for  spreading  safety  propa- 
ganda throughout  the  country.  The  annual 
meeting  of  1020  was  held  in  Milwaukee.  In 
J920  the  council  continued  active  in  safety 
propaganda,  with  great  success.  Extensive  re- 
search was  continued  into  the  particular  haz- 
'ards  and  safety  practices  in  the  construction  and 
management  of  particular  equipment.  The  con- 
gress of  the  Council  in  1922  was  held  in  Pe- 
,troit,  Mich.  Over  2000  members  met  to  discuss 
'their  problems  and  to  hear  speakers  of  national 
reputation.  Work  with  schools  was  vigorously 
carried  on.  Through  a  publication  entitled  Edu- 
cation in  Accident  Prevention:  Methods  and 
Results,  the  city  superintendents  in  all  cities 
of  20,000  or  more  population  weie  reached, 
and  in  many  cases  a  definite  safety  plan  was 
^incorporated  in  the  curriculum  Gratifying 
progress  was  reported  in  the  activities  of  the 
organization  in  1923.  Two  million  copies  of 
workmen's  bulletins  were  distributed  during  the 
year,  at  the  rate  of  36  new  and  different  ones 
'per  month.  The  magazine  grew  to  04  pages. 
The  12th  annual  congress  was  held  in  Buffalo 
7n  October.  Over  3500  delegates  were  in  at- 
^endance,  representing  every  State  in  the  Union 
Tind  every  major  industry  in  North  America. 
The  Council  in  this  year  had  23  specialized  sec- 
tions relating  to  all  phases  of  industry.  Its 
membership  was  about  4000,  operating  8000  in- 
dustrial plants,  and  employing  more  than  7,- 
000,000  men  Community  safety  councils  had 
by  this  time  been  organized  in  00  cities  to 
carry  on  public  and  industrial  safety  work  in 
each  community.  Combined  population  of  these 
cities  where  organized  safety  programmes  are 
under  way  totaled  25,000,000  in  July,  1924. 
L.  A.  DeBlois  was  elected  president  in  1923, 
and  C.  B.  Auel  was  chosen  vice  president  in 
charge  of  general  activities.  The  managing  di- 
rector and  secretary  was  W.  H.  Cameron. 

NATIONAL  SYMPHONY  ORCHESTRA. 
See  Music,  Orchestras. 

NATURAL  GAS.  Although  fear  a  were  ex- 
pressed as  to  the  ultimate  exhaustion  of  natu- 
ral gas  in  the  years  1914-24,  consumption  in- 
creased, and  systems  of  pipe  lines  were  developed 
from  the  leading  production  centres,  of  which 
West  Virginia,  Oklahoma,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
and  California  were  perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant. In  1913  the  consumption  of  natural  gas 
in  the  United  States  was  581,898,239,000  cubic 
feet,  38  per  cent  of  which  was  consumed  by 
domestic  consumers  and  02  per  cent  by  indus- 
trial consumers.  The  average  price  per  1000 
cubic  feet  received  by  distributors  at  this  time 
was  $.051.  In  1914 'the  natural  gas  consumed 
was  591,867,000,000  cubic  feet,  and  from  this 
time  it  steadily  increased  until  in  1920  the 
maximum  consumption  of  798,210,000,000  cubic 
•feet  was  scored.  In  the  following  year,  1921, 
there  was  a  decline  in  the  consumption,  which 
then  amounted  to  662,052,000,000  cubic  feet, 
and  the  market  value  of  the  gas  used  was  about 
$175,000,000,  a  decrease  about  $25,000,000  in 
the  value  from  1920. 

At  this  time  there  were  more  than  2,500,000 
domestic  consumers  of  natural  gas  and  about 
21,000  industrial  concerns  using  it  as  fuel.  In 
the  following  year,  1922,  762,546,000,000  cubic 
feet  were  consumed  in  the  United  States,  at  an 
estimated  value  of  $84,873,000  at  the  wells  and 
of  $221,535,000  at  the  points  of  consumption. 
By  1919  the  cost  at  the  point  of  distribution 


had  increased  to  $.216  per  1000  cubic  feet,  and 
in  1922  it  was  $.291  per  1000  cubic  feet.  In 
1922  the  average  charge  for  domestic  consump- 
tion was  $.499,  an  increase  of  more  than  $.15 
in  the  previous  four  years.  The  1922  consump- 
tion was  some  15  per  cent  more  than  that  of 

1921  but  4  per  cent  less  than  the  amount  con- 
sumed  in   the   record   year   of    1920.     The    five 
leading  States  in  production  were  West  Virginia, 
Oklahoma,   Pennsylvania,   Louisiana,   and   Cali- 
fornia.    The    amount    of    production    did    not 
measure  the  relative  consumption  of  the  various 
States,  as  Pennsylvania  in   1922  led  as  a  con- 
sumer, followed  by  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  California, 
and  West  Virginia.     There  was  also  an  increased 
interstate  movement  of  natural  gas,  which,  by 
1922,    had    amounted    to    179,000,000,000    cubic 
feet.     West  Virginia,  which  contributed  25  per 
cent  of  the  total  production  and  consumed  only 
10  per  cent,  contributed  60  per  cent  of  the  gas 
transported  to  other  States,  where  the  average 
price  per  1000  cubic  feet  in  1913  was  $.051  at 
the  point  of  distribution. 

In  1924  the  industry  had  developed  to  a 
stage  where  the  production  and  transporta- 
tion of  natural  gas  was  no  longer  characterized 
by  wastefulness  and  inefficiency.  Various  meth- 
ods were  adopted  to  conserve  this  fuel,  as 
it  was  realized  that  while  it  was  fast  disap- 
pearing it  was  a  commercially  valuable  natural 
resource. 

In  addition  to  domestic  and  industrial  uses  as 
fuel,  an  important  branch  of  the  industry  was 
the  manufacture  of  gasoline  from  natural  gas. 
In  1911,  when  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  collected  its  statistics  for  gasoline  from 
natural  gas  for  the  first  time,  it  was  reported 
that  the  year's  production  of  gasoline  thus  ob- 
tained amounted  to  7,425,839  gallons  valued  at 
$531,704,  or  $.0716  per  gallon.  This  gasoline 
represented  the  output  of  176  plants  conducted 
by  132  operators,  with  a  total  daily  capacity  of 
37,100  gallons,  and  employing  an  estimated 
volume  of  natural  gas  of  2,475,697,000  cubic 
feet,  which  was  valued  at  $176,901.  The  aver- 
age yield  of  gasoline  per  1000  cubic  feet  was  3 
gallons.  This  industry  steadily  increased,  so 
that  in  1914  the  amount  of  gasoline  produced 
was  42,052,632  gallons  valued  at  $3,105,909.  By 

1922  the  production  of  natural  gas  and  gasoline 
amounted  to  505,832,000  gallons,  valued  at  the 
plants  at  $72,711,063,  or  an  average  of  $  144  per 
gallon.     To  produce  this  gasoline,  545,000,000,000 
cubic  feet  of  natural  gas  were  treated,  or  ap- 
proximately  71   per  cent  of  the  total  quantity 
consumed  for  the  year.     Gasoline  from  natural 
gas  was  produced  by  what  is  known  as  the  com- 
pression  process,   which   in    1922   accounted  for 
285,670,163  gallons;   by  the  absorption   process, 
by   which    were   manufactured    182.209,056   gal- 
lons; by  a  combination  process,  which  produced 
36,035,999  gallons;  and  by  a  drip  process,  which 
produced     1,916,782    gallons.     See    CHEMIRTRY, 
OBCANIC. 

Bibliography.  Besides  the  publications  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  and  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Mines,  which  are  gen- 
erally available,  reference  may  be  made  to  L.  C. 
Lichty,  Measurement  Compression  and  Trans- 
mission of  Natural  Gas  (New  York,  1924),  and 
the  chapters  on  natural  gas  in  The  Handbook  of 
the  Petroleum  Industry,  2  vols.,  edited  bv  D.  T. 
Day  (New  York,  1922).  This  volume  discusses 
the  manufacture  of  gasoline  from  natural  gas. 

NATURAL  SELECTION.     See  ZOOLOGY. 


NATTKANN 


908 


NAVIES  0V  THE  WOBLB 


KATJKANN,  (JOSEPH)  FRHDBICH  (1860- 
1919).  A  German  publicist,  prominent  in  the 
war  literature  of  his  country  (see  VOL.  XVI). 
His  last  works  are  Bulgarien  und  Mitteleuropa 
(1914);  Deutschland  und  Frankreich  (1914); 
Mitteleuropa,  the  famous  work  in  which  he  out- 
lined a  vast  Central  European  empire  for  Ger- 
many (1915);  Wie  Wir  Uns  im  Kriege  Ver- 
andern  (1910);  Kriegs-  und  Heimats  Chronik, 
in  collaboration  with  Dr.  Gertrud  BUumer 
(1916-17);  Der  Weg  eum  Volkstaat  (1918); 
and  Gestalten  und  Gestalter  (1919). 

NATJBTJ.    See    PACIFIC   OCEAN   ISLANDS. 

NAVAL  AfiBONATJTICS.  See  NAVIES  OF 
THE  WORLD,  United  States. 

NAVAL  OPERATIONS.  See  WAR  IN  Eu- 
BOPE,  Naval  Operations. 

NAVAL  PBOGBESS.  See  NAVIES  OF  THE 
WORLD;  VESSEL,  NAVAL;  GUN,  NAVAL;  GUN- 
NERY, NAVAL;  NAVIGATION;  PROJECTILE, 

NAVAL  VESSEL.     See  VESSEL,  NAVAL. 

NAVIES  OF  THE  WOBLD.  The  approval 
in  1923  of  the  Five  Power  Naval  Pact  for  the 
limitation  of  armaments  by  the  Governments  of 
France  and  Italy  put  that  treaty  in  force,  as 
the  Governments  of  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  and  Japan  had  given  their  assent  soon 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  Conference.  While 
its  terms  only  then  became  binding  on  the  sig- 
natories, no  one  of  the  five  powers  had  in  any 
way  contravened  any  of  them  since  the  Pact  was 
originally  signed  by  the  diplomats  at  the  Dis- 
armament Conference.  Not  only  did  new  work 
cease,  but  scrapping  of  the  older  vessels  desig- 
nated for  such  a  fate  by  the  Pact  had  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  been  carried  out.  Scrapping  of 
the  new  vessels  was  proceeding  at  a  rapid  rate 
in  1924.  The  general  condition  of  the  more 
important  navies  of  the  world  on  July  1,  1924, 
was  briefly  as  follows. 

Argentina.  The  navy  consists  of  2  dread- 
naught  battleships  of  27,600  tons  (12  12-inch 
guns)  completed  in  1914;  four  armored  cruisers 
of  6800  to  7100  tons,  completed  1895-97;  three 
old  protected  cruisers  of  2750  to  4800  tons,  com- 
pleted 1892-97;  two  old  monitors  of  2336  tons, 
completed  1892-93;  8  destroyers  of  1100  to 
1200  tons,  completed  1911;  several  large  gun- 
boats, river  gunboats,  transports,  old  torpedo 
boats,  etc.  It  was  proposed  to  refit  the  battle- 
ships in  the  United  States  and  to  order  about 
12  large  destroyers. 

Austria  possessed  neither  navy  nor  sea- 
coast  but  had  four  armed  patrol  vessels  on  the 
Danube. 

Australia.  Since  the  close  of  the  War,  the 
Australian  navy  was  steadily  reduced.  Late 
plans  called  for  the  sale  of  24  out  of  the  34 
vessels  on  the  navy  list.  Those  to  be  retained 
were  four  light  cruisers  of  about  5500  tons,  com- 
pleted 1912-20;  one  flotilla  leader  of  1600  tons, 
completed  1917;  and  five  destroyers  of  1250  tons, 
36  knots,  completed  1919.  At  last  accounts  in 
1924  there  still  remained  on  the  list  six  sub- 
marines of  1820  tons,  completed  1917-19;  sev- 
eral destroyers  of  700  tons,  and  3  1250-ton 
sloops,  completed  1915.  These  were  all  effective 
vessels  and  in  good  condition.  The  battle  cruiser 
Australia  was  scrapped  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  the  Five  Power  Naval  Pact.  From 
statements  which  appeared  in  the  British  and 
Australian  press  it  appeared  that  Australia  de- 
sired to  depend  for  defense  chiefly  on  the  Brit- 
ish fleet  but  would  pay  her  share  of  the  cost 
of  defense  by  the  Royal  Navy. 


Brazil.  The  Brazilian  Congress  authorized 
the  construction  of  a  training-ship,  a  mine 
transport,  and  a  surveying  ship.  The  Minister 
of  Marine  proposed  the  construction  of  a  battle- 
ship of  35,000  tons,  a  cruiser  of  10,000  tons, 
5  destroyers,  5  submarines,  an  aircraft  service, 
and  some  mine-layers  and  sweepers.  The  navy 
in  1924  consisted  of  2  battleships  of  19,281  tons 
(12  12-inch  guns),  completed  in  1910;  2  ar- 
mored coast  defense  vessels,  1900-01;  2  light 
cruisers  of  3100  tons  and  27  knots,  1910;  2  old 
cruisers;  4  river  gunboats;  1  mine-layer;  2 
river  monitors;  10  destroyers  of  550  tons,  com- 
pleted in  1908-10;  1  destroyer  of  950  tons,  1913; 
1  torpedo  boat,  1907;  and  3  submarines, 
1914. 

Canada.  Having  from  motives  of  economy 
reduced  her  naval,  military,  and  air  establish- 
ments to  almost  nothing,  Canada  consolidated 
them  under  the  new  Ministry  of  Defense.  The 
naval  force  in  1924  consisted  of  2  destroyers 
and  4  mine-sweepers,  half  based  at  Halifax  and 
half  at  Equimault,  where  they  were  used  to 
train  the  Canadian  naval  reserve  which  was  to 
act  as  a  nucleus  in  case  future  naval  expansion 
should  be  found  necessary. 

Chile.  The  navy  consists  of  one  modern 
battleship  of  28,000  tons,  10  14-inch  guns,  23 
knots  speed,  completed  in  1015;  1  old  battleship 
of  6000  tons;  2  old  armored  cruisers  of  7000 
and  8500  tons;  5  old  protected  cruisers  of  2000 
to  4500  tons;  4  flotilla  leaders  of  1700  to  1850 
tons,  completed  in  1912-14;  7  small  destroyers, 
3  torpedo  boats;  2  submarines,  1913.  It  was 
said  in  1924  that  notwithstanding  their  age,  the 
vessels  of  the  Chilean  navy  were  in  serviceable 
condition  and  that  the  efficiency  of  the  personnel 
was  excellent. 

China.  The  Chinese  navy  as  a  unified  force 
no  longer  existed.  There  were  many  small 
cruisers,  gunboats,  destroyers,  torpedo  boats, 
etc.  Some  vessels  were  controlled  by  the  Can- 
ton government;  some  by  the  government  at 
Peking;  others  were  a  law  unto  themselves  or 
had  unknown  affiliations.  The  natural  result 
was  a  breakdown  of  morale  and  discipline  as 
well  as  a  deterioration  of  the  vessels  from  lark 
of  care  and  of  means  for  effecting  repairs  and 
preservation. 

Denmark.  In  the  naval  budget  for  1923-24, 
10,342,000  crowns  were  allotted  for  new  con- 
struction, including  aircraft  and  aviation  sup- 
plies. The  new  construction  comprised  2  sub- 
marines and  1  lighthouse  tender  and  ice  break- 
er. The  Danish  navy  consisted  of  5  armored 
coast  defense  vessels  of  2200  to  4100  tons;  4 
small  cruisers  of  1300  to  3000  tons;  about  15 
mine-layers  and  sweepers;  and  various  auxiliary 
vessels.  The  personnel  had  a  high  reputation 
for  efficiency. 

France.  After  a  long  delay,  the  French  gov- 
ernment signed  the  Five  Power  Naval  Pact  for 
the  limitation  of  naval  armaments.  As  France 
and  Italy  were  the  real  gainers  by  the  carrying 
out  of  the  Pact,  their  attitudes  toward  it  were 
rather  remarkable.  Were  it  not  for  the  Pact, 
the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Japan 
would  soon  have  possessed  navies  of  such 
strength  that  those  of  France  and  Italy  would 
have  descended  to  relative  impotence.  The 
United  States  alone  scrapped  tonnage  of  six 
times  the  fighting  value  of  existing  French 
dreadnaughts.  Instead  of  possessing  a  navy  in 
1925  of  10  times  the  power  of  France,  the  United 
States  restricts  itself  to  3  times.  Great  Britain 


NAVTES  OF  THE  WORLD 


909 


and  Japan  made  great  if  considerably  less  re- 
ductions. 

The  building  programme  under  construction 
in  France  in  1024  consisted  of  3  light  cruisers 
of  8000  tons,  0  flotilla  leaders  of  2400  tons,  12 
torpedo  boats  of  1450  tons,  6  submarines  of 
1100  tons  and  6  of  680  tons;  the  battleship 


NAVIES  07  THE  WOULD 

the  previous  year.  The  vessels  under  construc- 
tion or  to  be  laid  down  in  1024  were  the  battle- 
ships Nelson  and  Rodney,  commenced  early  in 
1023,  2  or  3  submarines,  7  to  0  light  cruisers  of 
about  10,000  tons,  and  the  mine-layer  Adventure 
of  7000  tons.  The  aircraft  carriers  Eagle  (22,- 
700  tons)  and  Hermes  (10,400)  had  been  under 


Beam,  only  partly  built,  was  to  be  transformed      construction   for  many  years  but  were  not  re- 


into  an  airplane  carrier  of  about  23,000  tons. 
These  vessels  were  to  be  completed  in  1925. 
The  second  part  of  the  naval  programme,  which 


ported  as  completed  by  the  middle  of  1924. 

The  battleships  Nelson  and  Rodney  were  the 
only   vessels   of   their   class  under   construction 


up  to  the  summer  of  1024  had  not  been  wholly      in    any    country    in    1024.     Their    displacement 
_._Ai  —  .•__,!   u.,  4t,~   v  —  ~i*   r>  —  i:  ----  *     -----   A~ 


authorized  by  the  French  Parliament,  was  de- 
signed to  be  laid  down  during  the  years  1025-28 
and  completed  in  1030.  It  consisted  of  6  light 
cruisers  of  10,000  tons,  15  flotilla  leaders  of 
2400  tons,  24  destroyers  of  1450  tons,  4  sub- 
marine cruisers  of  3000  tons,  30  first-class -sub- 
marines of  1300  tons.  The  cruisers  of  8000 
tons  were  to  have  a  speed  of  34  knots  and  to 
carry  8  0.1 -inch  guns  in  4  turrets,  4  2.95-inch 
anti-aircraft  puns,  and  4  2 1.7 -inch  torpedo 
tubes.  Two  10.000-ton  cruisers  were  to  be  laid 
down  in  1025.  The  reported  details  were: 
speed,  about  35  knots;  battery,  8  8-inoh  guns 
and  20  anti-aircraft  guns.  As  the  weight  neces- 
sary to  armor  the  upper  deck  as  a  defense 
against  air-bombs  would  reduce  the  possible 
speed,  numerous  anti-aircraft  guns  were  sub- 
stituted. It  is  expected  that  thev  will  enable 
the  ship  to  meet  attacking  airplaines  with  a 
hail  of  chemical  projectiles.  The  8-inch  guns 
wore  to  be  mounted  in  gas-tight  turrets  to 
obviate  danger  from  gas  bombs  and  gas  shells 
The  flotilla  leaders  were  to  be  of  al>out  2400  tons. 
Pllip  principal  details  were-  length,  380.0  feet; 
beam,  303  feet:  mean  draft  at  a  displacement 
of  2400  tons,  148  feet;  speed,  35.5  knots;  arm- 
ament, 6  5.1 -inch  guns,  2  2.0-inch  anti-aircraft 
guns,  and  2  triple  torpedo  tubes  for  21.7-inch 
torpedoes.  The  destroyers  were  to  be  of  1400 
tons;  speed,  33  knots;  armament,  4  5.1-inch 
guns. 

The  French  navy  in  1024  consisted  of  6  dread- 
naught  battleships  of  23,100  tons,  2  carrying 
10  134-inch  guns  and  4  carrying  12  12-inch 
guns;  3  old  Jmttleships  of  18,800  tons  carrying 
4  12-inch  and  12  04-inch  guns;  10  old  armored 
(•miners  of  0400  to  14,100  tons  but  of  little 
fighting  value;  5  (ex -German)  light  cruisers 
(2(>  to  285  knots);  10  destroyers  of  800  to 
050  tons.  27  destroyers  of  350  to  085  tons;  and 
about  00  submarines. 

Germany.  The  Allied  Supreme  Council  in- 
creased the  number  of  battleships  and  of  cruis- 
ers which  Germany  was  permitted  to  retain  from 
0  to  8,  the  additional  2  to  be  always  in  reserve 
without  ammunition  or  supplies  The  battle- 
ships might  l»e  replaced  by  new  ones  of  not 
more  than  10,000  tons  and  'the  cruisers  by  new 
ones  of  not  more  than  6000  tons,  after  20  years 
from  the  date  of  completion.  All  will  have 
reached  that  age  before  new  ones  can  be  built. 
The  only  vessel  under  construction  in  1024  was 
a  light  cruiser  of  5000  tons.  The  8  battleships 
were  of  13,000  tons  and  were  to  carry  4  11 -inch 
and  14  6.7-inch  or  5.0-ineh  guns.  The  8  cruisers 
were  small  and  all  but  2  were  over  20  years 
old.  There  were  10  destroyers  and  16  torpedo 
boats. 

Great  Britain.  The  Naval  Estimates  for 
1024-25  called  for  an  expenditure  of  £55,800,000. 
The  personnel  of  the  navy,  coast  guard,  avia- 
tion service,  and  marine  police  was  fixed  at 
100,500,  an  increase  of  1000  over  the  figures  for 


was  the  maximum  allowed  by  the  Five  Power 
Naval  Pact,  35,000  standard  tons.  This  was 
computed  on  a  slightly  different  basis  from  that 
of  existing  capital  ships,  but  they  would  prob- 
ably be  3000  tons  larger  than  any  existing 
battleships  except  the  British  Hood  and  6000 
to  10,000  less  than  most  of  the  capital  ships 
scrapped  under  the  terms  of  the  Pact.  As  their 
design  was  an  attempt  to  solve  problems  of 
naval  construction  which  appeared  to  demand 
much  greater  si/e,  it  was  being  studied  with 
interest  by  all  naval  authorities.  The  principal 
details  available,  July  1,  1024,  were:  length, 
660  feet;  beam,  extreme,  100  feet;  mean  draft, 
30  feet;  speed,  23  knots;  boilers,  oilburning; 
engines,  geared  turbines;  3  turrets,  each  mount- 
ing 3  10-inch  guns;  all  turrets  on  the  central 
line,  2  on  the  forecastle,  the  after  one  firing 
over  the  other,  the  third  just  forward  of  the 
amokepipe;  no  stern  fire  from  16-inch  guns,  but 
the  after  turret  could  fire  nearly  astern  with 
the  outboard  guns;  12  6-inch  guns  in  6  turrets, 
3  on  each  beam;  12  4-inch  anti-aircraft  guns 
with  vertical  or  nearly  vertical  fire;  above- 
water  triple  torpedo  tubes  for  21  -inch  torpedoes; 
quarter-deck  clear  of  all  structures  in  order  to 
permit  the  landing  and  despatch  of  airplanes; 
armor  belt,  13  inches  thick;  3  armor  decks, 
upper  deck,  deck  at  top  of  belt,  and  curved  deck 
extending  to  lower  edge  of  belt;  side  heavily 
bulged  and  conipartmented  for  antitorpedo  pro- 
tection; hydraulic  steering  and  turret  machin- 
crv. 

The  new  submarine  XI,  completed  in  1023, 
had  finished  her  trials  in  1024  and  was  said 
to  have  failed  to  realize  the  hopes  of  her  de- 
signers. She  was  much  the  largest  submarine 
ever  built,  having  a  submerged  displacement  of 
3500  tons  and  a  surface  displacement  of  2750 
tons  with  corresponding  speeds  of  18  and  33 
knots.  The  Admiralty  and  seagoing  officers  of 
all  ranks  in  1024  were  fighting  hard  to  obtain 
entire  control  of  the  naval  aviation  service. 
To  have  the  most  suitable  designs  for  naval 
aircraft,  which  differ  widely  from  those  in  land 
service,  to  have  naval  aviators  who  possess  in- 
timate knowledge  of  the  details  of  naval  af- 
fairs, and  to  have  a  continuous  naval  organiza- 
tion and  control  of  the  air  forces  of  each  fleet 
or  other  naval  unit  are  so  vital  to  efficiency 
that  the  slight  financial  gain  in  a  consolidated 
air  service  should  not  be  considered. 

The  vessels  of  the  British  navy  in  1024  were: 
5  battleships  of  25,750  tons  (8  15-inch  guns, 
23  knots),  5  battleships  of  27,500  tons  (8  15-inch 
guns,  25  knots),  4  battleships  of  25,000  tons 
(10  13.5-inch  guns,  21  knots),  4  battleships  of 
23,000  tons  (10  13.5-inch  guns,  22  knots),  1 
battleship  of  41,200  tons  (8  15-inch  guns,  31 
knots)  ;  1  battle  cruiser  of  28,500  tons  (8  13.6- 
inch  guns,  30  knots),  2  battle  cruisers  of  26,500 
tons  (6  15-inch  guns,  32  knots)  ;  35  light  cruis- 
ers with  a  speed  of  20  knots  (14  of  3750  tons, 


HAVIDB  OF  THE  WOBXJ) 


9x0 


3  of  4120  tons,  10  of  4100  tons,  8  of  4750  tons), 
6  light  cruisers  of  25.5  knots   (3  of  5250  tons, 

3  of  5400  tons),  3  light  cruisers  of  0750  tons 
and  30  knots,  and  3  of  7550  tons  and  32  knots; 
17  flotilla  leaders  of   1610  to   1800  tons;    170 
destroyers  of  1040  to  1350  tons  and  34  to  30 
knots;    27    steam   sloops   of    1250   tons   and    17 
knots;  56  twin-screw  mine-sweepers  of  800  tons 
and  16  knots;   16  patrol  boats  of  573  tons  and 
22   knots;   and  92   submarines  of  500   to   3500 
tons  (submerged),  most  of  them  of  800  to  1100 
tons. 

Greece.  The  defeat  of  Greece  by  the  Turks 
and  the  various  political  upheavals  and  financial 
disturbances  interfered  with  the  development  of 
the  navy.  The  fleet  in  1924  consisted  of  2  pre- 
dreadnaught  battleships  (formerly  the  Missis- 
sippi and  the  Idaho)  of  13,000  tons,  1  armored 
cruiser  of  9956  tons  and  24  knots;  1  light  cruis- 
er of  2600  tons  and  23  knots;  11  destroyers 
of  350  to  980  tons;  and  2  submarines  of  460 
tons.  The  dreadnaught  battleship  tialamis  was 
ordered  in  Germany  in  1013.  At  the  close  of 
the  War  she  was  still  far  from  finished  but 
probably  would  be  completed  in  a  French  ship- 
yard. As  designed,  the  displacement  was  19,- 
500  tons;  length,  570  feet;  beam,  82  feet;  draft, 
26  feet;  speed,  25  knots;  battery,  8  14-inch 
guns,  12  6-inch  guns,  and  some  of  3-inch  cal- 
ibre. In  addition  to  completing  the  Nalamis, 
Greece  ordered  4  large  destroyers  in  England. 

Italy.  The  naval  budget  for  1023-24  was 
770,465,015  lire  (1  lira  =  about  $.043).  No  new 
construction  of  any  importance  was  in  hand. 
A  building  programme  was  announced  in  1923, 
the  work  to  begin  as  follows:  1024-25:  2  light 
cruisers,  4  destroyers,  4  submarines;  1925-26: 

4  destroyers,  4  submarines;   1926-27:  4  destroy- 
ers, 4  submarines;    1927-28:    1    light  cruiser,  4 
destroyers,    4    submarines.     The    Italian    navy 
in  1924  consisted  of  5  battleships  of  about  22,- 
500  tons   (13  12-inch  guns,  23  knots),  1  battle- 
ship of  19,500  tons  (12  12-inch  guns,  24  knots), 

4  predreadnaught    battleships    of    12,600    tons; 
3  armored  cruisers  of  9056  tons  and  22.5  knots; 
8  light  cruisers  of  3200  to  4800  tons   and   27 
to  28  knots,   1    light  cruiser  of  3700  tons  and 
22  knots;    8  flotilla  leaders  or  scouts  of  about 
35  knots  speed,  2  of  them  of   1500  tons,   2   of 
1800  tons,  3  of  2158  tons,  and  1  of  2500  tons; 
14  destroyers  of  320  to  380  tons,  42  destroyers 
of  650  to* 850  tons,  12  destroyers  of  922  to  J012 
tons,   1    destroyer  of   1354  tons;   about  90  tor- 
pedo boats  of  110  to  210  tons;   33   submarines 
of  300  to  460  tons,  and  10  of  920  to  1000  tons. 
One    of    the    battleships    of    22,500    tons,    the 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  was  blown  up  and  sunk  dur- 
ing the  War;   it  was  later  raised,  but  whether 
it  would  be  repaired  or  not  was  uncertain. 

Japan.  The  naval  budget  for  1924  was  238,- 
500,000  yen  (1  yen  =  about  $.41).  Notwith- 
standing the  damages  inflicted  by  the  earth- 
quake, the  vessels  of  the  1923-24  programme 
were  to  be  laid  down  as  soon  as  the  various 
shipyards  were  free  to  undertake  the  work. 
This  programme  included:  4  light  cruisers  of 
10,000  tons,  2  of  7100  tons;  18  destroyers  of 
about  1500  tons;  16  submarines  with  submerged 
tonnages  of  1500  to  2500  tons.  All  vessels  of 
the  programme  were  to  be  completed  by  1928. 
On  July  1,  1923,  the  following  vessels  were 
under  construction:  1  light  cruiser  of  3100  tons, 

5  of  5600  tons,  2  of  7100  tons;  7  destroyers  of 
1400  tons  and  4  of  900  tons;   2  airplane  car- 
riers (ex -battle  cruiser  Akagi  and  ex-battleship 


NAVIES  OF  THE  WO&LB 

Kag*);  4  gunboats  of  338  tons;  5  auxiliary 
service  vessels.  The  number  of  light  cruisers 
completed,  building,  or  authorized  since  1918 
was  25;  all  had  speeds  of  33  knots  or  more. 
The  navv  yard  at  Yokosuka  was  damaged  by 
the  earthquake  to  the  extent  of  35,000,000  yen, 
and  other  yards,  public  and  private,  were  se- 
riously injured.  One  of  the  greatest  losses  was 
that  of  the  great  oil  storage  tanks  which  held 
about  3,000,000  barrels.  All  the  earthquake 
damages  were  being  rapidly  repaired,  and  the 
Yokosuka  yard  was  to  be  ready  to  undertake 
shipbuilding  work  soon  after  June,  1924. 

The  Japanese  fleet,  including  light  cruisers 
and  smaller  vessels  under  construction,  in  1924 
consisted  of  2  battleships  of  33,800  tons  (8 
16-inch  guns,  23.5  knots);  2  battleships  of  31,- 
260  tons  (12  14-inch  guns,  23  knots),  2  battle- 
ships of  30,600  tons  (12  14-inch  guns,  23 
knots)  ;  4  battle  cruisers  of  27,500  tons  (8  14- 
inch  guns,  27.5  knots)  ;  3  armored  cruisers  of 
9800  tons;  4  light  cruisers  of  10,000  tons  (35 
knots),  4  of  7100  tons  (35  knots),  14  of  5000 
tons  (35  knots),  3  of  4950  tons  (26  knots),  1  of 
4100  tons  (23  knots),  2  of  3500  tons  (31 
knots),  1  of  3100  tons  (34  knots);  18  destroy- 
ers  of  1500  tons,  7  of  1400,  '22  of  1350,  6  of 
1200,  25  of  900,  1  of  955,  18  of  835,  10  of  605, 
and  2  of  600.  The  details  of  Japanese  sub- 
marines are  rarely  published  There  were  said 
in  1924  to  be  about  80  boats  including  those 
already  mentioned  as  belonging  to  the  new  pro- 
gramme of  construction. 

Netherlands.  Several  building  programmes, 
including  one  in  1923,  were  submitted  to  the 
Netherlands  Parliament,  but  all  were  rejected 
The  vessels  of  the  navy  in  1024  consisted  of  5 
armored  coast-defense  ships  of  5000  to  0500 
tons  (1903-1910)  ;  2  new  light  cruisers  of  7050 
tons  and  30  knots,  3  or  4  old  cruisers  of  4000 
tons;  3  armored  gunboats  of  540  tons,  many 
other  gunboats  at  home  and  in  the  Dutch  East 
Indies;  4  new  mine-layers  (1022)  of  750  tons, 
12  other  mine-layers;  4  small  mine-sweepers, 
1  new  submarine  de"pftt  ship  of  2500  tons;  8 
destroyers  of  480  tons;  8  torpedo  boats  of  322 
tons,  7  torpedo  boats  of  130  to  190  tons;  11 
submarines  of  about  700  tons,  3  of  380  tons, 
5  of  150  to  234  tons,  and  1  submarine  mine- 
layer. 

Norway.  The  naval  budget  for  1922-23  was 
21,340,160  crowns  (par  value  $0.268).  Two 
submarines  of  420  tons  in  1024  were  building 
in  Norway.  The  vessels  of  the  navy  were  4 
armored  coast-defense  ships  of  3920  to  4233 
tons;  1  small  cruiser  of  1350  tons;  9  gunboats 
of  100  to  620  tons;  3  destroyers  of  540  tons; 
about  30  torpedo  boats  of  65  to  220  tons;  4  sub- 
marines of  255  tons,  2  submarines  of  420  tons; 
and  3  new  mining  vessels  of  335  to  755  tons. 

Bussia.  The  Russian  navy  by  1 924  apparently 
was  becoming  less  and  less  efficient,  partly 
from  lack  of  regular  organization,  partly  from 
lack  of  intelligent  control  and  care  of  vessels 
and  equipment,  and  partly  from  lack  of  suffi- 
cient funds  to  keep  the  vessels  and  equipment 
in  repair.  One  dreadnaught  battleship  was 
usually  kept  in  commission  and  one  in  reserve; 
the  other  battleships  and  cruisers  were  unfit 
for  service.  A  number  of  destroyers  and  sub- 
marines were  kept  in  commission,  but  whether 
effective  or  not  was  unknown.  Other  vessels  in 
Hervice  were  mine-sweepers,  mine-layers  and  ice 
breakers.  Two  divisions  of  destroyers  were  in 
commission  in  the  Black  Sea,  but  no  large  ves- 


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NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD 


911 


sels.  Much  attention  was  being  paid  to  avia- 
tion, and  efforts  were  being  made  to  extend  the 
service. 

Spain.  The  naval  budget  for  1923-24  was 
125,890,543  pesetas  (par  value  =  $0.1 93).  It 
provided  for  an  enlisted  force  of  13,000  in  the 
seaman  branch  and  2550  marines.  The  vessels 
building  in  1924  were:  2  light  cruisers  of  4725 
tons  and  29  knots,  and  2  of  7975  tons  and  33 
knots;  3  submarines  of  610  tans;  3  flotilla 
leaders  of  1650  tons  and  36  knots;  3  destroyers 
of  1145  tons  and  34  knots;  3  gunboats  of  1335 
tons  and  18  knots.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing, 
the  vessels  of  the  navy  in  1024  were:  2  dread- 
naught  battleships  of  15,500  tons  (8  12-inch 
guns,  19.5  knots),  1  old  (1888)  battleship  of 
0733  tons;  3  old  (1898)  armored  cruisers  of 
7400  to  9900  tons;  1  old  light  cruiser  of  5800 
tons  and  19.5  knots,  1  light  cruiser  of  5500 
tons  and  25  knots,  1  old  light  cruiser  of  2100 
tons  and  19  knots;  5  gunl>oats  of  about  800 
tons;  1  mine-layer  of  1773  tons;  1  submarine 
salvage  vessel  of  2100  tons;  7  destroyers  of  300 
to  460  tons;  22  torpedo  boats;  and  10  sub- 
marines, 3  of  them  of  383  tons,  0  of  740  tons, 
and  1  of  685  tons. 

Sweden.  The  navy  of  Sweden  in  1024  con- 
sisted of  3  new  armored  roast-defense  vessels 
of  7605  tons  and  22  knots,  (j  older  ones  (1901- 
07)  of  3620  to  4700  tons  and  10  to  18  knots,  7 
others  (1891-09)  of  3400  to  ,S715  tons;  1  ar- 
mored cruiser  of  5000  tons  and  22  5  knots;  1 
mine  cruiser  of  1800  tons  and  20  knots;  4  tor- 
pedo gunboats  of  830  tons  and  20  knots;  4  other 
small  gunboats;  10  destroyers  of  480  to  500 
tons  and  30  knots:  17  torpedo  boats  of  106  to 
120  tons  and  25  knots,  10  torpedo  boats  of 
60  tons;  11  submarines  of  370  tons,  and  5 
smaller  submarines. 

Turkey.  The  Treaty  of  Sevres  deprived 
Turkey  of  her  naval  force  and  nearly  all  her 
seacoast.  The  Treaty  of  Lausanne  returned 
the  most  valuable  parts  of  her  seacoast  as  well 
as  the  remains  of  her  fleet,  consisting  of  the 
battle  cruiser  tivltan  Rclim  (formerly  the 
Goebrn,  22,040  tons,  10  11 -inch  guns,  28  knots)  ; 
the  old  battleship  Torgut  Rein  (formerly  the 
Weisttenlurg,  9900  tons,  6  11-inch  guns,  17 
knots)  ;  the  old  protected  cruisers  Hamidich 
(3800  tons)  and  Medjitlieh  (3400  tons);  9 
small  torpedo  boats  of  100  to  200  tons;  9  gun- 
boats of  200  to  500  tons;  an  armed  yacht,  and 
several  motor  boats.  The  vessels  in  1024  were 
all  in  urgent  need  of  repairs,  which  were  to 
be  made  at  the  naval  dockyard  at  Constantino- 
ple. This  yard  was  being  repaired,  refitted,  and 
improved  by  British  shipbuilding  companies. 

United  States.  The  only  vessels  under  con- 
struction for  the  navy  in  *1924  were:  2  large 
aircraft  carriers  (Leamington  and  Saratoga, 
commenced  as  battle  cruisers)  ;  2  light  cruisers 
of  7500  tons;  2  destroyer  tenders;  and  3  fleet 
submarines.  The  programme  of  new  construc- 
tion presented  to  Congress  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  consisted  of  8  light  cruisers  of  10,000 
tons,  6  light-draft  gunboats  for  use  on  Chinese 
rivers,  and  3  large  submarines.  The  vessels  of 
the  navy  in  1924  were:  3  battleships  of  32,600 
tons  (8  16-inch  guns,  21  knots),  2  battleships 
of  32,300  tons  (12  14-inch  guns,  21  knots),  3 
battleships  of  32,000  tons  (12  14-inch  guns,  21 
knots),  2  battleships  of  31,400  tons  (12  14-inch 
guns,  21  knots),  2  battleships  of  27,500  tons 
(10  14-inch  guns,  20.5  knots),  2  battleships  of 
27,000  tons  (10  14-inch  guns,  21.5  knots),  2 


NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD 

battleships  of  26,000  tons  (12  12-inch  guns,  21 
knots),  2  battleships  of  21,825  tons  (12  12-inch 
guns,  21.6  knots) ;  3  armored  cruisers  of  14,500 
tons,  6  of  13,680  tons,  2  of  9700  tons,  1  of  8200 
tons;  10  light  cruisers  of  7500  tons  and  34 
knots,  3  of  3750  tons  and  25  knots;  7  pro- 
tected cruisers  of  3200  to  3500  tons;  8  gun- 
boats of  1000  to  1575  tons;  6  large  mine-layers; 
17  submarine  and  destroyer  tenders;  2  air- 
craft carriers;  1  airship  tender;  6  repair 
ships,  3  supply  ships,  4  hospital  ships,  25  fuel 
ships;  also  small  gunboats,  tugs,  and  miscel- 
laneous vessels;  237  destroyer  of  about  1200 
tons  and  35  knots,  44  destroyers  of  1000  to  1100 
tons  and  30  knots,  21  destroyers  of  720  tons 
and  30  knots;  and  about  100  submarines. 

The  personnel  of  the  navy  in  1924  consisted 
of  7810  officers  and  85,790  enlisted  men.  Dur- 
ing the  War  there  were  32,474  officers  and  550,- 
736  enlisted  men.  On  June  30,  1923,  there  were 
4222  officers  in  the  Naval  Reserve  Force  and 
about  11,000  men. 

As  regards  materiel,  the  greatest  needs  of  the 
navy  in  1924  were:  (a)  repair  of  battleships; 
(b)  more  light  cruisers;  (c)  some  flotilla  lead- 
ers; (d)  large  submarines  for  fleet  service; 
(e)  more  aircraft  The  repair  of  battleships 
includes  an  increased  elevation  of  the  turret 
guns  in  all  except  the  very  latest  vessels,  the 
application  of  thin  armor  to  the  upper  deck  as 
n  protection  against  aircraft  bombs,  the  ap- 
plication of  bulges  and  compartmentation  below 
water  as  a  protection  against  torpedoes,  and  a 
general  repair  and  refitting  of  hull  and  machin- 
ery, particulaily  the  latter  Tn  a  spirit  of  mis- 
taken economy.  Congress  and  the  demands  of 
the  budget  cut  the  maintenance  appropriations 
for  the  fleet  until  the  sums  allotted  became 
wholly  inadequate  for  the  preservation  of  the 
vessels  and  machinery  and  still  less  adequate  to 
secure  efficiency.  The  deck  armor,  antitorpcdo 
bulges,  and  the  elevation  of  the  guns  were 
deemed  necessary  to  place  the  battleships  on 
the  same  plane  of  efficiency  aa  the  vessels  of 
Great  Britain  and  Japan.  These  repairs  and 
changes  could  be  effected  without  contravening 
the  terms  of  the  Five  Power  Naval  Pact  for  the 
limitation  of  naval  armaments.  Compared  with 
the  British  and  Japanese  navies,  that  of  the 
United  States  in  1924  was  particularly  de- 
ficient in  light  cruisers.  Of  vessels  of  this  type 
less  than  10  years  old,  Great  Britain  had  47 
of  243,240  tons  and  was  building  at  least  7 
more  of  about  10,000  tons  each;  Japan  had  25 
of  157,730  tons;  and  the  United  States  had  10 
of  75,000  tons.  To  preserve  her  paiity  with 
Great  Britain,  the  United  States  needed  25  or 
more  cruisers  of  250,000  tons;  and  to  hold  her 
5-3  ratio  with  Japan  she  needed  19  or  more 
cruisers  of  188,000  tons.  Not  less  than  10 
flotilla  leaders  and  10  large  submarines  were  re- 
quired. As  to  aircraft,  the  navy  needed  at 
least  three  times  its  force  of  1924. 

Fortunately  for  its  efficiency,  for  its  develop- 
ment along  desired  lines,  and  for  its  usefulness 
to  the  fleet  and  other  naval  purposes,  the  en- 
tire control  of  the  naval  air  service  was  vested 
in  the  Navy  Department.  The  Bureau  of 
Aeronautics  was  established  on  Sept.  1,  1921. 
Before  that  date,  naval  aviation  was  divided 
between  several  different  bureaus  in  a  manner 
to  prevent  coordination  of  its  various  parts. 
The  Bureau  was  carefully  and  thoroughly  or- 
ganized  under  its  flrst  chief,  Rear-Admiral 
W.  A.  Moffett,  and  under  his  efficient  guidance 


NAVIGATION 


91  a 


NAVIGATION 


the  naval  air  service  greatly  improved  and  con- 
tinued to  gain  as  rapidly  as  the  insufficient  ap- 
propriations permitted.  As  a  demonstration  of 
the  efficiency  of  the  service,  United  States  navy 
fliers  established,  in  1023,  23  out  of  the  42 
recognized  world's  records  for  aircraft  perform- 
ance. In  October,  1923,  the  Bureau  completed 
the  ZRt,  the  first  rigid  airship  of  the  Zeppelin 
type  to  be  built  in  America.  Christened  the 
fihenandoah,  it  was  subjected  to  many  tests  and 
trials,  all  but  one  of  which  it  passed  satisfac- 
torily; while  riding  at  its  mooring  mast  a  72- 
mile  gale  drove  with  such  force  that  its  whole 
bow  was  torn  off.  The  ship  nevertheless  weath- 
ered the  storm  and  after  0  houis  returned  and 
was  nosed  into  her  hangar.  The  Shenandoah 
is  680  feet  long,  has  a  diameter  of  78.7  feet, 
a  gas  capacity  of  2,150,000  cubic  feet,  and  is 
filled  with  helium.  It  is  driven  by  G  300-horse 
power  Packard  engines  with  a  maximum  speed 
of  75  miles  per  hour  and  a  cruising  speed  of 
65  miles  The  crew  consists  of  9  officers  and  22 
men.  For  sectional  diagram  and  illustration, 
see  AERONAUTICS  Another  airship  of  the  Zep- 
pelin type  was  built  in  Germany  and  was  ready 
for  delivery  in  1924  It  was  styled  the  ZR3. 
It  is  656  feet  long,  90  feet  9  inches  in  diameter, 
and  has  a  gas  capacity  of  2,475,000  cubic  feet. 
In  addition  to  rigid  airships,  the  air  service  was 
equipped  with  non rigid  dirigibles,  kite  balloons, 
free  balloons,  seaplanes,  airplanes  of  land  types, 
torpedo-planes,  etc.  One  of  the  moat  interesting 
of  the  seaplanes  was  the  Jr/tf/,  designed  for  use 
by  submarines.  It  had  an  all-metal  body  and 
was  of  such  small  dimensions  that  with  wings 
folded  it  could  l>c  stowed  in  a  little  compart- 
ment immediately  below  the  deck  of  the  sub- 
marine. This  compartment  was  not  water-tight, 
but  water  would  not  injure  the  plane  It  could 
be  hoisted  out  and  made  ready  in  a  few  minutes. 
It  takes  off  from  the  water  and  on  return  de- 
scends to  the  surface  alongside  the  submarine. 
See  VESSEL,  NAVAL;  BOMBING  OF  VESSELS; 
WAR  IN  EUROPE,  Xaval  Operations 

NAVIGATION.  The  art  of  navigation  was 
greatly  improved  in  the  decade  1914-24  by  the 
invention  of  new  devices  and  the  further  de- 
velopment of  old  ones.  The  net  result  was  in- 
creased safety  for  shipping,  especially  in  the 
vicinity  of  land,  and  greater  ease  and  economy 
in  handling  it  everywhere.  The  most  note- 
worthy of  the  devices  were  the  radio  compass, 
ponic  sounding,  the  gyro-pilot,  cable  steering, 
the  earth  induction  compass,  and  the  auxiliary 
rudder. 

Radio  Compass.  This  is  a  device  for  the 
reception  of  the  electromagnetic  waves  used  in 
radio  telegraphy  and  for  determining  the  di- 
rection of  their  source.  Its  operation  is  based 
on  the  fact  that  radio  waves  have  most  effect 
on  an  antenna  or  loop  when  its  plane  is  in  the 
direction  of  the  propagation  of  the  waves  If 
the  waves  are  not  deflected  by  intervening  land 
or  other  objects,  the  plane  will  point  toward 
the  source.  Great  care  is  taken  to  prevent  such 
deflection,  but  some  always  exists.  This  is 
eliminated  from  the  final  result  in  well-placed 
and  carefully  screened  stations  by  determining 
a  curve  of  error  which  gives  the  proper  correc- 
tion to  apply  to  each  observed  bearing.  The 
compass  itself  consists  of  a  vertical  coil  pivoted 
on  a  vertical  axis  rising  from  the  centre 
of  a  dumb  compass  which  is  set  with  its 
zero  pointing  north.  The  operator  rotates  the 
vertical  coil  until  in  the  position  which  gives 


the  minimum  of  sound  in  the  head  'phone.  The 
pointer  over  the  dumb  compass  then  gives  the 
direction  of  the  transmitting  station,  subject 
to  correction  for  error.  Radio  compasses  are 
installed  on  board  ship  as  well  as  ashore,  but 
the  shore  stations  give  the  best  results,  as  the 
deflecting  objects  on  large  vessels  are  numerous 
and  troublesome.  A  ship  may  thus  determine 
the  direction  of  a  shore  station,  or  a  shore  sta- 
tion may  determine  the  direction  of  a  ship  and 
give  her  the  information  by  radio.  Simul- 
taneous reports  from  two  shore  stations  may  be 
plotted  on  a  chart;  gnomonic  projection  must 
be  used  if  over  50  miles  away;  and  the  exact 
location  of  the  ship  may  be  determined,  a  most 
important  matter  in  a  heavy  fog.  A  large  num- 
ber of  shore  stations,  established  on  the  east 
and  west  coasts  of  the  United  States  and  on 
the  Great  Lakes,  are  of  great  use  in  foggy 
weather  or  when  a  ship  is  beyond  visual  range 
of  definable  shore  objects  but  within  150  mile? 
of  a  compass  station. 

Sonic  Sounding1.  Deep-sea  sounding  was  un- 
til late  in  the  decade  effected  by  means  of  a 
long  wire  and  a  detachable  sinker.  The  son  it- 
sounding  apparatus  or  automatic  depth  record- 
er was  developed  and  perfected  by  Dr.  Harvex 
C  Hayes,  sound  aide  and  physicist  of  the 
Naval  Experiment  Station  at  Annapolis,  Md 
It  consists  of  an  oscillator  mounted  in  a  tank 
in  the  stern  of  the  ship  and  a  hydrophone  in- 
Rt ailed  in  the  bow.  Wires  from  both  lead  to 
the  bridge  or  charthouae.  Oscillator  sound  sig- 
nals are  made  by  the  operator.  The  sound 
wave,  traveling  about  4840  feet  per  second,  goen 
to  the  ocean  bed,  is  reflected  back,  and  is 
caught  by  the  hydrophone  receiver  which  mea- 
sures the  elapsed  time.  Ihis  time  interval,  re- 
ferred to  a  scale,  gives  the  depth  in  fathoms 
The  United  States  Navy  was  the  first  to  put 
the  device  to  practical  use.  The  U.S.S.  Rtewai  t 
ran  a  line  of  soundings  from  Newport,  R.  1.,  to 
Manila,  P.  I.,  and  other  naval  vessels  did  simi- 
lar work  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  OceariH 
Apparatus  of  this  sort  will  probably  be  applied 
in  the  near  future  to  all  large  vessels  as  its 
value  is  so  great  they  cannot  afford  to  be  with- 
out it. 

Earth  Induction  Compass.  This  is  an  in- 
strument devised  by  Dr.  L.  J.  Briggs  and  Dr. 
Paul  K.  Ileyl  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Standards.  It  is  a  development  of  their  air- 
plane compass  but  is  larger  and  driven  by  an 
electric  motor  instead  of  wind  cups.  Two  di- 
rect currents  arc  generated  by  revolving  two 
paii a  of  brushes  at  a  velocity  of  1400  revolu- 
tions per  minute  in  the  magnetic  field  of  the 
earth.  The  instrument  is  so  adjusted  that  when 
it  is  set  for  a  compass  bearing,  the  currents 
flowing  from  both  pairs  of  brushes  are  equal 
and  produce  no  effect  on  a  galvanometer.  If 
the  instrument  turns  even  slightly,  one  current 
becomes  stronger,  and  the  dial  needle  is  de- 
flected. On  board  ship  the  generator  is  placed 
aloft  or  as  far  as  possible  from  the  magnetic 
field  of  the  ship,  but  the  control  is  in  any  con- 
venient location  This  compass,  including  its 
fittings,  is  comparatively  inexpensive. 

Badio  Pilot  Cable.  A  method  of  keeping  a 
ship  in  the  channel  during  a  heavy  fog  was  test- 
ed in  the  Ambrose  Channel  leading  into  the  New 
York  harbor.  It  consists  of  an  electric  cable 
through  which  flows  an  alternating  current. 
Ships  intending  to  use  the  cable  are  provided  with 
a  pair  of  coils,  each  connected  to  a  galvanometer. 


NEAB  BAST  BELIEF 


By  noting  when  the  currents  in  the  coils  are 
equal,  the  navigator  can  determine  when  he  is 
astride  the  cable  and  can  keep  over  it.  For 
regular  service  two  cables  are  laid,  one  for 
incoming  and  one  for  outgoing  vessels,  carrying 
currents  of  different  frequency. 

Gyro-Pilot.  This  apparatus,  designed  and 
developed  uy  Elmer  A.  Sperry,  the  inventor 
of  the  Sperry  gyro-compass,  is  a  device  for 
automatically  steering  a  ship  on  any  desired 
course.  The  course  is  set  on  the  gyro-compass, 
and  the  gyro-pilot  not  only  takes  the  place  of 
the  helmsman  in  steering  but  notes  each  yaw 
of  the  vessel  as  it  begins  arid  anticipates  the 
movement  by  helm  change  more  quickly  than 
a  helmsman  can.  Moreover,  it  takes  cog- 
nizance of  the  speed  of  the  yaw,  when  increas- 
ing and  when  dying  away,  and  corrects  the 
rudder  angle  accordingly.  The  sum  total  of  its 
efficiency  is  considerable.  It  reduces  the  angle 
of  yaw  and  the  necessary  helm  angle,  on  both 
counts  effecting  an  increase  of  speed  with  the 
same  power,  and  in  reducing  the  yaw  cuts 
down  the  distance  which  the  ship  travels  in 
steering  a  course  between  two  fixed  points 

Flettner  Budder.  This  is  a  German  inven- 
tion designed  to  do  away  with  expensive  steer- 
ing gears  and  to  replace  them  by  a  simple  form 
of  rudder  worked  by  the  streamline  pressure 
exerted  on  the  rudder  by  the  water  through 
which  the  vessel  is  moving.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  a  small  auxiliary  rudder  or  deflector 
which  IH  set  in  a  lonjr  jog  in  the  after  edge  of 
the  main  rudder  arid  operated  independently  of 
it.  The  combined  effect  of  the  deflector  and  the 
current  of  water  imparts  to  the  main  rudder  a 
lar^e  turning  movement  enabling  it  to  act  with 
pioinpt  and  efficient  steering  effect. 

NEAB  EAST  BELIEF.  An  organization 
incorporated  by  Congress  in  1919  for  the  pur- 
pose of  affording  lelief  to  sufferers  in  Armenia, 
Syria,  the  Russian  Caucasus,  Mesopotamia, 
Egypt,  Palestine,  Macedonia,  and  other  coun- 
tries. Conditions  in  these  countries  in  1919 
were  characterized  by  Herbert  Hoover  as  "the 
most  desperate  in  the  world."  This  was  largely 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  Red  Cross  did  not 
maintain  any  relief  system  in  them.  The  or- 
ganization succeeded  the  Armenian  and  Syrian 
Helief  Commission.  Over  7000  tons  of  flour 
were  distributed  per  month.  It  was  reported 
that  there  were  1,200,000  destitute  adults  and 
250,000  homeless  children  in  the  areas  affected. 
Col.  \Villiam  N.  Haskell  assumed  charge  of  all 
operations  and  expenditures  in  1919.  In  1920 
the  work  of  the  organization  extended  from 
Egypt  to  the  Caucasus  and  from  Constantinople 
to  *  Mesopotamia  and  Persia.  From  northern 
Turkey,  over  500,000  Armenians  had  escaped 
to  the  Russian  Caucasus;  they  were  in  a  des- 
titute condition,  In  Egypt  and  elsewhere,  hun- 
dreds of  refugees  had  settled,  and  in  Persia,  as 
a  result  of  famine  in  1917-18,  thousands  were 
suffering  for  the  necessities  of  life.  By  the 
end  of  1920  more  than  $42,000,000  had  been 
spent  by  the  organization.  The  work  repre- 
sented the  literal  saving  from  death  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands.  The  largest  and  most  im- 
portant service  was  the  work  among  the  chil- 
dren. In  1920  the  organization  cared  for  more 
than  100,000  children,  the  majority  of  them  in 


913  HEBBA8KA 

1,000,000  women  and  children  had  been  saved 
from  starvation  through  the  efforts  of  the  Re- 
lief. Three  hundred  American  workers  were 
employed,  besides  hundreds  of  native  helpers. 
At  the  end  of  1922  38  hospitals,  50  clinioa,  and 
124  orphanages  were  maintained.  The  total  ex- 
penditure to  July,  1924,  was  about  $78,000,000. 
Invaluable  service  was  rendered  at  the  destruc- 
tion of  Smyrna,  where  assistance  was  given  to 
the  thousands  of  refugees  escaping  to  Greece 
and  elsewhere.  In  1923  the  Near  East  Relief 
concentrated  its  activities  on  a  child-welfare 
programme.  During  the  year,  on  account  of  the 
forced  evacuation  of  minority  populations  at 
Anatolia,  emergency  work  for  adult  refugees 
was  carried  on  at  Mediterranean  and  Black 
Sea  ports.  This  included  feeding  and  medical 
service  and  resulted  in  the  saving  of  at  least 
100,000  lives,  chiefly  of  women  and  children. 
Over  22,000  orphans  were  safely  transferred 
from  the  interior  of  Anatolia  to  new  institu- 
tional homes  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Greece. 

In  1924,  the  organization  was  operating  39 
orphanage  centres  and  62  hospitals  and  clinics 
in  six  countries.  Its  agricultural  demonstra- 
tion projects  in  Syria,  Greece,  and  Armenia  em- 
ployed 23,000  acres.  Industrial  training  schools 
in  Syria,  Greece,  and  Palestine  were  teaching 
33  trades  to  30,000  children. 

NEBRASKA.  Nebraska  is  the  fifteenth 
State  in  size  (77,520  square  miles)  and  the 
thirty-first  in  population;  capital,  Lincoln. 
The  population  increased  from  1,192,214  in 
1910  to  1,296,372  in  1920,  a  gain  of  8.7  per  cent 
The  white  population  rose  from  1,180,293  to  1,- 
279,219;  negro,  from  7689  to  13.242.  The  State 
lias  a  very  large  proportion  of  native  white  in- 
habitants,' and  these  increased  from  1,004,428  in 
1910  to  1,129,307  in  1920.  The  foreign-born 
whites,  on  the  other  hand,  decreased  from  175,- 
863  to  149,652.  Both  urban  and  rural  popula- 
tions showed  an  increase,  the  former  from  310,- 
852  to  405,306,  and  the  lattei  from  881,362  to 
891,066.  Ihe  growth  of  the  principal  cities 
was  as  follows.  Omaha  (q.v.).  1910,  124,096; 
1920,  191,601;  Lincoln,  43,973  to  54,948;  Grand 
Island,  10,326  to  13,947. 

Agriculture.  As  Nebraska  is  one  of  the 
great  agiicultural  States,  conditions  in  the 
decade  1910-20  reflected  the  fluctuations  in 
prices  and  production  which  resulted  from  War 
and  post-war  conditions.  (See  AGKICULTURE.  ) 
While  the  population  of  the  State  in  the  decade 
increased  8.7  per  cent,  the  number  of  farms 
decreased  4.1  per  cent  (from  129,678  in  1910  to 
124,417  in  1920).  The  acreage  in  farms  in 
1910  was  38,622,021,  compared  with  42,225,475 
in  1920,  an  increase  of  9.3  per  cent;  the  im- 
proved land  in  farms  likewise  showed  an  in- 
crease from  24,382,577  acres  to  23,109,624,  or 
5.2  per  cent.  The  percentage  of  land  used  for 
agricultural  purposes  increased  from  78.6  in 
1910  to  85.9  in  1920,  but  the  percentage  of  im- 
proved farm  land  fell  from  63.1  to  54.7  per 
cent.  The  total  value  of  farm  property  showed 
an  apparent  increase  from  $2,079,818,647  to 
$4,201,655,992,  or  102  per  cent;  the  average 
value  per  farm,  from  $16,038  to  $33,771,  or 
110.6  per  cent  In  interpreting  these  values 
and  indeed  all  comparative  values  in  the  dec- 
ade 1914-24,  the  inflation  of  the  currency  in 


I/nun    iuv.uuu    uiumicii,    mo    iu«ivr»*i.j    •«••    ~—~ —-    —  —          --  -          -,•,..  •    j   •     A      i_     j.    i          •    A 

orphanages  and  the  others  in  soup  kitchens  and  the  latter  part  of  that  period  is  to  be  taken  into 

clinics.    Conditions  were  intensified  by  the  fight-  consideration.    The  index  number  of  prices  Mid 

5m, in  the  Caucasus  and  western  Turkey  in  1921.  to   producers   of   farm   products   in   the   United 

Kto  theS of 192 Ti?  was  esSed  that  States  was  104  in  1910  and  216  in  1920.    Of 


KBBBASKA 


914 


NEBRASKA 


the  total  of  124,417  farms  in  1920,  69,672  were 
operated  by  owners,  1315  by  managers,  and  53,- 
430  by  tenants.  The  comparative  figures  for 
1010  were  79,250,  987,  and  49,441.  White 
farmers  numbered  124,033  in  1920  and  129,216 
in  1910,  the  native  white  farmers  increasing 
from  93,500  to  99,441,  while  foreign-born  far- 
mers decreased  from  35,707  to  24,592.  Of  the 
384  colored  farmers  in  1920,  260  were  Indians. 
Farms  free  from  mortgage  in  1920  numbered 
27,065,  compared  with  47,435  in  1910;  those 
under  mortgage,  35,191,  compared  with  30,839. 
The  number  of  dairy  cows  in  1920  was  516,716, 
compared  with  613,952  in  1910,  a  decrease  of 
15.8  per  cent;  "beef  cows,"  1,121,504,  com- 
pared with  705,191,  or  an  increase  of  59  per 
cent;  hogs,  3,435,690,  compared  with  3.435,724; 
sheep,  673,217,  compared  with  240,116  The  es- 
timated production  of  the  chief  farm  crops  in 
1923  was  as  follows-  corn,  257,418,000  bushels; 
spring  wheat,  3,560,000;  winter  wheat,  28.220,- 
000;  oats,  86,977,000;  rye,  1,584,000;  barley, 
9,586,000;  potatoes,  9,912,000;  hay,  3,352,000 
tons;  and  sugar  beets,  541,000  short  tons  Com- 
parative figures  for  1913  are:  corn,  114,150,000 
Imshels;  wheat.  62,325,000;  oats,  59,625,000; 
rye,  1,740,000;  barley,  1,760,000;  potatoes,  5,- 
(»(64,000;  and  hay,  1,075,000  tons.  The  apple 
crop  in  1919  was  907,224  bushels  valued  at 
$1,905,175,  as  compared  with  3,321,073  bushels 
valued  at  $1,612,765  in  1909. 

Manufactures.  Nebraska  is  not  one  of  the 
leading  manufacturing  States  It  has,  how- 
ever, five  cities  with  more  than  10,000  inhabi- 
tants, which  in  1920  contained  21.8  per  cent  of 
the  State's  total  population  and  in  1919  report- 
ed 81.7  per  cent  of  the  State's  manufactured 
products.  There  were  in  the  State,  in  1909, 
2.100  manufacturing  establishments ;  in  1914, 
2492;  and  in  1919,  2884.  Persons  engaged  in 
manufacture  numbered  31,966,  33,695,  and  49,- 
076;  and  the  capital  invested  amounted  to 
$09,901,080,  $121,007,944,  and  $245,256,684,  in 
those  years.  The  value  of  the  products  in  1909 
was  $199,018,579;  in  1914  $221,615,848;  and 
in  1919,  $590,042.498.  The  large  increase  in 
value  of  the  products  between  1914  and  1919 
was  due  largely  to  the  change  in  industrial  con- 
ditions brought  about  by  the  War  and  cannot 
properly  be  used  to  indicate  the  growth  in  man- 
ufactures; but  the  increase  in  number  of  wage 
earners  and  in  number  of  establishments  in- 
dicates clearly  a  decided  growth  in  the  manufac- 
turing activities  of  the  State.  The  principal 
manufacturing  city  is  Omaha,  which  had,  in 
1009,  432  manufacturing  establishments,  with  a 
product  valued  at  $60,855,000;  1914,  417,  with 
$06,438,000;  and  in  1919,  561  with  $452,237,000. 
Lincoln  is  also  important  industrially,  having, 
in  1909,  167  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  a  product  valued  at  $7,010,000;  in  1914, 
105  with  $10,025,000;  and  in  1919,  210  with 
$23,368,000. 

Education.  The  passage  of  several  legisla- 
tive acts  during  the  decade  1914-24  did  much  to 
improve  educational  conditions  in  Nebraska. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  period.  The  Legislature  of  1919  passed  a 
certification  law  standardizing  the  issue  of 
teachers'  certifications  by  establishing  specific 
legal  requirements;  a  law  redistricting  the 
State  for  the  purpose  of  forming  consolidated 
school  districts;  and  a  third  making  citizenship 
a  necessary  requirement  for  teachers  in  all  pub- 
lic,  private,  denominational,  and  parochial 


schools.  The  Legislature  of  1921  made  it  man- 
datory for  every  school  district  of  the  State  to 
provide  a  minimum  term  of  9  months  when 
it  can  be  supported  on  a  levy  of  $.008  on  $1 
of  the  actual  assessed  valuation  of  the  school 
district.  The  four  State  normal  schools  were 
designated  as  teachers'  colleges  by  the  1921 
Legislature  and  were  authorized  to  confer  the 
bachelor's  degree  on  students  completing  the 
four  years'  college  course.  Midland  College 
changed  its  location  from  Atchison,  Kan.,  to 
Fremont,  Neb.,  and  Bellevue  College,  formerly 
at  Bellevue,  Neb.,  was  discontinued.  The  aver- 
age daily  attendance  in  the  schools  in  1923  was 
253,055,  compared  with  214,152  in  1914.  The 
total  expenditure  for  public  schools  for  1923  was 
$29,936,549.  Illiteracy  in  the  State  decreased 
from  2.5  per  cent  in  1910  to  1.8  per  cent  in 
1920:  among  the  native  white  population,  from 
0.8  to  0.5;  among  the  foreign-born  white,  from 
7.1  to  6.6;  and  among  the  negro,  from  8.5  to 
5.7. 

Finance.    For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  During  the 
decade  1914-24,  Nebraska  was  one  of  the  doubt- 
ful States,  and  control  was  balanced  closely  be- 
tween the  Democratic  and  Republican  parties. 
In  1914  John  H.  Morehead,  the  Democratic  can- 
didate, was  elected  governor,  and  the  Democrats 
elected  their  candidates  for  Congress  in  three 
districts  and  the  Republicans  theirs  in  the 
others.  A  woman  suffrage  amendment  was  de- 
feated in  this  election,  and  so  were  several  othei 
proposed  amendments.  In  101(5  the  State  was 
Democratic,  both  nationally  and  locally.  Keith 
Neville,  Democratic  candidate,  was  elected  gov- 
ernor, and  (Gilbert  M.  Hitchcock  was  reflected 
to  the  Senate.  In  the  voting  for  President  in 
this  year,  President  Wilson  received  158,827 
votes;  Charles  E.  Hughes,  117,771.  At  this  elec- 
tion a  prohibition  amendment  was  cariied  At 
State  elections  in  1918,  the  Republican  nom- 
inees were  elected  to  the  Legislature  by  large 
majorities.  Samuel  R  McKelvie  was  elected 
governor.  An  amendment  to  the  constitution 
was  adopted,  depriving  so-called  "first  paper 
declarants,"  six  months  resident  in  the  State, 
of  the  right  to  vote.  The  voters  also  decided 
in  favor  of  holding  a  convention  to  draft  and 
submit  a  new  State  constitution.  In  October, 
1919,  there  was  serious  rioting  in  Douglas 
County  during  which  the  county  court  house 
was  damaged  by  fire,  with  a  loss  of  nearlv  $1.- 
200,000.  The  trouble  arose  from  the  attempts 
of  the  mob  to  force  the  sheriff  to  turn  over  to 
them  a  negro  prisoner.  The  negro  was  scixed 
by  the  mob  and  hanged.  In  1920  Governor 
McKelvie  was  reflected.  In  the  voting  for  presi- 
dent in  this  year,  Warren  G.  Harding  received 
247,498  votes;  James  M.  Cox,  119,608.  Dur- 
ing  1920  a  constitutional  convention  adopted 
41  amendments  to  the  constitution  which  were 
voted  on  in  a  special  election  on  September  22. 
The  most  important  of  these  amendments  were 
as  follows:  The  English  language  was  re- 
quired as  a  teaching  medium  in  all  common 
schools.  The  governor  was  given  the  power  to 
appoint  heads  of  the  executive  department,  with 
the  consent  of  the  majority  of  both  houses.  A 
budget  system  was  created.  The  concurrence 
of  five  out  of  seven  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court 
was  made  necessary  for  declaring  a  law  uncon- 
stitutional. No  appropriations  are  made  to 
educational  institutions  not  owned  and  con- 
trolled by  the  State.  In  the  elections  of  1922, 


NEBRASKA 


the  Democrats  were  successful.  Charles 
Bryan,  brother  of  William  J.  Bryan,  was  elected 
governor.  Robert  B.  Howell,  Republican  candi- 
date, was  elected  United  States  Senator,  defeat- 
ing Gilbert  M.  Hitchcock,  Democrat.  The  Re- 
publicans elected  a  majority  in  both  houses  of 
the  Legislature.  Governor  Bryan  was  inaugu- 
rated in  January,  1923.  In  the  nominating 
primaries  in  1924,  Senator  Norri«,  Republican, 
was  ronominated.  Charles  W.  Bryan  was  re- 
nominated  by  the  Democrats  for  governor  and 
Adam  McMullen  by  the  Republicans. 

Legislation.  The  mo«4t  important  acts  of  the 
Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted  be- 
low. The  Legislature  of  1917  arranged  for  the 
submission  of  an  amendment  providing  for  a 
revision  of  the  State  constitution.  The  right  of 
women  to  vote  was  affirmed  for  all  elections 
not  already  specified  in  the  State  constitution. 
Provision  was  made  for  the  election  of  the 
judiciary  and  certain  school  officers  by  non- 
partisan  ballots.  A  special  session  of  the  Legis- 
lature was  held  in  1918  to  deal  with  issues 
arising  from  the  War.  The  so-called  Mockett 
Law,  under  which  the  teaching  of  German  was 
made  compulsory  in  the  schools,  was  repealed. 
The  Legislature  in  19J9  passed  a  measure  con- 
solidating several  boards  and  commissions  un- 
der the  governor,  with  the  purpose  of  unifying 
the  administration  and  doing  away  with  dupli- 
cations and  overlapping  jurisdiction.  The  bank- 
ing laws  were  amended  and  so  were  the  "blue 
sky"  law  and  the  workmen's  compensation  law 
A  bill  was  passed  for  the  erection  of  a  new 
State  capitol.  The  Legislature  ratified  the 
Federal  prohibition  amendment,  Jan.  16,  1919, 
and  the  Federal  woman  suffrage  amendment, 
Aug  2,  1919.  The  Legislature  of  1921  passed 
measures  designed  to  prohibit  aliens'  acquiring 
title  to  land  in  the  State;  provided  for  the 
preparation  and  presentation  of  a  State  budget 
and  for  the  establishment  of  cooperative  as- 
sociations; and  declared  English  the  official 
language  of  the  State,  prohibiting  discrimina- 
tion against  its  use  by  religious  and  social 
bodies.  The  school  age  'was  raised  from  14  to 
10  years  under  certain  conditions  and  the  age 
of  minority  for  women  to  21  years.  A  special 
session  of  the  Legislature  was  held  in  April, 

1922,  to  reduce  the  appropriations  made  by  the 
Legislature  of   1921,   in  order  to  avoid  the  ex- 
cessive collection   of   taxes.     The   total   amount 
of   reductions   made   was   about  $2,500,000.     In 
1923  the  Legislature   passed  a  measure  forbid- 
ding the  marriage  of  persons  afflicted  with  cer- 
tain diseases. 

NEBBASKA,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A  coeduca- 
tional State  institution  at  Lincoln,  Neb , 
founded  in  1869.  With  the  exception  of  the 
war  years  the  student  enrollment  increased 
steadily  from  4133  in  1914  to  5051  in  the  year 
1923-24,  with  2569  in  the  summer  session  of 

1923,  not    including    students   of    noncollegiate 
rank  and  those  enrolled  in   extension  courses. 
The  faculty  increased  correspondingly  during  the 
period    from    283    to    368    members,    and    the 
library  from  111,000  to  175,000  volumes.    The 
income  of  the  university  rose  from  $1,000,000 
to  approximately  $3,000,000.    Many  new  build- 
ings were  put  up.    An  animal  pathology  labora- 
tory was  built  in  1918  and  a  special  State  ap- 
propriation made  available  for  research  in  ani- 
mal diseases.    During   1919   and   1920  the  fol- 
lowing buildings  were  erected  or  acquired:   on 
the  city  campus,  Social  Sciences  Hall,  Tcach- 


9x5  NE0BO  MIGRATION 

W.  era'  College  building,  Ellen  Smith  Hall,  the 
chancellor's  residence,  seven  students'  houses; 
on  the  farm  campus,  an  agricultural  engineer- 
ing building  and  an  animal  pathology  and  hy- 
giene building  and  a  barn;  at  the  Medical 
College  at  Omaha,  a  new  laboratory  building, 
nurses'  home,  and  a  steam  plant.  A  photo- 
graphic studio  was  also  added  in  1921  and  in 
1923  a  beef  cattle  barn  and  a  new  stadium  for 
athletics  and  public  exercises.  Chancellor,  Sam- 
uel Avery. 

NEBULJE.    See  ASTRONOMY. 

NEGRI  SEMBILAN.  See  MALAY  STATES, 
FEDERATED. 

NEGRO  IN  AMERICA.  See  NEGRO  MI- 
GRATION: UNITED  STATES,  Population;  LYNCII- 
ixas;  and  RACE  PROBLEMS  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATFfl 

NEGRO  MIGRATION.  Following  1910,  the 
northward  movement  of  the  southern  negro, 
which  had  been  fairly  constant  from  tlie  close 
of  the  Civil  War,  showed  a  remarkable  increase. 
Previous  to  that  year  negroes  in  the  North  had 
been  entirely  excluded  from  most  occupations; 
about  three-fourths  of  the  colored  workers  were 
employed  in  domestic  personal  service;  they 
commanded  only  poor  wages  and  were  largely 
shut  off  from  the  benefits  of  labor  organization. 
With  war-time  conditions  came  a  marked  broad- 
ening of  their  industrial  opportunities.  On  ac- 
rount  of  the  lal>or  shortage  produced  by  the 
check  to  European  immigration  and  the  expan- 
sion of  industry  to  meet  war-time  demands, 
northern  employers  found  themselves  compelled 
to  take  on  negro  labor  This  was,  lx»yond 
question,  the  immediate  cause  of  the  conspicu- 
ous growth  in  the  migration  northward.  At 
the  same  time  unrest  among  negroes  in  the 
.South  and  other  influences  contributed  to  this 
movement.  In  1918  the  total  northward  mi- 
gration for  the  preceding  few  years  was  placed 
between  500,000  and  600,000.'  This  wholesale 
movement  was  checked  for  a  time  after  the 
War  oame  to  an  end,  although  many  negroes 
insisted  on  coming  North  even  when  they  were 
warned  that  only  unemployment  awaited  them 
Tt  began  again  in  1921  and  increased  through 
1922  and  1923.  In  addition  to  his  war-time 
experience,  the  negro  had  been  used  to  a  limited 
extent  as  strike-breaker  in  the  steel,  building 
trades,  railroad  shop,  and  packing  house  strikes, 
where  he  had  an  opportunity  to  prove  and  to 
learn  his  value  in  industry.  Whereas  in  the 
South  57.7  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  mule 
negro  workers  were  employed  in  agriculture, 
only  5.7  were  so  engaged  in  the  North  in  1920. 
Moreover,  instead  of  working  in  hotels,  restau- 
rants, office  buildings,  and  domestic  kitchens, 
most  of  them  had  become  industrial  laborers 
in  mills,  factories,  and  stockyards.  Tn  Chicago 
the  negro  was  represented  by  large  or  small 
numbers  in  practically  all  the  principal  occupa- 
tions. In  some  cases  they  had  risen  to  fore- 
manship  over  men  of  their  own  race.  Negro 
women,  to  a  less  extent,  were  being  employed 
in  a  widening  variety  of  industrial  processes. 
Although  in  general  negroes  were  not  admitted 
to  unions  and  were  employed  at  lower  rates 
than  white  workers,  in  some  cases  they  were 
asking  equal  pay  for  equal  work  and  were  join- 
ing trade  unions  where  these  were  open  to 
them.  More  than  all  this,  perhaps,  the  negro 
was  finding  in  the  North  a  freer  social  and 
political  life  with  increased  educational  ad- 
vantages. 


NBGBO  MIGRATION 


916 


This  increased  northward  migration  continu- 
ing, the  farm  labor  situation  in  the  South  be- 
came alarming  by  the  spring  of  1023.  A  tempo- 
rary reduction  in  the  crop  acreage  was  found 
necessary.  The  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  on  investigation,  found  that  Geor- 
gia had  lost,  within  a  year,  32,000  negro  farm 
workers,  or  13  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of 
negro  farm  workers  in  that  State;  Alabama 
had  lost  10,000  or  3%  per  cent;  South  Caro- 
lina, 22,700,  or  3  per  cent;  Arkansas,  15,000, 
or  3%  per  cent;  Florida,  2,  and  Louisiana,  1 
per  cent;  besides  the  negro  workers  who  had 
been  lost  to  mining,  lumbering,  manufacturing, 
and  domestic  service.  According  to  a  study  of 
the  census  figures,  made  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  the  Census,  the  net  direct  loss  to  the 
South  through  negro  migration  up  to  the  year 
1920  had  been  733,571,  or  approximately  82 
per  cent  of  its  total  negro  population.  The 
first  measure  taken  in  the  South  to  check  the 
movement  was  rigorous  legislation  to  control 
emigrant  labor  agencies;  payment  of  a  license 
fee  was  required,  in  some  cases  as  high  as 
$2500,  with  jail  sentences  for  evasion.  The 
attempt  was  ineffectual.  Higher  wages  on  farms 
and  in  factories  were  offered,  improvements  were 
made  in  school  and  housing  conditions,  and 
efforts  were  put  forth  toward  securing  for  the 
negro  equality  before  the  law  and  an  abate- 
ment of  mob  violence,  and  for  some  measure  of 
social  cooperation  between  the  races.  All  of 
this  resulted  in  a  betterment  of  conditions  for 
the  negro  who  remained,  but  the  marked  move- 
ment to  the  North  continued.  The  number 
leaving  the  South  in  the  year  ending  Sept.  1, 
1923,  according  to  the  Department  of  Labor, 
was  478,100;  the  loss  by  States  was  as  fol- 
lows: Georgia,  120,000;  Alabama,  00,000; 
Florida,  90,000;  Mississippi,  82,600;  North 
Carolina,  25,000;  South  Carolina,  25,000; 
Louisiana,  15,000;  Tennessee,  10,000;  Virginia, 
10,000;  Arkansas,  5000;  Kentucky,  2500;  Texas, 
2000;  and  Oklahoma,  1000.  To  a  much  larger 
extent  than  ever  before,  the  migration  came 
from  the  far  South.  Latterly  an  increasing 
number  of  Mexicans  were  being  brought  in  to 
meet  the  farm  labor  shortage. 

The  effect  of  this  migration  on  the  population 
of  the  North  was  conspicuous  in  the  census 
figures.  From  1870  to  1910,  the  average  decen- 
nial increase  of  southern  negroes  in  the  North 
was  67,000;  in  1910-20  the  increase  was  321,- 
890,  or  more  than  the  aggregate  increase  of  the 
preceding  40  years.  In  1910  the  negroes  had 
constituted  about  1.9  per  cent  of  the  total  popu- 
lation of  the  North,  at  which  point  it  had  been 
fairly  constant  since  1870;  in  1920,  their  pro- 
portion had  increased  to  2.3  per  cent.  This  in- 
crease, however,  though  striking,  was  not  enough 
in  itself  to  make  the  negro  a  disturbing  factor 
in  the  North.  Where  trouble  arose  it  was  from 
the  unequal  distribution  of  the  negro  popula- 
tion. Nine  States,  holding  72.7  per  cent  of  the 
total  population  of  the  North,  accounted  for 
91.4  per  cent  of  the  total  negro  population  of 
that  territory  (Pennsylvania,  284,568;  New 
York,  198,483;  Ohio,  186,187;  Illinois,  182,- 
724;  Missouri,  178,241;  New  Jersey,  117,132; 
Indiana,  80,810;  Michigan,  60,082;  Kansas, 
57,025).  Most  serious  was  the  concentration  in 
the  large  cities;  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Phila- 
delphia, for  example,  contained  26.9  per  cent  of 
the  northern  negroes,  as  compared  with  15.9  per 
cent  of  the  total  population.  The  influx  of 


negroes  to  the  larger  cities  appeared  to  be  tak- 
ing on  flood  proportions.  In  protest  against 
the  employment  conditions  resulting  from  the 
movement,  East  St.  Louis  rioted  in  1917.  Se- 
rious race  riots  broke  out  in  Chicago,  in  1919, 
in  which  there  were  killings  on  both  sides. 
There  were  disturbances  in  Omaha  and  Wash- 
ington. These  outbursts  of  race  feeling  were 
precipitated  largely,  it  was  claimed,  by  sensa- 
tional newspaper  publicity,  and  in  Chicago  in 
particular  by  the  difficulties  of  insufficient  hous- 
ing. It  being  realized,  however,  that  lack  of 
understanding  and  cooperation  between  the  races 
was  the  crux  of  the  situation,  and  that  this  was 
only  being  aggravated  by  political  as  well  as 
social  segregation,  there  was  appointed  in  1918, 
under  the  Federal  Department  of  Labor,  a  di- 
rector of  negro  economics,  to  ease  the  friction. 
Negro  advisory  committees,  composed  of  repre- 
sentative white  and  colored  citizens,  were  es- 
tablished throughout  the  South  and  in  various 
northern  centres,  constituting  agencies  in  which 
the  two  elements  might  work  together  toward 
a  mutual  understanding.  In  industry,  the  ne- 
gro immigration  was  in  a  limited  measure  tak- 
ing the  place  of  the  foreign-born  as  a  source 
of  labor  supply  for  shops  and  factories.  There 
had  been  fewer  cases  of  open  hostility  between 
white  and  colored  labor  than  had  been  antici- 
pated; requests  for  separate  facilities  had  not 
been  frequent  The  American  Federation  of 
Labor  made  an  effort  to  prevent  the  drawing  of 
the  color  line  in  the  unions;  and  when  several 
international  and  local  unions  refused  to  accept 
this  principle,  it  provided  in  1920  that  where 
internationals  refused  to  admit  colored  workers 
to  membership,  organization  would  be  author- 
ized under  a  charter  of  the  PVderation.  The 
Federation  also  sent  an  organizer  to  work  among 
the  negroes  in  the  South.  The  attitude  of  the 
white  worker  in  general  seemed  to  be  that 
while  he  was  averse  to  the  negro  in  industry, 
still,  since  the  negro  had  come,  it  was  better 
to  have  him  organized.  It  was  noteworthy  that 
during  the  Chicago  riots,  the  organized  white 
workers  in  the  packing  houses  guaranteed  that 
there  would  be  no  trouble  between  them  and 
the  negro  workers.  See  LYNCIIINGS. 

NEIHARDT,  JOHN  GNEISENAU  (1881-  ). 
An  American  writer,  born  at  Sharpsburg,  111. 
lie  studied  at  the  Nebraska  Normal  School  and 
from  1901  to  1907  lived  among  the  Omaha  In- 
dians to  study  their  character  and  history.  His 
books  include  The  Divine  Enchantment  (1900)  ; 
The  Lonesome  Trail  (1907);  The  Dawn  Build- 
er (1911);  The  Quest,  poems  (1916);  The 
Song  of  Three  Friend*  (1919);  and  Two 
Mothers,  a  drama  (1921).  The  Song  of  Three 
Friends  was  awarded  a  prize  by  the  Poetry 
Society  of  America  as  the  best  volume  of  verse 
of  1919.  He  edited  several  collections  of  verse 
and  contributed  frequently  to  magazines.  From 
1912  he  was  literary  critic  of  the  Minneapolis 
Journal. 

NEJD,  EMIRATE  OF.    See  ARABIA.. 

NELSON,  KNUTR  (1845-1923).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  legislator  (see  VOL.  XVI).  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Senate  for  five  successive 
terms  and  was  reflected  for  the  term  ending 
1925.  At  the  time  of  his  death,  on  Apr.  28, 
1923,  he  was  the  oldest  member  of  that  body 
in  point  of  service.  He  died  on  Apr.  28,  1923. 

NEO-LAMABCKIAN   THEOEY.    See   HE* 

REDITT. 

Ideas     of     the     nature     of 


NBBNST  LAW 


Bright'e  disease  underwent  much  change  in  the 
decade  1914-24.  Thus  it  was  pretty  well  shown 
through  experiment  that  nephritis  does  not 
represent  a  poisoning  through  the  exposure  of 
the  organs  in  eliminating  toxic  material.  This 
kind  of  injury,  which  may  be  studied  in  actual 
poisoning  by  mercury  and  oxalic  acid,  bears  no 
resemblance  to  ordinary  nephritis.  The  latter 
may  usually  be  traced  to  a  focus  of  infection 
somewhere  *in  the  body,  as  in  the  teeth  or  ton- 
sils, while  the  organs  are  also  attacked  by  the 
germs  and  their  toxic  products  in  various  gen- 
eral infections.  No  doubt  dietetic  and  other 
abuses  may  lower  the  resistance  of  the  organs 
to  infection.  Passage  of  the  prohibition  amend- 
ment in  the  United  States  had  not  secured 
any  lowering  of  the  mortality  of  Bright's  dis- 
ease up  to  1924,  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  chronic  disease  of  vital  organs  late  in  life 
is  common  among  the  clergy  as  well  as  in  other 
abstinent  classes  of  mnnknid. 

The  old  distinction  between  medical  and  surgi- 
cal nephritis  is  no  longer  upheld,  for  a  uni- 
lateral nephritis,  once  thought  to  be  the  neces- 
sary result  of  mischief  lower  down  in  the  urin- 
ary tract,  may  be  found  due  to  a  blood  infection. 
There  seems  to  be  very  liltlo  difference  between 
the  causal  factors  in  nephritis  proper  and  those 
of  disease  of  the  kidney  and  the  pelvis,  peri- 
nephritis,  and  even  stone  jn  the  kidney;  for 
focal  infection  may  be  tiaced  in  all  of  them. 
Under  diagnosis  the  practice  of  microchemical 
analysis  of  the  blood  will  give  the  best  idea  of 
the  functional  efficiency  of  diseased  kidneys. 
Convulsions  seen  in  urirmia  aie  no  longer  re- 
garded as  the  result  of  retained  toxic  material 
in  the  blood  but  as  that  of  increase  in  intra- 
cranial  pressure.  Kor  the  iclief  of  nephritis 
wonders  may  be  accomplished  by  proper  diet, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  disappearance  of  dropsy 
on  a  diet  very  poor  in  salt 

NEKNST  DISTRIBUTION  LAW.  Sec 
CHEMISTRY,  PJIYSICAI  . 

NERNST  HEAT  THEOREM.  See  CHEM- 
ISTRY, PHYSICAL. 

NETHERLANDS,  THE,  or  HOLLAND.  A 
kingdom  situated  on  the  North  Sea,  lying  be- 
tween the  Kingdom  of  Belgium  on  the  south  and 
west  and  CJormany  on  the  east.  Its  area  is 
13,205  square  miles,  of  which  617  consist  of 
water.  The  population  in  1923  was  7,086,913 
(49.64  per  cent  male  and  5036  per  cent  female), 
an  increase  of  109,483  over  the  census  of  1921 
and  221,599  over  that  of  1920.  The  density  of 
population  per  square  mile  amounted  to  (152.99 
The  urban  population  constituted  45.66  per 
cent  of  the  whole,  and  the  rural  54.34  per  cent. 
Emigrants  in  1922  amounted  to  2158,  of  whom 
1912  departed  from  Dutch  ports  for  North 
America,  J95  for  South  America,  and  47  for 
Africa.  The  royal  family  and  most  of  the  in- 
habitants were  members  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  which  was  under  Presbyterian  govern- 
ment, but  complete  liberty  of  conscience  was 
granted  to  all  religions.  At  the  end  of  1920, 
there  were  2,826,633  adherents  of  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church;  other  Protestants  numbered 
832,164;  Catholics,  2,444,583;  Jansenists,  10,- 
461;  Jews,  115,222;  other  known  creeds,  635,- 
241.  The  chief  cities  with  their  population  in 
1923  were:  Amsterdam,  700,303;  Rotter- 
dam, 535,033;  The  Hague,  367,667;  Utrecht, 
146,976;  Groningen,  94,217;  and  Haarlem, 
80,383. 

Agriculture.    The  total  area  of  agricultural 


917 


NETHERLANDS 


land  (in  hectares;  1  hectare  =  2.47  acres),  in 
1922  was  2,229,413  (in  1913,  2,180,591);  arable 
land,  902,266  (27.61  per  cent;  882,255  hectares 
m  1913);  meadows,  1,231,052  (37.67  per  cent; 
1,221,876  in  1913)  ;  gardens  and  orchards,  96,- 
095  (2.94  per  cent;  81,460  in  1913);  forests, 
248,208  (7.6  per  cent;  257,939  in  1913);  un- 
cultivated land,  466,066  (14.26  per  cent;  515,- 
143  in  1913).  F 


PRINCIPAL  CROPS,   1922 

(I  bushel  =  .35238  hectoliter) 

Hectares  Hectoliters  Hectoliters 


GRAINS 

Oats     . 
Rye    . 
Wheat 
Barley 


1922 


159,441 

202  1GS 

60,551 

24,899 


1922 

6,279.000 
0,040.000 
2,171,000 
1.10H.OOO 


1915 

7,292,000 
5,679,000 
2,498,000 
1,191,000 


MISCELLANEOUS 

Potatoes     .       .    .      192,884   57,204,000  44,663,000 
Sugar      (beet) 

(metric  tons)    . 

.    55  956 

1,818,000 

1,714,000 

Peas    

32  222 

914,000 

641,000 

Beans         

21,315 
9,694 

65l',000 
88,000 

430^000 
101,000 

Flax  seed 

Canary   seed 

1,084 

33,000 

22,000 

Live  stock  and  poultry  (1921  and  1910): 
horses,  363,608  and  327,377;  cattle,  2,062,771 
and  2,026,!>43;  sheep,  068,211  arid  889,036;  pigs, 
1,519,245  and  1,259,844;  chickens,  9,660,800 
and  0,709,593. 

Imports  and  Exports  of  Foodstuffs.  Im- 
ports of  grain  for  1923  totaled  1,783,397  metric 
tons,  of  which  637,803  came  from  the  United 
States,  as  compared  with  1,710,419  of  which 
1,012,850  came  from  the  United  States  in  1922; 
imports  of  flour  were  ] 40,299  metric  tons,  of 
which  126,7S 7  came  from  the  United  States,  as 
against  103,025  of  which  84,325  came  from  the 
United  States  in  1922.  The  export  of  dairy 
products  amounted  to  198,110  metric  tons  in 
1923,  as  against  181,916  in  1922;  this  was  des- 
tined chieily  for  Great  Britain  Exports  of 
loaf  sugar  amounted  to  210,703  metric  tons  as 


PRODUCTION  STATISTICS,   1921 


Factories                    Number 

Cocoa   and   chocolate                       50 
Cocoa     Powder     .                            43 

Production 
(in  guilders) 
55.842.K69 
12,710,198  kg. 
6  232  354    " 

Shoe     .       .           349 
Soft   soap    .    .                      .40 
Hard   and    liquid    soap                   37 
Soap   powder      29 
Potato   flour,    dextrine   glucose, 
and    syrup    .      .                         40 
Electrical  machinery  and  appli- 
ances    .       .                                   36 
Metal  ware   .                 .  .             .35 
Bolt,   nuts,  rivet  and  screw      .    19 
Tin    ware    .    .           .  .                     H 
Metal,  smelting  and  bottle  cap       18 

40,79fi.088 
35,245,761  kg. 
H,  570,  282     " 
15,231,901     " 

27,503,297 

12,858,020 
11,301,873 
10,123,558 
7,387,607 
7  285,334 

PRODUCTION  STATISTICS,   1920 


Factories 


Number 


Flour     31 

Tile 107 

Brick     408 

Breweries          232 

Lime  and  sandstone 16 

Motor         61 

Tee     37 

Malt          8 


Production 

(in  guilders) 

192,541,666 

56,653,014 

46,725,396 

35,926,210 

3,552,786 

8,085,044 

1,640,717 

1,195,921 


ft  JBT  H  HiUL  A  KD8 


918 


JNJOTAA 


ELANDS 


against  197,615  in  1922;  this,  too,  was  exported 
principally  to  Great  Britain. 
Mining  and  Manufacturing.    Mining  was 
limited  in  the  Netherlands  to  coal  mining  in  the 
province  of  Limburg.    The  coal  production  was 
estimated    at    5,500,000   metric    tons    for    1923, 
against    4,570,000    for    1922    and    3,018,000    in 
1917.     In    1923    there    were    933    dairies.     The 
production  of  butter  in   1922  amounted  to  04,- 
633,000    kilograms,    and    of    cheese,    97,621,230 
kilograms.     The  beet  sugar  refineries  numbered 
21   in    1922,   while   the   total   sugar   production 
amounted   to   175,331   metric  tons  for   1922-23. 
In    1922   there   were  33   potato   flour   factories, 
18  cardboard  factories,  and   16  margarine   fac- 
tories.    The    latter    produced    87,902,720    kilo- 
grams of  margarine. 
Communications.    Length     of    railways     in 
1923  was  3671    kilometers;    in    1922,   3428;    in 
1910,  3215.     The  estimated  receipts  were  120.43 
florins  per  kilometer  for  1!)23,  as  against  130.87 
florins  for  1022,     In  1923  there  were  606  steam- 
ers   (2,398,618    gross   registered    tons),   against 
664  for  1922   (2,164,730  gross  registered  tons)  ; 
motor    and    motor    sailing    vessels,    80    (63,940 
gross  registered  tons),  against  73  for  1922  (51,- 
351  gross  registered  tons). 

in  1918.    Transit  trade  showed  8,767,840  metric 
tons  against  13,296,287  for  1922. 

PRINCIPAL  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS 

Article                Quantity                       Value 
(metric  tons)           (1000  guilders) 
1922            1923          1922         1923 

IMPORTS 

Coal     .6216044  6386716   102508   113786 

Wheat     541*299      '566*400     72*914     68*275 

Corn     879*506      710*114     78*256     67*115 

Lumber   (pine).  .1,045,710      994*871     68^058     66,'406 
Copran     173  655       147  545     48  796     46  878 

Cotton  yarn   32,740         25*.  726     50J29     46,*752 
Linseed     248,612      195  946     51  834     41  650 

Cotton,    raw    .  .  .       20,807         19*006     26*945     82*052 
Barley     143,918      283,751     15,259     25,088 

EXJ'OBTS 
Cotton  piece  goods      21,230        23,714     74,621     82,825 
Sugar,    loaf  197  615      210  7(>3     50  595     71  475 

Cheese    65  213         61*982     53'6I?6     54*226 

Margarine    ....         59  163         70  °77     86  246     49*620 

Coal         2  256*017  2  SBo'llQ     38*262      52*655 

Butter     .    .           .       23|l25      '  23>36     44*125     41*,330 
Milk,    conden&ed.       84,674        98,670     33,567     40,846 
Pork        .       .  .       .       28  524         33  557     °9  911      34  251 

Coconut   oil       .            83,215         (.5,817     36,303      31.607 
Flower   bulbs    .    .       U4.0S1         21,951      22,641      26,383 

TONNAGE  ENTERED  AND  CLEARED  AT  ROTTERDAM  AND 
AMSTERDAM  (1923) 
(In  cubic  meters) 
January- 
November, 
1922                  1923 
Total   Entries    44  099  955       40,669,545 

FOREIGN  TRADE  BY  COUNTRIES 

.             (in    1000  guilders) 
Countries              Imports  from            Exports  to 
1922        1923         1922         1923 
Germany    .      ...      608  437  494  868   167  775   186  790 

Great  Britain    .    .  .  .323*569  308/222   302*969   359*600 
United    States    .    .      270,799  256.017     61i,094     69,462 
Belgmna    .      ..           .187,966  215,260  174,176   139,328 
Dutch  East  Indies      102,373   114,184   127,382    110850 

Rotteidam         33,792,324       29,805,048 
Amsterdam            .  .    .                 8,509,459          8,817,824 
Total  Clearances   28,468,683        28,485,391 
Rotterdam    21,435,815        20,870,426 

Amsterdam     ...                 .   5,513,201         6,010,892 

RI\FR  SHIPPING   (1923) 
(In  1000  kilograms) 
January- 
November, 
1922                  1923 
Total    Entries             16,931,645        11,105,351 
Through    Lobith    10,361,740          5,193,879 
Total    Clearances    21972,497       16,061,245 
Through    Lobith    13,241,713          7,691,242 

Leading  imports  from   the  United  States  for 
1923    (in    1000    guilders)    were   wheat,   33,970; 
raw  cotton,  28,092;   corn,  22,157;   linseed  cake 
20,992;  wheat  flour,  20,992.     Leading  exports  to 
the  United  States  were  flower  bulbs,  9500;  rub- 
ber,  3885;   silk,   artificial  yarns,  3590;    quinine 
and    other    salts,    3018;    chincona    bark,    2392. 
Finance.     The     national     debt,     consolidated 
(Jan.  1,  1923),  was  2,828,319,550  guilders;  float- 
ing   (December,    1923),   648,856,000  guilders,  of 
which    102,256,000   were   advanced      to   the   col- 
onies,    against     (December,     1922)     805,937,000 
guilders,   of    which    323,750,000   were   advanced 
to  the  colonies. 

Idle  tonnage  at  the  end  of   1023   totaled  38 
ships    (221,000   gross    registered    tons)    against 
76    (317,000    gross   registered    tons)    for    1922 
The  movement  of  merchandise,  in  metric  tons, 
was  as  follows: 

NATIONAL  BUDGET,   1923  AND  1924 
(Estimated) 

(In  1000  guilders) 
Extraor- 
Year                           Ordinary    dinary     Crisis     Total 
Expenditure 
1923     620  397  183  999     3  829  808  225 

1922                  1923 
Total     38  345  769 

By  ocean    23  294  849 

Rotterdam  : 
Total     .      ..31,016,337       23,658,178 
By    ocean    18981585       15677725 

1924     646  892  112  634     6*737  765*264 

Revenue 
1923                 567  696     14  210                 581  907 

By  river  and  canal   .      .  .      12,034,'752          7,  '980*45  3 

Amsterdam  : 
Total                         5,354  990          5  111  925 

1924        548628     40*793     589*422 

Rv   nronn                                                   A  1  T)  72*7            A  Oin'oAQ 

By  river    1,234,263            881,682 

ACTUAL  RECEIPTS,   1922  AND  1928 

Commerce.  The  foreign  trade  in  1923 
totaled,  in  imports,  2,009,225,705  guilders, 
against  2,027,598,760  for  1922  and  608,357,000 
in  1918.  Exports  showed  1,303,220,602  guilders, 
against  1,221,231,211  for  1022  and  381,210,000 


(In  1000  guilders) 

Extraor- 
Revenufl  Ordinary    dinary     Crisis     Total 

1922     468,769132,13631,542682,447 

1928     428,866  106,781   13,566  549,218 

Decrease    89,908     25,355  17,976     88,284 


NETHERLANDS  g 

Tho  following  indicates  currency  in  circula- 
tion: 


Date 

Gold 

Silver 

Note 
Oreulutioii 

Dec    31, 
Dec    31, 
Feb.      4, 

1022 
1923 
1924 

.    .      581,790 
.  .    ..581.787 
.  .       .581713 

9,074 
8,674 
10,120 

969,251 
1,031,279 
1,030,419 

The  exchange  for  the  dollar  (par,  2.488 
guilders  to  $1)  was  in  December,  1922,  2.51;  in 
December,  1923,  2.03;  on  Feb.  2,  1924,  2.05. 
The  wage  index  (January,  1914  ~  100  for  five 
cities  and  14  classes  of  workers)  was  240.4  for 
July,  1923,  against  205.2  for  July,  1921,  and 
252.3  for  January,  1923  The  average  hourly 
wage  (first  half  of  1923  in  14  industries  of  Am- 
sterdam, in  Dutch  cents)  was:  skilled,  83,  semi- 
skilled, 70;  unskilled,  09.  Municipal  wages 
(1923)  were:  miners  (below  the  surface)  0.43 
florins  per  shift;  (above  the  surface)  4.33  florins 
per  shift;  gas  workers,  0.70  florin  per  hour; 
electrical  workers,  0.80  florin  per  hour;  metal 
workers,  0.02  florin  per  hour;  building  workers: 
masons,  1  09  florins  per  hour;  carpenter,  1.01 
florins  per  hour;  assistant  mason,  0.92  florin  per 
hour;  gun  workers,  0.75  florin  per  hour;  muni- 
tions and  explosive  workers,  0.08  florin  per 
hour;  construction  workers,  081  florin  per  hour. 
Collective  wage  agreements  numbered  498  for 
January-November,  1923,  against  500  for  1922 
Strikes  and  lockouts  were  257  for  January- 
November,  1923,  against  308  for  1922.  There 
were  3883  commercial  failures  for  January- 
November,  1923,  against  3403  for  1922.  Unem- 
ployed workers  numbered  102,225  on  Dec.  31, 
1923,  against  100,528  on  Dec.  31,1922,  princi- 
pally in  the  metal  and  building  trades;  a  total 
of  110,208  sought  unemployment  aid  on  Jan. 
20,  1924.  The  wholesale  price  index  (1013  — 
100  for  48  articles)  was  151  for  1923,  against 
100  for  1922  and  182  for  1921.  The  retail  price 
index  (1913=  100  for  17  articles  in  six  cities) 
was  145  for  1923,  against  157  for  1922  and  179 
for  1921. 

History.  The  political  history  of  the 
Netherlands  during  the  War  was  the  familiar 
tale  of  neutral  nations:  to  remain  aloof  from 
the  struggle  by  word  and  deed,  to  render  what 
aid  was  possible  to  the  unfortunate  victims  of 
the  War,  to  carry  on  the  usual  international 
relations  as  far  as  might  be,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  supply  the  daily  wants  of  the  population 
in  spite  of  the  sadly  disrupted  state  of  the 
world,  were  the  concerns  of  the  Dutch  in  the 
years  1914-18.  The  outbreak  of  the  War 
brought  the  whole  military  strength  of  Hol- 
land into  the  field.  By  Aug.  4,  1914,  200,000 
men  were  under  arms,  and  as  hostilities  pro- 
gressed and  the  work  of  policing  the  coasts  and 
the  frontiers  increased,  more  units  were  called 
up,  so  that  at  its  height  the  Dutch  army  totaled 
400,000  men.  The  expense,  necessarily,  was 
enormous  for  so  small  a  country.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1914,  a  loan  of  $100,000,000  had  to  be 
floated  to  meet  the  costs  of  the  establishment. 
In  all  a  debt  of  more  than  $750,000,000  was 
incurred  which  could  be  wholly  attributed  to 
the  War,  i.e.  for  the  upkeep  of  the  army  and 
navy,  the  care  of  refugees  arid  interned  soldiers, 
etc.  The  martial  character  of  the  country  be- 
came more  striking  year  by  year.  In  1915  all 
workmen  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  muni- 
tions were  placed  under  martial  law,  and  a 
check  was  put  on  their  goings  and  comings; 


9  NETHERLANDS 

later  in  the  year,  the  ever-present  threat  of 
invasion  prompted  the  government  to  declare  a 
state  of  siege  in  some  of  the  communes  of 
north  Holland  and  also  in  some  parts  of  Ara- 
Hterdam.  Not  until  the  Armistice  did  Holland 
dare  relax  her  vigilance,  and  then  the  threat 
of  mutiny  among  the  soldiers  hastened  de- 
mobilization sooner  than  the  government  might 
have  wished.  The  problem  of  the  returning  sol- 
diers, in  view  of  the  disorganization  of  indus- 
try and  the  dearth  of  housing,  contributed 
greatly  to  the  trials  of  the  state.  The  feeding 
of  the  population  and  the  providing  of  indus- 
try with  the  raw  material  necessary  for  its 
operation  were  perhaps  Holland's  most  press- 
ing problems.  Normal  activity  was  dependent 
on  keeping  the  regular  channels  of  trade  clear 
Having  become  a  country  of  truck  farmers  and 
cattle  breeders,  Holland  of  necessity  depended 
on  Germany  for  her  coal  and  iron  and  on  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States  for  her 
foodstuffs  and  textiles.  A  brisk  overseas  and 
land  trade  was  carried  on  with  all  these  as  well 
as  with  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Austria-Hun- 
gary. The  War  curtailed  "intercourse  on  land, 
except  with  Germany;  and  the  British  blockade 
and  the  German  submarine  policy  as  well  as 
American  seizure  of  Dutch  ships  in  1918  played 
havoc  with  the  Dutch  merchant  marine.  More 
and  more,  Holland  was  put  at  the  mercy  of 
belligerents,  and  only  the  conclusion  of  the  War 
checked  the  progress  of  the  famine  gripping  hei 
people.  Extraordinary  administrative  measures 
had  to  be  taken.  In  1914  and  1915  the  export 
of  cereals  and  flour,  cotton,  rice,  and  linseed  was 
prohibited.  In  1915  the  Netherlands  Overscan 
Trust  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  handling 
imports.  Before  Great  Britain  and  France 
would  give  their  consent  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  usual  trade  relations,  it  was  necessary  for 
the  Trust  to  give  assurances  that  the  articles 
imported  would  not  be  reshipped  to  Germany. 
In  1910  the  scarcity  of  flour  forced  the  pro- 
hibition of  the  baking  of  white  bread;  maximum 
prices  for  cereals  were  fixed.  The  dislocation 
of  trade  with  the  Dutch  East  Indies  compelled 
the  government  to  maintain  a  strict  surveillance 
oxer  the  distribution  of  foodstuffs  and  fodder 
What  little  prosperity  there  was  grew  out  of 
the  maintenance  of  relations  with  the  Central 
Powers;  Germany  and  Austria  took  Holland's 
vegetables  and  dairy  products,  and  Germany, 
in  turn,  sent  coal  and  iron. 

In  a  situation  of  such  complex  relations  the 
rise  of  irritations  and  misunderstandings  was 
inevitable.  Clashes  with  Germany  and  the  Al- 
lies were  frequent.  During  1915-17,  notes  were 
interchanged  frequently  with  Germany  over  the 
violation  of  Dutch  neutrality  by  the  landing  of 
airships,  the  stopping  of  merchant  vessels,  and 
the  mining  and  torpedoing  of  Dutch  ships;  in 
1918,  feeling  ran  high  over  the  British  and 
American  seizure  of  Dutch  ships.  And  yet,  in 
spite  of  vexations  of  this  character  and  personal 
distress  due  to  the  hardships  of  the  War,  the 
Dutch  worked  unsparingly  in  the  interests  of 
their  less  fortunate  neighbors.  The  invasion  of 
Belgium  sent  into  Holland  some  1,200,000  ref- 
ugees who  were  clothed  and  fed  for  varying 
lengths  of  time.  By  the  end  of  the  War  there 
were  still  about  30,000  such  refugees  partaking 
of  the  hospitality  of  the  Dutch.  Interned  sol- 
diers at  times  numbered  as  many  as  50,000, 
most  of  them  Belgians,  but  also  many  Russian 
and  German  deserters.  The  Dutch  Red  Cross 


9*0 


NEVADA 


did  yeoman  work  in  facilitating  the  exchange 
of  British  and  German  prisoners.  In  all  these 
humanitarian  activities  the  government  must 
have  expended  $25,000,000,  while  private  con- 
tributions easily  reached  a  similar  amount. 

These  preoccupations  did  not  check  civil  and 
political  developments  of  extraordinary  impor- 
tance.    By  the  electoral  reform  act  of  Dec.  12, 
1917,  universal   suffrage  and   proportional  rep- 
resentation   were    established.     Sex    disabilities 
of  women  were  likewise  removed.     In  1917,  by 
a    constitutional    amendment,    the    government 
was  ordered  to  provide  for  the  upkeep  of  de- 
nominational as  well  as  secular  schools.    As  a 
result  of  an   increasing  labor  agitation  during 
the   War,   a  series  of  enactments  was  promul- 
gated in  1919  which  aimed  at  better  social  and 
working  conditions.     By  these  laws,  the  eight- 
hour  day  was  assured 'in  factories  and  offices; 
workmen's    insurance   was    extended    to    all    in- 
dustries except  agriculture  and  navigation;  the 
general    supervision    of    health    activities    was 
turned  over  to  a  state  health  council;   a  coun- 
cil of  labor  was  erected  to  advise  generally  all 
administrative   departments   in   the   conduct   of 
labor   affairs.     But   the   inability   of   affairs   to 
mend,  in   spite  of  paternalistic   legislation,  in- 
creased the  insurgency  of  the  labor  classes.     In 
1918  and   1919,  under  the  leadership  of  Troel- 
stra,   the   Social    Democrats   pressed   for   a    po- 
litical    revolution,    some    even    demanding    the 
abdication  of  the  Queen.     Continued  hard  times 
brought  on  a  serious  dock  strike  during  Febru- 
ary-April,   1920,  and   such  outbreaks  were  fre- 
quent in  the  subsequent  years.    The  threat  of 
proletarian  control  forced  the  union  of  most  of 
the  elements  of  the  Right  with  the  result  that 
a  Catholic  government  was  constituted  in  1918, 
for    the    first    time,    under    Jonkheer    Ruys    de 
Beerenbrouck.     The    elections    of    1922    for    the 
second    chamber   returned   32   Catholics,    20    So- 
cial Democrats,  16  Antirevolutionists,  and  some 
others,  so  that  the  Beerenbrouck  ministry  con- 
tinued in  power  by  the  support  of  the  Right 
bloc. 

After  the  War  the  country  was  plunged  more 
deeply  into  the  stormy  sea  of  foreign  relations. 
On  Nov.  10,  1918,  the  Dutch  were  unpleasantly 
surprised  by  the  presence  of  the  former  Kaiser 
in  their  midst.  His  stay  at  A  moron  gen  was  un- 
molested, and  in  spite  of  demands  from  the 
Allies  for  his  extradition  in  1920,  the  Dutch 
government  refused  to  yield  him  up.  All  other 
questions  yielded  precedence  to  the  demand  of 
Belgium  for  the  revision  of  the  treaties  of  1839. 
Belgium,  in  effect,  desired  sovereignty  over  the 
western  Scheldt  as  well  as  tho  district  of  southern 
Limburg  on  the  east.  Belgium  sought  the  left 
bank  of  the  Scheldt  for  the  further  develop- 
ment of  Antwerp;  Limburg  (q.v.)  was  desired 
for  strategic  and  economic  reasons.  For  the 
consideration  of  the  question  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cil in  1919  created  an  international  commission, 
but  it  circumscribed  that  body's  activities  by 
indicating  that  it  would  refuse  to  countenance 
any  transfer  of  territory.  The  disputants  were 
advised  to  come  to  an  amicable  understanding 
over  the  matter  of  waterways.  In  1920  an 
agreement  was  reached  on  the  administration  of 
the  Scheldt,  the  Antwerp-Meuse-Rhine  canal  and 
two  other  water  systems.  Further  difficulties 
arose,  however,  with  Belgium's  insistence  that 
the  disposition  of  the  Weilingen  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Scheldt,  for  the  pass  controlled  the  port 
of  Zeebrugge,  be  also  considered*  On  this  no 


agreement  could  be  reached.  There  were  other 
international  concerns  to  occupy  the  attention 
of  the  Dutch  in  this  period.  In  1920,  Holland 
joined  the  League  of  Nations.  On  Dec.  23,  1920, 
after  heated  debate,  the  Parliament  voted  to 
resume  relations  with  the  Vatican.  These  had 
terminated  in  1907.  In  the  same  year,  al- 
though it  formally  refused  to  open  commercial 
relations  with  Russia,  the  Foreign  Office  indi- 
cated that  it  would  not  interfere  with  business 
transactions.  In  1922,  Holland  welcomed  to 
The  Hague  the  Permanent  Court  of  Internation- 
al Justice  which  had  been  created  by  the  League 
of  Nations.  The  question  of  the  defense  of  the 
Dutch  East  Indies  agitated  the  people  profound- 
ly during  1920-23.  In  1921,  the  Queen's  ad- 
dress from  the  throne  included  a  request  for  the 
strengthening  of  the  fleet,  and  the  proposal  was 
backed  up  by  the  resolution  of  the  Indian  Coun- 
cil. In  1922  the  government  laid  before  the 
second  chamber  an  ambitious  programme  of 
naval  construction.  (See  NAVIFS  OF  THE 
WORLD.)  The  measure  was  stubbornly  contest- 
ed in  1922  and  1923.  Its  opponents  showed 
that  it  meant  an  additional  cost  to  Holland  of 
$14,000,000  yearly  for  12  years,  and  to  the 
colonies  of  $20,800,000  for  the  same  term. 
Nevertheless  it  was  only  after  a  bitter  struggle 
that  profoundly  shook  the  whole  kingdom  that 
the  naval  bill  was  rejected,  Oct.  26,  1923,  by 
a  vote  of  50  to  49.  The  Ruys  de  Beerenbrouck 
cabinet  now  resigned.  The  inability  of  the 
three  parties  of  the  Right  to  reach  'an  agree- 
ment compelled  the  Queen,  after  a  three-month 
suspension  of  governmental  activities,  to  recall 
de  Beerenbrouck  in  January,  1924. 

NETHERLANDS  INDIA.     See  DUTCH  EAST 
INDIES. 

NEUILLY,  TREATY  OF.  See  PEACE  CONFER- 
ENCE AND  TREATIES. 

NEUROSES.    See    PSYCHOLOGY,    ABNORMAL. 
NEUTRALS    IN    THE    WAR.     See    WAR, 
DIPLOMACY  OF  THE. 

NEUTRODYNE.  See  RADIO  TELEPHONY. 
NEVADA.  Nevada  is  the  sixth  State  in 
size  (110,690  square  miles),  and  the  forty- 
eighth  in  population;  capital,  Carson  City. 
The  population  decreased  from  81,875  in  1910 
to  77,407  in  1920,  a  loss  of  5.5  per  cent.  The 
white  population  fell  off  from  74,276  to  70,099; 
Indian,  from  5240  to  4907;  negro,  from  513  to 
340;  native  white,  from  56,277  to  55,897; 
foreign-born  white,  from  17,999  to  14,802.  The 
urban  population  of  the  State  rose  from  13,367 
to  15,254,  while  the  rural  population  decreased 
from  68,508  to  62,153.  The  only  important  city 
in  the  State  is  Reno,  with  10,867  inhabitants 
in  1910,  and  12,016  in  1920. 

Agriculture.  Nevada  is,  agriculturally,  one 
of  the  least  important  States,  although  its  ag- 
riculture is  second  only  to  its  mining,  and  no 
other  industry  approaches  it.  The  population 
of  the  State  decreased  5.5  per  cent  in  the  dec- 
ade 1910-20,  but  the  number  of  farms  increased 
17.6  per  cent  (from  2689  to  3163).  The  acre- 
age in  farms  decreased  from  2,714,757  to 
2,357,163  in  1920,  or  13.2  per  cent;  and  the  im- 
proved land  in  farms,  from  752,117  to  594,741 
acres.  The  percentage  of  land  used  for  agricul- 
tural purposes  was  3.9  in  1910  and  3.4  in  1920. 
The  total  value  of  farm  property  showed  an 
apparent  increase  from  $60,399,365  to  $99,779,- 
666,  or  65.2  per  cent;  the  average  value  per 
farm,  from  $22,462  to  $31,646,  or  40.4  per  cent. 
In  interpreting  these  values  and  indeed  all  com- 


NEVADA 


921 


OTBVAXtA 


parative  values  in  the  decade  1914-24,  the  in- 
flation of  currency  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The 
index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of 
farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104 
in  1910  and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  total  of  3163 
farms  in  1920,  2699  were  operated  by  owners, 
168  by  managers,  and  296  by  tenants.  The  com- 
parative figures  for  1910  were  2175,  181,  and 
333.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered  2944, 
compared  with  2528  in  1910.  In  1920,  native 
white  farmers  numbered  2060,  compared  with 
1661  in  1910;  foreign-born  white  farmers,  884, 
compared  with  867.  Colored  farmers  in  1920r 
numbered  219,  of  whom  208  were  Indians;  in 
1910,  161,  of  whom  148  were  Indians.  Farms 
free  from  mortgage  in  1920  numbered  1599, 
compared  with  1805  in  1910;  those  under  mort- 
gage, 884,  compared  with  361.  The  number  of 
dairy  cows  decreased  from  17,084  to  16,482; 
"beef  cows/'  from  210,546  to  189,960;  sheep  in- 
creased from  824,875  to  880,580.  The  area  un- 
der irrigation  in  1919  was  561,447  acres;  in 

1909,  701,833.     The  estimated  production  of  the 
chief  farm  crops  in   1923  was  as  follows:   corn, 
31,000   bushels;    wheat,   507,000;    oats,    122,000; 
barley,    226,000;     potatoes,    698,000;    and    hay, 
473,000  tons      Comparative  figures  for  1913  are: 
corn,    34,000    bushels;     wheat,     1,081,000;     oats, 
473,000;    barley,    402,000;    potatoes,    1,760,000; 
and   hay,  646,000  tons 

Mining.  The  most  important  mineral  prod- 
ucts of  the  State  are  silver,  gold,  gypsum,  and 
copper  Silver,  which  is  the  most  important 
mineral,  showed  a  considerable  decline  in  the 
decade  1914-24;  in  1014  the  production  was 
15,455,491  fine  ounces;  1915,  14,459,840;  1916, 
13,837,525;  1017,  11,260,969;  1H18,  10,000,509; 

1910,  6,863,580;    1020,    7,745,093;    1021,    7,083,- 
782;    and    1022,    8,619,587.     The    value    of    the 
gold  produced  also  decreased  sharply  in  the  dec- 
ade; the  output  in  1014  was  valued  at  $11,481,- 
188;    1010,    $8,866,237;    1018,    $6,610,937;    1020, 
$3,566,728;  and  1022,  $3,297,384.    Copper  showed 
an  increase  in  the  middle  of  the  decade  but  de- 
clined sharply  in  the  later  years;  the  production 
in   1014  was  00,080,450  pounds;    1916,   105,116,- 
813;    1018,   116,310,441;    1920,  50,559,763;    1921, 
10,061,401,  and  1022,  23,133,001      The  small  out- 


visor  of  trade  and  industrial  education.  The 
object  in  vocational  education  has  been  to  reach, 
through  a  cooperative  spirit,  as  large  a  number 
as  possible  of  persons  who  may  be  benefited  by 
the  various  types  of  instruction  offered,  in  order 
that  the  productive  industries  of  the  State  may 
be  encouraged  and  the  intelligence  of  those  em- 
ployed in  the  trades  and  other  industrial  pur- 
suits may  be  increased ;  and  efforts  toward  these 
objects  have  been  successful.  The  cost  of  edu- 
cation in  the  State  from  1012  to  1920  increased 
greatly;  in  1012  the  cost  per  pupil  was  $76.38; 
in  1920,  $128.22;  allowance  is  to  be  made,  of 
course,  for  the  decreased  purchasing  power  of 
money.  A  high-school  system  was  developed 
efficiently.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  schools 
in  1913  was  13,622;  in  the  elementary  schools 
in  1922  it  was  11,518,  and  in  the  high  schools, 
2380.  The  total  maintenance  cost  in  1022  was 
$1,381,752;  in  addition  to  this  there  was  a 
permanent  investment  of  more  than  $400,000  in 
grounds  and  buildings,  making  a  total  expend- 
iture for  elementary  and  high  schools  of  $1,784,- 
831,  or  $122.74  per  census  child  in  the  State. 
Illiteracy  in  the  State  decreased  from  6.8  per 
cent  in  1010  to  6.7  per  cent  in  1920.  Among 
the  native  white  population  it  increased  from 
0.3  to  0.5  per  cent;  among  the  foreign-born 
white,  from  7  to  8.5;  among  the  negro,  it  de- 
creased from  6  to  4.7. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  In  the  decade 
1014-24,  political  control  in  Nevada  fluctuated 
between  the  Democratic  and  Republican  parties. 
In  1014  elections  were  held  for  governor,  Sen- 
ator, and  Representatives  to  Congress.  The 
Democratic  candidate  for  governor,  Emmet  D. 
Boyle,  was  elected,  defeating  Gov.  Tasker  L. 
Oddie.  Senator  Newlands  was  reflected,  while 
the  Republicans  elected  a  Representative  to 
Congress.  At  this  election  an  amendment  pro- 
viding for  woman  suffrage  was  adopted.  In 
1016  the  Democrats  had  the  predominance  of 
strength  and  elected  Key  Pittman  United  States 
Senator.  In  the  presidential  voting  of  this 
year,  President  Wilson  received  17,776  votes; 
Charles  E.  Hughes,  12,127.  In  this  election, 
for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  State, 
women  cast  votes  for  President.  The  Democrats 


put  in  1021  was  due  chiefly  to  the  business  de-      were   again   successful   in    1018,   reflecting  Gov- 

pression,    which    caused    a    decrease   in    the    de-      «— i-      o-_-A__   XT -_.i__ j^    j^j   _•_    imo 

mand  for  copper.  The  production  of  gypsum 
during  the  decade  ranged  from  100,000  to  175,- 
000  short  tons  per  year,  with  a  value  in  excess 
of  $1,000,000.  In  addition  to  the  minerals 
mentioned,  the  State  also  produces  lead,  man- 
ganiferous  ore,  and  zinc,  but  in  comparatively 
small  quantities.  The  total  value  of  the  mineral 
products  in  1921  was  $14,038,071 ;  $25,648,061 
in  1920;  $24,457,735  in  1919;  $51,080,169  in 
1018,  and  $29,984,338  in  1014. 

Manufactures.  See  UNITED  STATES,  Manu- 
factures. 

Education.  The  educational  problem  of  Ne- 
vada is  made  difficult  by  the  State's  sparse  pop- 
ulation and  its  vast  area.  In  spite  of  these 
difficulties,  the  progress  of  education  in  the 
decade  1914-24  was  constant.  Efforts  were 
made  toward  the  consolidation  of  schools  and 
the  development  of  vocational  education.  The 
Legislature  passed  many  measures  which  great- 
ly aided  the  administration  of  the  educational 
system.  Vocational  education  is  administered 
by  the  Director  of  Vocational  Education  and 
Industrial  Rehabilitation,  who  is  also  super- 


ernor  Boyle.  Senator  Newlands  died  in  1918, 
and  Charles  B.  Henderson  was  appointed  to 
fill  the  office  until  the  election  of  his  successor. 
The  Republicans  returned  to  power  in  1920, 
electing  T.  L.  Oddie,  former  governor,  United 
States  Senator.  A  woman,  Anne  Martin,  was 
the  Senatorial  candidate  on  an  independent 
ticket,  the  first  woman  candidate  for  this  office. 
In  the  presidential  voting  of  this  year,  Warren 
G.  Harding  received  15,479  votes;  James  M. 
Cox,  9851.  In  the  elections  of  1922,  there  was 
a  political  reaction,  and  the  Democrats  elected 
every  State  official  except  one.  James  W. 
Scrugham,  the  Democratic  candidate  for  gov- 
ernor, was  elected,  and  Senator  Pittman  was 
reflected  to  the  Senate.  The  Supreme  Court 
in  1923  declared  unconstitutional  the  prohibi- 
tion act  passed  by  the  Legislature  in  that  year. 
On  July  6,  1923,  a  fire  at  Goldfield  resulted  in 
the  death  of  one  person  and  a  property  loss  of 
more  than  $500,000.  At  a  State  Republican 
convention  in  May,  1924,  the  nine  delegates  of 
the  State  were  pledged  to  vote  for  President 
Coolidge  at  the  national  convention. 
Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of 


NEVADA 


99* 


NfcWABX 


the  Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are 
noted  below.  The  Legislature,  in  February, 
1915,  passed  a  so-called  "easy  divorce  bill/' 
restoring  the  six  months'  residence  requirement 
which  had  been  abolished  by  the  Legislature  of 
1913.  The  Legislature  of  1919  provided  for  a 
budget  and  passed  measures  providing  for  an 
eight-hour  day  on  public  works.  It  also  passed 
statutes  defining  and  punishing  criminal  syn- 
dicalism and  sabotage.  In  1921  the  Legislature 
created  town-planning  commissions  for  incor- 
porated cities  and  towns,  declared  oil  pipe  lines 
to  be  common  carriers,  and  made  provision  for 
the  teaching  of  thrift  in  the  public  schools.  A 
bill  for  capital  punishment  by  lethal  gas  instead 
of  by  hanging  or  shooting  was  signed  by  Gover- 
nor Boyle  on  Mar.  28,  1921,  and  on  February  8, 
1924,  Gee  Jon,  a  Chinese  convicted  of  murder, 
was  executed  by  this  method.  In  1923  the 
Legislature  repealed  the  State  prohibition  law 
which  had  been  declared  unconstitutional  and 
substituted  a  measure  corresponding  to  the 
Volstead  Act.  It  also  granted  equal  rights  in 
the  guardianship  of  children  to  women,  ex- 
tended the  absent  voter  privilege  to  persons  who 
because  of  physical  disability  expect  to  be  con- 
fined to  their  homes  on  Election  Day,  made  the 
possession  of  drugs  illegally  obtained  a  crime, 
passed  a  uniform  trading  act,  enacted  a  mod- 
ified old  age  pension  law,  and  created  a  small 
claims  court. 

NEVADA,  UNIVERSITY  or.  A  coeducational 
State  institution  at  Reno,  Nev.,  founded  in 
1874.  The  student  enrollment  of  the  university 
increased  from  340  in  1914  to  825  in  the  year 
1923-24,  with  134  in  the  summer  session  of 
1923.  During  the  decade  the  faculty  likewise 
increased  from  50  to  62  members.  The  library 
rose  from  28,000  bound  volumes  in  1915  to  38,- 
843  in  1923.  An  agricultural  building  was  con- 
structed in  1918,  an  educational  building  in 
1920,  and  a  building  to  house  the  Federal  Bu- 
reau of  Mines'  Rare  and  Precious  Metals  Ex- 
periment Station  in  1921.  Walter  E.  Clark, 
Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  succeeded  Archer  Wilmot  Hendrick 
as  president  in  1917. 

NEVTN,  ABTHUR  FINLEY  (1871-  ).  An 
American  composer,  born  at  Edgeworth,  Pa. 
Having  received  his  first  musical  education 
from  his  father,  he  entered  the  New  England 
Conservatory  in  1891,  studying  with  0.  Bendix 
(piano)  and  P.  Goetschius  (theory).  From 
1893  to  1897  he  studied  in  Berlin  with  Klind- 


NEVINSON,  HENBY  WOOD  (?-  ).  An 
English  newspaper  correspondent  and  writer. 
He  was  correspondent  for  the  Daily  Chronicle 
in  the  Greco-Turkish  War  of  1897,  traveled  much 
in  Spain,  Africa,  and  elsewhere  in  the  years 
following,  and  reported  for  various  newspapers 
campaigns  in  Morocco  and  the  Balkans  in  1912. 
He  was  accredited  by  the  War  Office  as  official 
correspondent  at  the  Dardanelles  for  several 
papers  and  was  wounded  during  operations 
there.  He  was  later  correspondent  with  the 
British  armies  in  Salonica,  Egypt,  France,  and 
Germany.  He  was  editorial  writer  for  several 
important  papers  and  wrote  much  on  politics 
and  other  subjects.  His  books  include:  The 
Thirty  Days9  War  (1898)  ;  Books  and  Personal- 
ities (1905)  ;  The  Dawn  in  Russia  (1906)  ;  The 
Dardanelles  Campaign  (1918);  Lines  of  Life 
(1920);  Essays  in  Freedom  and  Rebellion 
(1921);  and  Changes  and  Chances  (1924). 

NEW,  HABKY  STEWART  (1858-  ).  A 
Postmaster  General  of  the  United  States,  born 
at  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  and  educated  at  Butler 
University.  He  began  as  a  reporter  on  the  In- 
dianapolis Journal,  and  from  1878  to  1903  he 
was  editor,  part  owner,  and  publisher  of  that 
newspaper.  He  served  in  the  Spanish-American 
War.  In  1896  he  was  elected  to  the  Indiana 
State  Senate  for  four  years,  and  from  1900  to 
1912  he  was  a  member  of  the  Republican  Na- 
tional Committee.  In  1917  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  and  served  till  1923, 
when  he  was  appointed  Postmaster  General  by 
President  Harding. 

NEWARK.  The  largest  city  in  the  State 
of  New  Jersey.  The  population  rose  from  347,- 
469  in  1910  to  414,524  in  1920  and  to  438,69!) 
by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for 
1923.  The  250th  anniversary  of  the  city  was 
celebrated  during  five  months  of  1916  with  an 
historical  pageant,  a  prolonged  music  festival 
and  an  exhibit  of  local  industries.  A  memorial 
building  was  erected  by  the  city  at  a  cost  of 
$1,500,000  to  mark  the  occasion,  and  a  copy  of 
Verrocchio's  equestrian  statue  of  Bartolommeo 
Colleoni,  executed  by  J.  Massey,  was  given  to 
the  city  by  Christian  Feigenspan.  The  city- 
planning  commission  in  1915  offered  a  compre- 
hensive plan  for  the  city  of  Newark,  and  a  zon- 
ing plan  in  1919.  The  northeast  wing  of  the 
city  hospital  was  built  in  1915;  a  site  for  tlu> 
Newark  museum  was  bought  in  1922  and  $500,- 
000  given  by  Louis  Bamberger  towards  the 


worth,  Jedliczka  (piano),  and  Boise  and  Hump-      $625,000    necessary    for    the    building.     A    new 


erdinck  (composition).  He  then  returned  to 
Edgeworth,  where  he  lived  until  1910,  devoting 
his  time  to  composition  and  teaching.  In  1903- 
04  he  spent  some  time  with  the  Blackfeet  In- 
dians in  Montana,  collecting  their  melodies  and 
legends.  There  he  found  the  subject  for  his 
Indian  opera  Poia,  which  was  produced  at  the 
Royal  Opera  in  Berlin  (1910),  the  first  work 
of  an  American  composer  ever  brought  out  at 
that  institution.  In  1915-20  he  was  professor 
of  music  at  the  University  of  Kansas,  and  in 
1921  he  became  director  of  municipal  music  at 
Memphis,  Tenn.  He  also  wrote  two  other 
operas,  The  Daughter  of  the  Forest  (Chicago, 
1918)  and  Twilight  (not  produced  up  to  1924) ; 
a  masque,  A  Night  in  Yaddo-Land;  two  can- 
tatas,  Roland  and  The  Djinns;  three  orchestral 
suites,  Miniature,  Lorna  Doone,  and  Love- 
Dreams;  Bakawali  Dances  for  orchestra;  a 
string  quartet  and  a  piano  trio;  and  piano 
numbers  and  songs. 


two-story  city  market  building  covering  two 
acres,  with  an  open  paved  farmers'  market  of 
three  acres,  was  finished  in  1923  at  a  cost  of 
$5,100,000.  Port  development  also  proceeded 
rapidly,  especially  along  the  tidal  meadows 
known  as  Port  Newark.  Between  1913  and 
1924,  the  city  spent  $6,000,000  reclaiming,  fill- 
ing and  developing  a  large  area  of  the  meadows 
and  constructing  a  channel  30  feet  deep  and 
400  feet  wide.  During  the  War  about  half  the 
Port  was  taken  over  in  the  interest  of  the  Fed- 
eral government,  which  built  warehouses  for 
use  as  army  bases  at  a  cost  of  upwards  of  $13,- 
000,000.  The  Submarine  Boat  Corporation, 
which  received  a  subsidy  from  Congress  of  $17,- 
000,000,  built  150  steel  merchant  vessels  during 
the  War  from  their  shipyards  on  the  reclaimed 
land;  two  other  shipbuilding  corporations  were 
established  in  Kearny.  Several  streets  were 
built  in  the  district.  Eventually,  under  the 
plan,  4000  acres  of  this  part  of  the  harbor  were 


NEWAfcK  MUSIC  FESTIVAL 

to  be  filled  in  and  improved,  a  number  of  water 
channels  were  to  be  dredged  extending  into  all 
parts  of  the  new  land,  piers  were  to  be  construct- 
ed at  least  1200  feet  long  to  accommodate 
ocean-going  vessels,  and  equipped  with  adequate 
railroad  tracks,  electric  traveling  cranes,  ware- 
houses, etc.  In  1922,  the  Central  Railroad  of 
New  Jersey  was  authorized  by  the  War  Depart- 


9*3  NEWFOUNDLAND 

St.   John,   47,166    (42,511    in   1911);    Moncton, 
17,488;  Fredericton,  the  capital,  8114. 

Industry  and  Trade.  In  1923  only  909,945 
acres  were  under  field  crops  out  of  the  total 
area,  although  agriculture  was  the  most  im- 
portant industry.  The  increase  over  1914  was 
only  slight  (904,055  acres  in  1914).  Total  val- 
ue of  yield  in  1923,  $20,864,300;  in  1914,  $20,- 


ment  to  build  a  bridge  across  the  lower  end  of      045,100.     Oats,  hay  and  clover,  and  potatoes  re 


Newark  Bay  to  replace  the  trestle  and  draw- 
bridge then  standing.  This  permission  the  city 
contested  in  the  courts  Further  appropriations 
of  $2,100,000  for  the  immediate  improvement 
of  Newark  Bay  and  the  Passaic  and  ITackensack 
Rivers  was  authorized  by  Congress  in  1922;  in 
1924,  the  government  had  started  additional 
widening  of  Newark  Bay  channel  and  expected 
to  spend  nearly  $800,000  in  that  year.  Direct 
boat  operation  was  established  between  Newark 
and  Pensacola,  Fla.,  Mobile,  Ala.,  Beaumont 
arid  Port  Arthur,  Tex.,  Los  Angeles  and  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  Portland,  Ore.,  and  Seattle, 
Wash.  In  1923,  new  industrial  establishments 


ceived  the  greatest  attention.  Dairying  showed 
substantial  gains,  since  1,224,930  pounds  of 
butter  were  made  in  1922,  against  the  849,633 
pounds  in  1910.  Fishing  continued  to  occupy 
a  high  station;  in  1922  the  catch  was  valued  at 
$4,688,276,  comparing  favorably  with  that  of 
1913.  Mineral  production  in  1922,  largely  made 
up  of  coal  and  gypsum,  reached  $2.263,692,  as 
compared  with  $1,102,613  in  1913.  Much  of 
the  forest  land  was  in  the  hands  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  lumbering  ranked  high  among  the  in- 
dustries. Lumber  cut  in  1921  was  valued  at 
$7,811,000;  pulpwood  made  a  very  thriving  in- 
dustry (61,810  tons),  worth  about  $5,244,000. 


nrnde   investments  in  Newark  of  approximately      Manufacturing  progressed.     In   1910  there  were 


$70,000,000.  The  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment was  adopted  by  the  city  in  1917. 

NEWARK  MUSIC  FESTIVAL.  See  Music, 
Festiials. 

NEW  BEDFORD.  The  fourth  city  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  population  and  third  in  value  of 
its  inantifactuied  products  The  population  in- 
n cased  from  90,052  in  1910  to  121.217  in  1920, 
nearly  40  per  cent  in  10  years,  and  to  130,072 
In  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for 
1923.  During  the  decade  1914-24  a  State  pier 
750  feet  long  was  completed.  A  modern  inter- 
cepting sewer  system  was  installed,  adequate  to 
care  for  a  population  of  300,000.  The  capital 
imestcd  in  the  cotton  mills,  the  leading  indus- 
try, IOHC  from  $47,820,575  in  1914  to  more  than 
$175,000,000  in  1924,  and  the  number  of  persons 


1158  establishments  (capital  $36,125,012);  in 
1921,  1326  establishments  (capital,  $103,367,- 
891).  The  output  in  1910  was  $35,422,302;  in 
1921,  $59,514,741.  Of  the  50,406  horse  power 
estimated  available,  47,100  (1923)  were  already 
being  worked.  Exports,  domestic  and  foreign, 
amounted  to  $75,924,379  in  1022-23  ($34,634,156 
in  1912-13);  imports  in  1922-23,  $27,574,66ft 
($14,445,811  in  1912-13).  In  11)22  there  were 
1947  miles  of  railway  line  as  compared  with 
1545  in  1913. 

Government.  The  receipts  for  1922  were 
$3,226,728  ($1,459,000  in  1913),  and  expendi- 
tures $2,985,877  ($1,446,963  in  1913).  The 
debt  of  the  province  in  1912  was  only  $4,693,- 
457;  by  March,  1922,  it  had  mounted  to  $25,- 
463,932.  The  money  expended  on  public  works, 


employed    from    31,820    to    36,000      The    public      i.e.    hydro-electric    development,    roads,    bridges, 
library  was   increased  from    150,000  to   160,000  '  "  ...... 

volumes. 

NEWBERRY,  TBUMAN  HANDY  (1864-  ). 
An  American  financier  and  public  official,  born 
in  Detroit,  Mich.  He  graduated  from  Yale  in 
1S85  and  was  later  connected  in  various  ca- 
pacities with  railroads  and  other  industrial  or- 
ganizations. In  the  Spanish-American  War  he 
served  as  lieutenant  and  navigator.  He  was 
appointed  Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy  in 
1905  and  served  until  1908,  when  he  assumed 
the-  post  of  Secretary  of  the  Navy  until  March, 
1909.  In  the  War  'he  was  commander  of  the 
United  States  Naval  Reserves.  He  was  a  can- 
didate for  the  United  States  Senate  in  1918  and 
in  the  primaries  defeated  Henry  Ford  for  the 
nomination.  He  was  later  elected.  The  ex- 
penditure of  over  $200,000  in  the  primaries  led 
to  accusations  of  corruption.  He  was  tried  and 
convicted  in  the  State  courts,  but  the  case  was 
dismissed  in  the  United  States  Supreme  Court. 


and  grants  to  railways,  accounted  for  the  in- 
crease. By  1922  teachers  had  increased  to  2246 
from  the  2002  in  1913,  and  pupils  to  71,346 
from  the  63,580  in  1913.  The  total  cost  of  edu- 
cation also  increased,  from  $942,203  in  1913  to 
$2,657,046  in  1922.  Of  the  three  universities 
in  the  province,  Mt.  Allison,  the  largest,  was 
in  favor  of  a  federation  of  the  universities 
of  all  Maritime  Provinces,  but  the  University  of 
New  Brunswick  stood  in  the  way.  The  prov- 
ince was  represented  in  the  Canadian  Parlia- 
ment by  10  senators  and  11  members  of  the 
house.  The  suffrage  was  exercised  by  both 
sexes. 

NEW  CALEDONIA.  See  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
ISLANDS. 

NEWELL,  EDWARD  THEODORE  (1886-  ). 
An  American  numismatist,  born  at  Kenosha, 
Wis.,  and  educated  at  Yale  University.  From 
1907  he  was  engaged  in  research  in  numismatics 
and  kindred  subjects.  He  was  a  member  of 


Charges  were   brought  before  the  Senate  Com-      numismatic    and    learned    societies    and    wrote 


mittee  on  Privileges  and  Elections  in  1922, 
and  he  was  exonerated.  He  resigned  his  seat 
following  the  elections  of  1922.  See  MICHI- 
GAN.   

NEW  BBUNSWICK.  A  Canadian  mari- 
time province,  with  an  area  of  27,985  square 
miles.  In  1911  the  population  was  351,889;  in 
1921,  387,876,  a  gain  of  10.23  per  cent.  The 
rural  population  in  1921  was  67.9  per  cent  of 
the  total;  in  1911  it  had  been  71.7  per  cent. 
Populations  of  the  principal  towns  in  1921  were: 


many  works  on  coins  and  minting,  including 
The  Dated  Alexander  Coinage  of  Sidon  and  Ake 
(1916);  Tarsos  under  Alexander  (1919); 
Myriandros  (1920);  and  The  Kyparisaia 
Hoard  (1921).  In  1917-18  he  served  with  the 
military  intelligence  division  of  the  United 
States  Army. 

NEWFOUNDLAND.  A  British  dominion  in 
North  America,  comprising  the  island  of  New- 
foundland and  Labrador  (q.v.).  The  area  of 
the  island  is  42,734  square  miles;  of  Labrador, 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


904 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


120,000.  The  total  population  increased  from 
242,619  in  1911  (Labrador,  3049)  to  202,979 
in  1921  (Labrador,  3621).  St.  John's,  the 
capital,  had  a  population  of  37,047  in  1921 
(32,292  in  1911);  Harbor  Grace,  3825  (4279); 
Bonuvista,  4025  (3911);  Carbonear,  3320 
(3540).  The  population,  the  great  bulk  of 
which  was  native  and  of  English,  Irish,  and 
Scotch  descent,  still  remained  practically 
concentrated  on  the  southeast  coast.  Emi- 
gration rose  noticeably  during  the  postwar  de- 
pression. 

Industry  and  Trade.  Fishing  continued  to 
exceed  all  other  occupations  in  importance. 
During  the  War  it  enjoyed  exceptional  prosper- 
ity in  consequence  of  the  general  food  shortage 
but  afterward  suffered  an  equally  marked  de- 
cline. For  the  falling-off  in  the  cod  fishery,  a 
two-season  attempt  at  government  control  of 
sales  was  held  partly  responsible.  In  1922-23, 
939  men  and  51  vessels  on  the  Banks  brought 
in  a  catch  of  69,372  quintals,  compared  with 
152,374  quintals  brought  in  by  1830  men  in  104 
vessels  in  1913.  The  serious  decline  in  the  seal 
fishery  was  partly  attributable  to  the  loss  of 
ships  and  the  prohibitive  cost  of  shipbuilding 
In  1913,  19  steamers  with  3009  men  brought 
in  272,065  seals;  in  1022-23  it  required  a  gov- 
ernment subsidy  and  removal  of  all  rehtrictions 
to  induce  8  vessels  with  1224  men  to  rarry  on 
the  work,  and  only  101,770  seals  weic  taken  in 
that  year.  The  lobster,  herring,  and  wliale 
fisheries  also  showed  a  distinctly  downward 
trend;  the  lobster  had  grown  scarce  because  of 
overfishing;  the  hen  ing  market  \\as  affected  by 
renewed  European  competition;  the  whale  fish- 
eries had  practically  ceased  The  prime  leason 
for  this  serious  slump,  however,  was  the  de- 
preciation of  currencies  in  the  Mediterranean 
countries  which  had  grown  to  be  the  chief 
markets  for  the  catch.  At  pievailing  rates  of 
exchange,  that  trade  had  ceased  to  be  profitable 
To  relieve  the  serious  situation  that  ensued,  the 
government  in  1923  undertook  a  piogramme  of 
encouragement  for  industry  and  fanning,  in 
older  to  relieve  the  almost  cntnc  economic  de- 
pendence of  the  island  on  its  fisheries.  Plans 
were  under  way  in  that  m\ear  to  develop  the 
water-power  resources  at  Grand  Lake  on  the 
west  coast,  at  a  cost  of  $18,000,000,  part  of 
which  was  to  be  advanced  b>  the  Hiitisli  govern- 
ment. This  project  was  expected  to  supply 
power  for  a  large  pulp  and  paper  mill,  to 
hasten  the  development  of  mineral  resources, 
and  possibly  to  lead  to  the  smelting  of  iron. 
Incidentally  the  preliminary  work  was  reducing 
unemployment.  The  industries  growing  out  of 
the  great  forest  resources  had  already  extended 
considerably.  Spruce  had  replaced  the  disap- 
pearing pine  as  the  important  wood.  Pulp  and 
paper  mills  in  1920  exported  19,864  tons  of  pulp 
($334,276)  and  80,719  tons  of  paper  ($4,725,- 
660).  The  mineral  production,  chiefly  iron,  in 
1912  amounted  to  $2,810,000;  in  1920-21,  607,- 
982  tons  of  iron,  valued  at  $672,061,  were  ex- 
ported. Some  copper  and  oil  had  been  produced. 
The  mineral  resources  were  as  yet  unexplored, 
although  in  1921  a  beginning  was  made  at  the 
development  of  certain  coal  deposits  and  the  in- 
vestigation of  oil-bearing  lands.  Of  the  4,000,- 
000  acres  capable  of  cultivation,  up  to  1923 
only  220,000  were  being  utilized,  and  the  gov- 
ernment was  actively  encouraging  the  popula- 
tion away  from  the  sea  to  the  land.  The  chief 
crops  were  hay,  potatoes,  cabbage,  turnips,  and 


oats.  The  total  value  of  farm  crops  in  1912 
was  $2,000,000;  in  1921,  $14,367,877.  Exports, 
which  in  1913-14  were  valued  at  $14,720,000, 
had  risen  by  1918-19  to  $36,784,616  but  fell 
sharply  in  two  years  to  $19,478,417  in  1921-22 
($20,956,863  in  1922-23).  Imports  fluctuated 
likewise:  $14,793,000  in  1913-14;  $40,533,388 
in  1019-20;  $18,309,853  in  1921-22;  $19,321,- 
824  in  1922-23.  The  export  trade  with  Canada 
gained  considerably  in  importance  in  1922-23, 
but  the  chief  markets  were  still  the  United 
Kingdom,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  the  United 
States.  The  bulk  of  the  imports  came  from 
Canada  and  the  United  States,  the  formei 
achieving  first  place  as  a  source  during  this 
period.  Dry  codfish  remained  the  principal  ex- 
port, with  manufactured  paper  in  second  place. 
Other  important  items  in  1022-23  were  iron 
ores,  cod  oil,  herring,  pulp  and  sulphide,  lob- 
sters, sealskins,  and  seal  oil.  The  total  value 
of  fishery  exports  in  that  year  was  $12,374,105) 
($14,448,736  in  1921-22).  'The  total  revenue  of 
the  dominion,  in  bulk  from  customs,  was  $3,142,- 
491,  and  the  expenditure  $3,524,653,  in  1911-12. 
From  1017  to  1021,  there  was  a  decided  surplus 
in  the  tioasury  in  spite  of  extraordinarily  gen- 
01  oils  appropii'ations  In  11)21-22,  however,  the 
ie\enue  had  shrunk  to  $8,200,080,  with  an  e\- 
pendituie  of  $0,127,542,  but  from  that  year  the 
situation  began  to  mend.  The  increase  of  the 
funded  public  debt  from  $20,470,060  in  1012-1 3 
to  $55,030,027  in  1021  22  was  largely  due  to 
war  expendituie  ($(50  per  capita).  In  1922-23, 
the  revenue  \vas  $8,87(1,772,  expenditure,  $9,552,- 
301;  funded  debt,  $54,057,763.  In  1010  there 
^vero  OU4  miles  of  government  railroad,  as  com- 
pared with  7!)4  in  1013  Additional  proposed 
extensions  had  been  postponed  during  the  Wai, 
after  which,  because  of  unpiofitable  operation, 
the  management  of  the  roads  and  their  exten- 
sion became*  a  conspicuous  problem  of  the  gov- 
ernment. Theie  was  an  additional  47  miles  of 
pmate  line.  The  mileage  of  telegraph  wiret* 
(open)  increased  from  4225  in  10H  to  4600  in 
1022;  telephone  wires,  from  800  in  1013  to  065 
in  1022.  Steamship  communications  with  the 
United  Km£flom,  Canada,  and  the  United 
States  were  disorganized  during  the  War,  but 
were  being  steadily  restored.  Public  instruc- 
tion still  remained  under  denominational  aus- 
pices, with  government  support,  and  school 
attendance  had  not  been  made  compulsory  by 
law. 

History.  A  Newfoundland  regiment  was  en- 
listed on  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  and  saw  serv- 
ice in  (Jallipoli,  Kgypt,  France,  and  Flanders. 
In  all,  Homo  (5500  men  were  under  arms.  In 
1013,  Sir  Edward  Morris's  party  was  returned 
to  office  and  continued  in  power  through  1917, 
when  the  Morris  government  was  succeeded  by  a 
ministry  headed  by  Sir  William  Lloyd.  In  1919, 
Sir  Michael  C'ashin  became  premier;  in  Novem- 
ber, 1010,  as  a  result  of  the  general  election, 
Mr.  Richard  Squires  succeeded  to  office.  The 
Squires  government,  however,  resigned  in  1923, 
though  the  general  election  of  May  had  returned 
it  with  a  sizable  majority.  Mr.  W.  R.  Warren 
was  thon  summoned  by  the  governor.  On  Dec. 
26,  1923,  Premier  Warren  brought  a  grave  ac- 
cusation against  his  predecessor,  Sir  Richard  A. 
Squires,  charging  him,  among  other  things,  with 
the  receipt  of  money  from  private  corporations 
and  diversion  of  government  funds  to  individ- 
uals occupying  high  official  posts.  An  inves- 
tigator for  the  British  Colonial  Office  found  the 


NEW  GUINEA 


925 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


charges  in  a  large  measure  true;  this  was  lol-  Leading  exports  were  copra,  shell,  cocoa,  and 
lowed  by  the  arrest  of  Squires  in  April  and  the  birds  of  paradise.  Imports  included  groceries, 
overthrow  of  the  Warren  government.  Reor-  hardware,  tobacco,  spirits,  and  oils.  See  also 


ganization  of  the  public  services  and  a  greater     ETHNOGRAPHY. 

honesty  in  government  became  the  leading  is-         NEW    HAMPSHIRE 

sues  of  the  day.    Mr.  Hickman,  who  succeeded 


Mr.  Warren,  enjoyed  only  a  brief  tenure  of 
office,  for  his  party  was  turned  out  in  the  gen- 
eral election  of  June  3.  He  was  in  turn  fol- 
lowed by  Mr.  Walter  Warren  who  proceeded  to 
investigate  his  predecessor's  government. 

NEW  GUINEA.  One  of  the  largest  islands 
of  the  world,  in  the  East  India  Archipelago. 
Area,  320,000  square  miles  (estimated).  Po- 
litically it  was  divided  into:  (1)  Dutch  New 
Guinea,  area,  100,692  square  miles;  population 
(1920)  195,400;  (2)  Territory  of  Papua 
(British  New  Guinea),  area,  00,540  square 
miles;  population  270,888  (1922);  (3)  Terri- 
tory of  New  Guinea  (late  Kaiser  Wilhelm's 
Land),  area,  70,000  square  miles;  population 
(estimated),  100,000.  This  was  for  the  main- 
land only. 

Dutch  New  Guinea  was  administered  from 
the  Dutch  East  Indies  (q.v.),  of  which,  for 
trade  and  other  purposes,  it  was  considered  an 
integral  part. 

The  Territory  of  Papua  was  a  possession  of 
the  Australian  Commonwealth.  Little  of  the 
area  was  under  cultivation;  the  natives  are 
averse  to  hard  labor.  In  all,  only  219,181 
acres  had  been  leased  by  planters  (1922),  and 
c-oconuts,  rubber,  and  sisal  hemp  weie  the  chief 
products.  Gold  continued  to  be  mined  to  some 
extent,  and  boring  for  oil  began  after  1915. 
The  gold  output  declined  from  £04,115  in  1912- 
13  to  £00,091  in  1921-22  Imports  and  exports 
for  1913-14  were  £212,134  and  £123,140;  for 
1921,  £484,770  and  £172,072.  Revenues  and  ex- 
penditures for  1913-14  were  £54,703  and  £81,- 
095;  in  1921-22,  £73,288  and  £124,912.  To 


New    Hampshire    is 

the  forty-third  State  in  size  (9341  square 
miles),  and  the  forty-first  in  population;  cap- 
ital, Concord.  The  population  increased  from 
430,572  in  1910  to  443,083  in  1920,  a  gain  of 
2.9  per  cent.  The  white  population  increased 
from  429,900  to  442,331;  negro,  from  504  to 
621;  native  white,  from  333,348  to  351,098. 
The  number  of  foreign -born  white  fell  from  96,- 
558  to  91,233.  The  urban  population  of  the 
State  mounted  from  255,099  to  279,701,  while 
the  rural  decreased  from  175,473  to  103,322. 
There  are  only  two  important  cities,  Manches- 
ter and  Nashua.  The  former  increased  from 

70.003  in    1910   to   78,384   in    1920;    the  latter 
from  26,005  to  28,379. 

Agriculture.  While  the  population  of  the 
State  increased  2.9  per  cent  in  the  decade  1910- 
20,  the  number  of  farms  decreased  24.1  per  cent 
(from  27,053  to  20,523)  ;  the  land  area  in  farms, 
from  3,249,458  acres  to  2,003,800,  or  19.9  per 
cent;  the  improved  land  in  farms,  from  929,185 
acres  to  702,902.  The  total  percentage  of  land 
used  for  agricultural  purposes  decreased  from 
50.2  in  1910  to  45  in  1920;  the  percentage  of 
improved  farm  land,  from  28.0  to  27.  The  total 
value  of  farm  property  showed  an  apparent  in- 
crease from  $103,704,196  to  $118,050,115,  or 

14.4  per    cent;    the    average    value    per    farm, 
from    $3833    to    $5782,    or    50.8    per    cent.     In 
interpreting  these   values   and   indeed   all   com- 
parative values   in  the  decade   1914-24,  the  in- 
flation of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
period   is  to  be  taken   into  consideration.     The 
index   number   of   prices   paid   to   producers   of 
farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104  in 
1910  and  210  in    1920.     Of  the  total  of  20,523 


meet  the  deficit,  Australia  supplied  an  annual      farms  in  1920,  18,004  were  operated  by  owners, 

grant  of   £50,000.     The   Australian  government      KAO    '—   --J    10"n    f—   * A-      rm- 

showed  itself  /ealous  in  the  preservation  of  the 
integrity  of  the  natives  and  refused  to  settle 
cheap  coolie  labor  in  the  territory.  In  1922 
Europeans  numbered  1104.  Port  Moresby  was 
the  chief  town  and  port  of  call  for  Australian 
ships. 

The  Territory  of  New  Guinea  was  the 
name  given  to  the  former  German  New  Guinea 
and  included  besides  the  late  Kaiser  Wilhelm's 
Land  (area  70,000  square  miles;  population, 
100,000),  the  Bismarck  Archipelago  (area  17,- 
000  square  miles;  population,  188,000),  made 
up  of  New  Britain,  New  Ireland,  and  other  is- 


546  by  managers,  and  1373  by  tenants.  The 
comparative  figures  for  1910  were  24,493,  681, 
and  1879.  White  farmers  numbered,  in  1920, 
20,509,  of  whom  17,890  were  native  and  2019 
foreign-born.  In  1910  the  white  farmers  num- 
bered 27,038  (native-born,  24,347;  foreign-born, 
2691).  Farms  free  from  mortgage  in  1920  num- 
bered 11,992,  compared  with  18,119  in  1910; 
those  under  mortgage  numbered  5389,  compared 
with  0234.  The  number  of  dairy  cows  increased 
from  101,278  in  1910  to  119,203  in  1920,  in- 
dicating a  decided  trend  toward  the  dairy  in- 
dustry. "Beef  cows,"  however,  decreased  from 
10,175  to  5055,  and  sheep  decreased  from  31,201 


lands,  and  Bougainville  and  Buka  of  the   Sol-      to    28,021.     The    estimated    production    of    the 


onion  Islands  group  (area  3400  square  miles; 
population,  17,000).  On  Sept.  12,  1914,  an  Aus- 
tralian force  occupied  the  islands.  A  mandate 
was  given  to  Australia  for  the  territory  by  the 
League  of  Nations  on  Dec.  17,  1920;  the  Aus- 
tralian government  established  its  civil  admin- 
istration on  May  9,  1921.  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  at  Rabaul  on  New  Britain,  the  former 
German  capital.  In  1921,  nonindigenous  in- 
habitants numbered  3173,  divided  as  follows: 
715  British,  1402  Chinese,  215  Dutch,  579  Ger- 
mans, 87  Japanese,  and  60  Americans.  On  the 
mainland  coconuts  were  cultivated  as  well  as 
rubber  and  cocoa;  tropical  fruits  served  as  the 
articles  of  food.  Total  revenues  for  191&-19 
and  1921-22  were  £55,760  and  £91,644.  Ex- 
ports for  the  same  years  were  £269,666  and 
£400,197;  imports,  £271,861  and  £468,711. 


principal  farm  crops  in  1923  was  as  follows: 
corn,  978.000  bushels:  oats,  598,000;  potatoes, 
1,735,000;  hay,  494,000  tons;  and  apples,  191,- 
000  bushels.  Comparative  figures  for  1913  are: 
corn,  814,000  bushels;  oats,  420,000,  potatoes, 
2,074,000;  hay,  495,000  tons. 

Manufactures.  New  Hampshire  is  an  im- 
port industrial  State  in  point  of  value  of 
products.  There  were,  in  1920,  8  cities  of  10,- 
000  inhabitants  or  more,  the  combined  popula- 
tion of  which  formed  43.7  per  cent  of  the  total 
for  the  State;  in  1919  they  reported  63.3  per 
cent  of  the  value  of  the  State's  manufactured 
products.  There  were  in  the  State,  in  1909, 
1901  manufacturing  establishments;  in  1914, 
1736,  and  in  1919,  1499.  Persons  engaged  in 
manufacture  numbered  84,191,  85,013,  and  90,- 
332;  while  the  capital  invested  amounted  to 


9130,980,662,  $156,748,853,  and  $320,166,870  in 
those  years.  The  value  of  the  products,  in 
1000,  was  $164,581,010;  in  1014,  $182,843,863; 
and  in  1010,  $407,204,034.  The  increase  in 
value  of  products  from  1014  to  1010  was  in 
great  measure  due  to  changes  in  industrial  con- 
ditions brought  about  by  the  War.  The  first 
industry  in  point  of  value  of  products  is  the 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  amounting  to 
$30,440,000  in  1000;  $46,605,000  in  1014,  and 
$02,250,000  in  1010  The  second  in  this  re- 
spect is  the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  which 
had  a  value  of  $33,602,000  in  1000;  $35,793,- 
000  in  1014;  and  $86,302,000  in  1010.  Manu- 
factures of  woolen  and  worsted  goods,  in  third 
place,  were  valued,  in  1000,  at  $16,731,000; 
1014,  $15,030,000;  and  1010,  $45,044,000.  The 
paper  and  wood  pulp  industry,  next  in  order, 
had  an  output  valued  at  $13,904,000  in  1010; 
$17,708,000  in  1914;  and  $41,826,000  in  1919 
The  most  important  manufacturing  cities  are 
Manchester  and  Nashua.  In  Manchester  there 
were,  in  1909,  175  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, with  a  product  valued  at  $46,812,000; 
1014,  151  with  $50,800,000;  1919,  165  with 
$117,493,000  Nashua  had,  in  1909,  104  manu- 
facturing establishments,  with  a  product  val- 
ued at  $17,326,000;  in  1914,  87  with  $22,780,- 
000;  and  in  1919,  92  with  $48,985,000.  Other 
important  manufacturing  cities  are  Concord, 
Dover,  Keene,  Berlin,  Laconia,  and  Portsmouth. 
Education.  The  development  of  its  educa 


936  KBW  HAItWHlM! 

Political  and  Other  Events.    In  the  decade 


1014-24,  New  Hampshire  remained  consistently 
Republican,  with  the  exception  of  one  year, 
when  the  Democrats  succeeded  in  electing  their 
candidate  for  governor.  In  1014  elect ioiiH  were 
held  for  governor,  United  States  Senator,  and 
Representative  in  Congress.  Rollin  H.  Spald- 
ing  was  reelected  Governor,  and  J.  H.  Galling- 
er was  reelected  to  the  Senate.  The  Republi- 
cans elected  two  Representatives  to  Congress. 
In  the  elections  of  1016  the  Republicans 
elected  their  candidate  for  governor,  Henry  W. 
Keyes,  and  carried  other  State  offices,  although 
at  a  reduced  margin  In  the  presidential  vot- 
ing of  this  year,  President  Wilson  obtained  43,- 
871  votes,  Charles  E  Hushes,  43,725.  At  this 
election  the  people  voted  to  call  a  const  i  tut  ion- 
al  convention.  In  January,  1916,  the  United 
States  government  purchased,  under  the  Weeks 
Forestry  Land  Act,  a  tract  of  5.">,000  acres  to 
be  added  to  the  forest  reserves  of  the  State. 
Senator  Gallinger  died  during  the  primary 
election  campaign  of  1918,  and  the  term  of 
Henry  F.  Hollis,  Democrat,  expired  in  1918.  It 
was  "thus  necessary  to  elect  two  Senators  in 
this  year.  Gov.  Henry  W  Keyes  was  elected 
for  the  regular  term,  and  George  II.  Moses  was 
chosen  successor  to  Senator  Gallinger.  In  the 
State  election,  John  H.  Bartlett,  Republi- 
can, was  elected  governor,  together  with  a  Re- 
publican Legislature.  The  constitutional  con- 
vention met  in  June,  1918,  but  adjourned  fol- 


tional  system  has  always  been  one  of  the  chief       lowing    its    organization.     It    met   twice    subse- 

«.^.~*vA_~_    *t    4-V.A    nn^vnlA    s*t    XTA«T    TJamr\aVtii*A         A  a          mipntlv      Vint     YiMYio     rtf     tViA     aTnanrlmnn t a     if     aiiVi. 


concerns  of  the  people  of  New  Hampshire.  As 
in  the  case  of  the  other  New  England  States,  the 
decrease  in  rural  population  has  proved  a  diffi- 
cult problem.  In  1919  large  sections  of  New 
Hampshire  had  become  so  impoverished  and 
so  depopulated  that  under  the  existing  school 
laws  reasonable  elementary  education  could  not 
possibly  be  provided  for  *a  very  large  number 
of  children.  Because  of  this,  the  Legislature, 
after  a  careful  study,  reorganized  the  school 
system  and  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
the  State  wrote  the  school  laws  into  a  consistent 
code,  in  1921.  The  results  of  this  action  were 
immediate.  The  principles  of  Americanization, 
equalization,  and  supervision  were  adopted. 
More  specifically,  the  Board  of  Education  was 
reorganized,  methods  of  consolidation  were  pro- 
vided, and,  especially,  provision  was  made  for 
education  in  sparsely  populated  districts.  The 
Legislature  of  1923  passed  several  important 
measures  which  amplified  and  revised  measures 
already  enacted  For  one,  the  provisions  of 
the  Smith-Hughes  Act  of  1917  for  the  promo- 
tion of  vocational  education  were  accepted,  and 
the  State  Board  of  Education  was  authorized 
to  arrange  with  institutions,  and  with  the 
school  boards  of  towns  or  city  districts  in  the 
State,  to  furnish  the  necessary  buildings  and 
equipment  for  carrying  out  the  provisions  of 
the  Federal  Act  In  1014  the  enrollment  in 
the  public  schools  was  63,004;  in  1022,  75,683. 
In  the  latter  year,  in  the  elementary  schools, 
58,475  were  enrolled;  in  the  kindergartens, 
1825;  and  in  the  high  schools,  10,322  The 
total  expenditure  for  public  education  in  1023 
was  $5,718,609.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in 
the  State  decreased  from  5.5  in  1010  to  5.4  in 
1020;  among  the  native  white  population,  from 
0.0  to  0.6;  among  the  negro,  from  13.8  to  7.7. 
In  the  foreign -born  population  it  increased 
from  15.4  to  10.4. 
Finance.  For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 


quently,  but  none  of  the  amendments  it 
mitted  to  the  people  was  ratified.  Elections 
were  held  in  1920  for  United  States  Senator 
and  for  governor  and  other  State  officers.  The 
Republicans  elected  their  candidate  for  gov- 
ernor, Albert  O  Brown,  and  reflected  Senator 
Moses  to  the  Senate.  In  tbe  presidential  elec- 
tion of  this  vear,  W.  G.  Harding  received  94,- 
947  votes;  James  M.  Cox,  62,562  In  1922  the 
Democrats  succeeded  to  power  in  the  State  and 
elected  their  candidate  for  governor,  Fred  H. 
Brown,  and  a  Representative  to  Congress. 
They  also  elected  a  majority  of  10  in  the  Leg- 
islature, although  the  Republicans  continued  to 
control  the  Senate.  F.  H.  Brown  was  inau- 
gurated in  January,  1923.  In  his  inaugural 
message  he  favored  a  law  establishing  a 
48-hour  week  for  women  and  children  in  the 
manufacturing  industries,  an  amendment  of 
the  tax  laws,  and  a  tax  of  $.01  a  gallon  on 
gasoline. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of  the 
Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted  be- 
low. The  Legislature  of  1917  amended  the 
laws  relating  to  the  conduct  of  trials  and  made 
provision  for  the  calling  of  a  constitutional 
convention  in  June,  1918.  The  governor  was 
given  authority  to  suspend  the  labor  laws  by 
the  request  of  the  Council  of  National  Defense. 
A  "blue  sky'*  law  was  enacted,  and  tbe  laws 
relating  to  banking  and  education  were  amended. 
The  Legislature  of  1919  ratified  the  Federal 
prohibition  amendment  on  January  16  of  that 
year  and  tbe  woman  suffrage  amendment  on 
September  9.  The  Legislature  of  1921  regu- 
lated the  practice  of  chiropractors;  provided 
further  safeguards  against  forest  fires;  made 
provisions  for  the  protection  of  maternity  and 
infancy;  and  regulated  and  limited  the  invest- 
ments of  savings  banks.  In  1923  the  Legis- 
lature made  provision  for  another  constitution- 
al convention;  passed  a  uniform  sales  act,  lev- 

30 


NEW  HAMPSHIBE  UNIVEBSITY 


led  a  gasoline  tax,  and  laid  a  tax  on  income 
from  intangibles 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  UNIVERSITY  or.  A 
coeducational  State  institution  at  Durham,  N. 
H.,  founded  as  the  New  Hampshire  College  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts  in  lSf>0  and 
incorporated  as  the  University  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, July  1,  1023  The  university  more  than 
tripled  in  size  during  the  decade  hot  ween 
1013-14  and  1923-24,  with  300  students  en- 
rolled and  46  members  of  the  faculty  in  the 
foimer  year  as  compared  with  1123  students 
and  00  members  of  the  faculty  in  the  latter 
The  libiary  was  increased  from  35,000  to  47,- 
800  volumes.  Two  men's  dormitories,  a  wom- 
en's dormitory,  and  a  commons  building  were 
added  to  the  physical  plant.  Ralph  Dorn 
lletzel,  A.13.,  LL.15.,  LL  D..  succeeded  Edward 
Thomson  Fairchild,  A.M.,  LUD ,  as  president 
in  1017. 

NEW  HAVEN.  The  largest  city  of  Connec- 
ticut and  the  fourth  largest  city  of  New  Eng- 
land; a  manufacturing  and  educational  centre. 
The  population  rose  from  133,005  in  1010  to 
162,537  in  1020  and  to  172,007  by  estimate  of 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for  1023  A  new 
inilroad  station  was  built,  as  well  as  a  num- 
ber of  new  building^  at  Yale  University,  and 
a  commeicinl  hi«h  school  and  two  junior  high 
schools;  and  tliere  \\as  a  \\ide  extension  of 
manufacturing  and  office  facilities.  More  than 
r>00  acres  \\cre  added  to  the  city  park  system, 
including  shore  frontage  for  a  municipal  bath 
bench 

NEW  HEBRIDES.  See  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
ISLANDS. 

NEW  JERSEY.  New  Jersey  is  the  forty-fifth 
State  in  size  (8224  square  miles),  and  the  tenth 
in  population ;  capital.  Trenton.  The  popula- 
tion increased  from  2,537,107  in  1010  to  3,155,- 
000  in  1020,  a  gain  of  24.4  per  cent.  The  white 
population  increased  fiom  2,445,804  to  3,037,- 
OH7;  Xegro,  from  80,700  to  117.132;  native 
white,  from  1,787,700  to  2,208,474;  and  fore i un- 
born white,  from  058,188  to  738,013.  Both  ur- 
ban and  ruial  populations  inci  eased  during 
the  decade;  the  former  from  1,007,210  to  2,474,- 
03(5;  the  latter,  from  020,057  to  680/KJ4  The 
growth  of  the  principal  cities  was  as  follows 
Newark  (qv.),  347,400  (1010),  to  414,524 
(1020);  Jersey  City  (q.v.),  207,770  to  298,- 
103;  Paterson  "(q.v.),  125,600  to  135,875;  Tren- 
ton (qv.).  00,815  to  110,280,  Caniden  (qv.), 
04,538  to  110,300. 

Agriculture.  In  common  with  most  of  the 
eastern  States,  the  development  of  agiiculture 
in  the  decade  1010-20  did  not  keep  pace  with 
tho  growth  in  population.  This  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  while  the  population  increased 
during  the  decade  24  4  per  cent,  the  number 
of  farms  decreased  11.3  per  cent  (from  33,487 
in  1910  to  20,702  in  1020)  -,  the  rural  popula- 
tion decreased  from  20.4  per  cent  in  1000  to 
248  per  cent  in  1010  and  21.3  per  cent  in 
1920.  The  acreage  of  land  in  farms  decreased 
11.3  per  cent,  or  from  2,573,857  acres  to  2,282,- 
585;  while  the  improved  land  in  farms  showed 
an  even  greater  decrease,  from  1.803,330  to  1,- 
655,007  acres  or  13.7  per  cent  The  percentage 
of  the  total  land  area  in  farms  decreased  from 
53.5  per  cent  in  1010  to  47.5  per  cent  in  1020, 
while  tho  percentage  of  improved  land  in 
farms  decreased  from  37.5  to  32.3.  The  total 
value  of  farm  property  in  the  State  showed  an 
apparent  increase  of  22.4  per  cent,  or  from 

3* 


937  NEW  JTERSEY 

$254,832,665  to  $311,847,948;  the  average  val- 
ue per  farm,  from  $7610  to  $10,499.  In  inter- 
preting these  values,  however,  and,  indeed,  all 
comparative  values  in  the  decade  1914-24,  the 
inflation  of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of 
that  period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers 
of  farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104 
in  1910  and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  29,702  farms 
in  1920,  21,889  \vere  operated  by  owners,  987 
by  managers  and  6826  by  tenants.  The  cor- 
responding figures  for  1910  were  24,133,  1060 
and  8204.  White  farmers  in  1020  numbered 
29,167  and  colored  farmers,  535.  In  1010,  the 
white  farmers  numbered  33,011  and  colored 
farmers,  476.  Farms  free  from  mortgage  in 
1920  were  10,000;  those  under  mortgage,  10,- 
085.  In  1910,  the  unmortgaged  farms  num- 
beied  11,083;  those  under  mortgage,  11,793. 
The  total  number  of  cattle  in  1920  was  I7fl,- 
459.  in  1910,  222,999.  Dairy  cattle  numbered 
172,603  and  154,418,  in  those  years.  Sheep  in 
1920  numbered  10,471,  compared  with  30,683 
in  1010;  hogs,  130,222  as  compared  with  147,- 
005  The  estimated  production  of  the  chief 
farm  products  in  1923  was  as  follows:  corn, 
9,416,000  bushels;  wheat,  1,480,000  bushels; 
oats,  1,588,000  bushels;  rye,  1,157,000  bushels; 
potatoes,  6,360,000  bushels;  sweet  potatoes,  2,- 
323,000  bushels,  hay,  313,000  tons;  and  peaches, 
2,380,000  bushels.  Comparative  figures  for  1913 
are:  corn,  10,862,000  bushels:  wheat,  1,408,000; 
oats,  2,030,000;  rye,  1,260,000;  potatoes,  8,930,- 
000;  and  hay,  469,000  tons. 

Mining.  New  Jersey  is  one  of  the  most 
important  mineral-producing  States  in  the  east- 
ern part  of  the  country,  and  it  is  the  only  far 
eastern  State  that  produces  zinc.  Although  it 
lias  a  considerable  diversity  of  mincial  prod- 
ucts, the  most  important  are  clay  pioducts  and 
zinc.  The  values  of  the  clay  products  have 
been  $l(i,484,652  (1914);  $20,814,402  (1916); 
$20,741,244  (1018);  $40,021,028  (1920);  $27,- 
214,685  (1921).  Zinc  production  was  74,253 
short  tons  (1914);  112,020  short  tons  (1016); 
08.470  (1918);  77,371  (1020);  56,447  (1021) 
Cement  is  also  one  of  the  most  important  min- 
eral products,  shipments  were  3,530,476  bar- 
rels \alued  at  $3,081,205  (1014)  :  2,307,060  bar- 
rels, $2,062,502  (1017);  2,563,453,  $5,006,558 
(1020);  2,840,699,  $4,820,538  (1921)  In  ad- 
dition to  the  minerals  mentioned,  the  State  pro- 
duces a  small  quantity  of  iron  ore  and  lar#e 
quantities  of  sand,  gravel  and  stone.  The  to- 
tal value  of  the  minerals  in  1021  was  $47,429,- 
•290,  compared  with  $72,335,207  in  1920;  $56,- 
898,033  in  1010;  $49,510,290  in  1918;  and  $31,- 
756,503  in  1914. 

Manufactures.  New  Jersey  is  one  of  the 
leading  industrial  States.  In  1920,  there  were 
39  cities  having  a  population  of  more  than 
10,000.  These  contained  65  6  per  cent  of  the 
total  population  of  the  State,  and  in  1919  re- 
ported 76.4  per  cent  of  the  State's  manufac- 
tured products  There  were  in  the  State  8817 
manufacturing  establishments  in  1909;  9742  in 
1014:  and  11,057  in  1919.  Persons  engaged  in 
manufacture  numbered  371,265,  431,003,  and 
602.170;  and  the  capital  invested  amounted  to 
$077,172,141,  $1,352,381,873,  and  $2,815,577,- 
127,  in  those  years  The  total  value  of  the 
products  was  $1,145,520,076  in  1909;  $1,406,- 
633,414  in  1014;  and  $3,672,064,987  in  1910. 
The  large  increase  in  value  of  products  during 
1914-19  was  due  largely  to  the  change  in  in- 


NEW  JEB8EY 


9*8 


NEW  JEB8EY 


dustrial  conditions  brought  about  by  the  War, 
and  cannot  be  properly  used  to  measure  the 
growth  of  manufactures  during  the  period;  but 
the  increase  in  number  of  wage  earners  and 
in  number  of  establishments  indicates  clearly 
a  decided  growth  in  the  manufacturing  activi- 
ties of  the  State.  The  most  important  indus- 
try in  point  of  value  of  product  is  the  refining 
of  petroleum,  valued  in  1014  at  $00,877,000; 
and  in  1019,  at  $280,005,000.  The  smelting 
and  refining  of  copper  ranks  second  in  this  re- 
spect: in  1000,  $125,651,000;  in  1014.  $159,199,- 
000;  and  in  1010,  $244,260,000.  Shipbuilding, 
in  third  place,  had  a  product  valued  at  $8,841,- 
000  in  1000;  $11,861,000  in  1014;  and  $238,- 
015,000  in  1910;  the  extraordinary  increase 
from  1914  to  1919  being  due  to  the  conditions 
resulting  from  the  War.  The  three-year  peri- 
od from  1916  to  1919  shows  an  abnormal  in- 
crease in  vessels  and  gross  tonnage  launched, 
which  renders  comparison  of  little  value.  Silk 
goods,  next  in  order,  were  valued  in  1909  at 
$65,540,000;  in  1914,  $75,706,000,  and  in  1919, 
$215,051,000.  The  most  important  manufac- 
turing cities  are  Newark,  Jersey  City.  Paterson 
and  Trenton.  In  Newark  there  were  1857  man- 
ufacturing establishments  in  1009,  with  a  prod- 
uct valued  at  $201,888,000:  2273  in  l'U4,  with 
$210,601,000;  and  2155  in  1919,  with  $577,609,- 
000.  In  Paterson,  there  were  702  in  1W),  \\ith 
$69,263,000;  735  in  1914,  with  $78,429,000; 
1044  in  1919,  with  $216,659.000.  Jersey  Citj 
had  745  manufacturing  establishments  in  1909, 
with  a  product  valued  at  $128,775,000;  770  in 
1914,  with  $164,529,000;  896  in  1919,  with 
$374,183,000.  Similar  figures  for  Trenton  were 
340  manufacturing  establishments,  with  a  prod- 
uct valued  at  $49,115,000;  394  with  $34,822.- 
000;  389  with  $122,478,000.  Other  important 
manufacturing  cities  are  Camden,  Bayonne,  Ho- 
boken  and  Passaic. 

Education.  In  the  decade  1914-24,  impor- 
tant progress  was  made  in  educational  matters 
in  New  Jersey.  Much  important  legislation 
was  passed,  especially  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
period.  In  1919,  there  was  established  by  law 
a  new  teachers'  pension  annuity  system  to  su- 
persede the  old  teachers'  retirement  fund.  The 
new  system  operates  on  an  actuarial  basis: 
contributions  from  salaries  of  teachers  are 
matched  by  the  State,  and  this  provides  a  pen- 
sion of  approximately  half  pay.  A  compulsory 
physical  education  law  also  was  passed  in 
1919;  and  a  continuation  school  law,  requiring 
children  from  14  to  16  years  of  age  to  attend 
continuation  classes  six  hours  a  week  after 
working  papers  have  been  obtained.  In  1922, 
provision  was  made  for  special  aid  by  the  State 
to  school  districts  not  able  of  themselves  to 
provide  satisfactory  schools.  The  complete  sur- 
vey of  finances  and  business  procedure  of  school 
districts  made  in  1921-22  resulted  in  improved 
methods  in  the  handling  of  public  moneys.  A 
new  normal  school  was  opened  at  Glasborough 
in  1923,  and  in  the  same  year  plans  were 
started  for  a  new  normal  school  in  Jersey  City. 
Between  1913  and  1923,  the  enrollment  in  the 
public  schools  increased  from  501,948  to  646,- 
046,  and  the  number  of  teachers  increased  from 
14,811  to  18,273.  In  the  bame  period  the  cost 
of  education  more  than  doubled,  the  cost  per 
pupil,  based  on  average  daily  attendance,  being 
$91.77  in  1923  as  contracted  with  $43.72  in 
1913.  The  chief  item  in  this  greatly  increased 
cost  was  the  much  higher  salaries  for  teachers. 


The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State  de- 
creased from  6.7  in  1910  to*6.6  in  1920:  among 
the  native  white  population,  from  1.4  to  0.9  per 
cent;  among  the  Negro,  from  11.0  to  7.5.  The 
foreign-born  white  population  increased  from 
14.8  to  16.3  per  cent 

Finance.    For  finances,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  The  control  in 
New  Jersey  in  the  decade  1914-24  was  divided 
between  the  Republican  and  Democratic  parties, 
with  the  preponderance  of  power  with  the 
former.  In  1914  the  Republicans  elected  a  ma- 
jority in  both  branches  of  the  Legislature  for 
the  first  time  since  1911.  They  also  elected 
eight  Representatives  in  Congress,  and  the  Dem- 
ocrats, four.  In  1915,  at  a  special  election  on 
October  19,  an  amendment  extending  the  suf- 
frage to  women  was  defeated.  In  election** 
held  in  November  of  this  year,  for  members 
of  the  State  Senate  and  the  House,  the  Re- 
publicans increased  their  majorities  in  both 
branches  of  the  Legislature.  In  1916  elections 
were  held  for  governor  and  for  United  States 
Senator.  Walter  E.  Edge,  Republican,  was 
elected  governor,  and  Joseph  S.  Frelinghuysen 
was  elected  to  the  Senate  In  the  presidential 
voting  of  this  year,  Charles  E.  Hughes  received 
268,982  votes;  President  Wilson,  211.018.  The 
voters  of  Newark,  on  Aug.  9,  1917,  adopted  a 
commission  form  of  go\ernment.  In  1919  the 
Democrats  elected  their  candidate  for  governor, 
Edward  I.  Edwards,  but  the  Republicans  held 
the  Legislature.  In  1920  the  presidential  vot- 
ing gave  Warren  G.  Harding  611,541  votes; 
James  M.  Cox,  256,887.  In  1922  the  Demo- 
crats were  successful  in  electing  George  S.  Sil- 
ver, go\ernor;  E.  I.  Edwards,  United  States 
Senator;  and  six  Representative*  in  Congress. 
The  Republicans  held  both  houses  of  the  Leg- 
islature. The  chief  issue  of  the  campaign  was 
prohibition.  The  Democratic  candidates  lor  gov- 
ernor and  Senator  openly  opposed  the  State 
prohibition  enforcement  act  and  the  Volstead 
Act.  On  Feb.  2,  1922,  the  State  court  of  Er- 
rors and  Appeals  held  the  State  prohibition  en- 
forcement law  constitutional  but  "unworkable," 
and  a  new  act  was  passed  by  the  Republican 
Legislature.  Governor  Silzer,  elected  in  1922, 
was  inaugurated  governor  on  Jan.  16,  1923.  A 
contest  lasting  ei^ht  weeks  between  the  Gov- 
ernor and  the  Legislature  over  the  appointment 
of  a  new  highway  commission  endea  with  the 
confirmation  of  the  Governor's  nominations. 
The  commission  is  headed  by  Gen.  Hugh  L. 
Scott. 

Legislation.  The  Legislature  in  New  Jersey 
meets  annually.  The  most  important  acts  in 
the  decade  1914-24  are  noted  below.  In  1914 
the  Legislature  passed  a  home  rule  act  affording 
cities  under  a  commission  form  of  government 
greater  latitude  in  the  administration  of  local 
•affairs.  In  1914  the  Legislature  passed  a  con- 
current resolution  extending  the  suffrage  to 
women.  As  the  amendment  resolution  had  al- 
ready passed  the  preceding  Legislature,  it  was 
submitted  to  the  people,  as  noted  above,  on 
October  19,  and  was  defeated.  The  Legislature 
of  1917  amended  the  health  laws  of  the  State  in 
important  details.  In  1918  the  Legislature 
passed  a  local  option  bill  and  a  supplement  to 
the  corrupt  practices  act  and  amended  the  child 
labor  and  other  laws.  A  workmen's  compensa- 
tion bureau  was  created,  as  well  as  a  depart- 
ment of  charities  and  corrections  with  super- 
visory capacity  over  certain  State  institutions. 


NEW  JEBUBALEM 

The  Legislature  also  created  an  Inter-State 
Bridge  and  Tunnel  Commission,  a  Board  of 
Fisheries  and  a  Boxing  Commission.  Several 


999 


NEW  MEXICO 


church  established  there.  In  the  same  year  the 
federation  of  French-speaking  New  Church  peo- 
pie  wan  formed,  and  in  August,  1924,  a  federa- 


measures  relating  to  the  war  emergency  were      tion    of   German-speaking   New    Church    people 
t.M~i  -*  «.!.  D™;,>~      T«  inin  *!..  i«.«-  .Ai~*       wag   organized     The    various   branches    of    the 

New  Church,  both  British  and  American,  in 
1922  brought  to  completion  the  photofacsimile 
reproduction  of  Swedenborg's  theological  manu- 
scripts (18  thick  folio  volumes,  supplementing 
10  others  previously  published)  and  the  100 
seta  were  apportioned  to  church  depositaries 
and  large  public  and  university  libraries. 

NEWMAN,  HORATIO  HACKFTT  (1875-  ). 
An  American  zoologist,  bom  near  Seale,  Ala  , 
and  educated  at  McM aster  University  and  the 
University  of  Chicago.  lie  was  instiuctor  iii 
zoology  at  the  University  of  Michigan  (1905- 
08);  professor  at  the  University  of  Texas. 
(1908-11),  and  associate  professor  (1911-17), 
professor  (1917-  ),  and  dean  of  the  college** 
of  science  (1915-  ),  at  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago He  published  The  Biology  of  Twins 
(1917),  Vertebrate  Zoology  (1919),  and  Read- 
wgs  in  Kvolution,  Uenetics  and  Heredity 
(1921). 

NEW  MEXICO.  Xew  Mexico  is  the  fourth 
State  in  size  (122,634  square  miles),  and  the 
forty-third  in  population ;  capital,  Santa  Fe.  The 
population  increased  from  327,301  in  1910  to 
360,350  in  1920,  a  gain  of  10.1  per  cent.  The  white 
population  increased  from  304,594  to  334,673. 
Negro,  from  1628  to  5733;  native  white,  from 
281,940  to  305,596,  and  the  foreign-born  white, 
from  22,654  to  29,077  The  number  of  Indians 
in  1920  was  19,512,  compared  with  20,573  in 
1910.  Tho  urban  population  of  the  State  rose 
during  the  decade  from  46,571  to  64,960,  the 
rural,  from  280,730  to  295,390.  The  only  large 
city  in  the  State  is  Albuquerque,  which  in- 
ci  eased  fiom  11,020  in  1910  to  15,157  in  1920. 

Agriculture.  While  the  population  of  the 
State  increased  10.1  per  cent  in  the  decade 
1910-20,  the  number  of  faims  decreased  163 
per  cent  (from  35,676  to  29,844).  The  acreage 
in  farms,  howe\ei,  showed  a  decided  increase 
from  11,270,021  to  .£4,409,638,  or  1166  per 
cent;  and  the  acreage  of  improved  land  in 
farms  increased  from  1,467,191  lo  1,717,224. 
The  total  percentage  of  the  total  area  used  for 
agricultural  purposes  increased  from  14  4  in 
1910  to  31.1  in  1920;  but  the  percentage  of 
farm  land  improved  decreased  from  13  to  7  per 
cent  The  total  value  of  farm  property  showed 
an  apparent  increase  from  $159,447,990  up  to 
$325,185,599,  or  1039  per  cent,  the  average 
value  per  farm  from  $4469  to  $10,896  In  in- 
terpreting these  values,  and.  indeed,  all  com- 
Sarative  values  in  the  decade  1*914-24,  the  in- 
ation  of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of 
that  period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers 
of  farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104 
in  1910  and  21f>  in  1920.  Of  the  29,844  farms 
in  1920,  25,756  were  operated  by  owners,  433 
by  managers,  and  3655  by  tenants  The  com- 
parative figures  for  1920  were  33,398,  321,  and 
1957  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered  27,969, 
of  whom  26,593  were  native  Of  the  1875  col- 
ored farmers,  1833  were  Indians.  White  farm- 
ers in  1910  numbered  33,528;  native  white 
farmers,  32,088;  and  colored  farmers,  2148. 
Farms  free  from  mortgage  in  1920  numbered 
16,650,  compared  with  31,382  in  1910;  those 
under  mortgage  numbered  6257,  compared  witli 
1775.  The  number  of  dairy  cows  decreased 


passed  at  this  session.  In  1919  the  laws  relat- 
ing to  the  State  charitable,  penal,  and  reform- 
atory institutions  were  revised.  Provision  was 
made  for  the  appointment  of  a  commission  to 
investigate  the  tax  la  us.  This  Legislature  al- 
HO  passed  a  measure  permitting  a  jury,  as  a 
part  of  its  verdict,  to  recommend  life  imprison- 
ment, in  which  case  the  death  penalty  shall  not 
be  imposed.  The  Legislatuie  also 'enacted  a 
child  labor  law  and  passed  measures  forbidding 
the  display  of  the  red  flag  or  any  other  svmbol 
or  emblem  calculated  to  excite  hostilitv  or  vio- 
lence against  the  goveininent  The  Legislature 
rejected  the  Federal  prohibition  amendment  on 
Mar  18,  1919.  In  19 JO  the  Legislature  passed 
a  measure  permitting  the  manufacture  and  sale 
in  the  State  of  liquor  containing  3  5  per  cent 
alcohol.  Provision  \\as  made  for  a  retirement 
pension  for  police  and  firemen.  A  bond  issue 
of  $28,000,000  for  the  share  of  New  Jersey  in 
the  Delaware  Hridge  between  Camden  and  Phil- 
adelphia, and  the  Hudson  River  vehicular  tun- 
nel between  Jersey  City  and  Xew  York,  was 
authorized  In  1921  the  Assembly  ratified  the 
prohibition  amendment,  but  it  was  defeated  by 
the  Senate  The  35  per  cent  alcohol  act  was 
repealed.  The  Legislature  created  in  1921  a 
Department  of  State  Police  This  bill  was  ve- 
toed by  Governor  Edwards,  but  was  passed  over 
bis  veto.  In  1922  the  Legislature  passed  meas- 
ures appropriating  $100,000  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  port  of  New  York,  under  a  joint 
board  of  members  from  New  York  and  New 
.Jersey  The  Legislature  on  Mar.  9,  1922,  final- 
ly ratified  the  Eighteenth  Amendment  and 
passed  laws  for  prohibition  enforcement  over 
the  Governor's  veto  It  also  authori/cd  a  bond 
issue  of  $40,000,000  for  the  construction  of 
good  roads.  In  1923  the  Legislature  passed  a 
measure  extending  the  payment  of  a  soldiers' 
bonus  to  1924,  prohibited  night  work  for  wom- 
en in  factories  after  Dec  31,  1924,  authorized 
cities  to  adopt  the  city-manager  form  of  gov- 
ernment, and  passed  an  act  to  prevent  mob 
violence. 

NEW  JERUSALEM,  CHURCH  OF  THE.  This 
organization,  commonly  known  as  the  New 
Church,  which  considers  itself  the  organ  of  a 
new  spiritual  dispensation  and  not  a  denomina- 
tion of  the  historic  Christian  church,  teaches 
that  the  true  doctrines  of  Christianity  and  the 
spiritual  meaning  of  the  Scriptures  were  re- 
vealed in  the  writings  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg 
The  first  society  was  established  in  1787  in 
London  and  the  first  local  organization  in  the 
United  States  in  1792.  The  General  Conven- 
tion of  the  New  Jerusalem  in  the  United  States 
of  America  was  founded  in  1817.  Owing  to  the 
adoption  of  a  stricter  method  of  counting,  in- 
volving also  the  omission  of  Canadian  mem- 
bers, the  General  Convention  declined  in  num- 
ber of  societies  from  96  in  1914  to  86  in  1924 
and  in  membership  from  6423  to  5959.  Home 
missionary  work  was  carried  on  during  this  pe- 
riod in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  for- 
eign missions  in  Denmark,  France,  Germany, 
Switzerland,  Latvia,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Austria, 
Sweden,  Japan,  and  British  Guiana;  and  by  the 
General  Church  and  the  British  Conference  also 
in  South  Africa  and  India.  A  missionary  was 
sent  to  the  Philippines  in  1921,  and  the  first 


NEW  MEXICO 


930 


from  51,451  in  1910  to  45,827  in  1020;   "beef 
cows"  increased  from  579,601  to  797,077;  both 


HEW  MEXICO 

whose  duty  it  was  to  assist  the  various  agen- 
cies throughout  the  State  in   the  preparation 


increase  and  decrease  being  due  partly  to  change      of  their  financial  budgets.    The  State,  in  1917, 


in  classification  employed  in  these  years.  Sheep 
decreased  from  2,804,084  in  1010  to  1,640,475 
in  1020;  hogs  increased  from  45,400  to  87,006. 
The  area  under  irrigation  increased  from  401,- 
718  acres  in  1900  to  538,377  acres  in  1010. 
The  estimated  production  of  the  principal  farm 
crops  in  1923  was  as  follows:  corn,  3,429,000 
bushels;  spring  wheat,  1,323,000  bushels;  win- 
ter wheat,  446,000  bushels;  oats,  1,735,000  bush- 
els;  barley,  258,000  bushels;  potatoes,  336,000 
bushels,  and  hay,  358,000  tons  Comparative 
figures  for  1913  are:  corn,  1,572,000  bushels; 
wheat,  1,221,000;  oats,  1,500,000;  barley,  06,- 
000;  potatoes,  612,000;  and  hay,  300,000  tons. 
Mining.  New  Mexico  is  rich  in  mineral 


took  advantage  of  the  Federal  act  which  fur- 
nished aid  to  the  States  for  the  development  of 
\ocational  education,  under  the  provisions  of 
the  State  law,  the  Board  of  Education  being 
also  the  Vocational  Board  of  Education;  and 
vocational  education  was  provided  in  both  day 
and  night  schools.  Vocational  rehabilitation 
was  also  established  with  very  satisfactory  re- 
sults The  total  enrollment  in  the  State  in 
1914  was  67,147.  This  had  increased,  in  1922, 
to  76,670  (50,093  in  county  rural  schools,  10,- 
845  in  city  schools,  and  15,732  in  town  schools). 
The  ordinary  expenditure  for  all  schools  was 
$4,362,756,  in  addition  to  which  there  were 
special  levies  amounting  to  over  $2,000,000 


lesources  which  have  not  yet  been  fully  deyel-  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State  de- 
oped,  principal  among  them,  in  order  of  im-  creased  from  234  in  1010  to  180  in  1020: 
portance,  being  coal,  copper,  silver  and  clay  among  the  native  white  population,  from  188 
products.  The  progress  of  the  mineral  industry  to  152;  among  the  foreign-bom,  from  31.2  to 
during  the  decade  1014-24  is  indicated  by  a  28.6;  among  the  Negro,  from  15.9  to  4.4. 


comparison  of  production  figures  for  the  prin- 
cipal minerals  The  coal  production  was 
3,877,689  net  tons,  valued  at  $6/230,871  in 
1014;  3,817,040  tons,  $5,481,301  (1915), 
3,793,011,  $5,580,369  (1916);  4,000,527,  $7,455,- 
160  (1917),  4,023,239,  $10,787,082  (1918), 
3,683,440,  $13,508,000  (1920),  2,453,482,  $9,- 
585,000  (lf)21).  The  increased  value  in  1920 
and  1921  was  due  chiefly  to  the  inflation  of  the 
currency  and  a  corresponding  decline  in  the 
purchasing  power  of  money.  The  output  of 
gold,  copper,  silver,  lead  and  zinc  for  several 
years  during  the  decade  was  as  shown  in  the 


Finance.  For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES, 
Political  and  Other  Events.  An  election 
was  held  in  1914  for  Representatives  in  Congress 
and  for  certain  State  officials.  At  this  elec- 
tion three  amendments  to  the  State  con- 
stitution were  voted  on  and  carried.  One 
of  these  provided  that  State  and  county 
officials  may  succeed  themselves.  Another  re- 
duced the  term  of  State  and  county  officials 
from  four  to  two  years,  and  a  third  re- 
pealed the  clause  on  taxation  in  the  constitu- 
tion and  eliminated  the  State  Board  of  Equal- 
ization In  elections  the  Republicans  wete 


OUTPUT  OF  MINERALS  IN  NEW  MEXICO 
Copper                    Gold                      Silver 
Year                                                                          Pounds                 Dollars              Fine  ounces 

Lead 
Pounds 

Zmr 
Pounds 

1914    

.    ...    59  307  925 

$1,171.696 
1,382,480 
683,791 
480,302 
196  822 
412,693 

1.777,445 
1,766,274 
782,421 
768,042 
571,899 
752,240 

1,763,641 
8,214.189 
8,398.239 
2,869,525 
G78.601 
8,012.223 

18,403,39^ 
36,570  049 
24.050,324 
10,013  580 
2'J8,000 
4,496,800 

1916    

92  747  289 

1918    .       .., 
1920    .       .       .           

98.204.563 
54,400,691 

1921    

.  .14  207  33rt 

1922    .             .       .                ... 

31937  207 

table  The  decrease  in  production  in  1021  was 
due  largely  to  the  depression  in  business  con- 
ditions which  affected  metal  mining.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  minerals  mentioned,  the  State  pro- 
duces iron  ore,  sand  and  gravel,  and  stone. 
The  total  value  of  the  mineral  production  in 
1921  was  $13,227,2*58,  compared  with  $27,883,- 
505  in  1920,  $22,079,900  in  1<)19,  $40,631,024 
in  1918,  and  $18,072,919  in  1914 

Manufactures.  See  UNITED  STATES,  Jfanu- 
factures. 

Education.  There  was  steady  development 
in  education  in  New  Mexico  during  the  decade 
1914-24.  The  elementary  schools  undertook  to 
furnish  education  not  only  in  the  essential 
branches,  but  also  in  vocational  training,  in- 
cluding agriculture,  domestic  science,  and  man- 
ual training  The  secondary  schools  during 
the  10  years  of  Statehood  showed  a  remarkable 
increase  in  their  development,  the  number  hav- 
ing practically  doubled  and  the  ratio  of  attend- 
ance grown  proportionately.  In  addition  to 
these  educational  activities,  the  State  provided 
for  the  education  of  the  blind  and  the  deaf  and 
dumb.  The  county  unit  for  administration 
purposes  was  developed  in  1913  and  supple- 
mented by  the  county  unit  law  of  1915  for  pur- 
poses of  taxation  In  1921,  the  Legislature 
made  provision  for  an  educational  auditor, 


generally  successful.  In  1910  the  Democrats 
carried  the  State,  electing  A.  A.  Jones  as  United 
States  Senator  In  the  voting  for  president 
this  year,  President  Wilson  received  33,527 
votes;  Charles  E  Hughes,  31,152.  The  Demo- 
cratic candidate  for  governor,  E.  C.  De  Haca, 
was  elected,  together  with  nearly  half  the 
other  State  officers  In  1918  the  Republicans 
again  returned  to  power  and  elected  their  can- 
didate for  governor,  O.  A.  Larrozolo.  Al- 
bert B.  Fall,  Republican,  was  elected  United 
States  Senator.  In  1920  elections  were  held 
for  governor  and  other  State  officers.  Meriitt 
C.  Mechem,  Republican  candidate,  was  elected 
governor.  In  the  presidential  voting  of  this 
year,  W.  G.  Harding  received  57,034  votes; 
J.  M.  Cox,  40,008.  Senator  Fall  resigned  in 
1921  to  become  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  the 
cabinet  of  President  Harding.  At  elections 
held  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  his  appoint- 
ment. Holm  O.  Bursum,  Republican,  was  elected. 
The  Democrats  regained  power  in  1923,  electing 
their  candidate  for  governor,  James  F.  Hinkle, 
and  reflected  Senator  Jones  for  the  Senate. 
Governor  Hinkle  was  inaugurated  in  January, 
1923  In  his  inaugural  address  he  condemned 
the  State  policy  of  road  construction,  urged  the 
abolition  of  county  boards  of  education,  and 
proposed  a  State-wide  primary  law. 


NEW  O&LBAKB 


Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of 
the  Legislature  in  the  decade  1014-24  are  noted 
below.  In  the  Legislature  of  1015,  a  work- 
men's compensation  law  was  passed  by  the 
House  but  was  defeated  in  the  Senate.  The 
Legislature  of  1017  enacted  a  workmen's  com- 
pensation law  and  amended  the  statutes  relat- 
ing to  the  administration  of  justice.  In  1010, 
the  Legislature  amended  the  tax  laws  and  cre- 
ated a  State  Board  of  Dental  Examiners  and 
a  Girls'  Welfare  Board.  It  also  provided  for 
the  recodification  of  the  general  banking  law 
and  authon/ed  the  commission  form  of  govern- 
ment in  cities  of  10,000  or  more  population. 
In  1021,  the  Legislature  made  additional  pro- 
visions for  the  protection  of  game,  regulated 
the  hours  of  labor  for  children,  regulated 
the  practice  of  chiropractic,  created  the  office 
of  county  flood  commissioner,  and  provided  for 
emergency  flood  districts  and  their  administra- 
tion. It  also  prohibited  gambling  in  the  State, 
provided  for  a  succession  tax,  created  a  De- 
partment of  Public  Welfare,  and  regulated  and 
limited  the  working  hours  of  women.  The  Leg- 
islature of  1023  proposed  an  amendment  to  in- 
crease the  term  of  State  officers  in  the  State  ex- 
ecutive department  and  county  officers  from  two 
to  four  yearn,  passed  a  measure  making  it  a 
felon v  to  sell  or  give  liquor  to  minors,  and 
passed  bills  to  facilitate  cooperative  market- 
nig  of  agricultural  products;  provisions  were 
made  for  creating  associations  for  this  purpose. 

NEW  OBLEANS.  The  largest  city  of 
Louisiana,  and  a  poit  of  entry.  The  popula- 
tion rone  from  330,075  in  1010  to  387,210  in 
11)20  and  to  410,000  by  estimate  of  the  Bureau 
of  the  Census  for  1024.  The  most  extensive 
uo?k  carried  on  by  the  city  during  the  decade 
1014-24  was  the  improxcment  of  the  port  and 
the  inner  haibor  bv  the  construction  of  the 
Industrial  Canal  joining  the  Mississippi  River 
Miid  Lake  Pontrhartrain,  an  arm  of  the  Gulf  of 
.Mexico  The  completion  of  this  undertaking 
</HVP  a  new  harbor  of  quiet  water  which  varied 
1(5  inches  between  high  and  low  water  as  com- 
pared with  the  10  feet  variation  of  the  river 
level,  and  also  shortened  the  distance  to  deep  wa- 
ter. 1  lie  canal  was  5%  miles  long  ani  30  feet 
deep  at  low  water,  and  was  equipped  with  a 
concrete  and  steel  lock  1020  by  130  feet  and 
OS  feet  f )om  top  to  bottom.  This  was  com- 
pleted in  1023  and  cost  about  $20.000,000.  The 
cast  bank  of  the  river  was  built  up  a  consider- 
nble  height  by  pumping  mud  from  the  river 
bottom  by  pipe-line  dredge.  Four  concrete 
fireproof  cotton  warehouses  and  a  large  grain 
elevator  were  built  on  this  land.  Active  city 
planning  was  started  in  1020. 

The  successful  campaigns  which  have  been 
waged  in  New  Orleans  since  the  beginning  of 
this  century  against  disease  and  the  conditions 
icsponsiblo  for  epidemics  in  the  past  has  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  medical  men  all  over 
the  world.  Yellow  fever,  malaria,  typhoid,  and 
bubonic  plague  have  all  practically  been  elim- 
inated from  the  health  records  of  the  city 
through  the  destruction  bf  cisterns,  the  installa- 
tion of  a  model  water  purification  plant,  the  rat- 
proofing  of  public  buildings  and  docks,  and  the 
installation  of  an  elaborate  drainage  system. 

The  value  of  building  permits  issued  by  the 
city  increased  from  $1,700,514  in  1018  to  $13,- 
000,015  in  1023  and  the  property  valuation 
from  $443,157,725  to  $521,056,873.  Post  office 
receipts  rose  from  $1,260,874  in  1914  to  $2,- 


932 


YOB* 


466,316  in  1923,  and  bank  resources  from  $245,- 
563,032  in  1021  to  $297,017,705  in  1923.  Ex- 
ports in  foreign  commerce  rose  from  3,580,737 
short  tons  in  1014  to  5,004,276  in  1922,  and 
imports  from  1,472,323  short  tons  to  5,110,663; 
coastwise  shipping  increased  from  361,198  tons 
received  and  1303,863  tons  shipped  in  1014  to 
057,623  tons  received  and  1,692,437  tons  shipped 
in  1922.  The  number  of  persons  engaged  in 
manufacturing  rose  from  17,186  receiving  $8,- 
020,000  in  wages  and  making  products  worth 
$78,704,000  in  1010  to  2tJ,G41  persons  receiving 
$24,014,000  in  wages  and  making  products 
worth  $182,700,000  in  1020.  The  number  of 
public  schools  increased  from  88  with  an  en- 
rollment of  51,39r>  in  1020  to  108  witb  enroll- 
ment of  62,307  in  1024  In  the  years  1915-24, 
GO  miles  of  streets  were  newly  paved,  54  miles 
of  sewers  laid,  the  fire  department  was  motor- 
ized and  1G5  men  were  added  to  the  personnel. 
See  CITY  PIANMNCJ. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  A  constituent  state 
of  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia  in  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  continent.  Area,  310,372 
square  miles;  population  in  1911,  1,050,470;  in 
1021,  2,100,371 ,  average  annual  increase,  2.4 
per  cent  Sydney,  the  capital  and  largest  city, 
with  suburbs,  had  055,000  inhabitants  in  1022 
(020,503  in  1011).  Area  under  crops  in  1012- 
13,  3,737,10/5  acres;  in  1021-22,  4,445,828. 
Principal  crops  were  wheat,  maize,  barley,  oats, 
potatoes,  and  hay.  Cane  sugar,  grapes,  and 
citrus  fruits  were  receiving  increasing  atten- 
tion Grazing  was  of  course  a  leading  activ- 
ity. Wool  production  in  1021-22  was  285,418,- 
000  pounds,  a  falling  off  from  the  326,804,000 
pounds  of  1012-13.  Mining  in  1021  yielded 
(1U12  figure  in  parentheses):  gold,  £271,302 
(£702,120)  ;  lead,  silver,  and  silver-lead  ore, 
£864,502  (£3,481,266);  tin  and  tin  ore,  £163,- 
431  (£338,074);  copper,  £41,267  (£570,701); 
zinc,  £283,455  (£1,766,242);  coal,  £0,078,388 
(£3,GGO,013)  ;  non,  £630.370  (£130,708).  Man- 
ufacturing pursuits  engaged  148,87G  employees 
in  1021-22  (115,501  in  1012).  Metal  works 
and  machineiy,  and  plants  concerned  with  food 
industries,  were  the  most  important.  In  1921, 
the  value  of  production  of  the  various  indus- 
tries was:  pastoral,  £20,037,000;  agricultural, 
£32,373,000;  dairying,  £10,447,000;  forests  and 
fisheries,  £4,080,000;  mining,  £13,006,000;  man- 
ufacturing, £42,102,000;  total,  £128,254,000. 
Imports  overseas  for  1013  and  1022  were  £32,- 
350,000  and  £43,:J21,500;  exports  for  the  same 
years,  £32,830,800  and  £47,757,400.  Leading 
exports  were  minerals,  wool,  dairy  products, 
and  meats.  In  1022,  51 16  miles  of  railway 
were  open;  in  1013,  the  number  had  been  4107 
The  operations  of  the  government  showed  great 
increases  in  the  period  1914-22.  Total  reve- 
nues for  1013-14  and  1021-22  were  £18,438,228 
and  £35,637,820.  Expend itures  for  the  same 
years  were  £18,063,180  and  £30,966,525.  The 
public  debt  on  June  30,  1013,  was  £100,170,747; 
by  1023  it  had  increased  to  £187,870,402.  The 
Labor  party  gained  its  first  impetus  in  New 
South  Wales  and  continued  to  control  the  gov- 
ernment more  or  lesM  regularly. 

NEW  YORK.  New  York  is  the  twenty- 
ninth  State  in  size  (40,204  square  miles),  and 
the  first  in  population;  capital,  Albany.  The 
population  increased  from  0,113,614  in  1910  to 
10,385,227  in  1020;  a  gain  of  14  per  cent.  The 
white  population  increased  from  8,966,845  to 
10,172,027;  Negro,  from  134,191  to  198,483;  na- 


HEW  YOBK 


93* 


NEW  YOBK 


tive  white,  from  6,237,573  to  7,385,915;  and 
foreign-horn  white,  from  2,729,272  to  2,786,112. 
The  urban  population  of  the  State  rose  from 
7,185,494  to  8,589,844,  while  the  rural  decreased 
from  1,907,210  to  1,795,383.  The  growth  of 
the  principal  cities  was  as  follows:  New  York 
(1910),  4,766,883  to  (1920)  5,620,048;  Buf- 
falo, 423,715  to  506,775;  Rochester,  218,149  to 
295,750;  Syracuse,  137,249  to  171,717;  Albany, 
100,253  to  113,344  (see  articles  on  these  cities). 
Agriculture.  New  York,  in  common  with 
nearly  all  the  eastern  States,  showed  a  decline 
in  agriculture,  as  compared  with  growth  of 
population,  in  the  decade  1910-20.  W7hile  the 
population  of  the  State  increased  14  per  cent, 
1910-20,  the  rural  population  decreased  from 
27.1  per  cent  in  1900  to  21.2  per  cent  in  1910 
and  17.3  per  cent  in  1920.  The  number  of 
farms  decreased  10.4  per  cent  (from  215,597  in 
1910  to  193,195  in  1920)  ;  total  acreage  in 
farms,  from  22,032,367  to  20,632,803,  or  6.3  per 
cent,  and  the  improved  land  in  farms  decreased 
from  14,844,039  to  13,158,781  acres,  or  11.4  per 
cent.  The  total  value  of  farm  property  in  the 
State  showed  an  apparent  increase  of  31.5  per 
cent,  or  from  $1,451,481,495  in  1910  to  $1,908,- 
483,201  in  1920;  the  average  value  per  farm. 


capital  invested  amounted  to  $2,779,496,814, 
$3,334,277,526,  and  $6,012,082,567  in  those 
years.  The  value  of  products  amounted  to 
$3,369,490,192  in  1909;  $3,814,661,114  in  1914; 
and  $8,807,004,906  in  1919.  The  large  increase 
in  value  of  products  from  1914  to  1919  was  due 
largely  to  changes  in  industrial  conditions 
brought  about  by  the  War,  and  cannot  be 
properly  used  to  measure  the  growth  of  manu- 
factures during  the  period;  but  the  increase 
shown  in  number  of  wage  earners  clearly  in- 
dicates decided  growth  in  the  manufacturing 
activities  of  the  State.  The  most  important 
industry  in  the  State  is  the  manufacture  of 
women's  clothing,  the  product  of  this  industry 
being  valued,  in  1909,  at  $272,518,000;  in  1014, 
at  $345,316,000;  and  in  1919,  at  $886,984,000. 
The  manufacture  of  men's  clothing  ranks  sec- 
ond in  point  of  value:  in  1909,  $266,075,000;  in 
1914,  $238,627,000;  and  in  1919,  $641,906,000. 
The  refining  of  sugar,  ranking  third  in  this  re- 
spect, was  valued  in  1914  at  $124,941,000,  and 
in  1919,  at  $268,318,000.  Slaughtering  and 
meat  packing,  in  fourth  place,  had  a  product 
valued,  in  1909,  at  $127,130,000;  in  1914,  at 
$148,106,000,  and  in  1919,  at  $265,726,000 
The  printing  and  publishing  industry  was  next 


from    $6732    to    $9879.     In    interpreting    these      in    value    of    product:    in    1909,    $216,946,000 


values,  and,  indeed,  all  comparative  values  in 
the  decade  1914-24,  the  inflation  of  the  cur- 
rency in  the  latter  part  of  that  period  is  to  be 
taken  into  consideration.  The  index  number  of 
prices  paid  to  producers  of  farm  products  in 
the  United  States  was  104  in  1910  and  216  in 
1920.  Of  the  total  of  193,195  farms  in  1920, 
151,717  were  operated  by  owners,  4376  by  man- 
agers, and  37,102  by  tenants.  The  correspond- 
ing figures  for  1910  were  166,674,  4051,  and 
44,872.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered  102,- 
645,  and  colored  farmers,  550.  In  1910  the 
white  farmers  numbered  214,658  and  the  col- 
ored farmers,  939.  The  total  number  of  cattle 
in  1920  was  2,144,244;  in  1910,  2,423,003.  The 
increase  in  number  of  dairy  cattle,  from  1,509,- 
594  to  2,081,074,  reflects  the  large  growth  of 
the  dairy  industry.  The  State  had  risen  to 
second  place  in  milk  production,  being  exceeded 
only  by  Wisconsin.  Sheep,  in  1920,  numbered 
578,726,  as  compared  with  930,300  in  1910; 
hogs,  600,560  as  compared  with  666,179.  The 
estimated  production  of  the  principal  crops  in 
1923  was  as  follows,  corn,  24,408,000  bushels; 
spring  wheat,  311,000  bushels;  winter  wheat, 
7,895,000  bushels;  oats,  32,552,000  bushels;  rye, 
945,000  bushels;  barley,  5,168,000  bushels;  po- 
tatoes, 29,813,000  bushels;  tobacco,  2,272,000 
pounds;  buckwheat,  3,596,000  bushels;  hay,  6,- 
343,000  tons;  and  apples,  26,961,000  bushels. 
Comparative  figures  for  1913  are:  corn,  15,- 
020,000  bushels;  wheat,  6,800,000;  oats,  42,712,- 
000;  rye,  2,228,000;  barley,  2,056,000;  potatoes, 
26,640,000;  hay,  5,358,000  tons;  and  tobacco,  4,- 
386,000  pounds. 

Manufactures.  New  York  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  manufacturing  States,  both  in 
point  of  number  of  establishments  and  in  value 
of  product.  In  1920,  there  were  58  cities  with 
more  than  10,000  inhabitants.  These  formed 
78  per  cent  of  the  total  population  of  the 
State,  and  in  1919  reported  87.5  per  cent  of 
the  State's  manufactured  products.  There  were 
in  the  State  44,935  manufacturing  establish- 
ments in  1909;  48,203  in  1914;  and  49,330  in 
1919.  Persons  engaged  in  manufacture  num- 
bered 1,203,241,  1,289,098,  and  1,524,761;  and 


1914,  $257,208,000;  arid  1919,  $478,898,000 
The  most  important  manufacturing  cities  aio 
New  York,  Buffalo,  and  Rochester.  In  New 
York,  there  wero  25,933  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments in  1909,  with  a  product  valued  at 
$2,027,425,000;  29,021  in  1914,  with  $2,292.832,- 
000;  and  32,590  in  1919,  with  $5,260,708,000 
Buffalo  had  1753  establishments  in  1909,  with 
a  product  valued  at  $218,804,000;  2225  in  1914, 
with  $247,516,000;  and  2093  in  1919,  with 
$634,410,000.  Similar  figures  for  Rochester 
were:  1203  in  1909,  with  $112,676,000;  1244 
in  1914,  with  $140,697,000;  and  1367  in  1919, 
with  $351,416,000.  The  other  important  manu- 
facturing cities  are  Albany,  Binghamton,  Niag- 
ara Falls,  Schenectady,  Syracuse,  Troy,  Utica, 
and  Yonkers. 

Mining.  Although  New  York  has  limited 
metal  mining,  it  ranked  thirteenth  among  the 
States  in  1921  in  the  value  of  its  mineral  prod- 
ucts. The  mont  important  minerals  are  clay 
products,  cement,  stone,  and  salt.  The  prog- 
ress of  the  clay  and  cement  industries  in  the 
decade  was  as  follows:  In  1914  clay  products 
were  valued  at  $0,078,933;  in  1916,  $11,755,- 
012;  1918,  $9,581,790,  1920,  $19,113,684;  and 
in  1921,  $17,432,080.  Shipments  of  cement 
in  1914  were  5,713,383  barrels  valued  at  $5,- 
143,401;  1910,  5,707,802  barrels,  $5,804,444; 
1918,  4,074,159,  $6V>68,74fl;  1920,  6,049,150, 
$12,206,698;  1921,  4,993,341,  $9,403,015.  It 
will  be  noted  that  while  the  shipments  of  ce- 
ment were  practically  the  same  in  1921,  the 
price  received  was  more  than  double,  which 
was  due  chiefly  to  the  inflation  of  currency.  In 
addition  to  these  two  minerals,  the  State  pro- 
duces graphite,  a  considerable  quantity  of  iron 
ore,  mineral  waters,  natural  gas,  petroleum, 
and  sand  and  gravel  The  total  value  of  the 
mineral  production  in  1921  was  $62,567,967, 
compared  with  $78,431,317  in  1920;  $56,379,- 
664  in  1919;  $52,768,877  in  1918;  and  $36,420,- 
134  in  1914. 

Education.  There  was  great  progress  in 
education  in  New  York  during  the  decade  1914- 
24.  The  Legislature  in  each  year  of  that  pe- 
riod passed  a  number  of  important  measures. 


NEW  YOEK 


933 


NEW  YOBK 


In  1914,  the  establishment  of  the  central  rural 
schools  was  made  possible,  and  in  1017  a  meas- 
ure was  passed  providing  for  central  hieh- 
school  districts;  in  the  latter  year,  school  elec- 
tions in  certain  cities  were  regulated  by  the 
Legislature;  amendments  were  made  to  the 
statutes  relating  to  the  boards  of  education  in 
1919;  and  in  1921  and  1922  the  laws  relating 
to  compulsory  education  were  amended.  The 
Legislature  of  1923  also  made  several  impor- 
tant amendments  to  school  laws:  $75.000  was 
appropriated  for  the  erection  of  an  additional 
building  at  the  State  College  for  Teachers;  a 
measure  was  enacted  requiring  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  to  prescribe  courses  of  in- 
struction in  fire  prevention;  and  a  law  was 
passed  providing  for  State  schools  of  agri- 
culture in  St.  Lawrence,  Alfred,  Morrisville, 
Cobleskill,  Delhi,  and  Farmingdale,  under  the 
supervision  and  direction  of  the  Regents  of  the 
University  and  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion. Vocational  education,  in  general  indus- 
trial schools,  trade  schools,  schools  of  agricul- 
ture and  home  economics  (also  in  part-time  or 
continuation  schools),  was  being  carried  on  in 
all  the  larger  and  most  of  the  smaller  cities  of 
the  State.  The  benefits  of  the  Smith-Hughes 
Act  providing  for  vocational  education  were  ac- 
cepted by  a  legislative  measure  in  1017.  Farm 
schools  were  established  in  most  of  the  counties 
of  the  State.  The  registration  of  pupils  in- 
creased from  1,532,151  in  1915  to  1,820,506  in 
1922;  the  average  attendance  increased  from 
1,233,074  in  1914  to  1,518,781  in  1922.  The 
percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State  decreased 
from  0.6  in  1910  to  6.4  in  1920:  among  the  na- 
tive white  population,  from  1,1  to  0.7  per  cent; 
among  the  Negro,  from  5.8  to  3.4.  Among  the 
foreign-born  white  population,  it  increased 
from  14.3  to  15.2  per  cent. 

Finance.    For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  There  was  an 
abundance  of  political  and  other  happenings  in 
New  York  in  the  decade  1914-24.  The  political 
complexion  of  the  State  was  for  the  larger  part 
of  the  time  Republican,  while  New  York  City 
remained  Democratic.  Elections  were  held  in 
1914  for  governor,  United  States  Senator,  and 
members  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  Gov. 
Martin  H.  Glynn,  who  succeeded  to  the  post  on 
the  impeachment  and  removal  of  Governor  Sul- 
zer  in  1913,  was  a  candidate  of  the  Democratic 
party  for  reflection  The  Republican  nominee 
was  Charles  S.  Whitman,  former  district  attor- 
ney of  New  York  City.  For  United  States  Sen- 
ator, James  W.  Gerard,  Democrat,  was  opposed 
by  James  Wadsworth,  Jr ,  Republican.  Whit- 
man was  elected  governor,  and  Wadsworth, 
Senator.  At  this  election  delegates  to  a  con- 
stitutional convention  were  chosen.  In  Feb- 
ruary of  this  year,  Joseph  Cassidy,  former  Dem- 
ocratic leader  of  Queens  Borough  of  New  York 
City,  was  convicted  for  selling  a  nomination 
for  the  Supreme  Court.  With  him  was  con- 
victed William  Willett,  who  paid  Cassidy  $25,- 
000  for  the  nomination.  An  attempt  was  made 
by  an  insane  man  in  April  of  this  year  to  as- 
sassinate Mayor  Mitchel.  The  mayor  escaped 
without  serious  injury.  The  constitutional  con- 
vention authorized  in  1914  began  its  session  on 
Apr.  6,  1915,  with  Elihu  Root  as  president. 
The  session  continued  until  September  9.  The 
amendments  proposed  by  the  convention  in- 
cluded woman  suffrage  and  the  adoption  of  a 
new  constitution.  The  constitution  was  de- 


feated by  a  large  majority  of  470,000;  woman 
suffrage,  by  a  vote  of  more  than  200,000.  In 
1916  elections  were  held  for  United  States  Sen- 
ator, governor,  and  other  State  officers.  Sen- 
ator Root  declined  renommation,  and  the  Re- 
publicans nominated  William  M.  Calder.  A 
few  weeks  prior  to  the  nominating  primaries, 
Robert  Bacon,  former  Secretary  of  State  and 
ambassador  to  France,  announced  his  candi- 
dacy; Calder,  however,  was  nominated  by  a 
small  majority.  The  Democratic  candidate  was 
William  F.  McCombs  Calder  was  elected  Sen- 
ator, and  Governor  Whitman  was  reflected. 
In  the  presidential  voting  of  this  year,  Charles 
E.  Hughes  received  863,841  votes;  President 
Wilson,  756,946.  Elections  were  held  for  mayor 
of  New  York  City  and  other  cities  in  1917. 
Mayor  Mitchel  was  a  candidate  for  reflection 
on  a  Republican -Fusion  ticket.  The  Democrats 
nominated  John  F.  Hylan,  who  was  elected  by  a 
large  majority.  On  Oct.  12,  1917,  the  new 
Catskill  aqueduct  carrying  water  to  New  York 
City  was  opened.  In  June  of  this  year  a  cen- 
pua  of  all  persons  of  the  State  under  the  age 
of  45  years  was  taken,  with  the  purpose  of  as- 
signing all  to  some  sort  of  service.  Two  mili- 
tary cantonments  were  established,  one  for  the 
National  Guard  troops  at  Camp  Mills,  Mineola, 
and  the  other  for  the  National  Army  at  Camp 
Upton,  Yaphank  At  the  former  were  gathered 
troops  of  many  States,  including  the  former 
69th  Regiment  of  New  York.  In  1918  nomina- 
tions were  made  for  governor  and  other  State 
officers  at  regular  State  primaries;  the  State 
convention  had  been  abolished.  Charles  S. 
Whitman  was  renominated  by  the  Republicans, 
and  Alfred  E.  Smith,  president  of  the  Board 
of  Aldermen  of  New  York  City,  was  named  by 
the  Democrats  Smith  was  elected  by  a  close 
vote.  In  1920  Nathan  L.  Miller  was  nominated 

fDvernor  by  the  Republicans,  and  Governor 
mith  was  renominated  by  the  Democrats.  Mr. 
Miller  was  elected,  and  James  W.  Wadsworth, 
Jr.,  was  reflected  to  the  United  States  Senate. 
In  the  presidential  voting  of  this  year  Warren 
G.  Harding  received  1,868,240  votes;  James  M. 
Cox,  781,485.  At  this  election  a  referendum 
for  a  soldiers*  bonus  providing  for  a  bond  issue 
of  $45,000,000  was  passed  by  a  large  majority. 
Investigations  were  held  in  1920  by  the  legisla- 
tive committee  into  housing  conditions.  The 
committee  exposed  much  corruption  in  the 
building  trades.  In  1921  elections  were  again 
held  for  municipal  officers.  The  chief  interest 
was  in  New  York  City,  where  John  F.  Hylan 
was  a  candidate  for  renomination,  He  was  op- 
posed by  Maj  Henry  H.  Curran.  a  candidate 
of  various  independent  organizations.  After  a 
violent  campaign,  Hylan  was  reflected  by  a 
plurality  of  more  than  400,000  votes.  At  this 
election  several  amendments  to  the  constitu- 
tion were  carried.  One  of  these  provided  for  a 
literacy  test  for  voting,  including  the  require- 
ment that  the  voters  should  know  the  English 
language.  The  Court  of  Appeals  on  Aug.  31, 
1921,  declared  the  bonus  act  passed  in  1920  un- 
constitutional. In  1922  a  new  election  law 
went  into  effect.  This  abolished  the  primaries 
for  certain  State  offices.  Judges  and  United 
States  Senators  were  nominated  by  the  conven- 
tion, while  candidates  for  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, for  State  Legislature,  and  for  local 
officers  were  nominated  by  primaries.  For 
governor,  Nathan  I.  Miller  was  nominated  by 
the  Republicans,  while  the  Democrats  nomi- 


NEW  YORK 

long,  to  carry  the  water  into  the  Ashokan  reser- 
voir. This  was  completed  and  opened  in  Jan* 
uary,  1024. 

The  War  Department  ordered  three  of  the 
piers  of  High  Bridge  to  be  removed  from  the 
centre  of  the  Bronx  River  on  the  ground  that 
they  obstructed  navigation.  A  long  discussion 
followed  as  to  the  best  method  of  fulfilling  this 
demand;  many  urged  that  the  old  bridge  be 
remodeled  instead  of  demolished,  because  of  its 
architectural  beauty.  In  1923  it  was  decided 
to  replace  the  three  masonry  spans  by  a  single 
steel  arch,  which  was  estimated  to  cost  about 
$710,000. 

Through  cooperation  of  the  two  States,  the 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  Harbor  Development 
Commission,  called  the  Port  Authority,  was  ap- 
pointed in  1017.  Its  work  affects  12  munic- 
ipalities. Twelve  piers  between  1026  and  1137 
feet  long  and  troni  125  to  200  feet  wide,  con- 
nected by  rail  with  all  tho  main  railroads  of 
New  Jersey,  were  built  on  Staten  Island  in 
1920-22.  Extensive  dredging  was  carried  on  to 
provide  a  40-foot  channel  between  Upper  Bay 
and  Brooklyn,  and  Coenties  Reef  and  Shell  Reef, 
which  had  hindered  traffic,  were-  removed.  The 
Ontnil  liailioad  of  New  Joisoy  built  the  larg- 
est coal-handling  terminal  in  New  York  harbor; 
it  connects  by  approximately  23  miles  of  track 
and  cost  more  Ihan  $3,000,000.  The  Cunard 
Steamship  Lino  bogan  the  construct  ion  of  a 
group  of  eight  pieis  1000  foot  long  and  one 
shorter  pier  at  Weehawken,  N.  J.,  on  the 
Hudson  Rivor,  about  opposite  Thirty-sixth 
Street. 

In  19K>  A  zoning  plan  was  adopted  by  the  city, 
to  regulate  the  use  to  which  buildings  might  be 
put,  thoir  height  in  i elation  to  street  widths, 
and  tht*  percentage1  of  the  area  of  the  lots  per- 
mitted to  be  oo\orod  The-  commission  in  charge 
of  framing  the  plan,  which  was  the  first  to  be 
adopted  by  a  city  of  any  importance,  made  a 
survey  of  the-  city  and  hold  public  hearings. 
The  height  of  buildings  was  regulated  chiefly 
by  the  width  of  the  street  on  which  they  fronted, 
with  variations  for  different  parts  of  the  city. 
A  tower  covering  not  more  than  one-fourth  of 
the  aiea  of  the  lot,  however,  might  be  carried 
to  any  height ;  sot-backs  might  also  be  used  to 
increase  somewhat  the  permitted  height  for  the 
lest  of  the  building.  The  Russell  Sago  Founda- 
tion in  1922  announced  the  inauguration  of  a 
pioject  to  make  an  inclusive  plan  for  New 
York  City  and  its  environs  as  far  as  Bridgeport, 
Conn.;  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  and  Princeton.  N.  J., 
and  including  all  of  Long  Island  and  a  large 
part  of  the  New  Jersey  coast.  The  preliminary 
work  on  the  plan  consisted  of  extensive  studies 
bv  the  Foundation  along  social,  economic,  and 
physical  lines. 

The  value  of  imports  through  New  York  in- 
creased from  $1,040,380,520  in  1914  to  $1,797,- 
819,713  in  1923.  The  exports  increased  from 
$864,546,338  in  1914  to  $1,518.852,197  in  1922. 
Bank  clearings  rose  from  $83,018,580,016  in 
1914  to  $213,996,182,727  in  1923.  The  capital 
invested  in  manufacturing  rose  from  $1,364,- 
352,683  in  1910  to  $3,013,436,656  in  1919,  and 
the  value  of  the  products  from  $2,029,692,- 
576  to  $5,259,477,577  in  1919.  The  value  of  the 
four  leading  manufactures  increased  as  follows: 
women's  clothing,  from  $266,471,381  in  1909  to 
$866,243,561  in  1919;  men's  clothing,  from  $218,- 
411,030  to  $564,407,739;  printing  and  pub- 
lishing, from  $183,509,157  to  $411,138,928; 


935  NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY 

slaughtering,  from  $95,862,000  to  $191,837,- 
831. 

NEW  YOBK,  COLLEGE  OF  THE  CITY  OF.  A 
free  municipal  college  at  Washington  Heights, 
New  York  City,  established  in  1848  by  the 
Board  of  Education  of  the  city.  The  student 
enrollment  rose  from  7998  in  1914  to  18,755  in 
1924,  the  faculty  from  218  to  480  members,  and 
the  annual  income  from  $f>S4,963  to  $1 ,395,67ft. 
The  number  of  bound  volumes  in  the  main  li- 
brary, exclusive  of  pamphlets,  increased  from 
47,589  to  66,165,  and  the  volumes  in  the  de- 
partmental libraries  from  16,565  to  about  20,- 
000  volumes.  Departments  were  established 
during  the  period  in  engineering  and  mili- 
tary science,  the  departments  of  Greek  and 
Latin  were  consolidated  into  the  department 
of  classical  languages,  the  department  of  nat- 
ural history  was  divided  into  the  depart- 
ments of  biology  and  geology,  and  the  depart- 
ment of  political  science  into  departments  of 
economics  and  government  and  sociology.  A 
course  loading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Science  in  Social  Science,  in  addition  to  the 
previously  existing  courses  leading  to  the  de- 
grees of  Bachelor  of  Arts  and  Bachelor  of  Sci- 
ence, was  established  in  1916.  The  Brooklyn 
bianch  of  the  evening  session  was  begun  in  the 
following  year  and  the  entire  evening  session 
was  opened  to  women;  also,  in  1917,  a  summer 
session  was  established.  In  1919,  the  first  pro- 
fessional schools,  of  Technology  and  Business 
and  Civic  Administration,  with  their  own  deans 
and  faculties,  woie  founded,  and  the  college  was 
given  the  name  of  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts 
and  Science.  The  work  of  the  School  of  Busi- 
ness was  carried  on  not  only  in  the  Washington 
Heights  buildings  and  the  evening  session  in 
Brooklyn,  but  also  at  the  original  building  of 
the  college  at  Twenty-third  Street  and  Lexing- 
ton Avenue.  The  third  piofessional  School  of 
Education  was  founded  on  similar  terms  in 
1921;  its  work  was  cnriicd  on  in  the  Washing- 
ton Heights  buildings  and  at  various  centres  in 
different  boroughs  in  the  citv.  President,  Sid- 
ney Kdward  Mexos,  Ph.D.,  LL  D. 

NEW  YORK  PHILHARMONIC  SOCIE- 
TY. Sec  Mnsir,  Orchestras 

NEW  YORK  STATE  COLLEGE  FOR 
TEACHERS.  A  coeducational  State  institu- 
tion for  the  training  of  high-school  teachers  at 
Albany,  N.  V.,  founded  as  a  State  normal  school 
in  1844,  and  chartered  as  the  State  College  for 
Teachers  by  the  Board  of  Regents  in  1905. 
Courses  are  offered  in  liberal  arts  and  sciences, 
in  commercial  education,  and  in  household  eco- 
nomics, and  a  graduate  course  in  education. 
The  student  enrollment  was  increased  from  450 
in  1914  to  971  in  1923-24,  and  the  income  from 
legislative  appropriations  increased  from  $97,- 
000  to  $260,000.  In  1923,  the  Legislature  ap- 
propriated money  for  the  construction  of  Wil- 
liam J.  Milne  Hall,  providing  facilities  for  a 
practice  high  school,  laboratories  in  household 
economics  and  biology,  and  a  laige  lecture  hall 
and  recitation  rooms;  and  the  alumni  pledged 
$150,000  for  a  residence  hall.  In  addition 
to  a  special  reference  library  the  college  uses 
the  State  Library  of  1,500,000  volumes, 
Abram  Koycr  Brubacher  became  president  in 
1915. 

NEW  YORK  SYMPHONY  ORCHESTRA. 
See  Music.  Orclieslras 

NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY.  A  non- 
sectarian  institution  in  New  York  City,  char- 


NEW  ZEALAND  g 

tered  in  1831.  The  university  increased  its  en- 
rollment from  5233  in  1914  to  16,482  in  1923- 
24.  The  Graduate  Division  of  Business  Ad- 
ministration was  established  in  1910;  two  new 
degrees  were  authorized — Master  of  Business 
Administration  in  1920  and  Doctor  of  Com- 
mercial Science  in  1923 — and  the  Division  of 
Oriental  Commerce  and  Politics  was  inaugu- 
rated. The  Ingram  Institute  for  Economic  Edu- 
cation and  the  School  of  Retailing  were  founded 
in  1918,  and  the  degree  of  Master  of  Science  in 
Retailing  was  authorized  in  1921.  Tn  1920,  the 
name  of  the  School  of  Applied  Science  was 
changed  to  the  College  of  Engineering.  A 
steam  engineering  plant  was  built  in  1919  and 
the  Sage  Engineering  Building,  for  which'  about 
$250,000  worth  of  equipment  was  assembled, 
was  authorized  in  the  same  year.  The  engi- 
neering research  laboratory  was  built  at  Uni- 
versity Heights  in  1920-21  at  a  cost  of  $345,- 
000.  'Evening  courses  were  started  in  the  col- 
lege in  1921,  and  in  1923  plans  wore  made  for 
courses  in  aeronautical  engineering.  During 
the  summer  of  1918,  the  faculties  and  equip- 
ment of  the  Engineering  College  were  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  government  for  training 
soldiers. 

The  Medical  College  was  opened  to  women  in 
1918.  In  1921,  the  State  bacteriological  labo- 
ratory was  built  at  a  cost  of  $105,000,  and  the 
Helen  Hartley  Jenkins  gift  of  $150,000  was  re- 
ceived. Medical  preparatory  courses  were  of- 
fered at  the  Flower  Hospital,  and  medical  and 
dental  preparatory  courses  in  the  evenings  at 
the  Washington  Irving  High  School  During 
the  War,  instruction  was  given  at  the  college 
to  Medical  Reserve  Corps  officers.  The  School 
of  Pedagogy  was  renamed  the  School  of  Educa- 
tion and  an  undergraduate  division  was  estab- 
lished. By  arrangement  with  the  Chautauqua 
Institution  in  1923,  summer  courses  in  educa- 
tion were  given  at  Chautauqua,  X.  Y.  The  Vet- 


6  NEW  ZEALAND 

1921,  1,218,913;  average  annual  increase,  2.2 
per  cent.  Estimated  population  in  1923,  1,271,- 
741.  Maoris  in  that  year  numbered  53,560. 
The  birth  rate  in  1921  was  23.34  per  1000  (26.- 
48  in  1912) ;  the  death  rate,  8.73  (8.87  in 
1912);  and  the  marriage  rate,  8.09  (8.81  in 
1912).  In  1922,  the  excess  of  immigration  over 
emigration  was  7402  (in  1912,  8927).  Esti- 
mated populations  of  chief  towns,  with  suburbs, 
on  Apr.  1,  1923  (1911  figure  in  parentheses): 
Auckland,  107,700  (102,670);  Wellington,  112,- 
070  (70,729);  Christchurch,  113,400  (80,193); 
Dunedin,  75,050  (64,237).  At  the  end  of  1922 
there  were  2550  public  primary  schools  with  a 
registration  of  242,466;  36  endowed  secondary 
schools  with  10,736  pupils;  146  native  schools 
with  6161  pupils;  4  university  colleges  with 
3683  students.  The  total  expenditure  for  pub- 
lic education  in  1921-22  was  £3,497,000;  in 
1912-13  it  had  been  £1.334,599. 

Agriculture.  Of  the  total  area  of  66,292,232 
acres  in  the  Dominion,  27,390,625  acres  had 
been  alienated,  including  9,97H,608  acres  re- 
served by  the  state,  and  5,066,197  acres  were 
held  by  natives  Deducting  barren  lands,  roads, 
etc.,  only  some  3,000,000  acres  remained  to  be 
disposed  of  by  1921.  The  cultivated  area  in- 
creased, for  in  January,  1923,  18,417,489  acres 
were  under  cultivation,  as  compared  with  16,- 
265,890  acres  in  1910-11.  The  great  propor- 
tion of  the  land  was  under  grass  seed.  The 
-\sheat  area  consistently  increased,  reaching 
352.U1R  acres  in  1922  (189,869  in  1913)  while 
oats  showed  the  greatest  loss,  dropping  from 
386,786  acres  in  1013  to  170,655  in  1922.  Pas- 
toral pursuits  were  far  more  important.  Over 
the  period  1911-28  these  activities  held  their 
own.  Live  stork  for  1911  and  1923  showed- 
horses,  404,284  and  330,818;  cattle,  2,020,171 
and  3,480,694;  sheep,  23,996,126  and  23,081,- 
439;  swine,  348,754  and  400,889.  Exports  of 
pastoral  products  for  1913  and  1922  were: 


Year 


Wool 


Frozen  Meats 


Butter 


Cheese 


1913 
1922 


186  533,036  Ibs. 
321,533,215    " 


2,578,693  cwts 
3,518,004     " 


372,258  cwts. 
1,120,200     " 


611,633  cwts. 
1,161,196     " 


erinary  College  was  temporarily  closed  in  1922. 
The  productive  endowment  increased  from  $1,- 
225,227  in  1914  to  $2,923,988  in  1924,  and  the 
budget  from  $592,391  to  $2,353,132.  During 
the  10  years  the  following  buildings  were 
bought  or  erected:  the  Trinity  building  for  the 
Wall  Street  division  of  the  School  of  Commerce 
($222,670),  the  university  apartment  house 
($340,000),  an  addition  to*  the  chemistry  labo- 
ratory at  University  Heights  ($45,000),  and  a 
residence  hou«*e  at  University  Heights  ($8650). 
Five  floors  of  the  Washington  Square  building 
were  taken  over  and  altered  for  classroom  use 
at  a  cost  of  $640,000  and  the  mortgage  was  re- 
duced from  $550,000  to  $350,000,  additional 
space  was  leased  in  the  Greenwich  building,  and 
the  Moynihan  property  was  acquired  at  a  cost 
of  $25,000.  Between  1914  and  1923.  the  gifts 
received  totaled  $4,031,619.  The  total  assets  of 
the  university  increased  from  $5,970,418  to  $8,- 
582,692.  Chancellor,  Elmer  Ellsworth  Brown, 
Ph.D.,  LLD. 

NEW  ZEALAND.  A  British  dominion  in 
the  southern  Pacific,  made  up  principally  of 
North  and  South  Islands,  with  Steward  Island 
included.  Area,  103,862  square  miles;  popula- 
tion in  1911,  exclusive  of  Maoris,  1,008,468;  in 


During  the  decade,  wool  production  consistent- 
ly declined  except  for  the  years  1919  and  1922, 
while  dairy  products  rose  regularly.  By  1922- 
23,  41  per  cent  of  the  exports  were  made  up  of 
dairy  products  and  only  26  per  cent  wool. 

Manufacturing.  From  1910  to  1921  ad- 
vances in  manufacturing  wore  impoitant.  While 
factories  only  increased  from  4402  to  4804,  the 
number  of  hands  increased  from  56,234  to  70,- 
255  and  capital  from  £16,731,359  to  £39,564,- 
837.  The  total  value  of  products  in  1920-21 
was  £82,473,569;  of  this,  meat  freezing  and  pre- 
serving accounted  for  £13,669,102;  butter  and 
cheese  factories,  for  £19,002,047.  Hydro-elec- 
tric schemes  were  under  consideration  after  the 
War  because  of  the  decreasing  local  coal  pro- 
duction. A  plant  was  being  erected  at  Man- 
gahao  (North  Island)  which  was  to  supply 
eventually  160,000  horse  power.  Similar  proj- 
ects were  reviewed  for  South  Island 

Mining.  Gold  production  continued  to  de- 
crease; exports  in  1906  were  563,843  ounces; 
in  1921,  149,595.  The  coal  consumption  in 
1921  was  1,755,912  tons,  of  which  about  one- 
fifth  was  imported,  mainly  from  Australia. 

Commerce.  Imports  for  1913,  1920,  and 
1922-23,  were  £22,288,302,  £61,595,828,  and  £37,- 


NEW  ZEALAND 


937 


NEW  ZEALAND 


330,000.  Exports  for  the  same  years  were  £22,- 
986,722,  £46,441,946,  and  £45,549,000.  The  fa- 
vorable balance  of  £8,219,000  for  1922-23,  among 
the  highest  for  the  period,  was  surpassed  only 
in  1915,  1917,  and  1919.  Proportions  of  value 
by  countries  of  origin  of  New  Zealand's  im- 
ports for  1913  and  1921  were:  the  United  King- 
dom, 60  and  50  per  cent;  other  British  posses- 
sions, 24  and  26  per  cent;  the  United  States, 
J)  and  18  per  cent.  Proportions  for  exports 
were:  the  United  Kingdom,  80  and  87  per  cent; 
other  British  possessions,  14  and  6  per  cent; 


the  Labor  party,  on  one  hand,  and  on  the 
other,  the  decision  of  workers  not  to  accept  de- 
crees of  the  Arbitration  Court  but  to  try  their 
strength  in  the  strike.  Bitter  industrial  con- 
flicts became  frequent,  those  of  1912  and  1013 
being  characterized  particularly  by  ill-feeling. 
The  War  momentarily  put  a  period  to  all  in- 
ternal questions.  Volunteer  forces  were  raised 
for  action  in  German  Samoa;  the  government 
was  empowered  to  fix  prices  and  to  suspend 
the  labor  laws,  rent  laws  were  passed  (1910), 
and  in  1915  a  coalition  cabinet  was  formed  for 


the  United  States,  3  and  6  per  cent.     For  1922-      the  more  effective  prosecution  of  the  War.     In 

*'?l          innnrk1*ta        frr»m       +V»/»       TT«1+orl        K  +  ataa       Avr\r\-r\r*A  1  O  1  ft      A      nj-m«M«.:  n.4-1  .«.„      „  _A _ j        ji    •»_      A. 


23,  imports  from  the  United  States  dropped 
to  £5,378,000  The  most  important  American 
products  were  automobiles  and  machinery.  In 
1913,  C45  vessels  of  1,738,985  tons  entered  and 
635  vessels  of  1,699,807  tons  cleared  New  Zea- 
land ports;  in  1921,  678  vessels  of  1,940,236 
tons  entered  and  678  vessels  of  1,944,341  tons 
cleared. 

Communications.  In  1923  there  were  3028 
miles  of  government-owned  railways  and  only 
135  miles  of  private  lines  in  if)14  govern- 
ment railways  aggregated  2863  miles. 

Finance  and  Economic  Conditions.  Total 
revenues  were,  for  1913-14,  £11,901,493;  for 
1921-22,  £28,127,000.  Total  expenditures  for 
the  same  years  were  £11,825,864  and  £28,466,- 
838.  Kstimates  for  1922-23  were:  revenues, 
£26,250,000,  and  expenditures,  £29,43H,215.  The 
public  debt  in  1914  was  £99,730,427;  in  1922, 
£219,054,385,  of  which  war  expenditures  (1914- 
19)  accounted  for  £80,000,000  The  cost  of  liv- 
ing steadily  mounted  over  the  period  1913-22. 
Retail  price  figures,  based  on  the  1909-13  aver- 
age as  1000,  \\ere-  for  1913,  1034;  for  1918, 
1346,  for  1921,  1020.  Wages  kept  pace,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  following  index  numbers,  al- 
so based  on  the  1909-13  average  as  1000:  1918, 
1231;  1921,  1697.5;  1922,  1746.35.  The  ex- 
change for  the  pound  sterling  was  1913,  $4.86; 
1921,  $3.84,  1922,  $4.43;  1923,  $4567 

History.  The  break-up  of  the  Liberal  party 
gave  the  Reform  party  its  first  opportunity  in 
21  years.  On  the  failure  of  Sir  Joseph  Ward 
to  form  a  ministry  and  after  another  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Liberals,  W.  F. 
Massey,  leader  of  the  Opposition,  created  a  Re- 
form government  on  July  10,  1912.  For  the 
next  decade  his  dominant  personality  ruled  the 
political  destinies  of  the  Dominion  Important 
administrative  reforms  were  undertaken,  aim- 
ing at  further  decentralization  in  the  govern- 
mental machinery  as  well  as  reformation  of  the 
legislative  council.  The  land  question,  which 
had  always  been  vexiiiff,  was  brought  nearer  to 
settlement  when  the  law  of  1912  allowed  set- 
tlers on  improved  land  to  purchase  their  hold- 
ings. It  became  evident  therefore  that  the 
state  had  relinquished  its  early  policy  in  the 
direction  of  state  participation  in  the  benefits 
of  the  accumulated  unearned  increment.  The 
extreme  state  socialism  which  had  been  typical 
of  New  Zealand  history  up  to  1911  and  which 
was  made  possible  by 'the  union  of  the  Labor 
elements  with  the  Libfral  party,  was  abruptly 
terminated  as  the  industrialization  of  the  coun- 
try proceeded  and  the  stratification  into  classes 
became  more  perceptible.  The  farmers  had  be- 
come more  conservative  as  bulwarks  were 
erected  for  the  safeguarding  of  private  proper- 
ty; the  laboring  classes  had  become  more  radi- 
cal with  the  appearance  of  a  wealthy  group  in 
the  population.  The  result  was  the  growth  of 


1916  a  conscription  act  was  passed,  though  not 
without  opposition,  for  in  1917,  the  coal  min- 
ers went  on  strike  to  secure  total  exemption. 
Before  the  end  of  the  War  a  total  of  124,121 
men  had  been  enrolled  in  the  army,  about  90,- 
000  of  them  volunteers.  War  financing  was 
based  on  loans  rather  than  revenues,  although 
some  increases  were  made  in  taxation,  notably 
in  higher  income  taxes,  stamp  duties,  customs, 
railway  fares,  etc.  Beginning  with  1916  sev- 
eral loans  were  floated  to  an  approximate  total 
of  £100,000,000.  The  easy  success  with  which 
all  this  was  accomplished  was  due  to  the  un- 
precedented prosperity  which  the  Dominion  en- 
joyed throughout  the  War.  Most  of  New  Zea- 
land's exports,  meats,  cheese,  wool,  hides,  sheep- 
skins, were  contracted  for  by  the  British  gov- 
ernment, and  though  prices  were  fixed,  sales 
reached  enormous  proportions.  By  1921,  more 
than  £160,000,000  in  produce  was  sold  in  this 
fashion.  In  spite  of  the  rise  in  the  cost  of 
living,  therefore,  no  class  of  society  was 
touched  by  want.  Through  the  fixing  of  prices 
of  household  necessities  by  the  Board  of  Trade, 
the  importation  of  wheat  in  1918,  when  a  local 
shortage  impended,  and  the  purchase  of  sugar 
abroad,  retail  prices  were  kept  within  reason. 
By  the  agency  of  the  Court  of  Arbitration 
wages  were  reviewed  and  increased  to  meet 
mounting  costs. 

In  1919  the  coalition  came  to  an  end  with 
the  withdrawal  of  Sir  Joseph  Ward  from  the 
cabinet.  The  election  which  followed  indicated 
the  increasingly  radical  temper  of  Labor.  The 
marked  syndicalist  tinge  which  industrial  agi- 
tation had  taken  on  was  reflected  in  the  out- 
spoken socialist  political  platform  of  the  Labor 
party  The  election  results,  however,  showed 
the  inherent  conservatism  of  the  average  vot- 
ers. Masse>'8  Reform  party  elected  47  mem- 
bers, the  Liberals  only  20,  and  Labor  8,  al- 
though the  popular  ^te  showed  a  ballot  hardly 
in  proportion  to  the  great  victory  of  the  Re- 
form party.  This  was  due  to  the  three-cor- 
nered fight  in  most  constituencies.  Labor  trou- 
bles continued  through  1919  and  1920,  and  the 
latter  year  was  marked  by  a  general  strike  of 
the  railway  workers.  The  world  depression  of 
1921,  which  struck  the  farmers  in  particular, 
and  the  general  unemployment  were  reflected  in 
the  political  realignments.  In  the  1922  elec- 
tions the  government  seat4*  were  reduced  to  38; 
Liberals  elected  25;  Labor,  17.  Two  questions 
of  importance  locally  were  the  status  of  the 
repatriated  soldiers  and  the  vote  on  prohibi- 
tion. Beginning  with  1915  pension  and  settle- 
ment acts  were  put  on  the  statute-books,  so 
that  by  1921  upward  of  35,000  pensions  had 
been  granted  and  more  than  7000  soldiers  set- 
tled on  the  land  A  repatriation  department 
was  created  for  the  vocational  guidance  of  men 
who  had  fought  in  the  War.  By  1922  more 


KEY 

than  £30,000,000  had  been  spent  in  this  work 
of  repatriation.  Polls  continued  to  be  taken  on 
national  prohibition.  By  the  law  of  1918  a  tri- 
ennial vote  was  ordered  on  three  alternatives, 
prohibition,  license,  and  state  control.  A  ma- 
jority of  the  total  vote  cast  was  made  necessary 
for  passage.  The  1919  vote  gave  prohibition 
only  a  plurality.  The  same  was  true  also  of 
the  1922  vote 

The  appointment  of  Lord  Jellicoe  in  1920  as 
governor  general  of  the  Dominion  brought  the 
question  of  national  defense  to  the  forefront  as 
an  issue  of  major  importance.  The  question 
of  an  independent  New  Zealand  naval  unit 
came  up  for  serious  consideration  time  and 
again.  The  Dominion  appeared  to  accept  com- 
placently its  status  under  the  Empire,  and  al- 
though it  had  a  place  as  a  member  of  the 
League  of  Nations  and  also  had  a  mandate  over 
German  Samoa,  there  was  no  movement  in  pub- 
lic opinion  toward  a  wider  independence. 

NET,  ELLY  ( 1882-  ) .  A  German  pianist, 
born  at  DQsseldorf.  After  graduation  from 
the  Cologne  Conservatory,  where  her  teachers 
were  I.  Seiss  and  K.  Bottcher,  she  went  for 
further  study  to  Leschetizky  and  Sauer  in 
Vienna  and  won  both  the  Ibach  and  the  Men- 
delssohn prices  For  several  years  she  taught 
at  the  Cologne  Conservatory.  Her  tours  of 
Germany,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Scandinavia  es- 
tablished her  reputation  as  one  of  the  greatest 
of  contemporary  pianists,  irrespective  of  sex. 
At  her  American  de*but  (New  York,  Oct.  15, 
1921)  she  took  her  audience  by  storm  and  im- 
mediately became  a  prime  favorite.  She  later 
made  annual  tours  of  the  States.  In  1911  she 
married  the  Dutch  conductor,  Willem  Van 
Hoogstraten. 

NICARAGUA.  The  largest  of  the  Central 
American  republics,  with  an  area  estimated  at 
49,200  square  miles;  population  (according  to 
census  of  1920),  638,119  In  1910  the  popula- 
tion was  estimated  at  600,000.  At  least  75  per 
cent  of  the  inhabitants  lived  in  the  western  half 
of  the  country.  Capital,  Managua,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  60,342.  Other  large  towns  are: 
Leon  (47,234),  Granada  (21,925),  Matagalpa 
(32,271),  Masaya  (17,287).  Illiteracy  among 
the  population  was  still  high,  and  school  at- 
tendance was  not  much  in  excess  of  that  of 
1912  In  1922-23  there  were  344  elementary 
schools  with  21,657  pupils. 

Industry  and  Trade.  The  agricultural  prod- 
ucts of  the  western  half  were  varied;  coffee, 
sugar  cane,  wheat,  cacao,  and  beans  were 
grown.  The  average  annual  crop  of  coffee  was 
placed  at  25,000,000  pounds.  In  1921,  the  ex- 
port value  of  coffee  was  $2,352,487,  and  the 

1922  exports  were  worth  $2,300,572.     Sugar  ex- 
ports in  1921  were  worth  $91,308,653.    The  sug- 
ar  industry  took  its  inception   from   the  great 
demand   created   during  the   War.    Exports   of 
sugar  in   1916   totaled  only  3034   metric   tons; 
in  1922,  this  export  was  9948  tons.     The  export 
to  the  United  States  alone  in  1923  was  valued 
at    $842,697.     The    banana    was    the    principal 
crop  grown  in  the  east.    The  banana  exports  in 

1923  were   3,487,985   stems,   compared   with   2,- 
617,765   in    1922.     Timber   and   forest  products 
also  played  an  important  part  in   Nicaragua's 
foreign   trade.    Gold   exports   averaged   $1,000,- 
000  yearly.    Practically  all  exports  of  lumber 
and  gold  went  to  the  United  States.    In  1922 
imports  into  Nicaragua  were  valued  at  $5,123,- 
505   ($5,604,300  in  1913);  exports  in  1922,  $7,- 


938  NICARAGUA 

903,446  ($7,494,100  in  1913).  Proportions  in 
1922  by  countries  of  origin  of  imports  were: 
the  United  States,  80  per  cent  (50  in  1912); 
the  United  Kingdom,  9  per  cent  (19  in  1912)  ; 
France,  2  per  cent  (5  in  1912);  Germany,  1 
per  cent  (12  in  1912).  Leading  imports  were 
cotton  goods,  chemicals,  iron  and  steel,  and 
wheat  flour.  Proportions  in  1922  by  countries 
of  destination  of  exports  were:  the  United 
States,  71  per  cent  (46  in  1912)  ;  France,  16 
per  cent  (16  in  1912);  the  United  Kingdom,  3 
per  cent  (13  in  1912).  The  1919  foreign  trade 
was  the  largest  in  the  history  of  the  country; 
this  was  due  to  the  excellent  return  received  for 
the  large  coffee  crop.  Total  exports  were  $12,- 
409,473.  Almost  28  per  cent  of  Nicaragua's 
exports  were  taken  in  that  year  by  France. 
France's  decision  to  resume  her  high  duties  on 
coffee  accounted  for  the  decreased  value  of  ship- 
ments  in  the  ensuing  years.  The  isolation  of 
the  Atlantic  coast,  with  communications  be- 
tween the  west  and  the  east  by  way  of  Costa 
Rica  and  Panama,  led  the  government  to  sur- 
vey a  route  from  San  Miguelito  on  Lake  Nica- 
ragua to  Monkey  Point  on  the  Atlantic,  and  in 
1921  a  loan  of  $9,000,000  was  secured  in  Now 
York  for  this  and  other  purposes.  The  nation- 
al railways  also  passed  info  the  hands  of  New 
York  bankers  for  $2,000,000.  In  1020  also,  ' 
work  was  begun  on  a  railway  from  Chinandepi 
to  Playa  Grande  on  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  as  a 
link  in  the  International  Hallways  chain.  To- 
tal railway  mileage  in  January,  1024,  was  14.5 
miles,  exclusive  of  small  private  lines.  Thero 
were  3637  miles  of  telegraph  wire  and  805  miles 
of  telephone  wire  in  1921. 

Finance.  For  1921-22  revenues  were  $2,803,- 
244  ($2,479,313  in  1914)  and  expenditures  $2.- 
787,673  ($1,980,328  in  1914).  Total  external 
debt  in  February,  1922,  was  $5,911,362;  inter- 
nal debt,  $3,462,884.  As  a  result  of  the  ambi- 
tious financial  scheme  of  1917,  the  size  of  the 
debt  consistently  decreased.  By  the  programme 
a  rigorous  budget  was  laid  out;  financing  of 
deferred  interest  was  provided  for;  the  floating 
debt  was  settled.  Credit  so  improved  that  in 
1921  a  loan  of  $9,000,000  was  raised,  part  of 
which  was  to  be  applied  toward  the  redemption 
of  the  1909  bonds.  The  total  indebtedness  of 
Nicaragua  on  Mar.  31,  1923,  was  $9,294,781.  On 
Dec.  31,  1923,  there  wore  only  2,581,609  cor- 
dobas  (1  cordoba^$l)  in  circulation. 

History.  The  continued  interest  of  the  Unit- 
ed States  in  Nicaraguan  affairs  aroused  the 
hostility  of  other  Central  American  republics, 
and  two  of  these,  Costa  Rica  and  Salvador,  were 
led  to  sue  Nicaragua  in  the  Central  American 
Court  of  Justice  when  the  Bryan-Chamorro 
treaty  was  finally  ratified  by  both  parties  in 
1916.  By  this  instrument,  for  the  payment  of 
$3,000,000  the  United  States  acquired  exclusive 
canal  rights  in  Nicaragua,  permission  to  con- 
struct a  naval  base  on  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca, 
and  the  Corn  Islands.  Though  the  suits  were 
successful,  the  decision  was  disregarded  by  Nic- 
aragua and  the  United  States.  The  continued 
stay  of  American  marines  in  the  country  en- 
sured the  permanence  of  the  government  in 
power.  Border  outbreaks  in  1921  and  revolu- 
tionary disturbances  in  1922,  which  for  a  time 
led  to  an  attack  on  Chinandega  by  rebels,  and 
a  move  on  the  capital  in  August,  1922,  caused 
the  holding  of  a  conference  by  the  presidents  of 
Nicaragua,  Honduras,  and  Salvador,  on  board 
the  U.S.S.  Tacoma  in  Fonseca  Gulf  on  Aug.  22, 


NICHOLAS 

1922.  Steps  were  taken  to  check  revolts  fo- 
mented by  political  emigrants  and  for  the  put- 
ting down  of  border  uprisings  by  united  action. 
The  purpose  of  the  general  treaty  of  peace  and 
friendship  signed  on  Dec.  20,  1907,  by  all  the 
Central  American  countries  was  reaffirmed. 
This  move,  fostered  by  Nicaragua,  was  in 
strange  disharmony  with  its  refusal  to  join  the 
Central  American  Union  erected  in  1021.  Nic- 
aragua did,  however,  participate  in  the  sub- 
sequent Central  American  conference  at  Wash- 
ington and  in  the  treaties  signed  there.  (See 
CENTRAL  AMERICAN  UNION.)  On  May  8,  1917, 
Nicaragua  declared  war  on  Germany  and  as  an 
Associate  Power  became  an  original  member  of 
the  League  of  Nations.  The  president  for 
1916-20  was  Emiliano  Chamorro;  for  1920-24, 
Dr.  Diego  Manuel  Chamorro.  The  untimely 
death  of  Dr.  Chamorro  on  Oct.  19,  1923,  neces- 
sitated the  ad  interim  assumption  of  presiden- 
tial powers  by  the  vice  president,  Bartolomeo 
Martinez,  pending  the  election  of  a  new  pres- 
ident in  October,  1924.  For  this  election  a  new 
electoral  law,  drafted  by  an  American,  Dr.  H. 
\V.  Dodds,  secretary  of  the  National  Municipal 
League,  had  been  adopted,  and  Dr  Dodds  was 
invited  to  assist  in  installing  the  neAV  system. 
An  offer  by  the  Washington  government  to 
withdraw  the  force  of  American  Marines  which 
had  been  stationed  in  Nicaragua  since  1012, 
unless  the  Nicaragnau  government  desired  their 
continued  presence  to  safeguard  electoral  free- 
dom, elicited  the  reply  that  the  Nicaraguan 
government  desired  the  Legation  guard  to  re- 
main at  least  until  the  installation  of  a  new 
administration  in  January,  1925 

NICHOLAS  (  NIKOLAI  NIKOLAIEVITCII  ) , 
GRAND  DUKE  (18f>G-  ).  A  Russian  general 
(sec  VOL.  XVII).  At  the  outbreak  of  the  War 
he  was  given  the  supreme  command  of  the  Rus- 
sian armies,  and  handling  them  with  admirable 
skill,  successfully  overran  East  Prussia  and 
caused  such  rearrangement  of  German  plans  as 
to  relieve  materially  the  hard-pressed  French 
arid  British.  Although  defeated  at  some  points 
by  the  great  masses  of  "Prussian  shock  troops 
hurled  against  him,  he  succeeded  in  extricating 
IHH  armies  from  awkward  positions  in  the  Car- 
pathian passes,  and  the  Allies  esteemed  it  a 
tragedy  of  first  magnitude  when  domestic  pol- 
itics in  1915  induced  the  Czar  to  take  Nicholas's 
place  himself.  The  Grand  Duke  was  sent  to 
the  Caucasus  and  there  carried  out  the  success- 
ful campaigns  of  Erzerum  and  Trebizond.  Aft- 
er the  revolution  he  lived  in  retirement,  first 
in  the  Crimea,  and  then  in  a  small  village  near 
Paris.  In  1924  conservative  Russians  every- 
where looked  to  him  as  the  man  most  likely  to 
accomplish  national  restoration  in  Russia. 

NICHOLAS  II  (1868-1918).  Emperor  of 
Russia  from  1894  (see  VOL.  XVII).  The  reac- 
tionary influences  about  the  Emperor  and  his 
fatalistic  temper  prevented  him  from  making 
any  effective  resistance  during  the  early  part 
of  the  War  to  those  intent  on  his  downfall. 
In  March,  1917,  when  the  President  of  the 
Duma  telegraphed  him  demanding  his  abdica- 
tion, he  submitted  with  very  little  protest  He 
abdicated  in  favor  pf  Grand  Duke  Michael,  re- 
fusing to  hand  the  power  over  to  his  son  for 


939 


NIELSEN 


family  to  England,  but  the  Provisional  Govern- 
ment would  not  allow  this,  and  Nicholas  and 
his  wife,  son,  and  four  daughters  were  trans- 
ferred from  Pskov  to  Tsarskoe  Selo  and  then 
to  Tobolsk,  where  they  remained  for  several 
months.  In  1918  they  were  taken  to  Ekaterin- 
burg and  given  an  apartment  of  only  three 
rooms,  and  when  Kolchak  advanced  in  the  Ural, 
the  Communists,  at  a  secret  meeting,  decided  to 
put  the  Czar  and  his  family  to  death.  They 
were  all  shot  in  the  cellar  o'f  the  house  where 
they  had  lived,  and  their  bodies  were  removed 
to  an  isolated  spot  near  Ekaterinburg  and 
burned  A  few  pieces  of  their  clothing  were 
afterward  found  at  the  place. 

NICHOLS,  ERNEST  Fox  (1869-1924).  An 
American  physicist  (see  VOL.  XVII).  He  was 
professor  of  physics  at  Yale  University  from 
1910  to  1920,  director  of  pure  science  at  the 
Nela  Research  Laboratories  at  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
during  1920-21 ;  and  president  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology  from  March  to 
November,  1921. 

NICHOLS,  J(ESSE)  BROOKS  (1885-  ). 
An  Amciican  manufacturer,  born  at  Dunkirk, 
N".  Y.,  and  educated  at  Yale  University.  From 
1922  he-  was  first  vice  president  of  the  Frank- 
lin Bakei  Company,  manufacturers  of  coco- 
nut products.  After  attending  the  Plattsburg 
Training  Camp,  he  was  commissioned  first  lieu- 
tenant in  the  United  States  Army,  in  1916.  He 
was  later  promoted  to  be  captain  and  major 
and  served  in  the  North  Russian  campaign  in 
1918-19.  He  received  the  Croix  de  Guerre  and 
other  decorations  from  foreign  countries.  In 
1920  he  was  commissioned  lieutenant-colonel  in 
the  Oihcers'  Reserve  Corps. 

NICHOLSON,  WILLIAM  (1872-  ).  A 
painter  and  engraver,  born  at  Newark,  Eng- 
land, and  educated  at  the  Magnus  School  in 
Newark  and  at  the  Juben  Academy  at  Paris 
As  a  student  he  produced  good  experimental 
work  in  wood  engraving  by  using  bold  masses 
of  black  and  white  or  of  sombre  grays  and 
browns  relie\ed  by  touches  of  bright  color.  He 
engraved  many  portraits,  illustrated  books,  and 
collaborated  with  James  Pryde  in  designing 
posters  under  the  name  of  the  Beggarstaff 
Brothers.  During  the  War  he  contributed  to 
the  set  of  lithographs,  "Britain's  Aims  and 
Ideals."  As  a  painter  he  is  known  best  for  in- 
terior and  still  life  subjects,  although  he  has 
painted  poi  traits  and  landscapes.  He  is  rep- 
resented in  the  Luxembourg  and  in  many  Eng- 
lish galleries. 

NIEHATJS,  CHARLES  HENRY  (1855-  ). 
An  American  sculptor  (see  \OL.  XVII).  He 
has  been  remarkably  prolific  during  recent  years. 
His  works  include  the  Paul  Jones  monument  at 
Washington,  D.  C. ;  the  Commodore  Perry  monu- 
ment, Buffalo.  N.  Y.;  statues  of  Zachariah 
Chandler  and  Governor  Click,  National  Capitol; 
Hernandez  Cortez,  Panama-Pacific  Exposition; 
Francis  Scott  Key  Memorial,  Baltimore  (1922), 
and  war  memorials  at  Hoboken  and  Newark, 
N.  J. 

NIELSEN,  FRED  KENELON  ( 1879-  ) .  An 
American  lawyer,  born  in  Denmark,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Nebraska  and  the 
law  department  of  Georgetown  University. 


fear    of    exposimj    the    latter    to    the    political  After    admission   to   the   bar   he   practiced    law 

storm  that  was  brewing.     The  Grand  Duke  de-  in   Washington    and   was   special   agent   of   the 

clincd   to   accept   the   honor,   unless   the   crown  General  Loan  Office  from   1909  to  1911      From 

was  tendered  to  him  by  the  will  of  the  people.  1913  he  was  assistant  solicitor  to  the  Depart- 

At  fir st  it  was  planned  to  Bend  the  Imperial  ment  of  State,  and  m  1914,  delegate  at  the  con- 


940 


NOLEN 


ference  to  conclude  the  treaty  for  the  govern- 
ment of  Spitsbergen.  He  served  during  the 
War  as  a  major  in  the  United  States  Army. 
At  the  Paris  Peace  Conference  he  was  in  charge 
of  matters  relating  to  treaties  and  claims 
against  the  enemy  governments,  and  he  was 
American  representative  in  the  drawing  up 
of  other  treaties.  President  Wilson  appointra 
him  solicitor  for  the  Department  of  State  in 
1020.  He  was  reap  pointed  to  this  position  by 
President  Harding.  He  served  as  technical  ex- 
pert at  the  Disarmament  Conference  in  1021-22. 

NIELSEN,  LUDOLF  (1876-  ).  A  Danish 
composer,  born  at  Norre-Tvede,  Denmark.  At 
the  Copenhagen  Conservatory  he  studied  under 
V.  Tofte  (violin),  A.  Orth  (piano),  and  F. 
Hartmann  (composition),  and  in  1903-04  he 
attended  the  Leipzig  Conservatory  As  winner 
of  the  Ancker  stipend  he  spent  the  year  1907  in 
travel  and  study  in  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Italy.  From  1897  to  1907  he  was  solo  violist 
and  assistant  conductor  of  the  Tivoh  orchestra 
and  viola  of  the  Bjorvig  Quartet.  He  later 
lived  in  Copenhagen  as  teacher  and  composer. 
He  wrote  two  operas,  Isabella  (Copenhagen, 
1915)  and  Uhret  (not  produced  up  to  1924)  ; 
three  symphonies;  the  symphonic  poems  Kag- 
nar  Lodbrogt  Sommernatsstemmng,  Jn  Memori- 
am,  Fra  Bjaergene,  and  Babclstaarnet ;  A'o- 
manze  for  'cello  and  orchestra;  Hcibstabcnd, 
recitation  with  orchestra;  St.  Hans  for  baritone, 
chorus,  and  orchestra;  two  string  quartets; 
and  choruses,  songs,  and  piano  numbers. 

NIEMEN  EIVEE.     See  MEMFL. 

NIGERIA.  A  British  colony  and  protector- 
ate in  West  Africa.  The  colony  has  an  area  of 
1400  square  miles;  the  protectorate,  made  up 
of  the  northern  and  southern  provinces,  has  an 
area  of  335,000  square  miles.  The  total  pop- 
ulation was  about  18,600,000,  of  whom  2800 
were  Europeans.  The  leading  products  of  eco- 
nomic importance,  measured  by  exports,  were: 
nuts  and  palm  kernels,  exports  in  1913,  £3,109,- 
818;  in  1921,  £3,574,184;  palm  oil,  exports 
in  1913,  £1,854,384;  in  1921,  £1,633.387;  raw 
cotton,  exports  in  1913,  £159,223;  in  1921, 
£530,280;  cocoa,  exports  in  1913,  £157,- 
480;  in  1921,  £350,085;  tin,  exports  in  1913, 
£568,428;  in  1921,  £714,659;  ground  nuts,  ex- 
ports in  1913,  £174,716;  hides  and  skins,  ex- 
ports in  1913,  £197,214;  in  1921,  £175,567. 
Other  products  were  rubber,  mahogany,  ivory, 
live  stock,  ostrich  feathers,  and  capsicums. 
Exports  for  1913,  1920,  and  1923,  were  £7,352,- 
377,  £16,987,018,  and  £11,672,000.  Imports  for 
the  same  years  were  £7,201,819,  £25,216.507, 
and  £11,457,000  Leading  imports  in  1921  were 
cotton  piece  goods  and  coopers'  stores.  High 
prices  accounted  for  great  advances  manifested 
in  the  trade  records  of  the  years  immediately 
following  the  War,  though  the  year  1921  saw 
its  world-wide  depression  reflected  in  Ni- 
geria too.  Shipping  figures  indicate  the  state 
of  affairs:  tonnage  entered  and  cleared  for 
1913,  1920,  and  1921  was  1,735,036  tons,  1,434,- 
222,  and  832,721.  The  importation  of  spirits 
was  prohibited  in  1919  with  the  result  that  a 
customs  tax  was  placed  on  exports  to  fill  out 
the  territory's  revenues  Imports  came  mostly 
from  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  British  coi- 
onies.  In  1921,  however,  imports  from  the 
United  States  totaled  £811,237.  In  1923,  of  the 
total  trade,  75  per  cent  was  with  the  United 
Kingdom,  8  per  cent  with  the  United  States, 
r.nd  8  per  cent  with  Germany.  In  1924,  1250 


miles  of  railway  were  open.  Since  1914  an  im- 
portant line  completed  was  the  Port  Harcourt- 
JEnugu  Ngwo  of  151  miles,  which  opened  up 
the  colliery  at  Enugu  Ngwo.  Plans  were  laid 
for  the  extension  of  this  railway  to  the  north 
beyond  the  Benue  River,  to  reach  to  Makurdi 
on  the  Benue  in  1914.  There  was  a  network  of 
excellent  motor  roads  in  the  southern  provinces, 
as  well  as  several  thousand  miles  of  telegraph 
wire. 

The  cost  of  government  mounted  during  the 
period  1914-24.  Revenues  increased  from  £3,- 
462,507  in  1913  to  £5,734,961  in  1924-25  (esti- 
mated), and  expenditures  from  £2,910,801  to 
£5,995,582.  The  debt  in  1913  was  £8,267,569; 
in  1922,  £13,609,209  The  system  of  adminis- 
trative centralization  inaugurated  in  1914  was 
continued.  In  1917  an  uprising  in  the  West 
gave  the  government  some  concern,  but  it  was 
soon  checked.  In  1923,  to  extend  more  fully 
the  idea  of  local  autonomy,  the  British  govern- 
ment granted  the  whole  of  Nigeria  a  new  con- 
stitution, embodying  a  provision  for  the  erec- 
tion of  a  legislative  council 

NINE  POWER  OPEN  BOOB  TREATY. 
See  CHINA,  History 

NITROGEN,  FIXATION  or.  See  CHEMIS- 
TRY; FERTILIZERS 

NTTTI,  FR  \NCESCO  SAVERIO  (1868-  ). 
An  Italian  statesman  and  author.  He  occupied 
many  positions  in  the  government  and  from 
1911  to  1914  was  Minister  of  Agriculture,  In- 
dustry, and  Commerce.  lie  favored  Italian  in- 
tervention on  the  side  of  the  Allies  in  the  War 
and  was  a  member  of  the  special  Italian  mis- 
sion to  the  United  States  in  1917.  On  his  re- 
turn he  was  appointed  Minister  of  the  Treas- 
ury. On  the  fall  of  the  Orlando  ministry  in 
June,  1919,  he  became  Prime  Minister  and  held 
this  office  until  May,  1920.  lie  wa*  for  a  time 
professor  of  economics  at  the  University  of 
Naples. 

NIVELLE,  ROBERT  GEORGES  (1856-1924). 
A  French  soldier,  of  Englibh  ancestry  on  his 
mother's  side.  He  entered  the  artillery  serv- 
ice of  the  army  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
War  was  a  colonel.  lie  greatly  distinguished 
himself  in  the  retreat  from  Mons  and  in  the 
battle  of  the  Marne  in  September,  1914,  and 
was  promoted  to  be  chiof  assistant  of  (loncinl 
Pftain  in  the  defense  of  Verdun.  Tic  succeeded 
to  command  in  that  sector  and  initiated  and 
carried  out  a  counteroffensive  which,  on  Oct. 
24,  1910,  regained  the  forts  of  Douaumont  and 
Vaux.  He  was  appointed  successor  to  (ieneral 
Joffre  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  French 
armies  of  the  North  and  East  on  Dec.  12,  1916. 
He  planned  and  undertook  a  grand  offensive 
on  the  Aisne  front  which  failed  to  dislodge  the 
(Germans  and  resulted  in  immense  losses  to  the 
French  in  April  and  May,  1917;  on  May  15  ho 
was  relieved  of  his  post  as  commander-in-chief 
He  was  placed  in  command  of  the  French  forces 
in  North  Africa  and  held  this  position  until 
1919. 

NOGTJCHI,  HIDEYO  (1876-  ).  A 
Japanese- American  pathologist  (see  VOL.  XVII). 
Dr.  Noguchi's  most  striking  achievement  after 
joining  the  staff  of  the  Rockefeller  Institute 
was  the  discovery  of  the  microorganism  caus- 
ing yellow  fever.  (See  YELLOW  FEVER.)  In 
1923  he  published  Laboratory  Diagnosis  of 
Kypliilis. 

NOLEN,  JOHN  (1869-  ).  An  American 
landscape  architect  and  city  planner,  born,  at 


NOBDATJ  941 

Philadelphia,  and  educated  at  Pennsylvania, 
Munich,  and  Harvard  Universities.  From  1003 
he  was  engaged  in  practice  in  Cambridge,  Mass. 
His  more  important  work  includes  the  plans  for 
the  Agricultural  School  and  Smith  College  at 
Northampton,  Mass.,  for  public  institutions  for 
Wisconsin,  and  for  many  private  houses  He 
drew  comprehensive  city  plans  and  reports  for 
the  improvement  of  "Roanoke,  Va  ,  Sacramento, 
Cal.,  and  many  other  cities.  During  the  War 
he  was  a  member  of  the  advisory  housing  com- 
mittee of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  and 
was  consultant  and  designer  for  several  towns 
for  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation. 
His  many  writings  on  architectural  subjects  in- 
clude Madison,  a  Model  City  (1910),  and  New 
Ideals  in  the  Planning  of  Cities,  Towns,  and 
Villages  (1919). 

NOBDATT,  MAX  SIMON  (1849-1923).  A 
Jewish  author  of  Hungarian  birth  (see  VOL. 
XVII).  His  reputation  rests  on  his  Degenera- 
tion (1895),  which  overshadowed  all  his  sub- 
sequent workH  He  was  a  resident  of  Pans  and 
died  there.  His  last  publications  were  Mensch- 
en  itnd  Menschhches  von  Ueute  (1915)  and 
FranzosiRche  Ktaatsmanner  (1916).  He  re- 
mained an  ardent  Xionist 

NOBDEN,  N.  LINDSAY  (1887-  ).  An 
American  organist  and  composer,  born  in  Phil- 
adelphia, lie  received  his  musical  training  in 
New  York  under  M.  Spicker,  F.  W.  Robinson, 
A.  Weld,  and  later,  at  Columbia  University, 
under  Prof  C.  Rybner  From  1905  to  1909  he 
was  musical  director  at  St  Mary's,  and  from 
1909  to  1917,  at  All  Saints*  in  Brooklyn.  In 
1917  he  was  appointed  W  W  Oilchrist's  suc- 
cessor as  conductor  of  the  Mendelssohn  Club  in 
Philadelphia,  where  he  settled  permanently  the 
following  year  as  organist  and  choirmaster  at 
the  Second  Presbyterian  Church,  choirmaster  at 
St.  Paul'n,  and  teacher  at  the  Delancey  School. 
In  1920  ho  became  conductor  of  the  Heading 
Choral  Society,  producing  oratorios  and  choral 
works  in  the  larger  forms.  Having  become  in- 
terested in  the  a  cappella  music  of  the  Russian 
liturgy,  of  which  he  made  a  special  study,  he 
organi/ed  in  1912  the  ^Eolian  Choir  of  60 
trained  voices,  which  he  conducted  until  1917, 
introducing  to  concert  audiences  works  never 
heard  in  the  United  States  outside  the  regular 
service  in  some  of  the  larger  Russian  churches. 
This  pioneer  work  he  continued  in  Philadelphia 
with  his  choir  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church.  He  edited  a  large  collection  of  this 
music,  about  80  numbers,  with  English  transla- 
tion His  original  compositions  include  an 
overture,  King  Melville;  an  orchestral  sketch, 
H ilver  Plume,  a  cantata,  Thanatopsis ,  many 
motets,  anthems  and  services  and  songs 

NOBDENSKI6LD,  NILS  ERLAND  HEBBEBT, 
BARON  (IH77-  )  A  Swedish  anthropolo- 
gist (see  VOL  XVII)  He  wrote  Forxkningar 
och  Aventyr  i  Rydamerika  (1916),  An  Ethno- 
geoyraphw  Analysts  of  the  Material  Culture  of 
Two  Indian  Tribes  in  the  Gran  Chaco  (1919); 
The  Change*  in  the  Material  Culture  of  Two 
Indian  Tribes  under  the  Influence  of  New  Sur- 
roundings (1920)  ;  The  Copper  and  Bronze  Ages 
in  Kouth  America  (1921),  Deductions  Sug- 
gested by  the  Geographical  Distribution  of 
item*?  Post-Columbian  Words  Used  by  the  Indi- 
ans of  Nouth  America  (1922),  and,  in  German, 
Indianer  und  Weisse  in  "Nord  Ost  Bolivien 
(1922),  and  Traurnttaften  aus  den  Anden  (1922). 

NOBDEN  SOCIETY.    See  NORWAY,  History. 


NOBBIS 

NORDIC.    See  BACE  PROBLEMS. 

NOBEEN,  ADOLF  GOTTHABD  (1854-  ).  A 
Swedish  philologist  of  high  reputation,  many 
of  whose  works  have  been  translated  (see  VOL. 
XVII)  Since  his  book  on  Swedish  names  of 
places,  he  has  published  other  works  including 
an  edition  of  Marcus  Borgstrom's  Svenska 
Sprakets  Historia  for  Folkskolcseminarier 
(1910). 

NOBFOLX.  A  port  of  entry  for  Virginia  and 
the  second  port  on  the  Atlantic  coast  in  vol- 
ume of  exports.  The  population  increased  71.6 
per  cent  from  67,452  in  1910  to  115,777  in  1920 
and  to  164,105  by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of 
the  Census  for  1924.  During  the  War  the  Fed- 
eral government  built  an  army  base  terminal  at 
a  cost  of  $29,000,000,  which  was  afterwards 
leased  and  operated  by  the  city.  In  1918,  the 
commission-manager  type  of  government  was 
adopted;  city  planning  and  zoning  were  estab- 
lished. A  new  $5,000,000  water  system,  ade- 
quate for  a  city  of  1,000,000  population,  was 
procured,  two  junior  high  schools  and  an  in- 
dustrial high  school  for  negroes  were  built  at 
a  cost  of  $500,000  apiece,  and  15  playgrounds 
were  established  and  equipped.  A  municipal 
grain  elevator  and  terminal  of  eight  warehouses 
was  built  in  1923  at  a  cost  of  $5,000,000,  and  a 
municipal  market  was  completed  in  the  same 
year.  Private  building  operations  amounted 
to  $5,368,971  in  1923,  an  increase  of  110  per 
cent  in  10  years;  bank  clearings  to  $417,592,524, 
an  increase  of  94  per  cent,  and  the  city  budget 
to  $7,234,148,  an  increase  of  428  per  cent.  The 
total  annual  value  of  port  commerce  increased 
more  than  800  per  cent  during  the  same  period. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  See  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
ISLANDS 

NOBMAL  COLLEGE  OF  THE  CITY  OP 
NEW  YOBK.  See  HUNTER  COLLEGE. 

NOBBIS,  GEORGE  WILLIAM  (1861-  ). 
American  legislator  (see  VOL  XVI).  He  was 
reflected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1918. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  leaders  of 
the  so-called  Progressive  wing  of  the  Republican 
party  in  the  Senate  and  formed  one  of  the 
"agricultural  bloc "  He  was  a  candidate  for 
reelection  in  1924 

NOBBIS,  JAMES  FLACK  (1871-  ).  An 
American  cbemist,  born  at  Baltimore,  Md  ,  and 
educated  at  Johns  Hopkins  University  During 
1895-1904  he  was  connected  with  the  chemical 
department  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  and  in  1904  became  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Simmons  College,  but  in  1915  he 
accepted  a  call  to  Vanderhilt  University,  where 
he  remained  a  year  He  returned  to  the  Insti- 
tute of  Technology  and  in  1920  became  profes- 
sor of  organic  chemistry  there.  He  lectured  on 
his  specialty  at  Harvard  (1912-14)  and  Clark 
University  '(1913-14).  His  original  investiga- 
tions have  been  chiefly  in  organic  chemistry. 
He  was  an  associate  on  the  Naval  Consulting 
Board  in  1916  and  during  1917-18  was  connected 
with  the  gas  defense  work  of  the  Bureau  of 
Mines  He  served  later  in  the  Chemical  War- 
fare Service,  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  inspected  the  war  gas  factories  of 
Germany.  Dr  Nome  is  the  author  of  The 
Principles  of  Organic  Chemistry,  Experimental 
Organic  Chemistry,  and  a  Textbook  of  Inorganic 
Chemistry. 

NOBBIS,    KATHLEEN    (THOMPSON)     (1880- 

).    An  American  novelist  (see  VOL.  XVII). 

Among    her    later    books    are    The    Treasure 


KOBTH  CAROLINA 


949 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


(1915)  ;  The  Story  of  Julia  Page  (1915)  ;  The 
Heart  of  Rachel  (1910);  Undertow  (1917); 
Martie,  the  Unconquered  (1917);  Josalyn's 
Wife  (1918);  Sisters  (1919);  Harriet  and  the 
Piper  (1920);  The  Beloved  Woman  (1921); 
Luoretia  Lombard  (  1922  )  ;  Certain  People  of 
Importance  (1922);  Butterfly  (1923);  and 
The  CaUahans  and  the  Murphy  8  (1024). 

NORTH  CAROLINA.  North  Carolina  is 
the  twenty-seventh  State  in  size  (52,426  square 
miles),  and  the  fourteenth  in  population;  capi- 
tal, Raleigh.  The  population  increased  from 
2,206,287  to  2,559,123,  a  gain  of  16  per  cent. 
The  white  population  increased  from  1,500,511 
to  1,783,779;  negro,  from  697,843  to  763,407; 
native  white,  from  1,494,569  to  1,776,680; 
foreign-born  (a  very  small  proportion  of  the 
population),  from  5942  to  7099.  Both  urban 
and  rural  populations  increased  during  the  dec- 
ade: the  former  from  318,474  to  41)0,370;  the 


duction  of  the  principal  farm  crops  in  1923 
was  as  follows:  corn,  54,405,000  bushels;  wheat, 
6,038,000  bushels;  oats,  3,828,000  bushels;  po- 
tatoes, 3,861,000  bushels;  sweet  potatoes,  10,- 
126,000  bushels;  tobacco,  355,266,000  pounds; 
hay,  657,000  tons.  Comparative  figures  for 
1913  are:  corn,  55,282,000  bushels;  wheat,  7,- 
078,000;  oats.  4,485,000;  potatoes,  2,400,000; 
tobacco,  167,500,000  pounds. 

Manufactures.  While  North  Carolina  is  not 
one  of  the  leading  manufacturing  States,  it  has 
great  industrial  importance.  In  1920,  there 
were  14  cities  of  more  than  10,000  inhabitants, 
which  formed  12.1  per  cent  of  the  total  popula- 
tion; and  in  1919  these  reported  42.2  per  cent  of 
the  value  of  the  State's  manufacturing  products. 
There  were  in  the  State  4931  manufacturing 
establishments  in  1909;  5507  in  1914;  and  5999 
in  1919.  Persons  engaged  in  manufacture  num- 
bered 133,453,  131,335,  and  175,423;  and  the 


latter  from  1,887,813  to  2,068,753.     The  growth      capital  invested  amounted  to  $217,185,588,  $253, 


of  the  principal  cities  was  as  follows:  Winston- 
Salem,  22,700  (1910),  to  48,395  (1920):  Char- 
lotte, 34,014  to  46,338;  Wilmington,  25,748  to 
33,372;  Asheville,  18,702  to  28.504. 

Agriculture.  As  North  Carolina  is  one  of 
the  cotton-producing  States,  it  has  been  con- 
siderably affected  by  the  advance  of  the  boll 
weevil,  which  reached  the  State  about  1920-21. 
The  ravages  of  these  insects,  however,  vary  with 
the  intensity  of  the  winter  (the  cold  killing 
many  of  them),  so  that  while  there  was  serious 
destruction  in  some  sections,  the  effect  on  pro- 
duction was  not  as  marked  as  it  was  farther 
South.  The  acreage  planted  to  cotton  in  1913 
was  1,576,000  and  the  production  792,000  bales; 
in  1915,  1,282,000,  009,000  bales;  in  1918,  1,600,- 
000  and  898.000,  in  1020,  1,587,000  and  925,000; 
in  1922,  1,026,000  and  852,000.  The  estimated 
production  in  1923  was  877,000  bales.  See 
COTTON;  also  BOLL  WEEVIL. 

While  the  population  of  the  State  increased 
16  per  cent  in  the  decade  1910-20,  the  number 
of  farms  increased  6.3  per  cent  (from  253,725 
to  269,763).  The  acreage  of  land  in  farms, 
however,  showed  a  decrease  of  10.8  per  cent,  or 
from  22,439,129  to  20,021,736;  and  the  improved 
land  in  farms  decreased  7  per  cent,  from  8,813,- 
056  to  8,108,409  acres.  The  total  value  of  farm 
property  showed  an  apparent  increase  of  132.5 
per  cent  in  the  decade,  or  from  $537,716,210  to 
$1,250,166,995;  the  average  value  per  farm,  from 
$2119  to  $4634.  In  interpreting  these  values 
and  all  comparative  values  in  the  decade  1914- 
24,  the  inflation  of  currency  in  the  latter  part 
of  that  period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of 
farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104 
in  1910  and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  209,763  farms 
in  1920,  151,376  were  operated  by  owners,  928 
by  managers,  and  117,459  by  tenants.  The  cor- 
responding figures  for  1910  were  145,320,  1118, 
and  107,287.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered 
193,473,  compared  with  188,069  in  1910;  colored 
farmers,  almost  entirely  negroes,  numbered  76,- 
290,  compared  with  65,656.  Farms  free  from 
mortgage  in  1920  numbered  102,950,  and  those 
under  mortgage,  24,499;  in  1910,  117,028  were 
free  from  mortgage  and  26,642  were  mortgaged. 
The  total  number  of  cattle  in  1920  was  644,779, 
of  which  462,077  were  dairy  cattle;  in  1910  the 
total  number  was  700,861  (308,914  dairy  cat- 


841,808, and  $069,144,090,  in  those  years.  The 
value  of  the  product  in  1909  was  $216,656,055; 
in  1014,  $280,411,987;  and  in  1919,  $943,807,- 
949.  The  large  increase  in  value  of  products 
was  due  largely  to  changes  in  industrial  condi- 
tions brought  about  by  the  War,  and  cannot 
be  properly  used  to  measure  the  growth  of  man- 
ufactures during  the  census  period,  1914-1019, 
but  the  increase  in  number  of  persons  engaged 
in  manufacture  clearly  indicates  steady  growth 
in  the  manufacturing  importance  of  the  State 
The  manufacture  of  cotton  ranks  first  in  point 
of  value  of  product-  in  1909,  $72,080,000; 
1914,  $90,744,000;  and  1019,  $318,368,000.  The 
manufacture  of  tobacco,  cigars  and  cigarettes 
ranks  second  in  this  respect,  valued  in  1909 
at  $3o,087,000;  1914,  $57,861,000;  and  1910, 
$250,824,000.  Lumber  and  timber  products, 
third  in  value,  amounted  to  $33,525,000  in 
1900;  $39,632,000  in  1914;  and  $60,580,000  in 
1910.  The  manufacture,  of  cotton-seed  oil  and 
cake,  next  in  order,  had  a  product  valued  at 
$8,504,000  in  1000;  $10,200,000  in  1914;  and 
$46,993,000  in  1910.  The  chief  manufacturing 
cities  of  the  State  are  Winston-Saleni,  Durham 
and  Charlotte.  In  Winston-Salem,  there  were 
66  manufactuiing  establishments  in  1009,  with 
a  product  valued  at  $18,240,000;  73  in  1911, 
with  $37,288,000;  and  93  in  1910,  with  $200,- 
485,000.  Durham  had  60  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments in  1909,  with  a  product  valued  at 
$23,027,000;  62  in  1014,  with  $27,507,000;  and 
74  in  1019,  with  $70,639,000  Similar  figures 
for  Charlotte  were:  108  in  1009,  with  $10,400,- 
000;  107  in  1914,  with  $10,902,000;  and  111  in 
1919,  with  $43,096,000.  Other  important  manu- 
facturing cities  are  Greensboro,  Raleigh,  New 
Bern,  Wilmington  and  Ashcville. 

Education.  The  educational  problems  in 
North  Carolina  are  those  of  the  other  southern 
States  that  have  a  large  colored  population. 
During  the  decade  1914-24,  steady  progress  was 
made.  Schools  were  reorganized  in  1919  and 
provision  was  made  for  a  State  Equalizing 
Fund,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  distiibutc  as 
equally  as  possible  the  burden  of  supporting 
the  county  schools;  the  General  Assembly  had 
been  setting  apart  a  fund  for  this  purpose  for 
several  years.  The  General  Assembly  of  1921 
inaugurated  a  greatly  improved  tax  system, 
which  renders  easier  the  raising  of  money  for 


tie).     Sheep,    in    1920,    numbered    90,556,    com-      educational  purposes.    There  was  being  developed 


pared    with    214,473   in    1910;    hogs,    1,271,270, 
compared   with    1,227,625.    The  estimated   pro- 


in the   State  a  system  of  public  schools  with 
the  county   as  the   unit  of  administration,   in 


NORTH  CABOLUTA 


contrast  to  a  tendency  in  former  years  for  the 
county  to  break  up  into  small  districts  char- 
tered by  the  General  Assembly  and  made  in- 
dependent of  the  county  authorities.  The  deci- 
sion of  the  courts  and  legislative  acts  during 
the  decade  tended  to  make  the  county  the  unit 
and  to  bring  all  the  small  local  tax  or  special 
charier  districts  under  county  control,  giving 
to  the  county  board  of  education  very  broad 
powers.  The  growth  of  the  community  high 
school  was  remarkable,  especially  in  the  last 
three  years  of  the  decade,  the  county  districts 
being  given  as  good  high-school  advantages  as 
the  towns  and  cities.  Vocational  training  in 
agriculture  and  home  economics  was  carried 
on  in  the  public  schools,  having  been  made 
possible  through  acceptance  of  the  provision  of 
the  Federal  aet  that  appropriates  Federal  funds 
to  the  States  for  this  purpose  The  Legislature 
of  1921  created  a  Division  of  Ne^ro  Education, 
which  was  given  general  charge  of  the  supervi- 
sion of  Negro  schools  in  the  State,  and  will 
undoubtedly  result  in  great  improvement  in  the 
schools.  The  school  enrollment  increased  from 
520,404  in  1010  to  752,608  in  1922;  in  the  pub- 
lic high  schools  from  14,407  to  48,831.  The 
total  expenditure  increased  from  $.T,  178,950  to 
$21t64!)t(S95.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in 
the  State  decreased  from  226  in  1910  to"  10.9 
in  1920:  among  the  native  white  population 
from  15  to  10.7;  among  the  foreign-born,  from 
81  to  7;  among  the  negro,  from  212  to  18.9 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STA'IL  FINANCLS. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  Noith  Caro- 
lina, in  the  decade  1914-24,  remained  steadily 
Democratic.  In  1914  elections  were  held  for 
United  States  Senator;  Senator  Overman  was 
reflected.  Democratic  Representatives  were 
elected  to  all  districts  except  one  In  1910 
elections  were  held  for  governor  and  State  offi- 
cers. Thomas  W.  Bickett,  nominated  by  the 
Democrats,  was  elected  over  the  Republican 
nominee,  Frank  W  Linney  In  the  pieaidential 
voting,  President  Wilson  received  168,383  votes; 
Charles  E  Hughes,  120,890.  In  1918  elections 
weie  held  for  United  States  Senator  and  for 
oilier  officerb.  Senator  Simmons  was  reflected 
Cameron  Morrison,  Democratic  candidate,  was 
elected  governor  in  1920,  and  Lee  S.  Overman 
was  reflected  to  the  Senate.  In  the  presidential 
voting  of  this  year,  J.  M.  Cox  received  305,- 
447  votes;  and' \V  G  Harding,  232,848.  The 
voters  in  1922  rejected  a  proposed  amendment 
to  the  constitution  to  increase  the  pay  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Legislature  from  $4  to  $10  a  day. 
Minor  State  officers  were  chosen  at  this  election 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of  the 
Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted 
below.  In  1915  a  proposed  woman  suffrage 
amendment  was  defeated  in  the  House  by  a  vote 
of  07  to  32.  Bills  designed  to  bring  about  an 
miforoement  of  the  law  against  child  labor  also 
failed  to  pass.  Measures  regulating  the  sale 
of  liquor  in  the  State  were  enacted.  In  1917 
the  Legislature  amended  the  laws  relating  to 
criminal  procedure,  created  a  budget  system, 


943 


NORTH  DAKOTA 

the  banking  institutions  of  the  State  were 
regulated,  and  provision  was  made  for  their 
more  thorough  supervision.  Laws  relating  to 
attempted  bribery  were  amended,  and  measures 
were  passed  for  the  promotion  of  cooperative 
marketing  of  farm  products.  A  provision  was 
also  made  for  a  State  system  of  roads  and  for 
the  development  of  agriculture  and  industry. 
The  Legislature  also  made  provision  for  the 
issue  of  bonds  to  enlarge  and  improve  the  edu- 
cational and  charitable  institutions  of  the 
State.  In  1923  a  measure  was  passed  by  the 
Legislature  creating  a  board  to  supervise  the 
taxes  of  the  State.  A  prohibition  law  was  re- 
pealed and  a  law  substituted  providing  prohibi- 
tion against  the  transportation,  manufacture, 
or  sale  of  liquors  containing  more  than  .5 
per  cent  alcohol.  At  this  session  was  also 
created  a  system  of  mother'  pensions. 

NORTH  CAROLINA,  UIWEKSIIY  OF  A 
State  institution  at  Chapel  Hill,  N  C  ,  founded 
in  1795.  The  university  expanded  conniderably 
between  1914  and  1923-24,  with  a  faculty  of 
85  and  an  enrollment  of  981  in  the  former 
year  as  compared  with  a  faculty  of  165  and 
an  enrollment  of  2130  in  the  year  1923- 
24  and  1817  in  the  summer  of  1923  The 
library  was  also  increased  during  the  decade 
from  75000  to  119,625  volumes,  and  the  in- 
come was  increased  fiom  $170,000  to  $927,774.25, 
of  which  $75,000  annually  comes  from  the  be- 
quest of  Mis  Robert  W.  Bingham  received  in 
1917  and  $40,000  from  the  gift  of  the  General 
Education  Board  in  1920.  Four  new  dormi- 
tories and  three  class  buildings  were  put  up  be- 
tween 1921  and  1923,  and  State  funds  were 
available  in  1923-25  for  four  other  dormitories 
arid  a  building  for  the  department  of  chemistry. 
A  Student  Union  was  being  erected  in  1923  from 
alumni  subscription,  and  an  Alumni  Club  from 
a  private  gift  Harry  \Voodbiirn  Chase  suc- 
ceeded Edward  K.  Graham,  who  died  in  1918, 
as  president 

NORTHCLIFFE,  ALIKLD  CHARLES  WITLIAM 
HARMSWORTII,  Firbt  VISCOUXT  (1805-11)22). 
A  British  newspaper  publisher  (see  VOL.  XVII). 
His  activities  at  the  outbreak  and  during  the 
couisc  of  the  War  were  in  many  cases  highly 
effective.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  Lord  Kitchener  and  was  instru- 
mental in  bringing  about  his  removal.  Through 
his  efforts  also,  the  munitions  department  was 
placed  on  an  efficient  basis.  He  was  an  ardent 
supporter  of  Lloyd  George  and  had  much  to  do 
with  the  latter's  accession  to  the  premiership 
In  1917  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Civil 
Aerial  Transport  Committee  and  chairman  of 
the  British  \Yar  Mission  to  the  United  States; 
in  the  following  year  he  was  director  of  propa- 
ganda in  the  enemy  countries.  For  his  serv- 
ices during  the  War,  he  was  created  viscount 
in  1917  He  died  after  a  long  siege  of  ill 
health  on  Aug.  14,  1922.  He  published  several 
books,  including  one  of  his  experiences  at  the 
front  during  the  War. 

NORTH    DAKOTA.     North    Dakota   is    the 


and  provided  for  the  voting  of  citizens  absent  sixteenth   State   in   size    (70,837   square  miles) 

in  the  national  service.     A  commission  was  ap-  and    the    thirty-sixth    in    population;    capital, 

minted   to  make   a  survey   of  the  educational  Bismarck.     The  population  increased  from  577,- 

Astern      In    1919  the   Legislature   adopted    the  056  in  1910  to  646,872  in  1920,  a  gain  of  12.1 

Federal    prohibition    amendment,    on    January  percent      The  white  population  increased  from 

4      This  I  eimlature  also  enacted  measures  for-  569,855  to  039,954,  the  native  white  increasing 

U^t*Ml!to?™A  passed  an  act  requiring  from   413,697   to   508,451      The   number   of   In- 

compulsory  school  attendance  for  children  un-  dians   decreased   from    6486    to    6254 ;    negroes, 

der  14  years  of  age.    In  the  session  of   1921  from    617    to   467;    foreign-born   whites,   from 


KOETH  DAKOTA 


944 


NO&TH  DAKOTA 


156,158  to  131,503.  Both  urban  and  rural  pop- 
ulations mounted,  the  former  from  63,236  to 
88,239;  the  latter  from  513,820  to  558,633.  The 
growth  of  the  principal  cities  was  as  follows: 
Fargo,  14,331  (1910),  to  21,961  (1920);  Grand 
Forks,  12,478  to  14,010;  Minot,  6188  to  10,470. 

Agriculture.  As  North  Dakota  is  one  of 
the  largest  grain-producing  States,  agricultural 
conditions  in  the  decade  1910-20  were  affected 
by  the  fluctuations  in  price  and  production  of 
wheat  and  other  grains  resulting  from  conditions 
during  and  following  the  War.  An  account  of 
the  general  agricultural  situation  will  be  found 
under  AGRICULTURE,  CORN,  WHEAT.  While  the 
population  of  the  Sate  showed  a  growth  of 
12.1  per  cent  in  the  decade,  the  number  of 
farms  increased  4.5  per  cent  (from  74,300  in 
1910  to  77,690  in  1920);  the  total  acreage  in 
farms  from  28,420,650  to  36,214,751,  or  27.4  per 
cent;  and  the  improved  land  in  farms,  from 
20,455,092  acres  to  24,563,178,  or  20.1  per  cent. 
The  percentage  of  the  total  area  used  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  increased  from  63.3  in  1910 
to  80.6  in  1920;  the  percentage  of  farm  land 
improved  decreased  from  72  per  cent  to  67.8. 
The  total  value  of  farm  property  showed  an 
apparent  increase,  from  $974,814,205  in  1910  to 
$1,759,742,995  in  1920,  or  80.5  per  cent;  the  av- 
erage value  per  farm,  from  $13,109  to  $22,651. 
In  interpreting  these  values,  and  all  comparative 
values  in  the  decade  1914-24,  the  inflation  of 
the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of  that  period 
is  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  index 
number  of  pi  ices  paid  to  producers  of  farm 
products  in  tlie  United  States  was  104  in  1910 
and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  total  of  77,690  farms 
in  1920,  56,917  were  operated  by  owners,  855 
by  managers,  and  19,918  by  tenants.  The  com- 
parative figures  for  1910  were  63,212,  484,  and 
10,664.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered  77,- 
147,  of  whom  40,899  were  native,  and  36,248 
foreign-born.  In  1910,  there  were  73,617  white 
farmers;  35,750  native,  and  37,867  foreign-born. 
In  1920,  the  colored  farmers  numbered  543,  of 
whom  517  were  Indians;  in  1910,  there  were 
743,  of  whom  721  were  Indians.  Farms  free 
from  mortgage  in  1920  numbered  12,833,  com- 
pared with  30,651  in  1910;  those  under  mort- 
gage, 40,462,  compared  with  31,727  in  1910— 
a  reflection  of  the  unfavorable  agricultural  con- 
dition after  the  War.  The  number  of  dairy 
cows  in  1920  was  461,093,  compared  with  259,- 
173  in  1910,  indicating  the  development  of 
dairy  farming.  The  number  of  "beef  cows"  was 
296,135,  compared  with  119,510;  and  the  number 
of  sheep  increased  from  241,392  to  298,912. 
The  estimated  production  of  the  principal  farm 
crops  in  1923  was  as  follows:  corn,  21,457,000 
bushels;  spring  wheat,  62,352,000  bushels;  oats, 
57,950,000  bushels;  rye,  10,046,000  bushels;  bar- 
ley, 22,783,000  bushels;  potatoes,  12,704,000 
bushels;  hay,  1,450,000  tons,  and  flaxseed,  9,- 
259,000  bushels.  Comparative  figures  for  1913 
are:  corn,  10,800,000  bushels;  wheat,  78,855,000; 
oats,  57,825,000;  rye,  1,800,000;  barley,  25,500,- 
000;  potatoes,  5,100,000;  and  hay,  388,000  tons. 

Manufactures.  North  Dakota  is  not  a  State 
of  great  industrial  importance.  There  were 
three  cities  in  1920  having  more  than  10,000 
inhabitants.  These  formed  7.2  per  cent  of  the 
total  population  in  1920,  and  reported  33.3  per 
cent  of  the  value  of  the  State's  manufactured 
products  in  1919.  There  were  in  the  State  752 
manufacturing  establishments  in  1909;  699  in 
1914;  and  894  in  1919.  Persons  engaged  in 


manufacture  numbered  4148,  4627,  and  6148; 
and  the  capital  invested  amounted  to  $11,684,- 
747,  $14,213,362,  and  $24,548,833,  in  those  years. 
The  value  of  the  manufactured  products  amount- 
ed to  $19,137,506  in  1909;  $21,147,431  in  1914; 
and  $57,373,622  in  1919.  The  large  increase  in 
value  of  products  is  due  largely  to  the  change 
in  industrial  conditions  brought  about  by  the 
War,  and  cannot  be  properly  used  to  measure 
the  growth  of  manufactures  'between  the  indus- 
trial censuses  of  1914  and  1919;  but  the  in- 
crease in  number  of  wage  earners  and  in  number 
of  establishments  is  clear  evidence  of  growth  in 
the  manufacturing  activities  of  the  State.  The 
most  important  industry  in  point  of  value  of 
product  is  flour  and  gristmilling.  This,  in 
1909,  amounted  to  $11,685,000;  in  1914,  to 
$12,030,000;  and  in  1919,  to  $29,282,000.  The 
manufacture  of  butter  ranks  second  in  this  re- 
spect, valued,  in  1909,  at  $1,029,000;  in  1914, 
$1,740,000;  and  in  1919,  $11,122,000.  Printing 
and  publishing,  ranking  third,  had  a  product 
valued  at  $1,910,000  in  1909;  $2,220,000  in  1914; 
and  $3,225,000  in  1919.  Car  construction  and 
repair,  in  fourth  place,  had  a  product  valued  in 
1909  at  $080,000;  in  1914,  $1,235,000;  and  in 
1919,  $3,183,000.  The  principal  manufacturing 
cities  are  Fargo,  Grand  Forks  and  Minot. 

Education.  Education  has  been  one  of  the 
chief  concerns  of  the  citizens  and  government 
of  North  Dakota  from  the  beginning  of  its 
Statehood,  and  progress  in  educational  matters 
accelerated  during  the  decade  1914-24.  During 
this  period  there  was  a  rapid  increase  in  the 
number  of  standardized  rural  schools  and  in  the 
consolidated  schools  of  the  State.  Two  nor- 
mal schools  were  established  at  Minot  and 
Dickinson,  respectively,  and  the  normal  school 
at  Valley  City  became  the  State  Teachers  Col- 
lege, granting  a  bachelor's  degree.  During  the 
last  few  years  of  the  decade  a  campaign  against 
illiteracy  was  in  progress.  The  legislative  ses- 
sion of  1923  granted  an  appropriation  for 
Americanization  work  which  made  it  possible 
for  the  department  to  appoint  a  State  director 
for  adult  education.  The  State  was  entering 
upon  what  was  practically  a  period  of  recon- 
struction in  education,  and  a  new  State  educa- 
tion programme  was  being  undertaken.  The 
total  enrollment  in  the  public  schools  increased 
from  139,802  in  1910  to  168,446  in  1920.  The 
total  enrollment  in  the  high  schools  in  1920  was 
15,062.  Total  expenditure  for  education  in- 
creased from  $4,829,232  in  1910  to  $13,306,724 
in  1920.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the 
State  decreased  from  3.7  per  cent  in  1910  to  2.9 
per  cent  in  1920:  among  the  native  white  popu- 
lation, from  0.4  to  0.3;  among  the  foreign-born 
white,  from  5  to  4.9;  and  among  the  negro,  from 
6.8  to  6.7. 

Finance.    For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  The  decade 
1914-24  was  notable  in  the  political  history 
of  the  State  in  that  it  marked  the  rise  of  the 
Non-Partisan  League  to  a  position  of  control, 
which  brought  about  practically  a  Socialist 
form  of  government  Elections  were  held  in 
1914  for  governor  and  United  States  Senator. 
L.  B.  Hanna,  Republican,  was  elected  governor 
and  A.  J.  Gronna  was  reflected  Senator.  The 
Non-Partisan  League,  an  organization  composed 
chiefly  of  farmers,  and  founded  largely  through 
the  efforts  of  A.  C.  Townley,  Socialist,  had,  by 
1916,  gained  such  strength  that  it  was  able  to 
control  the  political  situation.  The  success  of 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


945 


NORTHERN  TERRITORY 


the  League  was  due  chiefly  to  a  breach  in  the 
Republican  party,  which  divided  into  factions, 
and  partly  to  a  prolonged  newspaper  agitation 
and  conditions  among  the  farmers  which  made 
the  situation  ripe  for  a  political  overturn.  The 
League  advocated  the  ownership  1 13*  farmers 
of  terminal  elevators,  banks  and  other  facilities 
for  marketing  their  crops.  The  State-wide  pri- 
maries in  June,  1016,  endorsed  candidates  of 
this  party,  and  the  State  Republican  organiza- 
tion came  under  its  control.  In  the  elections 
in  November,  the  League  elected  its  entire  State 
ticket,  including  L.  J.  Fra/ier  for  governor 
The  League,  however,  supported  Porter  J.  Mac- 
Cumber  for  reelection  to  the  United  States 
Senate.  In  the  presidential  voting  of  this  year, 
President  Wilson  received  .55,200  votes,  and 
Charles  E  Hughes,  53,471  votes.  The  League, 
having  gained  full  control  of  all  departments 
of  the  State  government,  planned  an  extensive 
series  of  measures,  largely  along  State  owner- 
ship lines,  including  the  ownership  by  the 
State  of  terminal  grain  elevators,  packing 
plants,  banks,  and  other  organi/ations.  In  1018, 
Governor  Frazier  was  reflected,  togethei  with 
the  other  State  officers.  At  a  referendum  elec- 
tion held  in  191!),  the  legislative  programme 
of  the  Non-Partisan  League  (see  Legislation  be- 
low),  was  adopted.  A  C  Townley,  president  of 
the  League,  was  in  1919  found  guilty  undei 
the  State  Sedition  Law.  The  Non-Partisan 
League  was  continued  in  political  power  by  the 
election,  in  1020,  of  (Governor  Frazier,  who  was 
reflected.  The  Republican-Noii-Partisan  candi- 
date for  the  Senate,  E.  F.  Ladd,  was  elected, 
defeating  Senator  Gronna.  As  the  result  of  the 
carrying  out  of  the  progianmie  of  the  Non- 
Paitisan  League  during  this  year,  the  financial 
system  of  the  State  became  severely  einhar- 
i  a  shed  The  League  had  established  a  State 
bank  in  \\hich  it  was  designed  to  compel  the  de- 
posit of  all  public  funds.  This  bank  was  to  be 
the  source  of  credit  for  carrying  out  their  plans, 
and  at  one  time  it  contained  over  $30,000,000 
in  deposits  The  people  voted  against  the  com- 
pulsory deposit  of  funds  in  the  bank,  and  as  a 
lesult  there  were  withdrawn  large  amounts  un- 
til the  deposits  amounted,  in  1920,  to  only  about 
$10,000,000  In  spite  of  the  action  of  the  State 
Industrial  Commission  forbidding  counties  and 
towns  to  withdraw  funds,  the  situation  be- 
came extremely  embarrassing  and  the  pro- 
gramme of  the  League  was  largely  discontinued. 
A  plan  to  finance  industries  by  the  issue  of  bonds 
amounting  to  $17,000,000,  failed.  In  the  presi- 
dential voting  of  this  year,  W.  O.  Harding  re- 
ceived 100,072  votes,  and  J.  M.  Cox,  37,422.  In- 
dustrial and  financial  conditions  continued  to  be 
bad  in  1021,  chiefly  as  a  result  of  legislation 
paused  in  accordance  with  the  programme  of  the 
Non-Pa rtisan  League  The  government  system 
of  North  Dakota  provides  for  the  recall  of 
public  officials,  and  by  a  vote  of  recall  Gover- 
nor Frazier,  the  Attorney  General,  and  the 
Commissioner  of  Agriculture  and  Labor,  were 
recalled  R,  A.  Nestos  succeeded  as  governor. 
This  action  was  a  serious  reverse  to  the  Non- 
Partisan  League.  In  the  election  of  1022, 
Governor  Nestos  was  reflected,  defeating  the 
Non-Partisan  candidate.  Lynn  J.  Frazier,  how- 
ever, was  elected  to  the  Senate.  The  Non- 
Partisan  League  also  elected  a  State  Auditor 
and  other  State  officials.  At  the  election  of 
November,  1022,  the  people  adopted  a  soldiers' 
bonus  measure.  This  was  declared  unconstitu- 


tional by  the  State  court  on  Feb.  10,  1923. 
Governor  Nestos  was  inaugurated  on  Jan.  3, 
1923.  In  his  message  he  urged  the  revision  of 
the  system  of  taxation  of  the  State  and  the 
curbing  of  expenditures.  At  presidential  pri- 
mary elections  held  early  in  1924,  President 
Coolidge  received  50,539  votes,  Senator  La  Fol- 
lette,  37,052  votes,  and  Senator  Johnson,  30,934 
votes.  \Yilliam  G.  McAdoo  was  the  unopposed 
Democratic  nominee 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of  the 
Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted 
below.  In  1915,  the  Legislature  abolished  cap- 
ital punishment  In  1917,  the  Non-Partisan 
League  was  in  control  of  the  Legislature  and  a 
gieat  mass  of  legislation  was  introduced  along 
lines  advocated  by  that  body.  The  judicial 
system  of  the  State  was  amended.  The  Torrens 
system  of  registration  of  land  titles  was  put 
into  effect.  A  constitutional  amendment  was 
proposed  creating  a  Hale  Insurance  Fund  for 
the  protection  of  farmers'  crops.  A  special 
session  of  the  Legislature  was  held  in  1918. 
This  authorized  the  county  to  issue  bonds  and 
loan  money  to  farmers  on  their  personal  notes. 
At  this  session  a  Federal  Prohibition  Amend- 
'dent  was  ratified.  The  Legislature  of  ]019 
created  an  industrial  commission  and  authorized 
it  "to  conduct  and  manage,  on  behalf  of  the 
State,  certain  utilities,  industries,  enterprises 
and  business  projects."  This  commission  was 
composed  of  the  Governor,  Attorney  General 
and  other  State  officers.  The  State* bank  and 
banking  system  were  also  adopted  and  an  issue 
of  $20,000,000  in  bonds  authorized  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  the  system.  The  Legislature  al- 
so adopted  an  inheritance  and  income  tax  and 
created  a  State  Board  of  Administration.  Most 
of  these  measures  were  ratified  by  the  people 
on  June  22,  1919.  The  Legislature*  of  1919  also 
adopted  an  amendment  authorizing  the  State 
to  engage  in  any  industry  not  specifically  pro- 
hibited. In  1923,  the  Legislature  passed  a 
measure  prohibiting  expenditures  of  excessive 
appropriations.  It  passed  measures  regulating 
the  use  of  liquor  and  increased  the  penalties 
for  violation.  It  also  enacted  a  measure  for- 
bidding the  wearing  of  masks  in  public  places 
with  the  intent  to  conceal  the  wearers'  iden- 
tity 

NORTH  DAKOTA,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A  co- 
educational State  institution  at  University  Sta- 
tion, Grand  Forks,  N.  D.,  founded  in*  1883. 
The  student  enrollment  increased  from  740  in 
1914  to  1351  in  1923-24  and  445  in  the  summer 
of  1923  The  faculty  was  increased  during  the 
same  period  from  80  to  109  members,  and  the 
library  from  55,000  to  80,000  volumes.  A  chem- 
istry building  and  an  armory  were  completed 
in  1919  and  a  Law  School  building  was  opened 
in  1923.  Frank  Le  Roml  McVey,  Ph.D.,  resigned 
from  the  presidency  in  1917  and  was  succeeded 
by  Thomas  F.  Kane,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

NORTHERN  EPIRTJS.  See  EriRUS,  NORTH- 
ERN. 

NORTHERN  TERRITORY.  A  territory  of 
the  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  situated  in  the 
central  and  northern  part  of  the  continent. 
Area,  523,020  square  miles;  population,  exclu- 
sive of  aborigines,  in  1911,  3310;  in  1922,  3554. 
Occupation  proceeded  slowly;  only  747  square 
miles  had  been  alienated  by  1921.  Mineral  pro- 
duction steadily  declined  so  that  by  1921-22 
only  £9908  in  all  was  the  value  of  the  total  yield 
(£55,299  in  1912).  The  trade  records  made  a 


NOETH  POLE 

similar  showing:  imports  and  exports  for  1913, 
£20,977  and  £67,911;  for  1921-22,  £12,115  and 
£5036.  Revenues  and  expenditures  over  the 
period  were:  for  1913-14,  ±73,657  and  £532,535; 
for  1921-1922,  £71,239  and  £289,002.  Expendi- 
tures up  to  1021  were  heavy  because  of  the 
Port  Augusta  Railway  project.  Up  to  June 
30,  1922,  the  public  debt,  a  charge  on  the  Com- 
monwealth, was  £3,951,746.  The  policy  of  the 
government  was  to  dispose  of  the  lands  by 
leasehold  only. 

NOBTH  POLE.     See  POLAR  RESEARCH. 

NORTH  SCHLESWIG.     See  SCIILESWIG. 

NOBTH  SHORE  MUSIC  FESTIVAL. 
See  Music.  Festivals. 

NORTHWEST  TERRITORIES.  The  name 
of  the  unorganized  territories  (Franklin,  Kee- 
watin,  and  Mackenzie)  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  with  an  area  of  1,242,224  square  miles, 
and  a  population  in  1911  of  6507  and  in  1921 
of  7988.  Agriculture  was  carried  on  to  a  small 
extent  only,  because  of  the  short  summer  season, 
but  vegetable  gardening  was  successful  when 
tried,  e.g.  at  Fort  Resolution,  Fort  Smith,  Fort 
Vermilion,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Mission  at 
Salt  Plain.  With  the  discovery  of  oil  at  Fort 
Norman  in  1920,  interest  in  the  territories 
quickened.  Other  minerals  were  known  to  ex- 
ist, although  up  to  1924  they  were  little  worked. 
There  were  lead  and  zinc  ores  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Great  Slave  Lake;  gold  in  the  Linrd  and 
Peel  Rivers;  and  gypsum,  salt,  and  coal,  in 
considerable  quantities.  The  lake  fisheries  and 
forest  wealth  were  still  inadequately  explored; 
furs  made  up  40  per  cent  of  the  total  Canadian 
output.  The  government  was  carried  on  un- 
der the  direction  of  a  commissioner  assisted 
by  a  deputy  commissioner  and  a  council  of 
five. 

NORTHWESTERN  COLLEGE.  A  coeduca- 
tional institution  at  Naperville,  111,  supported 
by  the  Evangelical  Church  but  norisectarian  in 
its  requirements;  founded  in  1801.  The  student 
enrollment  and  the-  number  of  members  of  the 
faculty  increased  steadily  from  291  students 
and  29  instructors  in  191C  to  502  students  and 
40  instructors  in  the  year  1923-24.  The  library 
was  increased  from  12,500  volumes  to  16,000 
volumes  in  the  same  period  In  1921.  the  col- 
lege received  an  addition  of  $500,000  to  its 
endowment,  and  $250,000  for  building  purposes, 
from  the  Forward  Movement  Campaign  of  the 
Evangelical  Association,  and  in  1923  an  addi- 
tion of  41  acres  was  made  to  the  campus  through 
other  gifts.  President,  Edward  Everett  Rail, 
PhD. 

NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY.  A  co- 
educational university  composed  of  the  College 
of  Liberal  Arts,  College  of  Engineering,  School 
of  Music,  School  of  Speech,  School  of  Commerce, 
and  the  Medill  School  of  Journalism,  the  Grad- 
uate School  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  the  School 
of  Education  at  Evanston,  111.;  the  Dental 
School,  Law  School  and  part-time  classes  of  the 
School  of  Commerce  and  the  Medill  School  of 
Journalism  at  31  West  Lake  Street,  Chicago, 
and  the  Medical  School  at  2421  South  Dearborn 
Street,  Chicago.  The  College  of  Liberal  Arts, 
the  oldest  school  of  the  university,  was  founded 
in  1851.  In  1923-24,  the  enrollment  of  the  uni- 
versity was  estimated  at  9925,  including  the 
summer  session  and  about  4000  students  in  the 
Chicago  part-time  courses  in  commerce  and 
journalism.  In  1914,  the  corresponding  enroll- 
ment was  4138.  The  faculty  in  1923-24,  exclud- 


946 


NORWAY 


ing  the  summer  session  lecturers,  was  590  as 
contrasted  with  450  in  1914.  Walter  Dill 
Scott,  Ph.D,  LL.D.,  was  elected  president  in 
1920  to  succeed  Lynn  Harold  Hough,  LL.D.,  re- 
signed. 

NORTON,  CHARLES  DYEB  (1871-  ).  An 
American  banker,  born  at  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  and 
educated  at  Amherst  College.  For  several 
years  he  was  engaged  in  magazine  and  insurance 
work.  In  1909-10  he  was  assistant  secretary  of 
the  United  States  Treasury,  and  from  1910  to 
1911,  secretary  to  President  Taft.  He  was  in 
1911  elected  vice  president  of  the  First  National 
Bank  of  New  York  City  and  in  1918  became 
president  of  the  First  Security  Company.  He 
was  an  official  in  many  other  corporations  and 
a  trustee  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
the  American  Academy  in  Rome,  the  American 
Federation  of  Arts,  the  Russell  Sage  Founda- 
tion, etc. 

NORTON,  THOMAS  HERBERT  (1851-  ). 
An  American  consul  and  chemist  (see  VOL 
XVII).  From  1915  to  1917  he  was  detailed  by 
the  Department  of  Commerce  to  further  the  de- 
velopment of  American  chemical  industries,  es- 
pecially clyestuffs.  From  1017  to  11)20  lie  was 
chemist  nvith  E  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  and  Co. 
From  1917  to  1918  he  edited  The  Chemical  Ihi- 
giiiccr,  and  in  1920  he  became  editor  of  The 
Chemical  Color  and  Oil  Daily.  Among  his  later 
writings  are  Di/CRtuffs  for  1he  American  Tex- 
tile Industry  (1915);  Cottonseed  Industry  in 
Foreign  Countries  (1915)  ;  The  Dyctituff  Census 
(1910)  ;  and  Tanning  Materials  of  Latin 
America  (1017). 

NORWAY.  A  kingdom  m  northern  Europe 
with  a  total  area  of  121,9(14  3  squaie  miles. 
Its  population  in  1920  was  2,649,77.1.  of  which 
the  urban  numbered  785,404.  Chief  cities  were : 
Christiania,  258,483  (1010,  241,834);  Bergen, 
91,443  (1910,  84,330)  ;  Trondhjem,  65,030  (1!)10, 
45,33.5);  and  Stavanger,  43,778  (1010,  37/261) 
The  total  population  in  1910  was  2,301,782,  of 
which  713,202  was  urban. 

Agriculture.  Total  area  of  land  under  culti- 
vation was  9823  square  kilometers,  of  which 
2825  was  natural  meadow;  total  forest  area, 
71,055  square  kilometers;  unproductive  land, 
217,643  square  kilometers.  The  following  in- 
dicates the  production  of  principal  crops  in 
metric  tons  for  1912  and  11)23. 


Crop 

19112               1923 

Wheat    .      .             .    .      .    . 

8,821         15  975 

Rye        .  .         .              

24697         18847 

Hniley           
Oats                  

.       .  .  .       73,353         71,456 
198  483       llfi  112 

11,288 

PntfltOCh     

704,240       660,510 

Hay           

.     .  .     .3,129,708   2,015,820 

The  following  compares  live  stock  figures  for 
1907   and    1918. 

Horses       Cattle        Sheep      Goats       Hogs 

.170,325   1,027,520  991,211  222,717   163,467 
.208,219   1,085,707  939,940   185,800   127,230 


1907 
1918 


Foodstuffs  for  a  value  of  107,000,000  crowns 
were  imported  in  1922.  Norway  was  dependent 
in  large  measure  on  imports  of  cereals  and  co- 
lonial produce,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  ex- 
ported animal  and  fish  products  to  a  large  extent. 

Industries.  There  was  practically  no  domes- 
tic production  of  the  nonmetallic  minerals,  but 


NOBWAY 


coal  was  being  mined  quite  extensively  on  the 
Island  of  Spitzbergen  (q.v.)  where  production  at 
full  capacity,  it  was  predicted,  would  be  able  to 
supply  the  greater  part  of  Norwegian  demands. 
Water  power  was  abundant  and  was  being  great- 
ly utilized;  the  quantity  developed  up  to  1924 
was  approximately  1,400,000  turbine  horse 
power.  The  chief  mineral  products  were  silver, 
copper,  pyrites,  iron  ore,  and  nickel.  In  1922, 
3015  men  were  employed  in  the  mining  indus- 
try, and  the  total  value  of  production  was  20,- 
677,000  crowns;  the  total  output  of  all  minerals 
was  083,588  metric  tons.  During  1923,  32 
mining  establish  men  ts  employed  3400  workers. 
There  were  one  siher  smelting  furnace,  two 
electro  steel  furnaces,  and  three  ferro-alloy  fur- 
naces in  Norway  during  1923.  Norwegian  for- 
ests and  fisheries  were  the  chief  natural  sources 
of  wealth.  The  total  value  of  fisheries  dur- 
ing 1923  was  65,000,000  crowns  The  total 
area  covered  with  forests  was  estimated  at 
71,055  square  kilometers;  value  of  planed 
and  unplaned,  sawn  and  un*awn  timber 
products  exported  in  1923  was  73,358,364 
crowns. 

Transportation.  Length  of  state  railways, 
2850  kilometers;  private  railways,  437  Pas- 
sengers carried  by  stale  railways*  (1921)  24,- 
222,677;  private  *  railways,  4,2*10,885.  Volume 
of  freight  moved  by  state  railways,  6,396,711 
metric  tons;  by  private  railways,  609,370  metric 
tons. 

Ocean  Shipping.  In  1923  vessels  entering 
at  Norwegian  ports  with  cargo  numbered  5824, 
with  3,192,407  net  tons;  in  ballast,  2324  with 
1,729,201  net  tons.  Vessels  clearing  from  Nor- 
wegian ports  with  cargo  numbered  6254  with 
4,097,467  net  tons;  in  ballast,  1966  with  898,441 
net  tons.  The  Norwegian  merchant  marine,  on 
Dec  31,  1923,  included  the  following:  sailing 
vessels,  92;  gross  tonnage,  126,325;  steamers 
and  motorships,  1679;  gross  tonnage,  2,388,748, 
including  only  ships  measuring  more  than  100 
gross  tons.  Gross  earnings  of  merchant  marine 
in  1922  reached  462,600,000  crowns.  Norway 
did  an  extensive  carrying  trade  all  over  the 
world.  Its  principal  ports  are  Christiania, 
Beigen,  Tromlhjcm,  Narvik,  Fredriksstad,  and 
Haugesund. 

Foreign  Trade.  Imports  in  1923  were  esti- 
mated at  1,350,000,000  crowns;  exports,  at  831,- 
200,000.  Of  the  1923  exports  domestic  goods 
were  valued  at  791,400,000  crowns;  reexports, 
at  21,000,000;  ships  sold  abroad,  at  approx- 
imately 19,000,000.  Exports  of  Norwegian  ar- 
ticles for  1923,  grouped  according  to  chief  di- 
visions, were  as  follows: 


947  NORWAY 

The  principal  countries  of  origin  and  destina- 
tion for  1922  were: 


Imports  from 

Exports  to 

Great  Britain   
Germany     . 
Swede  ii 
Denmark           ...    . 
Netherlands    .  . 
Belgium    .    . 
France        .      .    . 
United   States    .  . 

Crowns 
.  .       .    294,372,200 
283,314,420 
128,019,340 
103,920,040 
58,594/170 
36,463,640 
Urt,  579,200 
243,450,290 

Crowns 
231,716,418 
76,364,142 
52,146,693 
35,819,246 
14,^72,282 
24,805,706 
55,107,155 
90,340,474 

Imports  of  the  more  important  articles  of 
consumption  foi  1923  showed:  meat  and  meat 
products,  19,000  tons;  grain  and  Hour,  493,000; 
dairy  products,  072.');  fruits,  40,800;  sugar, 
58,200;  tohacco,  2.373;  wines  and  liquors,  880,- 
000  litres  in  bottles;  wines  and  liquors  in  bar- 
rels, 3990  tons.  Exports  were:  lish,  307,000 
tons;  canned  fish  products,  21,388  tons;  cod 
liver  oil,  249,748  hectoliters;  lumber,  900,620 
cubic  meters;  wood  products,  923,700  tons 

Finance.  The  national  debt  on  May  31,  1923, 
stood  at  1,570,000,000  crowns.  The  gold  and 
silver  stocks,  on  Dec.  31,  1923,  totaled  147,300,- 
000  crowns;  the  amount  of  paper  currency  out- 
standing, 384,800,000  crowns.  The  exchange, 
which  at  par  is  $.208  to  the  crown,  stood  at 
6.83  crowns  to  $1  on  Dec.  31,  1923,  and  at  7.42 
crowns  on  Mar.  18,  1924.  Over  the  period,  the 
cost  of  living  steadily  mounted,  as  revealed  by 
the  fact  that,  on  the  average  for  a  family  of 
five  persons  with  an  income  of  1500  crowns  per 
annum  in  1914  as  100,  the  index  stood  at  283 
in  December,  1921.  On  Feb.  15,  1924,  it  was 
234. 

History.  Norway  duiing  the  War  showed 
the  unsettled  condition  prevalent  in  all  neutral 
countries.  Norwegians  were  natuially  averse 
to  all  participation  in  the  conflict.  And  yet, 
because  of  the  many  ties  that  bound  the  whole 
western  woild  together,  economically,  socially, 
and  intellectually,  it  was  inevitable  that  Nor- 
way should  feel  the  weight  of  war  profoundly. 
The  policy  of  the  Scandinavian  countries  grav- 
itated toward  the  same  end.  By  the  end  of 
August,  1914,  the  three  countries  had  declared 
their  neutrality;  on  December  19,  agreements 
were  definitely 'made  by  which  all  three  pledged 
themselves  to  common  action  in  the  observance 
of  this  neutrality.  Throughout  the  War  these 
conferences  continued,  with  the  result  that  the 
northern  peoples  were  more  firmly  drawn  to- 
gether than  ever  before.  The  amity  with  which 
events  were  discussed  made  a  pleasant  picture 
against  the  dark  background  of  the  turbulent 


Crov  ns 


Crowns 


Live    stock     .  

Animal    and    fish    products     

Grains  

Seeds  and   feedstuff's    

Fruits,  vegetables    

Groceries    

Liquors,    alcohol    

Spinning  materials 

Ynrn,  thread,  and  rope 

Textiles     

Hair,    feathers,    bone,   horn  products 

Manufactures    thereof    

Lumber    

Pats,   oils,  tar,  rubber   

Manufactures  thereof 

Finished  timber  products    

Dyes  and   paints    .... 


1,097,437  Wood    pulp,    paper,    etc.,    of    \vluch                 269,492,944 

170  542  777  Pulp      154,605,872 

'980  825  Carton 5,196,511 

.      5.018,510  Paper 109,430,006 

336.802  Other  vegetable  fibres  and  products  thereof        235,977 

961,353  Minerals,   raw  and   semifinished,   of  \\hich.   81,871.242 

312,604  Ores      .  .  .      25,359,792 

1917582  Mineral   manufactures,   of  which:        ..    ..    75,788,221 

2  4fi  I  940  Fertilizers    39,060,227 

2611169  Chemical    products                   .    21,446,218 

23*962,468        Metals,   raw  and  half  finished    48,242,505 

226,812        Metal  manufactures    7,218,798 

.    70,412,595        Ships,   wagons,    machinery «    8,460,146 

65,799,176        Articles  not  specifically  provided  for 1,778,029 

.'      2'f945l769  Total     .' 791,408,127 

2,096.795  


Not  including  ihipa  fold  abroad. 


NOBWAY 


943 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


nationalistic  aspirations  of  the  rest  of  the 
European  peoples.  In  fact,  the  movement  thus 
started  for  the  closer  union  of  the  Scandinavian 
populations  soon  reached  an  articulate  form  in 
the  creation  of  the  Norden  Society  in  1010.  A 
Norwegian  branch  was  opened  on  Apr.  12,  1010, 
an  active  publicity  campaign  was  kept  up,  and 
year  books  were  published.  During  the  War 
extraordinary  measures  were  necessary  to  shel- 
ter Norway's  population  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  rigors  of  the  hostilities.  In  November, 
1014,  a  loan  of  $4,000,000  was  voted  to  cover 
extraordinary  military  expenses,  and  the  gov- 
ernment tried  to  push  the  construction  of  the 
two  warships  then  on  the  ways  in  English  ship- 
yards. A  commission  was  created  to  regulate 
the  importation  and  distribution  of  foodstuffs, 
and  the  fixing  of  prices  was  likewise  established. 
Because  of  the  setting  up  of  the  British  block- 
ade in  1014  and  the  restriction  of  shipping  to 
a  circumscribed  area  about  Scandinavia,  Nor- 
way's contact  with  the  outside  world,  on  which 
it  depended  so  much  for  the  continuance  of  its 
daily  activities,  was  greatly  hampered,  and 
widespread  distress  ensued.  Shipping  suffered 
severely.  In  all,  as  a  result  of  torpedoing  and 
mines,  830  ships  with  a  tonnage  of  1,238.300 
were  lost,  and  about  2000  sailors  were  drowned. 
Yet  in  spite  of  difficulties  that  continuously  in- 
creased, Norwegian  sailors  refused  to  be  driven 
from  the  high  seas  and  maintained  their  intei- 
rourse  with  countries  at  war.  Oreat  Britain  in 
particular.  As  foodstuffs  became  scarce,  prices 
naturally  rose  and  labor  unrest  increased.  In 
1016,  demonstrations  and  strikes  for  the  in- 
crease of  wages  involved  almost  150,000  work- 
men, with  the  result  that  the  Storthing  forced 
through  a  measure  for  compulsory  arbitration. 
After  the  War,  the  return  to  regular  conditions 
was  slow.  Norwegian  workmen  manifested  a 
great  interest  in  communist  doctrines,  and  in 
1910  and  1020  strikes,  particularly  on  the  rail- 
ways, were  frequent.  Labor  ciicles  regarded 
sympathetically  the  attempts  of  Soviet  Russia 
to  open  commercial  relations  in  September, 
1020,  but  the  Norwegian  government  at  first 
refused  to  take  the  step.  In  1021  a  commercial 
treaty  was  effected  which  granted  Russia  sur- 
prisingly liberal  terms,  and  in  March,  1924,  da 
jure  recognition  was  accorded.  The  Norwegian 
government  even  refused  to  press  the  claims  of 
its  nationals  in  Russia,  which  amounted  to 
some  300,000,000  crowns.  Other  matters  of  na- 
tional interest  after  the  War  were  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  royal  commission  in  1920,  after  much 
agitation,  for  the  consideration  of  the  creation 
of  industrial  works  councils;  the  passage  by  the 
Storthing  in  1921  of  a  measure  tantamount  to 
limited  prohibition,  which  forbade  the  importa- 
tion of  liquors  having  more  than  a  14  per  cent 
alcohol  content  (in  1924  there  was  talk  of  re- 
pealing this  measure)  ;  and  the  passage  of  a  ship 
subsidy  measure  in  1922  which  set  aside  25,000,- 
000  crowns  for  government  aid.  In  1922,  the  per- 
manent Court  of  Arbitration  at  The  Hague 
awarded  $12,000,000  to  Norway  against  the 
United  States  for  the  seizure  of  Norwegian  ships 
in  America's  ports  during  the  War.  For  Nor- 
way's claims  to  Spitzbergen,  see  SPITZBEKOEN. 
Another  international  dispute  which  appeared 
well  on  the  road  to  settlement,  during  the  pe- 
riod, was  the  controversy  with  Denmark  over 
the  sovereignty  of  Greenland.  In  1924  a  con- 
vention was  laid  before  the  Norwegian  Storthing 
and  the  Danish  Rigsdag;  it  provided  for  an 


amicable  understanding  on  important  economic 
matters.  See  also  BEAR  ISLAND;  JAN  MA  YEN; 
NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

NORWEGIAN  LITERATURE.  See  SCAN- 
DINAVIAN LITERATURE. 

NOTRE  DAME,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A  Roman 
Catholic  institution  for  men,  at  Notre  Dame, 
Ind.,  founded  in  1842.  The  university  increased 
its  student  enrollment  from  1077  in  1013  to 
1900  in  the  year  10*3-24,  and  738  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1923;  its  faculty,  during  the  same  period, 
from  84  to  130,  and  its  library  from  65,000  to 
105,000  volumes  A  library  was  built  in  1910, 
a  chemistry  laboratory  in  1917,  a  Law  College 
building  in  1918,  and  two  halls  for  freshmen 
and  sophomores,  in  1923.  Gifts  amounting  to 
$645,000  were  received  in  1921.  Rev.  John 
Cavanaugh,  C.S.C.,  was  president  until  1919, 
Rev.  James  A.  Burns,  C.S.C.,  Ph.D.,  1910-22, 
Rev.  Matthew  J.  Walsh,  C.S.C.,  Ph.D.,  1922  . 

NOURISHMENT.  See  FOOD  AND  NUTRI- 
TION. 

NOVAES,  GUIOMAB  (1895-  ).  A  Biazil- 
ian  pianist,  born  at  Joau  de  Boa  Vista.  At  the 
age  of  four  she  began  to  play  by  ear,  and  it 
was  not  until  she  was  seven  that  she  received 
regular  lessons  from  rhiafarelli  in  Sflo  Paulo 
Tier  progress  was  so  rapid  that  after  only  two 
years  of  instruction  she  was  exhibited  as  an 
infant  prodigy,  making  frequent  appearances, 
but  at  the  same  time  continuing  to  work  sys- 
tematically. In  1909  she  won  a  scholarship  at 
the  Paris  Consci vatoiie,  where  she  remained 
two  years  under  T.  Philipp  and  graduated  as 
winner  of  the  first  pnxe  After  her  highly  suc- 
cessful do"but  in  Paiis  (1911).  she  made  touis 
of  France,  Germany,  England,  Italy,  and  Swit- 
/erlancl  until  1913."  Dining  the  nc\t  two  ycais 
she  concert ized  in  Brazil  and  then  appeared 
for  the  first  time  in  the  United  States  (New 
York,  Nov.  11,  191.1),  where  &he  won  instan- 
taneous and  emphatic  success.  She  later 
made  several  American  tours  She  married 
Ottavio  Pinto  in  1922. 

NOVA  SCOTIA.  A  Canadian  maritime 
province  with  an  area  of  21,428  square  miles. 
The  population  in  1911  was  492,338;  in  1921, 
523,837,  which  represented  a  gain  of  0.4  per 
cent.  Of  the  population  in  1921,  50.7  per  c\»nt 
was  rural  as  compared  with  02.2  per  cent  in 
1911.  The  leading  cities,  with  their  populations 
in  1921,  were-  Halifax,  58,372  (40,019  in 
1911);  Sydney,  22,.r>4r>  (17,723  in  1911);  CJlace 
Bay,  17,007;  Dartmouth,  7899;  Amherst,  9998; 
New  Glasgow,  8074;  Sydney  Mines,  8327; 
Truro,  75fi2.  Cape  Breton  Island  is  an  integral 
part  of  the  province 

Industry.  Agiiculture  remained  the  loading 
activity.  The  geographical  situation  of  the 
province  favored,  as  always,  the  cultivation  of 
hay,  and  in  1923,  890,200  tons  were  cut.  Other 
important  crops  were  potatoes,  oats,  and  wheat. 
The  production  of  apples  steadily  increased  so 
that  by  1922  the  yield  was  valued  at  $7,851,185, 
against  the  1913*  crop  of  $2,000,000;  the  1922 
crop  was  1,891,852  barrels;  the  1923  crop, 
1,500,000  barrels.  The  growth  of  fodder  crops 
and  the  presence  of  an  important  live  stock  in- 
dustry made  dairying  particularly  important. 
Butter  production  increased  tenfold  over  the 
period  1911-21.  The  value  of  live  stock  prod- 
ucts was  put  at  $2,080,000  in  1923;  wool  was 
important.  Agricultural  products,  in  all,  yield- 
ed $40,613,000  in  1923.  Lumbering  continued 
to  be  important.  Forest  products  totaled  $11,- 


NOVA  SCOTIA 


949 


180,000  In  1922.  Fisheries  continued  to  absorb 
the  attention  of  a  considerable  part  of  the  pop- 
ulation. Cod,  lobsters,  haddock,  and  mackerel 
comprised  83  per  cent  of  the  1922  catch,  with 
a  total  value  of  $10,207,444,  as  against  $7,384,- 
055  in  1913.  In  this  19,495  men  were  engaged, 
and  the  whole  industry  represented  a  capital  of 
$8,760,000;  4380  men  worked  in  the  canneries, 
which  had  a  total  capitalization  of  $3,801,700. 
Bituminous  coal  was  far  and  away  the  most 
important  mineral.  The  output  in  1922  was 
5,569,072  tons,  valued  at  $24,629,921,  and  was 
distributed  largely  among  the  other  maritime 
provinces.  Gold  continued  to  decline;  the  1922 
yield  was  only  $21,540  as  against  $44,935  in 
1913.  Pig  iron  also  showed  decreases  for  the 
years  following  1913.  In  all,  in  1922,  Nova 
Scotia's  mineral  products  were  valued  at  $25,- 
923,499,  almost  19  per  cent  of  the  total  pro- 
duction ;  Ontario  and  British  Columbia  sur- 
passed Nova  Scotia.  Of  the  20  blast  furnaces 
in  Canada,  6  were  located  in  Cape  Breton  and 
2  in  Nova  Scotia.  In  1921  there  were  2196  in- 
dustrial establishments  (1480  in  1910)  employ- 
ing 17,206  workers  and  capitalized  at  $107,- 
490,242  ($79,596,341  in  1910).  The  cost  of 
materials  was  $43,919,126  and  the  gross  value 
of  products  $84,21 5,822  ($52.706,184  in  1910). 
The  following  industries  were  important: 
manufacture  of  coke,  iron  and  still  products 
($11,000,000  in  1922),  shipbuilding,  sugar  re- 
fineries, boot  and  shoe  works,  etc. 

Trade  and  Communications.  Import?  en- 
tered for  consumption  in  1922-23  were  $23,- 
878,615  ($20,753,369  in  1912-13)  :  exports  were 
$46,290,133  ($24,201,473  in  1912-13)  In  1922 
there  were  1451  miles  of  railway  as  compared 
with  1300  in  1913.  Some  18,000  miles  of  high- 
ways kept  in  good  repair  made  intraprovincial 
communication  easy  This  was  further  facil- 
itated by  the  numerous  subsidized  boats  which 
plied  along  the  shore 

Government.  The  suffrage  was  exercised  by 
both  sexes.  Revenues  in  1914  were  $1,885,000; 
in  1922,  $4,791,000.  The  Dominion  subsidy  con- 
tinued to  yield  about  $636,000.  Other  sources 
were  royalties  on  coal  lands  and  other  provin- 
cial properties,  succession  duties,  etc  There 
was  no  direct  taxation.  Expenditures  in  1913 
and  1922  were  $2,098,893  and  $4,791,998.  In 
the  same  period  the  debt  grew  from  $12,615,686 
to  $22,616,000.  For  the  year  1921-22,  114,229 
pupils  were  enrolled  at  2982  schools.  Total 
cost  of  education  was  $3,646,570  as  compared 
with  $1,439,742  in  1913.  The  Province  main- 
tained a  normal  school  and  an  agricultural 
school  at  Truro  as  well  as  the  technical  school 
at  Halifax.  The  most  important  educational 
question  of  the  period  was  the  proposal  to 


NYASALAND  PBOTECTOBATE 

unite  the  six  most  important  universities  in  the 
Maritime  Provinces  into  a  single  centre.  Rep- 
resentation in  Parliament:  House  of  Commons, 
16;  Senate,  10. 

NOTES  FOUNDATION,  LA  VERNE.  See 
EDUCATION  ix  TIII:  UNITED  STATES. 

NTJBSEBY  SCHOOLS.  See  EDUCATION  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES 

NUTRITION.     See  FOOD   AND  NUTRITION. 

NUTS.     See  HoirnfTiTt'RK 

NYASALAND  PKOTECTOBATE.  A  Brit- 
ish protectorate  in  southeastern  Africa  on  the 
southern  and  western  sboies  of  Lake  Nyasa. 
Area,  39,573  square  miles;  population  (1921), 
1,199,934  natives;  1180  Euiopeans;  563  Asi- 
atics. In  1911  there  were  760  Europeans  and 
481  Asiatics.  The  chief  settlement,  Blantyre 
in  the  Shire  Highlands,  bad  some  300  Euro- 
peans. In  the  Shire  Highlands  coffee  was  be- 
ing cultivated,  as  well  as  tohacco,  cotton,  and 
tea.  The  crops  showing  the  greatest  advances 
over  the  period  1910-22  were  tobacco  and  tea, 
while  cotton  and  coffee  fell  belli nd.  Tobacco 
exports  in  1012-13  totaled  2,262,545  pounds; 
1922,  (1,330,808.  Leading  imports  were  cotton 
piece  goods,  rice  and  giain,  sugar,  and  petro- 
leum. Impoits  in  1913-14  were  £208,711; 

1921,  £037,5(17:     1922,     £522,119      Exports     in 
1913-14    weie    1200,089;    1921,    £416,404;    1922, 
£442,164.     The  trade  docs  not  include  specie  or 
goods   in   transit      Of   the  exports,  99   per  cent 
went  to   the   Tinted    Kingdom;    55   per  cent  of 
the  imports  came  from  the  United  Kingdom  and 
20  per  cent  from   British  possessions.     The  fol- 
lowing figures   bbcnv   the   course   of  administra- 
tive   charges-     revenues    for    1913-14    and    for 

1922,  £124, S49   and   £250,117;    expenditures   for 
same  yeais,  £133,100   and   £305,495.     The  large 
deficit  in  the  later  year  uas  occasioned  by  the 
cost  of  famine  relief  measures.     The  public  debt 
of  the  protectorate  in    1922  was   £306,328.     To 
tin's   must   be   added   £3,000,000   boi lowed    from 
Great    Britain    to    finance    war    campaigns    in 
(icrman  East  Africa.     To  bring  the  protectorate* 
into     ready     communication     with     the     Indian 
Ocean    a    railway    from    Chindio    in    Portuguese 
East  Africa  to  'Blantyre    (174   miles)    was  con- 
structed.    In      1022     another     line     connecting 
Blantyre  with  Bcira  in  Portuguese  East  Africa 
was  opened.     The  extension  of  the  railway  sys- 
tem   northward    to    Lake    Nyasa,    on    which    so 
much  depended,  was  still  only  contemplated  in 

1923,  The   settlers   were   involved   in   the    \\  ar 
because  of  the   proximity  of   Ocrmaii   East   Af- 
rica.    Most    of    tbc    Europeans    saw    service    as 
well   as   almost    200,000    natives    in    the    rule    of 
carriers      The  nathes  continued  orderly  except 
for  a  single  uprising  iu  1915  which  was  speedily 
quelled. 


o 


OAKLAND.    The     third     city     of 
California.     The    population     in- 
creased 44  per  cent  in  10  years, 
from   150,174  in   1910  to  216,261 
in   1920  and   to  240,086  by  esti- 
mate of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census 
for  1923.     A  $5,000,000  bond  issue  was  author- 
ized by  the  voters  in  1919  to  be  used  in  build- 
ing   three    high    schools    and    six    junior    high 
schools      Oakland  joined  with  several  neighbor- 
ing cities   in    1923    to    purchase   the   East   Bay 
Water    Company    and    develop    new    sources    of 
supply  fdr   the  district.     In  the  same  year  the 
city    purchased    a    site    on    the    shore    of    Lake 
Merritt   on   which   to   build   a   museum.     Plans 
were  under  way  in  1924  for  spending  $8,000,000 
in    developing    the   water    front.     Building   per- 
mits increased  396  per  cent  fiom  $5,817,905   in 
1918  to  $27,500,000  in  1923,  bank  clearings   110 
per  cent,  from  $335,334,421  to  $803,797,523,  and 
the  assessed  valuation  of  the  city  28  per  cent, 
from  $150,000,000  to  $192,221  000. 

OATS.  Among  the  cereal  crops  in  the  United 
States  oats  is  exceeded  only  by  corn  and  wheat 
in  acreage  and  value.  The  average  annual  pro- 
duction for  the  years  1914  to  1923,  inclusive, 
was  1,334,675,000  bushels  and,  similarly,  the 
annual  production  for  the  three  leading  States 
was  200,240,000  bushels  for  Iowa,  159,445.000 
bushels  for  Illinois,  and  119,212,000  bushels  for 
Minnesota.  During  the  World  War  there  was 
a  general  increase  in  acreage  and  production  in 
the  United  States,  while  in  Europe  the  crop  de- 
creased and  for  a  number  of  years  did  not  re- 
gain its  normal  status  The  United  States 
Grain  Standards  Act  required  oats  in  inter-State 
commerce  to  be  inspected  by  a  licensed  inspector 
and  graded  by  him  on  the  basis  of  official  stand- 
ards. According  to  these  standards,  effective 
since  June  16,  1919,  oats  are  classified  for  com- 
mercial purposes  as  white  (including  yellow), 
red,  gray,  and  black  oats.  Each  class  is  divided 
into  four  grades  on  the  basis  of  condition  and 
general  appearance,  test  weight  per  bushel,  sound 
oats,  heat  damage,  wild  oats,  and  mixtures  of 
other  classes  of  oats.  In  addition,  there  is  a 
"sample  grade"  for  oats  too  poor  to  come  within 
the  numerical  grades.  For  the  three  years  end- 
ing June  30,  1922,  about  53  per  cent  of  all 
classes  fell  into  grade  throe  and  about  28  per 
cent  into  grade  two.  Consult  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  Year  Book,  1922. 

OBER,  MARGARETE  (1885-  ).  A  Herman 
dramatic  mezzo-soprano,  born  in  Berlin.  She 
studied  there  with  Benno  Stolzenberg  and,  later, 
Arthur  Arndt,  whom  she  married  in  1910.  Aft- 
er her  dlbut  at  Frankfort  in  1906,  as  Azucena, 
she  was  engaged  at  the  Stadtthcater  in  Stettin, 
where  her  extraordinary  voice  and  superior  tal- 
ent as  an  actress  attracted  the  attention  of  Von 
Htilsen,  who  in  1907  engaged  her  for  the  Royal 
Opera  in  Berlin.  Her  American  d£but  as  Or- 
trud  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House  (Nov. 
21,  1913)  was  one  of  the  sensations  of  the 


season.  From  1913  to  1917  she  divided  her 
time  between  New  York  in  the  winter  and 
Berlin  in  the  summer  and  sang  as  guest  in 
other  principal  German  opera  houses  and  in 
Amsterdam  When  the  Royal  Opera  became  the 
Staatsoper  in  1919,  she  was  retained  as  one  of 
the  principal  stars.  Her  interpretation  of  the 
great  Wagner  roles  and  of  the  German  Lieder 
is  considered  unexcelled. 

OBERLIN  COLLEGE.  A  nonsectai  ian,  co- 
educational institution  at  Oberlin,  Ohio,  founded 
in  1833.  There  was  only  a  slight  variation  in 
the  enrollment  of  students  during  the  decade 
1914-24,  since  the  college  limited  the  attend- 
ance of  students  to  the  number  that  it  could 
efficiently  care  for  with  its  classiooms,  labora- 
tories, and  dormitories.  In  1922-23,  the  total 
enrollment  was  1801.  The  faculty  increased 
from  157  in  1913-14  to  185  in  1923-24  The 
library,  which  was  said  to  be  the  largest  college 
libiary  in  Ohio,  numbered  241,000  bound  volumes 
and  178.000  pamphlets  New  buildings  erected 
during  the  10  jears  included  an  art  building  in 
memory  of  Dr.  Dudley  P.  Allen,  given  by  Mrs. 
Allen,  and  an  administration  building  erected 
in  memoir  of  On  Jacob  Dolson  Cox.  In 
November  1923.  Oberlin  entered  upon  a  cam- 
paign for  $4,300,000  for  new  endowment  and 
buildings.  By  Jan  1,  1924,  gifts  and  plodgeH 
were  receded  for  $3,000,000,  and  it  was  expected 
that  the  remainder  of  the  fund  would  be  secured 
before  the  end  of  1924  The  largest  contribu- 
tion was  the  gift  of  $500,000  by  the  General 
Education  Board.  Woik  was  to  begin  in  the 
spring  of  1924  on  a  new  college  hospital.  Presi- 
dent, Henry  Churchill  King. 

OBREGtiN,  ATVARO  (1880-  ).  A  presi- 
dent of  Mexico,  born  in  the  District  of  Alamos 
For  many  years  he  was  engaged  in  scientific 
farming  and  stock-raising  on  his  large  estates. 
He  was  an  advocate  of  economic  reforms,  includ- 
ing the  better  education  of  Indians  In  1912  he 
began  his  military  career  by  recruiting  a  force 
of  Indians  to  assist  President  Madero.  lie  mani- 
fested unusual  militaiy  talent  in  this  brief  cam- 
paign. He  was  appointed  colonel  of  the  Sonora 
state  militin,  and  after  Dia/'s  military  revolt  in 
Mexico  City  he  offered  his  force  to  the  government 
of  Sonora  and  was  sent  to  Nogales,  where  he 
routed  the  garrison.  Following  a  victory  at  Ca- 
nanea  he  was  made  general  of  the  division  by  Gov- 
ernor Carranza  of  Coahuila.  After  many  victo- 
ries, he  captured  Guadalajara  on  July  9,  1914, 
and  entered  Mexico  City  as  a  victor  in  the  follow- 
ing August.  In  191.5  Obregon  defeated  Zapata 
in  Pueblo  and  again  occupied  Mexico  City.  His 
most  important  victory  was  over  Villa  in  Celaya, 
in  April.  In  this  battle  he  lost  an  arm.  In 
1920  he  entered  a  successful  revolt  against 
Carranza  and  in  the  name  year  was  elected 
president  of  the  republic.  For  his  negotiations 
with  the  United  States  in  1923-24  and  for 
other  events  of  his  administration  in  Mexico, 
see  MEXICO. 


950 


O'B&IEK 
O'BBIEN,     EDWABD     JOBEPU 


35* 


HARRINGTON 

(1890-  ).  An  American  author  and  editor, 
born  at  Boston,  Mass.  He  studied  at  Boston 
College  and  at  Harvard  and  from  1912  to  1015 
was  editor  of  The  Poetry  Journal.  In  the  year 
following  he  was  editor  of  Poet  Lore.  He 
wrote  The  Flowing  of  the  Tide,  a  play  (1910)  ; 
White  Fountains,  verse  (1917)  ;  The  Bloody  Fool 


OHIO 

OGG,  FBEDEBIO  AUSTIN  (1878-  ).  An 
American  educator,  born  at  Solsberry,  Ind.,  and 
educated  at  DePauw,  Harvard,  and  Indiana 
Universities.  From  1905  to  1913  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  faculty  of  the  Boston  University  and 
Simmons  College.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed associate  professor  at  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  where  from  1917  he  was  professor 


(1917);  Distant  Music  (1921);  and  Hard  Kay-  of  political  science.  He  wrote  The  Opening  of 
ings  (1922).  He  edited  The  World's  History  the  Mississippi — .4  Struggle  for  Supremacy  in 
at  a  Glance  (1913);  Poems^of  the  Irish  Revo-  the  American  Interior  (1904);  Social  Progress 

in  Contemporary  Europe  ( 1912)  ;  Life  of  Daniel 


lutionary  Brotherhood  (1917);  arid  from  1915 
edited  annually  The  Best  Short  Stories  and 
The  Best  English  Stories.  He  also  translated 
several  books  from  the  French  and  other  lan- 
guages. 

O'BRIEN,  FREDEBICK  (1869-  ).  An 
American  writer,  born  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and 
educated  at  the  Jesuit  College  in  Baltimore  and 
the  University  of  Maryland.  At  the  age  of 
18  he  went  to  sea  and  for  many  years  there- 
after traveled  extensively.  He  was  at  various 
times  connected  with  newspapers  in  New  York, 
Han  Francisco,  Manila,  and  Paris.  During  the 
War  he  was  acting  food  administrator  of  Cali- 
fornia arid  chief  of  education  As  a  result  of 
a  sojourn  in  the  islands  of  the  South  Seas,  he 
wrote  White  Shadows  in  the  South  Seas  (1919) 
This  was  immensely  successful  and  was  followed 
by  Mystic  Isles  of  the  South  Seas  (1921)  and 
A  tolls  of  the  Sun  (1922) 

OBSTETRICS.     See  AHORTJON. 

OCCIDENTAL  COLLEGE.  An  institution 
at  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  founded  in  1887  under 
Presbyterian  auspices.  The  number  of  students 
increased  from  311  in  1915  to  522  in  1923,  the 
faculty  from  25  to  47  members,  the  endowment 
from  $101,027  to  $303,722,  and  the  annual  in- 
come from  $40,782  to  $129,901.  The  Graduate 
School  and  the  School  of  Education  were 
founded  in  1922.  The  women's  gyrnnaB;um  and 
the  president's  house  wore  built  in  1922;  the 
libra  iv,  an  anonymous  gift  in  memory  of  Mrs. 
Mary  Norton  Clapp,  was  completed  in  March, 
1924,  at  a  cost  of  $150,000;  plans  were  in  prepa- 
ration for  the  building  of  Orr  Court,  a  women's 
building  and  residence  court,  the  gift  of  William 
Mead  Oir  in  memory  of  Bertha  Ilarton  Orr  A 
campaign  for  $500,000  was  completed  in  1924, 
oversubscribed  by  $150,000.  President,  Remsen 
D.  Bird,  D.1X 

OCEAN  NAVIGATION.  See  SHIPPING; 
SiiipHi'iLDTNo;  NAVIGATION. 

OCEANOGRAPHY.     See  EXPLORATION. 

OCHSNER,  ALRKRT  JOKN  (1858-1925).  (see 
VOL.  XVII).  In  1910  he  wrote  the  surgical  sec- 
tion of  Smithies's  Cancer  of  the  Stomach,  and 
in  1917,  assisted  by  Percy,  he  brought  out  a  new 
edition  of  his  work,  A  New  Clinical  Surgery, 
with  the  title  A  New  Manual  of  Surgery,  Clin- 
ical and  Military.  A  large  four-volume  system 
of  surgery  edited  by  Ochsner,  Surgical  Diagnosis 
and  Treatment  by  American  Authors,  was  pub- 
lished in  1920.  During  the  War  he  was  a 
major  of  the  Medical  Reserve  Corps 

O'CONNOB,       ANDREW       (1874-        ).    An 


Webster  (1914);  Economic  Development  of 
Modern  Europe  (1917)  ;  The  Old  Northwest  and 
Keign  of  Andrew  Jackson  (in  Chronicles  of 
America,  vols.  xix  and  xx;  1919)  ;  National  Gov- 
ernments and  the  World  War,  with  C.  A.  Beard 
(1919);  and  Introduction  to  American  Govern- 
ment, with  P.  O.  Kay  (1921)  He  was  editor 
of  The  Century  Political  flrtpncr  Series 

O'HIGGINS,  HABVEY  J.  (187G-  ).  An 
American  writer,  born  in  London,  Ont.,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Toronto.  He  began 
his  career-as  a  writer  by  the  publication  of  The 
timokc  Eaters  (190.5).  This  was  followed  by 
A  Grand  Army  Man  (1908);  The  Beast  and 
the  Jungle,  with  Judge  Ben  B.  Lindsev  (1910)  ; 
Polygamy  (1914);  From  the  Life  (1919);  The 
Doughboy's  Religion,  with  Judge  Lindsey 
(1919);  Secret  Firings  (1920);  Some  Distin- 
guished Americans  (1922)  ;  and  The  American 
Mind  in  Action  (1924)  He  also  wrote  several 
plays  with  Harriet  Ford.  Some  of  these  were 
successfully  produced. 

OHIO.  Ohio  is  the  thirty-fifth  State  in  size 
(41,040  square  miles)  and  the  fourth  in  popu- 
lation; capital,  Columbus.  The  population  in- 
creased from  4,707,121  in  1910  to  5,  759,394  in 
1920,  a  gain  of  20.8  per  cent.  The  white  popu- 
lation increased  from  4,654,897  to  5,571,893; 
negro,  from  1  1  1  ,452  to  1  80  1  87  :  nal  ivo  white, 
from  4,057,652  to  4,893,190;  and  foreign-born 
white,  from  597.245  to  678,697.  The  urban  pop- 
ulation rose  during  the  decade  from  2,665,143  to 
3,077,136;  the  rural  population,  on  the  other 
hand,  fell  from  2,101,978  to  2,082,258.  The 
growth  of  the  principal  cities  was  as  follows: 
Cleveland,  from  560,663  in  1910  to  796,841  in 
1920;  Cincinnati,  363,591  to  401,247;  Toledo, 
168,497  to  243,164;  Columbus,  181,511  to  237,- 
031;  Akron,  69,061  to  208,435  (see  articles  on 
these  cities) 

Agriculture.  As  Ohio  is  an  important  grain- 
growing  State,  agricultural  conditions  in  the 
decade  1910-20  were  affected  by  the  fluctuations 
in  production  and  prices  of  grain  during  the 
War  and  post-war  period.  The  general  agricul- 
tural history  of  the  period  is  treated  under 
AGRICULTURE,  CORN,  BARIEY,  WHEAT,  etc.  Agri- 
culture in  most  of  its  phases  showed  a  decline  in 
the  State  during  the  decade.  While  the  popula- 
tion increased  20  8  per  cent,  from  1910  to  1920, 
the  rural  population  decreased  from  51.9  per 
cent  in  1900  and  44.1  per  cent  in  1915  to  36.2 
per  cent  in  1920.  The  number  of  farms  de- 
creased 56  per  cent  (from  270,045  in  1910  to 


American    sculptor    (sec   VOL.   XVII).     His   re-      256,695  in  1920)  ;  the  acreage  of  land  in  farms, 

«««*    {~~~_±~-,t    ^««u«    :„«!,, A*    «     fl««,    «Qrtl,1iW         frnm    94  1  ftf>  7ftft    in    £3  filfi.ftRR.    nr    £.4    T»i»r    ppnf 


cent  important  works  include  a  fine  "Soldier 
Worcester,  Mass.;  "Serenity,"  part  of  the  monu- 
ment to  General  Thomas,  Tarrytown.  N.  Y.; 
"Inspiration,"  St.  Louis  Museum,  and  espe- 
cially a  bronzfc  Lincoln  (Springfield,  TIL), 
which  has  caused  much  discussion. 

OFFICERS'      TRAINING      CAMPS.     See 
ARMIES  AND  ARMY  ORGANIZATION. 


from  24,105,708  to  23,515,888,  or  2.4  ner  cent, 
and  the  improved  land  in  farms,  from  19,277,969 
acres  to  18,542,353,  or  3.6  per  cent.  The  per- 
centage of  total  area  in  farms  decreased  from 
92.5  in  1910  to  90.2  in  1920;  the  percentage  of 
land  improved  from  73.7  to  71.1.  Farm  land 
value  increased  in  the  decade  largely  as  a  result 
of  war  prices  for  farm  products.  The  total 


OHIO 


95* 


OHIO 


value  of  farm  property  rose  from  $1,902,094,589 
in  1910  to  $3,095,666,336  in  *920  or  62.7  per 
cent;  the  average  value  per  farm  from  $6994  to 
$12,060.  In  interpreting  these  values  and  all 
comparative  values  in  the  decade  1914-24,  the 
inflation  of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of 
that  period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers 
of  farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104 
in  1910  and  216  in  1920  Of  the  total  of  256,695 
farms  in  1920,  177,986  wore  operated  by  owners, 
3065  by  managers,  and  75,644  by  tenants  The 
comparative  figures  for  1910  were  192,104.  2753, 
and  77,188  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered 
255,079;  colored  farmers,  1616  In  1910,  white 
farmers  numbered  270,095,  and  colored  farmers, 
1950  Farms  free  from  mortgage  in  1920  num- 
bered 110.004;  those  under  mortgage,  50,784 
In  1910,  farms  free  from  mortgage  numbered 
135,616,  those  under  mortgage,  54,997  The 
total  number  of  cattle  in  1920  was  1,926,823, 
of  which  1,340,373  were  dairy  cattle.  In  1910 
the  cattle  numbered  1,837,607  (dairy  cattle, 
905,125)  Sheep  in  1920  numbered  2,102,550, 
compared  with  3,909,162  in  1910;  hogs,  3,083,- 
846,  compared  with  3,105,627.  The  estimated 
production  of  the  principal  farm  crops  in  1923 
was  as  follows-  corn,  177.704,000  bushels; 
spring  wheat,  465,000  bushels,  winter  wheat, 
42,588,000  bushels;  oats,  55,078.000  bushels; 
rye,  1,302,000  bushels;  barley,  2,070,000  bushels; 
potatoes,  11,533,000  bushels;  sweet  potatoes, 
335,000  bushels;  hay,  3,557,000  tons;  tobacco, 
42,770,000  pounds;  and  sugar  beets,  385,000 
short  tons  Comparative  figures  for  1913  are: 
corn.  146,250,000  bushels;  wheat,  35,100,000; 
oats,  54,360,000;  rye,  1,600,000;  barley,  960,000; 
potatoes,  10,240,000;  hay,  3,848,000  tons;  and 
tobacco,  61.425,000  pounds 

Mining.  Ohio  is  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  mineral-producing  States.  In  point  of 
value  of  products,  it  ranked  sixth  in  1921.  Its 
chief  products  are  coal,  clay  products,  petroleum, 
and  natural  gas!  The  table  gives  figures  on 


facturing  establishments  in  1909;  15,668  in 
1914;  and  16,125  in  1919.  Persons  engaged  in 
manufacture  numbered  523,004,  606,807,  and 
882,918;  and  the  capital  invested  amounted  to 
$1,300,732,732,  $1,677,551,663,  and  $3,748,743,- 
996  in  those  years.  The  value  of  products  was 
$1,437,935,817  in  1909;  $1,782,808,279  in  1914; 
and  $5,100,308,728  in  1919.  The  large  increase 
in  value  of  products  was  due  largely  to  changes 
in  industrial  conditions  .brought  about  by  the 
War,  and  cannot  be  properly  used  to  measure 
the  growth  of  manufactures  during  the  census 
period  1915-19,  but  the  increase  in  number  of 
establishments  and  in  number  of  wage  earners 
clearly  indicates  decided  growth  in  the  manu- 
facturing activities  of  the  State.  The  most  im- 
portant industry  in  point  of  value  of  product  is 
iron  and  steel,  in  1909  amounting  to  $197,780,- 
000;  1914,  $205,023,000;  and  in  1919,  $626,- 
370,000.  Foundry  and  machine-shop  products 
rank  second  in  point  of  value:  in  1909,  $145,- 
837.000;  in  1914,  $178,855,000,  and  in  1919, 
$572,079,000  In  third  place  is  the  manufacture 
of  rubber  tires  and  rubber  goods,  in  1909  valued 
at  $53.911,000;  in  1914,  $109.659,000;  and  in 
1919,  $551,118,000.  The  manufacture  of  auto- 
mobiles, bodies  and  parts,  ranking  fourth,  had 
a  product  valued  at  $38,839,000  in  1909;  $85,- 
711,000  in  1914,  and  $379,436,000  in  1919.  The 
principal  manufacturing  cities  of  the  State  are 
Cleveland,  Akron,  Cincinnati,  and  Toledo.  In 
Cleveland,  there  were  2148  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments in  1909,  with  a  product  valued  at 
$271,061,000,  2345  in  1014,  with  $352,418,000; 
and  2946  in  1919,  with  $1,091,577,000.  In  Cincin- 
nati, there  were  2183  in  1900,  with  $192,516.000; 
2135  in  1014,  with  $210,860,000;  and  2239  in 
1919,  with  $500,041,000  Akron  had  246  manu- 
facturing establishments  in  1900,  with  a  product 
of  $73,158,000;  305  in  1014,  with  $122.202,000; 
and  304  in  1919,  with  $558,062,000.  Similar 
figures  for  Toledo  were-  760  in  1000,  with  $61,- 
23Q,000;  713  in  1014,  with  $115,040,000;  and  671 
in  1910,  with  $203,521,000  Other  important 


MINERAL  PRODUCTS  IN  OHIO 


Coal 

Clay  products              Petroleum 

Year 

Net  tons 

Valued  at 

Valued  at 

Barrels 

Valued  at 

1914    

18  843  115 

$21  250,642 
24,207,075 
46,150,907 
100,897,148 
118  095  54ft 
175081,000 
84,686,500 

$37,166  76R 
44.947.877 

52  899  180 
82,061,960 
67,396,680 

8,  530,352 
7,825,326 
7,744,511 
7,750,540 
7,285,005 
7,400.000 
7,335,000 
6,781,000 

$13  372,729 
10,061  493 
10,154,940 
21,101,483 
23.465,197 
37,338,000 
21.512,000 

1915    

22  434  691 

1916    

34  728  219 

1917    

40  748  734 

1918    

45  812  943 

1920    

45  878  191 

1921    

31  942  776 

1922    

26,953,791 

the  first  three.  The  diminished  output  of  coal 
in  the  latter  two  years  was  due  largely  to  the 
long  strike  that  occurred  in  1021  and  affected 
the  entire  mid-Western  field.  In  addition  to 
these  three  minerals,  the  State  produces  large 
quantities  of  natural  gas,  natural-gas  gasoline, 
sand  and  gravel,  and  stone  The  total  value 
of  the  mineral  products  in  1021  was  $223.533,- 
658,  compared  with  $355.844,400  in  1920;  $214,- 
820.888  in  1019;  $246,162,215  in  1918;  and 
$101,6(11.384  in  1014. 

Manufactures.  Ohio  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant States  industrially  In  1920,  there  were 
50  cities  having  more  than  10,000  inhabitants, 
and  forming  54.5  per  cent  of  the  total  popula- 
tion of  the  State.  These  cities,  in  1919.  re- 
ported 79  6  per  cent  of  the  State's  manufactured 
products.  There  were  in  the  State  15,138  manu- 


manufacturing    cities    are    Columbus,    Dayton, 
Canton.   Springfield,   and   Youngstown. 

Education.  The  greatest  advancements  in 
education  in  Ohio  after  1013  were  county  school 
systems  and  trained  teachers.  There  was  no 
supervision  of  rural  schools  until  1914,  when 
county  hoards  of  education  were  established 
These  boards  elect  county  superintendents  of 
schools  and,  if  necessary,  assistants.  Hundreds 
of  centralized  rural  schools  of  the  best  type 
have  been  built  under  the  new  regime,  most  of 
which  include  high  schools.  No  training  was 
required  of  teachers  prior  to  1914.  except  by 
certain  city  boards  of  education  The  require- 
ments were  increased  gradually;  until  the  stand- 
ard rose  in  1921  to  a  full  year  of  normal  work, 
which  is,  in  effect,  a  year  beyond  a  four-year 
high  school  course.  Two  new  State  normal 


OHIO 


953 


schools  were  started  in  1013;  and  a  county  nor- 
mal school  plan  was  adopted  to  supplement  the 
other  agencies  for  preparing  elementary  teach- 
ers. There  are  over  50  of  these  schools  with 
work  of  strictly  collegiate  grade.  Some  of  the 
private  colleges,  of  which  there  are  many  in 
Ohio,  also  undertook  to  train  elementary  teach- 
ers, under  the  supervision  of  the  State  Depart- 
ment of  Education.  In  1024,  all  hut  two  of  the 
standard  colleges  prepared  high  school  teachers 
with  the  large  amount  of  professional  training 
required  hy  the  1914  law.  High  school  super- 
vision hy  the  State  university  was  merged  with 
that  of  the  State  Department  of  Education. 
Most  high  schools  rose  to  first  grade  rank. 
The  compulsory  education  law  of  1921  requires 
attendance  to  the  age  of  18  of  those  not  through 
high  school;  those  fitted  may  secure  work 
certificates  at  1C.  Other  advances  are:  much 
improvement  in  day  schools  for  Hind,  deaf  and 


OHIO 

Repuhlicans,  Myron  T.  Herrick.  The  entire 
State  Democratic  ticket  was  elected,  and  Sen- 
ator Pomerene  was  reflected.  In  the  presi- 
dential voting  of  this  year,  President  Wilson  re- 
ceived 604,161  votes;  Charles  E.  Hughes,  514,- 
753.  During  this  year  there  were  serious  labor 
trouhles  in  the  State,  and  riots  in  East  Youngs- 
town  among  the  steel  workers  resulted  in  great 
damage  to  property  and  the  destruction  of 
practically  the  entire  business  section  by  fire. 
In  1917  the  people  defeated  a  law  permitting 
women  to  vote  for  presidential  electors.  In 
the  same  election  a  prohibition  amendment  was 
rejected.  Governor  Cox  was  renomiiiated  by 
the  Democrats  in  1918  and  was  reflected.  A 
State-wide  prohibition  amendment  was  adopted 
at  this  election.  The  Republicans  were  again 
successful  in  the  State  campaign  in  1920,  elect- 
ing their  candidate  for  governor,  Harry  L. 
Davis,  while  Frank  L.  Willis  was  elected  to 


crippled;   State  and  many  county  supervisors  of      the   Senate.     In   this  year  both    candidates   for 


music;  moving  picture  censorship  under  State 
director  of  education;  increase  of  director's  sal- 
ary from  $4000  to  $G500;  establishment  of 
Smith -Hughes  vocational  work,  especially  strong 
in  part-time  industrial  education;  a  model  teach- 
ers' retirement  law;  increase  of  Stale  aid  to 
weak  school  districts  from  about  $200,000  to 
$2,400,000  with  the  administration  entirely  un- 
der the  State  director  of  education.  The  en- 
rollment increased  from  895,167  in  1914  to  1,- 
1S(),641  in  1923.  The  average  attendance  in- 
creased from  720,442  in  1914  to  1 ,004,235  in  1023 
Illiteracy  in  the  State  decreased  from  4  por  cent 
in  1010  to  3.0  in  1920;  in  the  native  white 
population,  from  2.2  per  cent  to  1.2  per  cent; 
among  the  foreign-born  white,  rose  from  11.8 
per  cent  to  134  per  cent;  and  among  the 
Negroes,  fell  from  13.9  per  cent  to  0.7  per  cent. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATK  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  There  were 
many  important  political  events  in  the  history 
of  Ohio  in  the  decade  1914-24.  For  the  greater 
part  of  the  period  the  Republican  party  re- 
mained in  control,  but  during  a  portion  of  the 
time,  the  Democrats  developed  sufficient  st length 
to  elect  candidates  for  office  and  to  control  the 
Legislature.  Elections  were  held  in  1914  for 
State  officers  and  United  States  Senator.  War- 
ren (».  Km  cling,  former  lieutenant-governor, 
was  nominated  by  the  Republicans  for  the  Sen- 
atorship,  and  Timothy  S.  Ilogan  by  the  Demo- 
crats. For  governor,  the  Republicans  nomi- 
nated Frank  U.  Willis  and  the  Democrats  James 
M  Cox.  Willis  was  elected  governor,  and 


President  were  natives  of  Ohio.  In  the  presi- 
dential vote,  Warren  G.  Harding  received  1,182,- 
022  votes;  James  M  Cox,  780,037.  In  1921,  at 
a  special  election,  the  people  of  the  State  rati- 
fied a  soldiers'  bonus  of  $25,000,000.  In  1922 
the  Republicans  nominated  for  governor  Carmi 
A.  Thompson,  while  the  Democratic  nominee  was 
A.  V.  Donahey.  For  United  States  Senator  the 
Republican  candidate  was  Simeon  D.  Fess,  mem- 
ber of  Congress.  The  Democrats  renominated 
Senator  Pomerene.  Donahey  was  elected  govern- 
or, and  Fess,  Senator.  At  this  election  the  con- 
stitutional amendment  providing  for  the  sale  of 
beer  and  light  wines  was  proposed  for  submis- 
sion. The  Secretary  of  State  refused  to  certify 
the  amendment  for  a  vote  on  the  ground  that 
even  if  adopted,  it  would  be  without  effect. 
The  Supreme  Court  ordered  him  to  place  the 
proposal  on  the  ballot.  It  was  rejected  by  the 
people  by  a  majority  of  over  180,000  votes.  In 
1923  the  people  rejected,  on  November  6,  an  old- 
age  pension  proposal  and  approved  an  amend- 
ment relieving  employers  from  liability  in  pri- 
vate suits  where  covered  by  the  State  workmen's 
compensation  insurance.  On  June  28,  1924,  the 
city  of  Lorairi  and  others  west  of  it  were  swept 
by  a  tornado  which  did  damage  of  more  than 
$50,000,000  and  took  94  lives,  71  of  them  in 
Lorain.  Most  of  the  business  district  of  Lor  a  in 
was  devastated. 

Legislation.  Among  the  important  acts  of 
the  Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  were  the 
following.  Two  special  sessions  were  held  in 
1914.  An  act  was  passed  reorganizing  the  agri- 


Harding,   Senator.     While  the   Republicans  car-      cultural  interests  of  the  State  and  creating  an 
ried  practically  the  entire  State  ticket,  an  amend-      ««-!««i*— « i    ~«~.~.;-o;™.      TI,«    ^«,™,,«    «,/i,^i 
ment  establishing  county  local  option  was  car- 
ried   in    this   election,    while    amendments    pro- 
viding for  woman  sufl'rage  and  prohibition  were 
defeated.     In  April  of  this  year  the  coal  mines 
of  the  State  were  shut  down   as  the  result  of 
the    failure    to   negotiate    an    agreement    as    to  , 

payment  between  employers  and  employees.    The      but  on  November  4  of  that  year,  the  amendment 

«      «i  __    A* i     _i • XT.—    __....      i,-.,  *j-vl.T!nsv    rrt»r\n4-  trraa      -PA  inr»4  AS!       Jvrr      4-Vin      v\nrtrila      \vrr      o       mo  irtflfxr      f\f 


agricultural  commission.  The  common  school 
system  was  also  reorganized.  In  1917  the  Legis- 
lature was  under  Democratic  control.  A  law 
was  passed  permitting  women  to  vote  for  presi- 
dent. This,  as  noted  above,  was  defeated  by  the 
people.  The  Federal  prohibition  amendment 
was  ratified  by  the  Legislature  on  Jan.  7,  1917, 


strike  continued  during  the  year,  involving  great 
suffering  to  the  miners  and  huge  losses  to  the 
industry.  In  1915  a  constitutional  amendment 
forbidding  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  was 
submitted  to  the  people  and  was  rejected.  Se- 
vere floods  in  the  State,  in  July  of  this  year, 
resulted  in  the  death  of  five  and  damage  of 
more  than  $2,000,000,000.  In  191(5  the  Republi- 
cans renominated  Governor  Willis,  while  the 
Democratic  nominee  was  James  M.  Cox.  The 
Democrats  renoroinated  Senator  Pomerene;  the 


was  rejected  by  the  people  by  a  majority  of 
542.  On  Jan.  6,  1919,  the  Legislature  ratified 
the  Federal  woman  suffrage  amendment.  At 
this  session  of  the  Legislature,  statutes  were 
passed  defining  and  punishing  criminal  syndical- 
ism and  sabotage.  The  teaching  of  German  in 
the  elementary  grades  of  public  and  parochial 
schools  was  forbidden.  A  new  State  highway 
act  was  passed.  The  Legislature  of  1921 
amended  the  compulsory  education  laws;  made 
provision  for  cooperative  marketing;  passed 


OHIO  STATE  XTNTVBBSITY 


measures  for  the  enforcement  of  the  prohibition 
law,  and  amended  the  laws  relating  to  the 
finances  of  the  State.  The  Legislature  in 
1023  created  a  judicial  council  of  nine  judges 
and  passed  an  old-age  pension  proposal, 
which  was  on  Nov.  6,  1923,  rejected  by  the 
people. 

OHIO  STATE  UNIVEBSITY.  A  coeduca- 
tional institution  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  founded 
in  1870  and  supported  by  appropriations  from 
the  State  and  Federal  governments.  The  en- 
rollment of  the  university  more  than  doubled 
between  1914  and  1923-24,  increasing  from 
4466  in  the  former  year  to  9875  in  the  latter. 
In  the  same  period  the  faculty  increased  from 
423  to  718  members,  the  library  from  138,101 
to  238,154  volumes,  and  the  income  from  $1,- 
270,134  to  $4,499,577  08.  The  campus  and  uni- 
versity farm  covered  880  acres.  The  university 
consisted  in  1924  of  10  colleges  and  the  Gradu- 
ate School.  In  1914,  the  Sterling  Ohio  Medical 
College,  including  the  dental  school,  was  incor- 
porated as  pait  of  the  university.  The  College 
of  Couimeice  and  Journalism  'was  added  in 
1916.  In  1922  and  1923-24,  many  new  build- 
ings were  erected,  including  Mack*  Hull,  a  new 
residence  hall  for  women ;  Pomerene  Hall,  a 
women's  gymnasium;  the  Ohio  Stadium;  the 
new  administration  building;  the  new  commerce 
building;  the  new  journalism  building;  now 
chemistry  laboratories;  Hamilton  Hall,  the  new 
medical  science  building;  and  un  art  studio 
New  structures  also  were  erected  for  beef  rat- 
tle, dairy  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep.  About  $200,- 
000  was  expended  on  enlarging  the  power  plant. 
Contracts  were  to  be  let  in  11)23-24  for  a  new 
university  hospital  and  addition  to  medical  sci- 
ence building  to  cost  morr  than  $750,000.  The 
sum  of  $.50.000  was  appropriated  for  a  residence 
for  the  president  of  the  unnerhity,  to  be  erected 
on  the  campus.  During  this  period  the  univer- 
sity began  to  opeiate  on  the  four-quarter  sys- 
tem, abandoning  the  semester  plan.  The  quar- 
ters were  12  weeks  in  length.  The  schedule  was 
so  arranged  that  a  student  might  enter  at  the 
beginning  of  any  quarter.  Gifts  to  the  uni- 
versity included  $17,000  from  Charles  Cutler 
Sharp  for  the  establishment  of  the  Sharp  Li- 
brary Fund  for  purchase  of  books  for  the  de- 
partment of  chemistry.  President,  W.  O. 
Thompson,  D.D.,  LL.IX  * 

OHIO  WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY.  A 
coeducational  institution  at  Delaware,  Ohio, 
founded  in  1844.  The  student  enrollment  in- 
creased from  1120  in  1914  to  1797  in  1923-24, 
the  faculty  \\as  increased  in  meml>ership  from 
66  to  126,  and  the  library  from  60,210  to  95,- 
061  volumes.  During  the  decade,  departments 
of  education,  home  economics,  business  admin- 
istration, and  religious  education  were  founded. 
Austin  Hall  was  built  and  the  new  Perkins  ob- 
servatory was  begun.  The  Z.  T.  White  building, 
in  the  heart  of  Columbus,  valued  at  approxi- 
mately $1,000,000,  was  bequeathed  to  the  univer- 
sity by  Mr.  White  in  1922,  and  $250,000  was 
given  for  the  purchase  and  maintenance  of  a  61- 
inch  reflecting  telescope  In  the  same  year,  the 
university  began  a  campaign  to  raise  $8,000,- 
000  to  add  to  the  endowment  and  provide  funds 
for  16  new  buildings.  John  Washington  Hoff- 
man, D.D.,  LL.D.,  succeeded  Herbert  Welch, 
D.D.,  as  president  in  1916. 

OIL.     See  PETROLEUM. 

OIL  ENGINE.  See  INTEBNAI>COMBUSTTON 
ENGINES. 


954  OKLAHOMA 

OIL  SCANDALS.    See  UNITED  STATES,  Hi*- 


OISE,  BATTLES  OF  THE.  See  WAR  IN  EU- 
ROPE, Western  Front. 

OKLAHOMA.  Oklahoma  is  the  seventeenth 
State  in  size  (70,057  square  miles)  and  the 
twenty-first  in  population;  capital,  Oklahoma 
City.  The  population  increased  from  1,657,- 
155  in  1010  to  2,028,283  in  1020,  a  gain  of  22.4 
per  cent.  The  white  population  increased  from 
1,444,531  to  1,821,194;  the  Negro,  from  137,- 
612  to  149,408;  and  the  native  white,  fiom  1,- 
404,447  to  1,781,226.  The  Indian  population 
decreased  from  74,825  to  57,337;  and  from  40,- 
084  to  39,968.  Both  the  urban  and  rural  popu- 
lations increased;  the  former  from  320,155  to 
539,480;  the  latter  from  1,337,000  to  1,488,803. 
The  growth  of  the  principal  cities  was  as  fol- 
lows: Oklahoma  City  (q.v.),  fiom  64,205  in 
1910  to  91,295  in  1920;  Tuba  (qv.),  18,182  to 
72,075;  Muskogee,  25,278  to  30,277. 

Agriculture.  As  Oklahoma  is  an  important 
grain-producing  State,  agricultural  conditions 
during  the  decade  1910-20  reflected  the  fluctua- 
tions of  price  and  production  which  character- 
i/ed  war  and  post-war  conditions.  The  general 
situation  is  discussed  under  AGRICULTURE,  CORN, 
WHEAT,  etc.  Oklahoma  is  an  important  pro- 
ducer of  cotton,  and  though  not  affected  as 
much  as  some  of  the  other  cotton -producing 
States  by  the  ravages  of  the  boll  weevil,  which 
vary  in  intensity  with  the  season,  the  damage 
and  uncertainty  were  considerable  in  some  years. 
The  fluctuations  of  the  cotton  crop  in  the  dec- 
ade are  indicated  by  the  following  figures: 
1913,  acreage,  3,009,000,  production  840,000 
bales:  1916,  2,562,000,  and  823,000;  1920,  2,- 
749,000,  and  1,336,000;  1921,  2,206,000,  and 
481,000;  1922,  2,951,000,  and  635,000.  The  es- 
timated production  for  1923  was  945,000  bales. 

While  the  population  of  the  State  increased 
22.4  per  cent  during  the  decade,  the  number  of 
farms  increased  only  0.9  per  cent  (from  190,- 
192  in  1910  to  191,988  in  1920).  The  total 
area  of  land  in  farms,  however,  increased  from 
28,859,353  acres  to  31,951,934,  or  10.7  per  cent; 
and  the  improved  land  in  farms,  from  17,551,- 
337  to  18,125,321  acres,  or  3.3  per  cent.  The 
percentage  of  the  total  area  in  farm  land  in- 
creased from  65  in  1910  to  71.9  in  1920;  the 
percentage  of  land  improved  from  39  5  to  40.8. 
The  total  value  of  farm  property  showed  an  ap- 
parent increase,  from  $018,198,882  to  $1,660,- 
423,544,  or  80.8  per  cent;  the  average  value  per 
farm,  from  $4828  to  $H649.  Of  the  total  of 
191,988  farms  in  1920,  93,217  were  operated  by 
owners,  935  by  managers,  and  97,830  by  tenants. 
The  corresponding  figures  for  1910  were  85,404; 
651,  and  104,137.  White  farmers  numbered 
173,263  in  1920  and  169,521  in  1910.  Colored 
farmers  numbered  18,725  in  1920;  20,671  in 
1910.  Farms  free  from  mortgage  in  1920  num- 
bered 30,551 ;  those  under  mortgage,  47,025. 
In  1910,  unmortgaged  farms  numbered  46,889; 
those  under  mortgage,  36,036.  The  total  num- 
ber of  cattle  in  1920  was  2,073,945,  of  which 
808,459  were  dairy  cattle.  In  1910,  cattle  num- 
bered 1,953,560;  dairy  cattle,  530,796.  Sheep 
in  1920  numbered  105,370;  in  1910,  62,472. 
The  number  of  hogs  decreased  notably  from 
1,839,030  to  1,304,094;  owing  to  high  prices  for 
grain  during  the  War,  wheat  being  planted  in- 
stead of  corn.  The  estimated  production  of  the 
principal  farm  crops  in  1923  was  as  follows: 
corn,  30,491,000  bushels;  wheat,  36,300,000  bush- 


OKLAHOMA 


955 


els;  oats,  22,522,000  bushels;  barley,  2,557,000 
bushels;  grain  sorghum,  •  18,276,000  bushels; 
potatoes,  2,381,000  bushels;  sweet  potatoes,  1,- 
880,000  bushels;  hay,  935,000  tons.  Compara- 
tive figures  for  1913  are:  com,  52,250,000  bush- 
els: wheat,  17,500,030;  oats,  18.540,000;  barley, 
63,000;  potatoes,  1,920,000;  and  hay,  382,000 
tons. 

Mining1.  Oklahoma,  although  it  produces  no 
metals,  ranks  fourth  among  the  States  in  value 
of  mineral  production.  This  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  development  of  the  petroleum  fields  in  the 
State  during  the  decade  1914-24.  The  produc- 
tion of  petroleum,  in  1014  was  73,631,724  bar- 
rels; (1915)  97,915,243;  (1916)  107,071,715; 
(1917)  107,507,471;  (1918)  103,347,070;  (1920) 
106,206,000;  (1921)  114,634,000;  (1922)  149,- 
571,000.  The  production  of  natural  gas  kept 
pace  with  the  development  of  the  petroleum 
fields,  the  production  in  1914  being  78,167,- 
414  thousand  cubic  feet;  123,517,358  (1916); 
124,317,179  (1918);  154,467,200  (1920);  124,- 
058,000  (1921).  The  production  of  natural- 
#as  gasoline  became  extremely  important  in 
the  last  few  years;  178,856,929  gallons  were 
produced  in  1920  and  185,340,742  gallons  in 
1921.  The  coal  production  is  about  4,000,- 
000  tons  annually;  it  was  3,988,613  tons  in 
1914;  4,813,447  in  1918,  and  2,802,511  in  1922. 
In  addition  to  the  minerals  mentioned,  the 
State  produces  cement,  gypsum,  lead,  sand  and 
gravel,  and  stone.  The  total  value  of  the 
mineral  production  of  the  State  in  1921  was 
$269,882,78(5,  compared  with  $493,320,359  in 
1920;  $201,078,174  in  1919;  $336,857,021  in 
101S;  and  $78,744,447  in  1914. 

Manufactures.  Oklahoma  is  not  one  of  the 
leading  industrial  States,  but  its  manufacturing 
activities  have  shown  great  increase  in  value  of 
products  and  in  number  of  persons  employed  in 
recent  years.  In  1920,  there  were  12  cities  with 
10,000  inhabitants  or  mou\  which  contained 
15  6  per  cent  of  the  total  population  of  the 
Slate,  and  in  1919  reported  33.3  per  cent  of  the 
value  of  the  State's  manufactured  products. 
There  were  in  the  State  2310  manufacturing 
entablements  in  1909;  2518  in  1914;  and  2445 
in  1919.  Persona  engaged  in  manufacture  num- 
iKjml  18,034,  22,700  and  38,314;  and  the  capital 
invested  amounted  to  $38,872,938,  $65,477,654, 
and  $277,034,318,  in  those  years  The  value  of 
manufactured  products  in  1909  was  $53,682,- 
405;  in  1914,  $102,005,693;  and  in  1919,  $401,- 
362,869.  The  large  increase  in  value  of  prod- 
ucts from  1914  to  1919.  was  chiefly  due  to 
changes  in  industrial  conditions  brought  about 
by  the  War,  and  cannot  be  properly  used  to 
measure  the  growth  of  manufactures  during  the 
period;  but  the  increase  in  number  of  wage 
earners  clearly  indicates  growth  in  the  manu- 
facturing activities  of  the  State.  Petroleum- 
refining  is  the  most  important  industry  in  point 
of  value  of  product.  This  amounted  to  $1,055,- 
000  in  1909;  $13,014,000  in  1914;  and  $150,- 
673,000  in  1919.  Flourmili  and  gristmill  prod- 
ucts rank  second  in  this  respect,  with  a  value, 
in  1909,  of  $19,144,000;  1914,  $16,689,000;  and 
191!),  $49,844,000.  The  smelting  and  refining  of 
zinc,  in  third  place,  had  a  product,  in  1909, 
valued  at  $3,002,000;  1914,  $9,939,000;  and 
1919,  $19,518,000  The  manufacture  of  cotton- 
seed oil  and  cake  wag  fourth:  valued  in  1909  at 
$5,187,000;  in  1914,  $7,590,000;  and  in  1919, 
$18,907,000.  The  chief  manufacturing  cities  are 
Oklahoma  City  and  Tuba.  In  Oklahoma  City, 


OKLAHOMA 

there  were  171  manufacturing  establishments  in 
1909,  with  a  product  valued  at  $7868;  195  in 
1914,  with  $20,726,000;  and  227  in  1919,  with 
$69,971,000.  Tulsa  had  53  establishments  in 
1909,  with  a  product  valued  at  $1563;  103  in 
1914,  with  $3,868,000;  and  135  in  1919,  with 
$14,050,000.  Other  important  manufacturing 
cities  are  Enid,  Muskogee,  Guthrie,  and  Mc- 
Alester. 

Education.  Satisfactory  progress  was  made 
in  education  in  the  decade  1914-24.  The  period 
witnessed  a  remarkable  growth  in  the  wealth 
and  population  of  the  State,  which  made  possible 
better  schools  The  average  length  of  the  school 
term  was  considerably  increased  during  the  dec- 
ade, and  additional  teachers  were  employed. 
The  normal  school  facilities,  which  had  always 
been  insufficient,  were  increased  by  the  provision 
for  normal  training  in  certain  selected  high 
schools.  There  was  a  large  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  schools  offering  high-school  courses,  and 
high-school  opportunities  to  rural  children  were 
gn-atly  extended  by  the  organization  of  graded 
and  consolidated  districts.  A  large  colored  and 
Indian  population  greatly  increased  the  educa- 
tional difficulties  of  the  State.  The  enrollment 
in  the  public  schools  increased  from  496,908  in 
1914  to  609,767  in  1921  The  enrollment  in 
white  rural  schools  in  1920  was  544,821,  and  in 
colored  rural  schools,  44,461.  In  elementary 
rural  schools  for  white  pupils  there  were  en- 
rolled 517,317  in  1921;  in  white  high  schools, 
47,893,  in  Negro  elementary  schools  42,938;  and 
in  Negro  high  schools,  1619.  The  expenditures 
for  schools  in  1921  was  $28,368,688.  The  total 
enrollment  in  the  graded  schools  for  1923  was 
637,299;  and  the  school  expenditure  in  that  year 
was  $30,479,355.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in 
the  State  decreased  from  6.9  in  1910  to  47  in 
1920:  in  the  native  white  population,  from  4.2 
to  2  9  per  cent ;  rose  in  foreign-born  white,  from 
9.7  to  13  4;  fell  in  negro,  from  22  7  to  16.4. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  During  the 
decade  1914-24  the  State  continued  to  be  Demo- 
cratic in  politics.  At  elections  held  for  gover- 
nor and  United  States  Senator  in  1914,  Senator 
Gore  was  reflected,  and  R.  L.  Williams,  the 
Democratic  candidate,  was  elected  governor. 
The  Democrats  also  elected  Representatives  to 
Congress  in  all  districts  except  one.  On  Jan. 
21,  1915,  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  de- 
clared unconstitutional  the  so-called  "grand- 
father clause"  to  the  constitution,  which  dis- 
franchised a  large  percentage  of  the  negroes  of 
the  State.  There  was  no  election  for  State  of- 
ficers in  1916.  In  the  presidential  voting  of  this 
year  President  Wilson  received  148,626  votes; 
Charles  E.  Hughes,  98,299.  In  1918  Senator 
Owen  was  renominated  by  the  Democrats,  and 
Judge  J.  B.  A.  Robertson  received  the  Democratic 
nomination  for  governor.  Both  were  elected  in 
November.  Elections  were  held  in  1920  for 
United  States  Senator  John  W.  Harrold,  Re- 
publican, defeated  Scott  Ferris,  Democratic 
nominee,  by  a  large  majority.  In  the  presi- 
dential voting  of  this  year,  W.  G.  Harding  re- 
ceived 243,415  votes;  J.  M  Cox,  215,521.  An 
attempt  was  made  in  April,  1921,  to  impeach 
Gov.  J.  B.  A.  Robertson.  This  failed  in  the 
Legislature.  On  Mar.  22,  1922,  Governor  Rob- 
ertson was  arrested  for  bribery  in  connection 
with  the  insolvency  of  the  Guarantee  State 
Bank  of  Okmulgee.  In  the  State  election  of 
1922,  J.  C.  Walton,  Democratic  candidate,  was 


OKLAHOMA  TTNXVX&BXTY 

elected  governor.  Alice  Robertson,  a  Repre- 
sentative to  Congress  in  1920,  was  renominated 
by  the  Republicans,  but  was  defeated.  In  the 
summer  of  1923,  as  a  result  of  alleged  outrages 
by  the  Ku  Klux  Klan,  Governor  Walton  placed 
the  State  under  martial  law.  The  Legislature 
denied  his  right  to  do  this  and  wished  to  hold 
a  special  session  in  order  to  impeach  him.  Gov- 
ernor Walton  denied  their  right  to  meet,  and  the 
members  of  the  Legislature  circulated  a  peti- 
tion among  themselves  for  a  special  session. 
The  Adjutant-general  of  the  State  was  ordered 
by  the  Governor  to  prevent  their  meeting,  but 
the  legislators  entered  the  Capitol  without  hin- 
drance, although  they  were  prevented  from  as- 
sembling by  an  officer  of  the  National  Guard. 
An  injunction  was  thereupon  obtained  prevent- 
ing the  National  Guard  from  interfering.  Pre- 
vious to  these  events,  Governor  Walton  had 
called  a  special  election  to  pass  on  proposed 
amendments  to  the  State  constitution.  One  of 
these  would  permit  the  Legislature  to  assemble 
without  the  Governor's  consent  on  a  call  of  a 
majority  of  its  members.  The  Attorney  Gen- 
eral attempted  to  have  ballots  for  this  measure 
cast  by  the  Supreme  Court,  but  the  petition  was 
denied.  The  Governor  thereupon  ordered  out 
the  National  Guard  to  prevent  the  election. 
The  local  boards  ordered  the  ballots  printed, 
and  citizens  were  urged  to  vote  in  spite  of  the 
Governor's  proclamation  to  the  contrary.  At 
the  special  election  the  amendment  was  passed. 
Governor  Walton  then  ordered  the  Legislature 
to  meet  but  specified  that  it  should  devote  its 
attention  exclusively  to  the  Ku  Klux  Klan.  On 
arsembling,  the  House  at  once  began  prepara- 
tions for  impeaching  Governor  Walton,  and 
charges  were  filed  with  the  Senate  acting  as  a 
court  of  impeachment.  The  Legislature  also 
paHsed  a  resolution  for  the  investigation  of  the 
Ku  Klux  Klan,  but  the  motion  to  expel  members 
of  the  Klan  from  the  House  was  defeated.  In 
November,  Governor  Walton  was  found  guilty 
on  11  counts,  including  charges  that  he  had 
padded  the  State  payroll,  prevented  the  assem- 
bling of  the  Grand  Jury,  attempted  to  prevent 
a  special  State  election,  exceeded  the  legal  limit 
of  election  expenses,  and  was  generally  incom- 
petent. The  Governor  presented  no  defense. 
He  was  succeeded  by  the  Lieutenant-Governor. 

Legislation.  Among  the  important  acts  of 
the  Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  were  the 
following.  A  budget  system  was  created  by  the 
Legislature  of  1019.  At  this  session  also  meas- 
ures were  passed  defining  and  punishing  crimi- 
nal syndicalism  and  sabotage.  In  1923  the 
Legislature  passed  a  measure  providing  for  in- 
dustrial rehabilitation  and  farm  or  home  aid 
for  veterans  of  the  War.  A  measure  was  also 
passed  making  robbery  or  its  attempt  punishable 
by  a  minimum  of  25  years  in  prison.  The 
Legislature  also  passed  a  bill  prohibiting  the 
Ku  Klux  Klan  and  members  of  other  organiza- 
tions from  wearing  masks  in  public. 

OKLAHOMA,  UNIVEHSITY  OP.  A  coeduca- 
tional State  institution  at  Norman,  Okla., 
founded  in  1892.  The  student  enrollment  was 
doubled  in  the  decade  between  1914  and  1923- 
24,  from  1700  in  the  former  year  to  3401  in  the 
latter.  The  faculty  was  increased  in  the  same 
period  from  135  to  203  and  the  library  from 
23,000  to  52,000  volumes.  The  income  in- 
creased from  $253,500  in  1916  to  $1,020,000  in 
1923-24.  The  School  of  Social  Service  was  es- 
tablished and  the  department  of  manual  train- 


956 


OLD  AGE  PENSIONS 


ing  in  the  College  of  Engineering  opened  in 
1917,  special  war  courses  were  offered  in  1918, 
and  the  School  of  Public  and  Private  Business 
was  organized  in  1923  as  a  separate  school  with 
authority  to  grant  the  B.S.  degree.  Up  to  that 
time  the  B.A.  degree  with  special  certificate  in 
public  and  private  business  had  been  conferred 
in  the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  An  audi- 
torium, a  fine  arts  building,  a  library  building, 
a  geology  building,  a  hospital  and  an  armory 
were  erected  in  1920,  and  a  women's  building  in 
the  following  year.  Stratton  D.  Brooks  was 
president  during  the  period  until  1023,  when 
J.  S.  Buchanan  became  acting  president. 

OKLAHOMA  CITY.  The  capital  and  com- 
mercial centre  of  Oklahoma.  The  population 
increased  from  64,205  in  1910  to  91,295  in 
1920,  to  101,150  by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of 
the  Census  for  1923,  and  to  140,000  by  local 
estimate  in  1924.  During  the  decade  of  1914 
to  1924,  the  city  completed  a  $5,500,000  water 
system  capable  of  supplying  a  much  larger  city, 
and  a  $1,000,000  power  plant,  and  increased 
the  value  of  its  schools  from  $2,450,000  to  $8,- 
494,000.  Bank  clearings  rose  from  $115,879,- 
816  in  1914  to  $1,165,341,665  in  1923. 

OLD  AGE  PENSIONS,  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  The  United  States  adopted  old  age 
pensions  very  slowly.  The  proportion  of  aged 
persons  in  its  population  was  consideiably 
smaller  than  in  some  of  the  older  countries; 
and  its  largely  agricultural  population  did  not 
show  the  evils  of  indigent  old  age  so  quickly 
as  those  of  more  thickly  populated  areas.  Up 
to  1913,  practically  the  only  measures  that  had 
been  taken  to  relieve  the  hardships  of  the  old 
age  of  workmen  were  those  of  railroads  and 
large  industrial  concerns,  which  provided  for 
the  retirement  with  pension  of  their  own  em- 
ployees, usually  at  the  age  of  65.  In  most  CQHCB 
no  contributions  from  the  beneficiaries  were  re- 
quired, The  trade  unions  objected  to  this 
method  of  provision  The  employer  admitted 
no  legal  claim  to  a  pension  and  retained  the 
right  to  withdraw  the  pension  offer  if  an  em- 
ployee were  guilty  of  misconduct,  which  dis- 
couraged strikes  and  tied  the  worker's  hands. 
Old  age  insurance  was  offered  by  a  very  few 
trade  unions  and  a  few  fraternal  organiza- 
tions. The  pensioning  of  municipal,  State  and 
Federal  employees,  though  growing,  was  still 
quite  limited.  Retirement  funds  for  teacheiH, 
policemen,  and  firemen,  however,  were  becoming 
common.  Some  provision  for  old  age  insurance 
through  savings  banks  had  been  made  in  Massa- 
chusetts in  1907  and  in  Wisconsin  in  1911. 
But  the  only  comprehensive  system  was  that  of 
military  and  naval  pensions;  and  in  not  one  of 
the  public  measures  was  the  lower-paid  and  moat 
needy  class  of  workers  provided  for. 

Development  in  the  decade  1914-24  continued 
for  some  time  solely  to  affect  public  employees 
and  workers  in  corporations.  In  1915,  the  Win- 
chester Arms  Company  installed  a  pension  sys- 
tem affecting  about  12,000  persons,  and  the  Wells 
Fargo  Express  Company  adopted  a  similar 
scheme  in  the  following  year.  In  1920,  Con- 
gress passed  a  comprehensive  bill  providing  for 
the  retirement  of  employees  in  the  Civil  Service, 
under  which  contributions  by  employees  to  the 
extent  of  2%  per  cent  of  their  basic  com- 
pensation, and  retirement  at  70  after  15  years 
of  service,  were  compulsory,  and  old  age  and 
total  disability  pensions  were  granted  in  ratio 
to  contribution  and  length  of  service.  Beyond 


OLD  AGE  PENSIONS 


957 


the  unsuccessful  launching  of  an  old  age  pension 
bill  in  Ohio  in  1917,  nothing  had  been  accom- 
plished up  to  this  time  in  the  way  of  old  age 
pensions  proper.  But  interest  had  by  no  means 
been  dormant;  in  1921-22  this  gained  impetus; 
labor  organizations,  church  bodies,  and  indus- 
trial leaders  took  up  the  cry;  in  that  year  old 
age  pension  acts,  of  varying  nature,  were  intro- 
duced in  15  State  Legislatures  and  in  Congress. 
Definite  results  came  in  1923,  when  State  laws 
for  old  age  assistance  were  passed  in  Montana, 
Nevada,  and  Pennsylvania  The  Nevada  law 
required  that  applicants  be  at  least  00  years 
of  age,  citizens  of  the  United  States  for  at  least 
15  years,  and  residents  of  the  State  for  at  least 
10  years  The  income  of  beneficiaries  from  pen- 
sion and  all  other  sources  was  not  to  exceed  $1 
per  day.  Inmates  of  prisons,  workhouses,  etc., 
were  barred;  also  those  who  had  been  in  prison 
for  four  months  or  more  during  the  10  years 
preceding,  if  such  sentence  were  without  the  op- 
tion of  a  fine;  those  who  had  within  the  pre- 
ceding 10  years  deserted  spouse  or  failed  to 
support  children  for  six  months,  those  who  had 
children  capable  of  and  responsible  for  support; 
also  those  who  owned  property  exceeding  $3000. 
Where,  needed,  a  maximum  funeral  benefit  of 
$100  was  provided  for  Provisions  were  made 
for  cases  where  claimant  owns  property.  In 
the  Pennsylvania  act  the  pension  age  was  70, 
and  the  State  residence  requirement  15  years; 
in  Montana,  the  pension  age  was  70  and  the 
citi/enship  and  State  residence  requirement  15 
years;  otherwise  the  provisions  were  essentially 
the  same  as  those  of  the  Nevada  measure  In 
Alaska,  in  1923,  the  act  of  1915  was  amended  to 
reduce  the  pension  age  from  65  to  60  for  women, 
mid  increase  the  maximum  monthly  allowance 
fiom  $12.50  for  either  sex  to  $25  for  men  and 
$45  for  women:  while  the  residence  requirement 
was  increased  from  10  to  15  years.  The  growth 
of  the  movement  was  evident  in  other  States, 
also.  Old  age  pension  bills,  although  they  were 
not  passed,  became  definite  political  issues  in 
Ohio  and  Illinois;  and  Massachusetts  and  Indi- 
ana appointed  commissions  to  study  the  subject. 
The  desirability  of  a  Federal  system  was  be- 
ginning to  be  discussed,  tof  prevent  migration, 
and  to  equali/e  the  burden"  that  it  might  not 
bear  too  heavily  on  communities  where  the  per- 
centage of  aged  people  was  higher.  Although 
so  far  the  non  contributory  system  appeared  to 
be  in  favor,  the  compulsory-contributory  type  of 
protection  was  not  without  strong  advocates 
who  argued  that  this  system  was  necessary  to 
preserve  the  dignity  of  labor,  to  encourage 
Ihrift,  and  to  conform  to  the  principles  of  sound 
finance. 

Other  Countries.  Expenditures  for  old  age 
pensions  increased  as  follows-  in  Denmark,  from 
$2,643,125  in  the  fiscal  year  1909-10,  to  $15,- 
959,400  in  the  fiscal  year  1919-20;  in  Great 
Britain,  from  £8,468,128  in  the  fiscal  year 
1910-11,  to  £25,087,000  in  1920-21;  in  New 
Zealand,  from  £362,496  in  1910  to  £731,343  in 
1921;  and  in  Australia  (invalidity  pensions  in- 
cluded) from  £1,868,648  in  1911  to  £5,337,936 
in  1923.  This  increase  in  aggregate  expendi- 
tures during  the  decade  was,  however,  largely 
due  to  increases  in  the  pension  rates  to  meet  the 
reduced  purchasing  power  of  money.  The  per- 
centage of  persons  assisted  under  pension  laws 
likewise  showed  an  increase  in  general.  In 
Denmark,  it  rose  from  2.4  in  1910  to  3.3  in 
1Q20;  in  the  latter  year  more  than  34  per 


OLD  AGE  PENSIONS 

cent  of  the  entire  male  population,  and  48  per 
cent  of  the  women,  over  60  years  of  age,  were 
pensioners.  The  number  pensioned  in  Great 
Britain  increased  from  669,362  in  1910-11  to 
1,029,307  in  1921-22.  In  1915,  of  the  entire 
population  over  70,  about  65  per  cent  were  be- 
ing thus  supported.  In  New  Zealand,  however, 
the  proportion  of  old  age  pensioners  to  total 
population,  which  was  placed  in  1910  at  1.8 
per  cent,  fell  to  1.6  per  cent  in  1920;  and  in 
Australia,  while  the  proportion  rose  from  1.5 
per  cent  in  1910  to  1.92  in  1921,  there  was  a 
decline  in  1923  to  1.91  per  cent. 

In  1919,  Uruguay  passed  an  old  age  pension 
law  affecting  all  persons  reaching  the  age  of  60, 
and  other  entirely  incapacitated  and  indigent, 
granting  not  less  than  96  pesos  or  $99.28  annu- 
ally, in  cash  or  assistance,  foreigners  and  natu- 
ralized citizens  of  15  years'  continuous  residence 
being  entitled  to  the  benefits;  the  funds  being 
drawn  from  increased  taxes  on  employers,  real 
estate,  and  on  playing-cards  and  liquors.  In 
England,  the  Old  Age  Pension  Act  of  1909,  pro- 
viding for  weekly  allowances  of  not  more  than 
5  shillings  to  persons  over  70  whose  incomes 
were  under  $157  50  per  year,  was  amended  in 
1916  to  permit  slightly  increased  allowances  in 
needy  cases,  and  in  1919  the  allowance  was 
raised  to  10  shillings.  The  Act  was  latterly 
subject  to  much  criticism.  Although  expendi- 
tures had  risen  rapidly,  it  was  claimed  that  the 
allowance  still  was  insufficient  and  that  many 
who  had  left  workhouses  to  accept  pensions  had 
returned.  It  was  also  said  that  the  system  was 
an  incentive  to  fraud  and  improvidence  in  its 
existing  form  (although  careful  scrutiny  of 
claims  had  brought  the  cost  of  administration 
almost  to  £1,000,000  annually),  and  an  amend- 
ment to  the  law  to  give  the  pension  to  all  citi- 
zens at  the  age  of  70  regardless  of  means  was 
Proposed,  but  defeated,  in  1923.  France,  in 
910,  adopted  a  compulsory  system  of  old  age 
insurance  which  was  expected  practically  to 
supersede  the  old  age  pension  system,  but  this 
had  not  fulfilled  expectations,  and  in  1924  meas- 
ures to  strengthen  it  were  under  consideration. 
Denmark  raised  the  age  limit  for  old  age  pen- 
sions from  60  to  65  years,  in  order  to  reduce 
expenditures.  The  old  age  pension  systems  of 
Australia  (1916)  and  New  Zealand  (1898) 
seemed  to  be  exempt  from  domestic  criticism. 
The  maximum  annual  allowances  in  those  do- 
minions  were  $162  and  $130,  respectively. 
Spain,  in  1919,  replaced  its  system  of  voluntary 
state-aided  annuities  with  a  compulsory  insur- 
ance plan  affecting  all  wage  earners  between  16 
and  65  and  in  1921  extended  this  to  include 
all  whose  annual  wage  was  less  than  4000 
pesetas  ($772).  In  Italy,  in  1920,  the  com- 
pulsory old  age  insurance  act  for  seamen  was 
replaced  by  one  applying  to  practically  all  man- 
ual workers,  salaried  employees  and  professional 
classes.  The  temporary  old  age  pension  act 
passed  in  Belgium  in  1920  was  extended  in  1923 
for  a  further  period  of  three  years,  a  compulsory 
insurance  law  covering  old  age  and  death  be- 
ing meanwhile  under  consideration.  In  Ger- 
many, the  compulsory  old  age  and  invalidity  in- 
surance law  was  amended  in  1916,  reducing  the 
age  limit  from  75  to  65,  The  compulsory  old 
age  insurance  law  of  Sweden,  passed  in  1913,  was 
still  the  only  law  of  universal  application,  affect- 
ing the  entire  population,  from  16  to  07  years 
of  age,  with  the  exception  of  certain  persons  sub- 
ject to  state  pensions. 


OLMSTEAD 

OLMSTEAD,  FREDRICK  LAW  (1370-  ). 
An  American  landscape  architect  (see  VOL. 
XVII).  From  1902  to  1917  lie  was  landscape 
architect  for  the  Baltimore  Park  Commission 
and  from  1908  landscape  architect  for  the  Sage 
Foundation  Homes  Company  He  was  profes- 
sor of  landscape  architecture  at  Harvard  Uni- 
veisity,  1903-14,  and  during  1910-19  he  was  a 
member  of  the  National  Commission  of  Fine 
Arts.  He  was  chairman  of  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee of  the  National  Conference  on  City  Plan- 
ning from  1910  to  1919  and  was  governor  of  the 
American  City  Planning  Institute.  In  1917-18 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Commission  on  Emer- 
gency Construction  of  the  War  Industries  Board 
and  during  the  same  period  manager  of  the 
town  planning  division  of  the  United  States 
Housing  Corporation 

OLYMPIC  GAMES.  The  first  Olympic 
Games  since  the  War  were  held  at  Antwerp, 
Belgium,  in  1920,  the  athletes  of  the  United 
States  repeating  their  triumph  of  1912  at  Stock- 
holm, Sweden.  In  the  track  and  Held  events  the 
Americans  scored  more  than  double  the  number 
of  points  collected  by  their  nearest  competitor. 
The  final  standing  of  the  various  countries  en- 
tered was:  United  States,  212  points;  Fin- 
land, 105;  Sweden,  95;  England,  92;  France, 
35;  Italy,  28;  South  Africa,  24;  Canada,  10; 
Norway,  10;  Denmark,  9;  Esthonia,  8;  New 
Zealand,  5;  Belgium,  5;  Australia,  5;  Czecho- 
slovakia, 3;  Holland,  2;  Luxemburg,  1. 

Five  new  world's  and  three  new  Olympic  rec- 
ords were  made  as  follows:  400-meter  hurdles, 
Loomis,  U.  S.,  54  seconds  (world)  ;  pole  vault, 
Foss,  United  States,  13  feet,  5-Jie  inches  (world)  ; 
400-meter  relay,  U.  S  team,  42  M>  seconds 
(world);  javelin  throw,  Myrra,  Finland,  215 
feet,  9&  inches  (world)  ;  110-meter  high  hur- 
dles, Thompson,  Canada,  1446  seconds  (world)  ; 
throwing  56-pound  weight,  McDonald,  U.  S.,  36 
feet,  11%  inches  (Olympic)  ;  running  high 
jump,  Landon,  U.  S.,  6  feet,  4V6  inches  (Olym- 
pic) ;  Marathon,  Kolehmainen,  Finland,  2  hours, 
32  minutes,  35%  seconds  (Olympic). 

The  United  States  also  won  a  sweeping  vic- 
tory in  the  swimming  events,  chiefly  because 
of  the  fine  work  of  Duke  Kahanamoku,  Pua 
Kealoha  and  Warren  Kealoha,  all  of  the  Hawai- 
ian Islands.  Great  Britain  captured  the  final 
water  polo  match  from  Belgium  by  a  score  of 
3  to  2.  In  women's  swimming  the  United 
States  again  showed  marked  superiority  through 
the  brilliant  efforts  of  Ethelda  Bleibtrey,  Aileen 
Riggin  and  Frances  Cowells-Schroth  In  row- 
ing the  United  States  Naval  Academy  won  the 
eight-oared  event;  the  American  Kelly  took 
the  single  sculls  and  Switzerland  triumphed  in 
the  four-oared  contest.  -  The  U.  S.  trap  shoot- 
ing team  won,  and  Mark  Arie  of  the  United 
States  carried  off  the  individual  champion- 
ship. Canada  won  the  hockey  honors  with 
the  United  States  second.  Great  Britain  was 
victor  in  the  tennis  competition,  the  United 
States  being  unrepresented  because  of  the  de- 
mands made  upon  the  American  players  by  the 
Davis  Cup  matches. 

The  first  women's  Olympic  Games  were  held  at 
Paris  in  1922,  the  points  being  distributed 
among  the  various  countries  as  follows:  Eng- 
land, 50;  United  States,  31;  France,  29;  Czecho- 
slovakia, 12;  Switzerland,  6.  In  the  60-meter 
dash  Mile.  B.  Mejzlikova  of  Czecho-Slovakia  set 
a  new  world's  record  of  7%  seconds.  Miss  Ca- 
melia  of  the  United  States  also  distinguished 


958 


OLMYPIC  GAMES 


herself  by  running  the  100-yard  hurdles  in 
14%  seconds. 

The  Olympic  Games  of  1924,  held  at  the 
Colombes  Stadium,  near  Paris,  France,  attracted 
entries  from  forty-five  nations,  twenty-seven,  of 
which  were  medal  winners  The  United  States 
teams  once  more  showed  their  supremacy,  cap- 
turing the  all-around  championship  through  six 
months  of  keenest  competition  and  carrying  off 
the  honors  in  track  and  field  sports,  rowing, 
swimming,  tennis,  Rugby,  boxing,  catch-as-catch- 
can  wrestling,  and  ritle,  pistol  and  target  shoot- 
ing. 

In  the  track  and  field  events  the  points  were 
distributed  among  the  various  countries  as  fol- 
lows: United  States,  255;  Finland,  166;  Great 
Britain,  85 % ;  Sweden,  31%;  France,  26i/2; 
Italy,  19;  Switzerland,  15;  South  Africa,  11; 
Hungary,  10%;  Australia,  10;  Canada,  8;  Nor- 
way, 6;  Argentina,  5;  New  Zealand,  Holland 
and  Esthonia,  4  each;  Denmark,  3;  Japan  and 
Chile,  1  each. 

The  winners  in  the  various  events  were: 
10,000-meter  run,  Willie  Kitola,  Finland,  30 
minutes,  23^6  seconds  (world's  record)  ;  javelin 
throw,  J.  Myrra,  Finland,  207  feet;  100-meter 
dash,  H.  Abrahams,  Great  Britain,  10-%  seconds 
(equals  Olympic  record)  ;  400-meter  hurdles, 
F.  M.  Taylor,  United  States,  52  &  seconds 
(world's  record)  ;  high  jump,  H.  M.  Osborne, 
U.  S.,  6  feet,  6  inches  (Olympic  record)  ;  pentath- 
lon, Lehtoneu,  Finland  (in  this  contest  Robert 
Le  Gendre,  U.  S.,  set  a  world's  record  of  25 
feet,  6  inches  for  the  broad  jump)  ;  800-meter 
run,  D.  G.  A.  Lowe,  Great  Britain,  1  minute, 
52%  seconds;  broad  jump,  De  Hart  E.  Hublnird, 
U.  S.,  24  feet,  6  inches;  shot  put,  Clarence 
Houser,  U.  S.,  49  feet,  2 Mi  inches;  110-meter 
hurdles,  D.  Kmsey,  U.  S.,  15  seconds;  200-meter 
dash,  J.  V.  Scholz,  U.  S.,  21%  seconds  (equals 
Olympic  record),  3000-meter  steeplechase,  Willie 
Ritola,  Finland,  9  minutes,  33%  seconds  (world's 
record)  ;  1500-meter  run,  Paavo  Xurmi,  Finland, 
3  minutes,  53%  seconds  (Olympic  record)  ; 
5000-meter  run,  Paavo  Nurmi,  Finland,  14  min- 
utes, 31%  seconds  (Olympic  record)  ;  hammer 
throw,  F.  D.  Tootell,  U*  S.,  174  feet;  pole  vault, 
L.  Barnes,  U.  S.,  12  feet,  11%  inches;  400-meter 
run,  E.  H.  Liddell,  Great  Britain,  47%  seconds 
(world's  record)  ;  10,000-mcter  cross  country 
run,  Paavo  Nurmi,  Finland  team,  32  minutes, 
54%  seconds;  hop,  step  and  jump,  Winter, 
Australia,  50  feet,  11%  inches  (world's  record)  ; 
decathlon,  H.  M  Osborne,  U.  S.,  7,710775  points 
(world's  record)  ;  400-meter  relay,  United  States 
team,  41  seconds  (world's  record);  discus 
throw,  Clarence  Houser,  U.  S.,  46  meters,  15% 
centimeters  (Olympic  record)  ;  1600-meter  re- 
lay, United  States  team,  3  minutes,  16  seconds 
(world's  record)  ;  3000-meter  team  race,  Fin- 
land, 8  minutes,  32  seconds  (Olympic  record)  ; 
10,000-meter  walk,  U.  Frigerio,  Italy,  47  jnin- 
utes,  49  seconds;  marathon,  Stenroos,  Finland, 
2  hours,  42  minutes,  22%  seconds. 

The  United  States  won  an  even  more  sweep- 
ing victory  in  the  swimming  competitions,  scor- 
ing 217  points,  Sweden  being  second  with  58 
and  Great  Britain  third  with  50.  John  Weiss- 
muller.  U.  S.,  set  new  Olympic  records  in  the 
100-meter  and  400-meter  free  style  events  for 
men.  Miss  Sybil  Bauer,  U.  S.,  established  a 
world's  record  in  the  100-meter  back  stroke  com- 
petition for  women,  and  Miss  Ethel  Lackie, 
U.  S.,  equaled  the  world's  record  in  the  100- 
meter  free  style  contest. 


OMAHA 


959 


ONTARIO 


In  tennis  the  United  States  also  had  a  walk- 
over, Vincent  Richards  winning  the  final  of  the 
men's  singles  from  Henri  Cochet  of  France, 
Miss  Helen  Wills  capturing  the  women's  singles 
from  Miss  Emilienne  Vlasto  of  France,  Richards 
and  Francis  T.  Hunter  taking  the  men's  doubles 
and  Miss  Wills  and  Mrs.  George  W.  Wightman 
triumphing  in  the  women's  doubles. 

OMAHA.  The  largest  city  of  Nebraska. 
The  population  rose  from  156,231  in  1910  to 
191,601  in  1920;  to  208,025  by  estimate  of  the 
Bureau  of  the  Census  for  1924,  and  to  217,329 
by  the  school  census  for  the  same  year.  A 
comprehensive  zoning  ordinance  was  adopted  in 
1920.  In  the  same  year  the  Metropolitan  Utili- 
ties District  with  plant  valuation  of  $13,000,000 
was  organized,  controlling  the  city-owned  gas 
and  water  systems;  60  miles  of  water  mains 
were  laid  in  1923  and  three  50,000,000-gallon 
pumps  were  installed  in  the  water  plant.  The 
paved  streets  increased  from  209  miles  in  1915 
to  402  miles  in  1924;  of  this,  76  miles  were 
laid  in  1922  and  1923.  In  the  latter  year  a 
technical  high  school  was  built  at  a  cost  of 
$3.500,000.  and  a  $750,000  high  school  was  un- 
der con  strut- lion  in  l!):J4.  Omaha  is  an  impor- 
tant parking  center  and  in  1924  held  second  place 
among  the  livestock  markets  of  the  United  State**; 
7;J  per  eent  of  the  N,r>00,()00  head  of  cattle,  hogs, 
.uid  sheep  iceeuwl  lit'ie  \v:is  consumed  in  the 
fourteen  packing  plants  of  the  city 

OMAN.     See  ARAPIA. 

OMSK  GOVERNMENT.  Sec  SIBERIA  AND 
THE  FAR  EASTERN  REPUBLIC. 

ONCKEN,  HKKMANN  (1809-  ).  A  Ger- 
man historian  and  professor.  He  contributed 
largely  to  the  war  literature  of  his  country 
Among  hifl  works  are  America  und  die  Orosscn 
Muchle:  Historisch-politischc  Aufsatse  (1914), 
Dmtschlandft  Welthneg  und  die  Deittsch-  \ mer- 
ilaner  (1914);  Vnnere  Alrechnung  mit  Eng- 
land (1915)  ;\Vie  Khrt  ein  Yolk  Seine  QroxRcn 
Manner?  (11)15);  Das  AUe  und  das  neue  Mit- 
teleuropa  (1917);  Veber  den  Ziwammenhang 
ron  Inncrer  und  Aeusserer  Pohtik  (1918); 
WeJtgeschiehte  und  Versailler  Frirde  (1921); 
Die  Iftopie  des  Thomas  Mores  und  das  Macht- 
problcm  in  dcr  Rtaatstehre  (1921)  ;  Rtaatsnation 
nnd  Kulturnatwn  (1922);  La&salle  (1922); 
Jhr  Tfislonsehe  Rhcin-poh1\k  der  Frwnzoaen 
(1922);  and  Aus  Kankes  Fruhzeit  (1922). 

O'NEILL,  EUGENE  (GLADSTONE)  (1888-  ). 
An  American  playwright,  born  in  New  York 
City,  the  son  of  James  O'Neill,  a  celebrated 
actor.  He  was  educated  at  De  La  Salle  Insti- 
tute and  Princeton  (1900-07)  and  Harvard 
University  (1914-15).  In  1909  he  went  to 
San  Francisco  and  thence  to  Central  America 
on  a  gold  prospecting  venture.  After  1914,  de- 
voting himself  to  playwriting,  he  produced  The 
Moon  of  the  Caribbees  and  Other  Plays  of  the 
Sect  (1919)  ;  Beyond  the  I/orison,  a  tragedy  in 
six  acts  (1919);  Thirst  a-nd  Other  Plays 
(1914)  ;  Emperor  Jones,  an  extraordinary  mono- 
logue depicting  the  psychology  of  fear;  Diff'rent 
(1921)  ;  The  Straw  (1921)  ;  Gold  (1921)  ;  Anna 
Christie  (1922)  ;  The  First  Man  and  The  Hairy 
Ape  (1922)  ;  The  Fountain  (1923)  ;  Weldefl,  and 
AH  God? a  ChiHun's  Got  Wings  (1924).  He 
stands  first  among  American  dramatists;  in  his 
works  lies  the  hope  of  a  fine  native  drama. 
Some  of  his  plays  have  been  produced  in  Europe. 

ONTARIO.  A  Canadian  province,  with  :ui 
area  of  407,262  square  miles,  of  which  305,880 
square  miles  are  land  area.  Population  in  1911, 

32 


2,527,292;  in  1921,  2,933,662,  or  a  gain  of  16 
per  cent.  In  1921,  the  ruraJL  population  made 
up  41.8  per  cent  of  the  total  as  compared  with 
47.4  per  cent  in  1911.  The  male  population 
numbered  1,481,890;  females  .1,451,772,  in  1921. 
The  leading  cities,  with  their  populations  in 
1921,  were:  Toronto,  521,893  (381,833  in 
1911);  Ottawa,  the  capital  of  Canada,  107,- 
843  (87,062  in  1911);  Hamilton,  114,151 
(81,969  in  1911);  London,  00,959  (46,300  in 

Industry.  While  agriculture  was  the  lead- 
ing activity  of  the  piovince,  it  was  evident  that 
by  no  means  p.ll  its  possibilities  were  yet  ex- 
ploited. Only  14,000,000  acres  were  under  cul- 
tivation in  1923,  and  it  was  estimated  that 
northern  Ontario  alone  contained  some  20,000,- 
000  acres  ready  for  the  plow.  Diversified  farm- 
ing, including  dairying,  was  becoming  the  rule. 
In  1923,  10,290,901  acres  were  under  field  crops; 
the  more  important  were  hay  and  clover,  3,590,- 
484  acres;  oats,  2,967,417;  wheat,  828,008;  there 
were  also  considerable  yields  of  barley,  peas, 
corn,  fodder  corn,  sugar  beets,  and  other  root 
crops.  The  total  value  was  $220,748,900  ($1!)6,- 
220,000  in  1914).  The  growing  attention  ac- 
corded dairying  and  the  meat  industry  was  in- 
dicated in  the  increase  of  live  stock.  Cattle 
in  1922  numbered  2,838,087  and  2,601,080  in 
1913;  sheep  in  1923  and  in  1913  \\crc  907,073 
and  705,848.  In  1922  there  were  1053  creamer- 
ies and  factories  which  produced  more  than 
one-third  of  all  Canada's  butter,  five-eighths  of 
the  total  cheese  production,  and  nine-tenths  of 
the  condensed  and  evaporated  milk.  The  total 
value  of  these  products  was  $53,542,005  (about 
$18,000,000  in  1910).  Fruit  culture,  partieu- 
larly  apples,  and  the  production  of  tobacco  and 
sugar  beets  were  rapidly  spreading  in  the  south- 
ern districts.  In  1!)20,  20,114  aeres  were  under 
tobacco;  this  fell  to  8G30  acres  in  1923.  Under 
sugar  beets  were  30,288  acres  (22,450  acres  in 
1923).  Ontario  led  the  other  provinces  in 
wool  production;  the  1921  output  was  valued  at 
$0,953,824.  In  1923,  all  agricultural  products 
for  the  province  were  valued  at  $400,511,000, 
the  total  for  the  Dominion  being  $1.342,132,000. 
Farmers'  organizations  were  widely  prevalent, 
and  many  of  them  concerned  themselves  seri- 
ously with  the  problem  of  cooperative  market- 
ing. Such  plans  for  the  dairymen  and  fruit 
growers  reeeived  the  support  of  the  government. 
Attention  was  also  directed  by  an  interested 
agricultural  ministiy  to  the  necessity  of  creat- 
ing cooperative  credit  societies.  Other  indus- 
tries yielded:  fisheries,  in  1921,  $3,005,042,  made 
up  of  fresh-water  catches  of  herring,  pickerel, 
pike,  trout,  and  whitefish;  forest  products  in 
1921,  $20,193,280,  made  up  of  lumber,  shingles, 
and  lath.  In  the  value  of  lumber  eut  away  and 
in  the  making  of  lath.  Ontario  led  all  the  other 
provinces.  In  the  manufacture  of  pulp  and  the 
production  of  paper,  Ontario  was  second  only 
to  Quebec.  For  1920,  $59,647,000  in  paper  was 
turned  put. 

In  mining  activities,  too,  Ontario  led  all  the 
other  provinces.  Figures  for  metallic  produc- 
tion for  1922  were:  gold,  $20,078,862;  silver, 
$31.280;  nickel,  $6,158,993;  copper,  $1,464,477; 
total,  including  all  others.  $37,737,252.  Non- 
metallic  minerals,  including  natural  gas,  crude 
petroleum,  structural  materials,  and  clay  prod- 
ucts, yielded  $28,12H,777.  Grand  total  for  1922, 
$1)5,866,020;  for  1911,  $42,796.102.  There  were 
91  mining  companies  incorporated  in  Ontario 


ORANGE  FREE  STATE 

with  a  capital  of  $181,040,000.  In  1922,  the 
Ontario  mineral  output  was  36  per  cent  of  the 
total  Canadian  production.  Under  the  active 
administration  of  the  Hydro-Electric  Commis- 
sion, the  extension  of  the  use  of  water  power 
for  energy  went  on.  By  1922,  214  municipal- 
ities, 47  townships,  and  48  commercial  institu- 
tions were  being  served.  Revenues  for  1922 
were  $12,756,104,  and  costs  of  maintenance, 
etc.,  together  with  sinking  fund,  $11,343,766; 
this  left  a  surplus  of  $1,412,338.  (Revenues  for 
1913  were  $2,611,918  )  The  growth  of  this  ex- 
periment in  public  ownership  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following:  1910:  horse  power,  750; 
municipalities  and  townships,  10;  1923:  horse 
power,  1,299,230;  municipalities,  etc.,  214.  To- 
tal assets  of  the  Commission  and  the  municip- 
alities, in  1913,  $11,907,826;  in  1922,  $55,126,- 
834.  Many  projects  were  under  way;  one  of  the 
most  important  was  the  Chippewa  Canal  scheme 
which  was  to  produce  600,000  horse  power  at  a 
construction  cost  estimated  at  $70,000,000. 
This  plan,  because  of  its  ambitious  nature, 
aroused  discussion  of  a  very  controversial  char- 
acter. 

Manufacturing  prospered  and  Ontario  con- 
tinued to  lead  all  the  provinces  In  1921  there 
were  18,093  industrial  establishments  (8001  in 
1910),  capitalized  at  $1,620,681,181,  and  em- 
ploying 258,345  workers  (238,817  in  1910). 
Costs  of  materials  were  $744,433,905,  and  the 
value  of  the  output  was  $1,411,276,431  ($579,- 
810,225  in  1910).  Leading  industries  were  ma- 
chinery, building  construction,  milling,  packing, 
leather,  boot  and  shoe  production,  hosiery,  and 
rubber  products. 

Trade  and  Communications.  In  1922  there 
were  10,881  miles  of  railway,  as  compared  with 
9000  in  1913  In  1919  there  were  747,893  miles 
of  telegraph  wire  (375,933  in  1912).  In  1922- 
23  exports  amounted  to  $372,734,182  ($132,- 
756,532  in  1913)  and  imports  to  $406,946,109 
($301,651,328  in  1913). 

Government.  For  1913-14,  revenues  and  ex- 
penditures were  $11,121,382  and  $11,819,311;  by 
1921-22,  they  had  become  $39,725,370  and  $37,- 
442,986  The  Dominion  subsidy  and  receipts 
from  lands  and  forests  had  shown  no  increase, 
but  new  revenues  were  derived  from  succession 
duties  and  corporation  taxes.  The  direct  lia- 
bilities of  the  province  by  1922  had  risen  to 
$204,959,690.  Under  an  act  of  1921  the  province 
was  empowered  to  enter  the  banking  business 
for  the  carrying  of  savings  accounts  and  life 
insurance  business.  The  purpose  was  the  ap- 
plication of  such  funds  toward  agricultural 
credits.  On  Jan  1,  1923,  there  was  $3,864,091 
in  deposits  in  the  provincial  banks.  There  were, 
in  1921,  7231  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
attended  by  632,123  pupils  (518,605  pupils  in 
1911 ) .  Besides,  there  were  621  separate  Catholic 
schools  with  an  enrollment  of  83,977.  The  1921 
budget  bore  $5,919,055  for  education  ($842,278 
in  1912).  Total  expenditures  on  education,  pro- 
vincial and  local,  in  1912,  $13,492,108;  in  1920, 
$36,739,564.  The  provincial  university,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Toronto,  was  attended  by  5100  pupils 
in  1921-22  Women  were  granted  the  ballot  in 
1918  and  permitted  to  stand  for  the  provincial 
legislature.  In  the  Dominion  Parliament  the 
representation  remained  the  same:  House  of 
Commons,  82;  Senate,  24. 

ORANGE  FREE  STATE.  See  SOUTH  Ar- 
BICA,  UNION  OF. 

ORATORIO.    See  Music. 


960 


ORDNANCE 


ORAVA.  See  TESCHEN,  ZIPS,  AND  OBATA, 
QUESTIONS. 

ORDNANCE.  The  War— greatest  of  inter- 
national conflicts — had  a  correspondingly  great 
effect  on  the  development  of  implements  of  war, 
collectively  called  ordnance.  The  ingenuity  of 
a  nation  fighting  for  existence,  with  its  back  to 
the  wall,  is  stimulated  to  the  utmost  in  develop- 
ing means  for  overcoming  the  common  enemy 

Science,  engineering,  and  industry  united  in 
strenuous  endeavors  to  make  more  effective  the 
nation's  man  power  by  supplementing  it  with 
every  mechanical  improvement  over  man  him- 
self. Materiel,  as  contrasted  with  personnel,  bo- 
came  to  a  greater  and  greater  extent  the  deter- 
mining factor  in  warfare — but  another  phase  of 
the  industrial  revolution  characteristic  of  the 
last  century.  Ordnance  comprises  all  the  things 
the  soldier  fights  with,  as  distinguished  from  the 
material  things  that  merely  provide  him  with 
a  more  or  less  comfortable  existence,  such  as 
food,  clothing,  shoes,  shelter,  fuel,  means  of 
transportation,  etc.  The  ordnance  equipment 
of  a  modern  army  includes  about  1200  separate 
and  distinct  types  of  units,  which  in  their  as- 
sembly require  the  manufacture  of  250,000  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  components. 

The  infantryman  requires  shoulder  rifles  by 
the  million;  cartridges  for  them  by  the  billion; 
light  one-man  automatic  rifles  by  tens  of  thou- 
sands for  use  in  tight  places  calling  for  short 
concerted  bursts  of  nre;  heavy  machine  guns  by 
thousands  for  playing  the  continuous  leaden 
stream  of  the  modern  machine-gun  barrage; 
sensitive  sights  and  rugged  tripods  with  eleva- 
tion and  traverse  devices  to  insure  placing  the 
deadly  hail  with  safety  to  his  own  advancing 
lines  and  maximum  damage  to  the  enemy ;  carts 
to  carry  his  machine  guns  and  water  jackets  to 
cool  them;  rifle  grenades  and  rifle  attachments 
to  throw  them;  explosive  hand  grenades  for  de- 
fense against  enemy  raiding  parties  and  for  mop- 
ping up  trenches  on  the  offensive;  gas  grenades 
for  making  enemy  dugouts  uninhabitable  and 
Thermit  grenades  for  fusing  the  breech  mechan- 
ism of  captured  enemy  cannon  and  machine 
guns,  continued  possession  of  which  is  doubt- 
ful; bayonets  and  bolos,  trench  knives,  helmets, 
periscopes,  range  finders,  etc ,  not  to  mention 
the  "baby"  37-mm.  cannon  for  wiping  out  hostile 
machine  gun  nests  and  3-inch  trench  mortars 
of  simple  yet  most  effective  design. 

The  artilleryman  requires  field  pieces  by  the 
thousand  for  divisional  artillery — the  "75"  gun 
and  its  companion  piece,  the  105-mm.  howitzer; 
heavy  pieces  for  corps  artillery — the  4  7-inch 
gun  and  its  companion  piece,  the  155-mm. 
howitzer;  high-powered,  medium-calibre  pieces 
for  army  artillery — 155-mm.  guns  and  8-inch 
howitzers;  8-,  10-,  12-  and  14-inch  guns  and  16- 
inch  howitzers  on  railway  mounts  to  reach  the 
enemy's  back  area;  16-inch  guns  on  permanent 
barbette  emplacements  for  coastal  defense;  self- 
propelled  caterpillar  mounts  for  all  calibres 
from  the  75-mm  gun  to  the  240-mm.  howitzer, 
capable  of  negotiating  steep  grades,  accompany- 
ing its  tactical  unit  at  all  speeds  and  ready  to 
go  into  action  immediately  on  arrival  at  the 
firing-point  and  depart  to  safer  regions  immedi- 
ately its  mission  is  accomplished.  For  the  ef- 
fective use  of  his  weapons,  the  artilleryman  re' 
quires  vast  quantities  of  ammunition:  shrap- 
nel, high -explosive  shells  and  gas  shells  by  mil- 
lions of  rounds,  each  an  intricate  mechanism  in 
itself. 


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ORDNANCE 


UNITED    STATES   ARMY  ORDNANCE 

1.  Various  Types  of  6  inch  Projectiles 

2.  Projectile  (Weight  234O  Pounds)  and  Powder  Charge  (850  Pounds)  for  16-inch  United  States  Army    Gun  for 

Ran&re  of  55.0OO  Yards 


OBDNANCE 

The  aviator  requires  stripped  machine  guns 
speeded  up  to  1400  shots  per  minute,  adjusted 
with  inconceivable  nicety  to  shoot  between  the 
rapidly  revolving  blades  of  his  propeller;  elec- 
tric heaters  to  prevent  freezing  of  the  lubricat- 
ing system  of  his  gun  mechanism  at  high  alti- 
tudes; shot  counters  to  indicate  the  available 
amount  of  ammunition  remaining;  armor-pierc- 
ing bullets  for  use  against  armored  airplanes  or 
in  low  flying  action  against  tanks;  incendiary 
bullets  to  ignite  the  gas  contents  of  enemy  cap- 
tive balloons  and  dirigibles;  tracer  bullets  to  as- 
sist in  correcting  his  aim;  ingenious  sights  to 
correct  automatically  for  the  relative  speed  and 
direction  of  his  own  plane  and  his  target;  air- 
plane bombs,  from  the  small  25-pound  frag- 
mentation type  for  use  against  enemy  troops,  to 
the  4000-pound  bomb  for  attack  on  battleships 
or  fortified  enemy  positions;  bomb  sights  to  de- 
termine the  proper  instant  for  release,  and  re- 
lease mechanisms  to  carry  his  huge  instruments 
of  destruction  with  safety  to  himself  and  to 
release  them  accurately  in  order  to  inflict  the 
moat  damage  on  the  enemy. 

To  supplement  the  waves  of  attacking  infan- 
try, light  -two-man  tanks  equipped  with  a 
single  machine  gun;  heavy  tanks  equipped  with 
37-inm.  cannon  and  four  machine  guns — urged 


96z  OBDNANCB 

light  raids,  to  illuminate  the  immediate  fore- 
ground and  thereby  prevent  surprise  night  at- 
tacks, as  well  as  to  guide  night-flying  airmen 
to  a  safe  landing  on  an  otherwise  unilluminated 
landing  field. 

The  cost  of  equipping  a  modern  army  with 
necessary  amounts  of  up-to-date  ordnance  can 
be  sensed  from  the  estimates  of  12^  billion 
dollars  made  for  the  equipment  of  the 
first  five  million  American  troops  called  to 
the  colors  during  the  War.  The  impetus 
given  to  ordnance  design  by  that  conflict 
has  continued,  inasmuch  as  the  length  of  time 
in  which  the  United  States  was  actively  in  the 
War  did  not  permit  the  full  development  of 
many  promising  devices.  While  accurate  in- 
formation in  regard  to  advances  in  the  field  of 
ordnance  design  by  other  armies  is  not  avail- 
able, it  can  safely  be  assumed  that  they  have 
made  at  least  as  much  progress  in  this  direc- 
tion as  a  recent  announcement  indicates  has 
been  made  in  the  United  States  Army.  A  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  relative  effectiveness  of  ordnance 
used  during  the  War  and  that  developed  since 
the  Armistice  can  be  gained  from  the  statement 
that  in  the  United  States  Army,  the  new  75-mm. 
gun  has  twice  the  range  of  the  French  "75" 
used  in  1918;  the  new  4.7-inch  gun  has  two  and 


7 "•  »«*""*"*   «""   i»ui    uiauinuc  guns — urgea  u»ea  in  itfio;  me  new  4. /-men  gun  nas  two  ana 

irresistibly  forward  by  500-liorse  power  Liberty  one-half  times  the  range  of  the  pre-war  model 

engines   crosHing   trench    systems,    shell    craters  and  fires  a  heavier  projectile;  the  new  155-mm. 

ai)Q      OT.llPT*      nl)<3tjlS*10a      V»V      mOQ*>a      rtf       M-a       r\f\\trnff  tf'\  rrtf-r*        ^ii^-^n-n  ~.~x-.        4-l._        T^"__^l.         .£       j.1 


other  obstacles  by  means  of  its   powerful 
caterpillar  track-laying  mechanism — are  needed. 
Pyrotechnics  are  drafted   into  war  service  to 
obtain    communication    among   the   various   ele- 
ments of  attacking  waves,  to  smoke-screen  day- 


gun  outranges  the  French  gun  of  the  same 
calibre  used  during  the  War,  by  nearly  five 
miles;  the  largest  aerial  bomb  effectively  used 
during  the  War  weighed  only  400  pounds;  the 
latest  successful  development  weighs  4000  pounds 


CO 


KEY 

•••  FIELD  OF  FIRE 
4.7  IN.GUN  CARR.M.1920 
4.7  IN.GUN  CARR.M.1921 
I  I  FIELD  OF  FIRE 

4.7  IN.GUN  CARR.M.1906 


DIAORAMATIC    COMPARISON    OF    U.    8.    A.    4  7-INCH    FlfcLD    GUNS 

Models  of  1906  and  1920-1921 


S.  A. 


COMPARISON    OF   LIGHT   FIELD   ARTILLEBY 

Weight  of  Piojei-tilo 
U.   S    A.  Gun— 15   Ib. 
French   Gun — 12.2   Ib 
German  Gun — 14.06  Ib. 


QBE  DEPOSITS 

and  contains  over  a  ton  of  explosive;  the  50- 
ralibre  super-machine  gun  shoots  a  bullet  weigh- 
ing four  times  as  much  as  the  0.30  calibre 
Browning  and  has  three  times  the  range  of  the 
weapon  used  in  the  War;  the  latest  caterpillar 
mount  for  divisional  artillery  has  attained  a 
maximum  speed  of  30  miles  on  good  roads,  as 
contrasted  with  the  8  or  10-mile  per  hour 
maximum  of  the  War.  See  ARTILLERY;  EXPLO- 
SIVES; GUNS,  NAVAL;  PROJECTILE;  SMALL 
ARMS;  TRENCH  WARFARE  MATERIAL;  STRATEGY 
AND  TACTICS. 

QBE  DEPOSITS.  See  GEOLOGY,  ECONOMIC; 
ALSO  GEOLOGY. 

OBEGON.  Oregon  is  the  ninth  State  in  size 
(96,699  square  miles),  and  the  thirty-fourth  in 
population;  capital,  Salem.  The  population  in- 
creased from  072,765  in  1910  to  783,389  in  1920, 
a  gain  of  16.4  per  cent  The  white  population 
increased  from  655,090  to  769,146,  while  the  In- 
dian population  decreased  from  5090  to  4590; 
the  Chinese  decreased  from  7363  to  3090,  and  the 
Japanese  increased  from  3418  to  4151.  The 
negro  population  showed  an  increase  of  from 
1402  to  2144;  and  the  native  white,  from  552,- 
089  to  666,995.  The  foreign-born  white  popula- 
tion decreased  from  103,001  to  102,151.  Both 
urban  and  rural  populations  mounted  during 
the  decade:  the  former  from  307,060  to  391,019; 
the  latter  from  365,705  to  392,370.  The  growth 
of  the  principal  cities  was  as  follows:  Portland 
(q.v.),  from  207,214  in  1910  to  258,288  in  1920; 
Astoria,  9599  to  14,027;  Salem,  14,094  to  17,679. 

Agriculture.  As  Oregon  is  one  of  the  im- 
portant grain-growing  States,  agricultural  con- 
ditions were  affected  in  the  decade  1913-23  by 
the  fluctuations  in  price  and  production  of 
grains  during  the  War  and  post-war  period. 
This  situation  is  treated  in  detail  under  AGRI- 
CULTURE, CORN,  WHEAT,  BARLEY,  etc.  While  the 
population  of  the  State  increased  16.4  per  cent 
in  the  decade,  the  number  of  farms  increased 
10.3  per  cent  (from  45,502  in  1910  to  50,206  in 
1920)  ;  the  acreage  in  farms  increased  from  11,- 
685,110  to  13,542,318;  and  the  improved  land  in 
farms,  from  4,274,803  to  4,913,851  acres.  The 
percentage  of  total  land  area  in  farms  increased 
from  19.1  iii  1910  to  22.1  in  1920;  the 
percentage  of  improved  land  in  farms,  from  7 
to  8  per  cent.  The  total  value  of  farm  property 
apparently  increased  55  per  cent  in  the  decade, 
from  $528,243,782  to  $818,559,751;  the  average 
\alue  per  farm,  from  $11,609  to  $10,304.  In 
interpreting  these  values  and  all  comparative 
values  in  the  decade  1914-24,  the  inflation  of 
the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of  that  period 
is  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  index 
number  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of  farm 
products  in  the  United  States  was  104  in  1910 
and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  total  of  50,206  farms 
in  1920,  39,863  were  operated  by  owners,  916 
by  managers,  and  9427  by  tenants.  The  cor- 
responding figures  for  1910  were  37,796,  847,  and 
<>859.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered  49,633, 
compared  with  44,875  in  1910;  colored  farmers 
numbered  573,  compared  with  627.  Farms  free 
from  mortgage  in  1920  numbered  18,077,  and 
those  under  mortgage,  17,843;  in  1910,  24,855 
farms  were  free  from  mortgage,  and  12,632  were 
mortgaged.  The  total  number  of  cattle  in  1920 
was  851,108;  in  1910,  725,255.  Of  these,  280,- 
411  in  1920  were  dairy  cattle;  in  1910,  172,550. 
The  number  of  hogs  increased  from  217,677  to 
266,778;  the  number  of  sheep  decreased  from 
2,699,135  to  2,002,378.  The  estimated  produc- 


96* 


OREGON 


tion  of  the  principal  crops  in  1923  was  as  fol- 
lows: corn,  2,344,000  bushels;  spring  wheat, 
4,565,000  bushels;  winter  wheat,  21,725,000 
bushels;  oats,  10,773,000  bushels;  barley,  3,234,- 
000  bushels;  potatoes,  5,852,000  bushels;  hay, 
2,103,000  tons;  and  apples,  7,253,000  bushels. 
Comparative  figures  for  1913  are:  corn,  598,- 
000  bushels;  wheat,  15,717,000;  oats,  15,228,000; 
barley,  4,200,000;  potatoes,  6,750,000;  and  hay, 
1,732,000  tons. 

Milling.  The  mineral  resources  of  Oregon 
are  not  fully  developed.  Among  the  minerals 
produced  are  sand  and  gravel,  gold,  copper, 
silver,  cement,  and  stone.  The  production  of 
gold,  copper  and  silver  during  the  decade  1914- 
24  was  as  shown  in  the  table.  In  addition  to 


MINERAL   PRODUCTION   IN    OREGON 

Year 

Gold             Silver 
Valued  at  Fine  Ounces 

Copper 
PoundH 

1914  , 

$1  591  461        142,552 

39,248 
3,581,886 
2,451.016 
2,355,276 
174,300 

1916  , 

1,902,179        231,342 

1918  

1,270,465        107,323 

1920  

1  017  490          82  743 

1921 
1922 

822,034          42,120 
631,568 

the  minerals  mentioned  above,  the  State  also 
produces  mineral  waters  and  a  small  quantity 
of  natural  gas.  The  total  value  of  the  mineral 
products  in  1921  was  $5,199,803,  compared  with 
$5,496,253  in  1920;  $3,962.822  in  1919;  $4,191,- 
740  in  1918;  and  $3,331,132  in  1914. 

Manufactures.  Oregon  is  not  one  of  the 
most  important  industrial  States,  but  its  manu- 
facturing activities  are  constantly  increasing 
In  1920  there  wore  in  the  State  four  cities  with 
more  than  10,000  inhabitants,  forming  38.4  per 
cent  of  the  total  population  of  the  State;  and 
these,  in  1919,  reported  00  4  per  cent  of  the 
State's  manufactured  products.  There  were  in 
the  State  2240  manufactming  establishments 
in  1909;  2320  in  1914,  2707  in  1910.  Persons 
engaged  in  manufacture  numbeied  34,722,  35,- 
449,  and  68,005,  and  the  capital  invested 
amounted  to  $89,081,873,  $139,500,379,  and 
$237,254,736  in  those  years.  The  value  of  prod- 
uct! in  1909  amounted  to  $93,004,845;  in  1914, 
$109,761,951;  and  in  1919,  $366,782,627  The 
increase  in  value  of  products  in  1914-19  was  in 
great  measure  due  to  changes  in  industrial  con- 
ditions brought  about  by  the  War  and  cannot 
be  taken  as  an  jndox  of  the  growth  of  manu- 
factures during  that  period;  but  the  increase  in 
the  average  number  of  persons  employed  clearly 
shows  steady  growth  in  the  manufacturing  ac- 
tivities of  the  State.  The  first  industry  in  point 
of  value  of  products  is  that  relating  to  lumber 
and  timber  products:  in  1909,  valued  at  $30,- 
200,000;  1914,  $30,920,000;  and  1919,  $95,264- 
000.  Flourmill  and  gristmill  products  rank 
second  in  this  respect:  in  1909,  $8,891,000, 
1914,  $11,193,000;  1919,  $42,550,000.  Foundry 
and  machine-shop  products,  in  third  place,  were 
valued,  in  1909,  at  $3,135,000;  in  1914,  $3,823,- 
000;  and  in  1919,  $31,689,000.  Slaughtering 
and  meat  packing,  next  in  order,  had  products 
valued  in  1909  at  $5,880,000;  in  1914,  $7,487,- 
000;  and  in  1919,  $15,868,000.  The  chief  manu- 
facturing city  is  Portland;  other  less  impor- 
tant are  Astoria,  Eugene  and  Salem.  In  1909, 
there  were  in  Portland  649  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments, with  a  product  valued  at  $46,861,- 
000;  837  in  1914,  with  $55,697,000;  and  846  in 
1919,  with  $196,380,000. 


OREGON 


Education.  Oregon  is  one  of  the  most  pro- 
gressive States  in  educational  matters,  and  the 
high  standard  of  efficiency  in  its  educational 
system  was  maintained  in  the  decade  1914-24. 
A  new  compulsory  education  law  was  adopted 
by  the  people  at  the  general  election  held  in  No- 
vember, 1922,  by  the  terms  of  which  all  children 
between  the  ages  of  9  and  15  were  required  to 
attend  school  for  a  term  or  period  of  not  less 
or  more  than  the  number  of  months  the  public 
school  holds  session  in  the  district  in  which  their 
parents  or  guardians  reside.  The  history  of  the 
State  is  required  to  be  taught  in  the  schools, 
and  there  are  also  courses  in  moral  instruction 
and  physical  education.  In  1918,  the  Legisla- 
ture enacted  a  physical  education  law  making  it 
mandatory  that  all  pupils  in  the  elementary  and 
secondary  schools  receive  physical  training  for 
an  average  of  at  least  20  minutes  a  day.  Prog- 
ress was  made  during  the  decade  in  the  rural 
schools  and  in  nearly  every  county  of  the  State 
consolidation  was  under  way.  The  total  num- 
ber of  consolidations  for  elementary  schools  for 
1923  was  77,  with  an  enrollment  of  5585  pupils. 
In  1914,  the  State  adopted  a  uniform  system  of 
standards  for  country  and  village  schools.  A 
movement  for  junior  high  schools  developed. 
The  Legislature  of  1919  established  a  State 
Board  for  Vocational  Education  and  substantial 
progress  was  made  in  this  field,  in  agriculture, 
home  economics,  and  technical  training.  The 
total  enrollment  in  the  elementary  schools  in 
1920-21  was  100,924;  in  the  high  schools,  it  was 
29,23.");  and  the  expenditure  for  educational  pur- 
poses was  $14,783,718.  Illiteracy  in  the  State 
decreased  from  2.2  por  cent  in  1910  to  1.8  per 
cent  in  1920;  in  the  native  white  population  it 
remained  at  0.5  per  cent ;  among  the  foreign- 
born  white,  it  decreased  from  5.9  to  5.4  per  cent; 
among  the  Negro,  it  increased  from  3.7  to  5.5 
per  cent. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see   STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  The  Democrat- 
ic and  Republican  parties  alternated  in  political 
control  of  important  offices  in  Oregon  in  the  dec- 
ade 1914-24.  In  1914  elections  were  held  for 
governor  and  for  United  States  Senator.  The 
Republican  candidate  for  governor,  James 
Withycombe,  was  elected ;  the  Democrats  re- 
elected  Senator  Chamberlain,  in  this  election 
an  amendment  to  the  constitution,  adopted  by  a 
large  majority,  prohibited  the  sale  or  manufac- 
ture within  the  State  of  intoxicants,  but  per- 
mitted importations.  An  amendment  abolish- 
ing capital  punishment  was  also  adopted,  hut 
six  years  later  capital  punishment  was  restored 
by  vote  of  the  people.  In  a  special  election 
held  in  January,  1915,  Kathryn  Clark  was 
elected  State  Senator;  she  was  the  first  woman 
to  fill  this  position.  Women  participated  in  the 
elections  for  the  first  time  in  1916.  Minor 
State  officers  only  were  chosen.  In  the  presi- 
dential voting  of  this  year,  Charles  E.  Hughes 
received  126,9(58  votes;  Woodrow  Wilson,  120,- 
125.  The  prohibition  section  of  the  constitu- 
tion adopted  in  1914  was  in  this  year  amended 
to  prohibit  importation  of  intoxicants  into  the 
State.  An  amendment  empowering  the  governor 
to  veto  single  items  in  appropriation  bills  was 
also  carried.  On  June  7,  1916,  the  Columbia 
River  Highway,  one  of  the  greatest  scenic  road- 
ways ever  constructed,  was  dedicated.  In  1917 
the  policy  of  expending  automobile  license 
revenues  on  permanent  highway  construction 
was  adopted.  Through  capitalization  of  these 


963  OREGON  TTNIVEBSITY 

revenues,  more  than  $40,000,000  was  expended 
on  pavement  of  trunk  highways.  Elections 
were  held  in  1918  for  governor  and  United 
States  Senator.  Governor  Withycombe  was  re- 
elected,  and  Charles  L.  McNary,  who  had  been 
appointed  United  States  Senator  on  the  death  of 
Senator  Lane,  was  elected  to  the  Senate.  Gov- 
ernor Withycombe  died  in  office,  Mar.  3,  1919, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Secretary  of  State  Ben  W. 
Olcott.  There  was  an  election  in  1920  for 
United  States  Senator.  Senator  Chamberlain,  a 
candidate  for  reelection,  was  victoriously  opposed 
by  Robert  N.  Stanfield,  Republican.  In  the 
presidential  voting  of  this  year,  Warren  G. 
Harding  received  143,592  votes;  James  M.  Cox, 
80,019.  The  Democrats  in  1922  elected  their 
candidate  for  governor,  Walter  M.  Pierce,  who 
defeated  Governor  Olcott,  Republican.  At  this 
election  the  voters  adopted  a  compulsory  school 
law  which  required  that  children  over  8  and 
under  16  years  of  age  be  sent  to  the  public 
schools  during  the  school  year.  This  law  was 
framed  with  a  view  of  suppressing  private  and 
parochial  schools.  It  was  sponsored  by  the 
Scottish  Rite  Masons  and  was  supported  by  the 
Ku  Klux  Klan.  The  la\v  was  declared  uncon- 
stitutional by  the  United  States  District  Court, 
Mar.  31,  1924.  Governor  Pierce  was  inaugurated 
in  January,  1923.  In  his  message  to  the  Legis- 
lature he  recommended  reductions  in  the  State 
appropriations  and  called  for  a  general  revision 
of  the  system  of  taxation. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of 
the  Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  given 
below.  In  1915  a  law  was  enacted,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  vote  of  the  people  in  1914,  to 
prohibit  the  sale  or  manufacture  of  liquor  in 
the  State ;  but  it  permitted  importations  in  lim- 
ited quantities  to  individuals.  In  1917,  at  the 
request  of  Secretary  Lansing,  the  Legislature 
withdrew  certain  anti-alien  bills  designed  to 
prevent  Japanese  from  owning  land  in  the  State. 
Provision  was  made  for  a  rural  credit  system 
and  for  the  establishment  of  county  tuberculosis 
sanitoria  and  hospitals.  This  Legislature  also 
passed  a  "hone-dry"  prohibition  bill  and  amended 
the  laws  relating  to  courts.  Fuither  amend- 
ments in  the  laws  relating  to  the  judiciary  were 
made  in  1919  This  Legislature  also  created  a 
legislative  reference  service  and  passed  measures 
forbidding  the  display  of  the  red  ilag  or  any 
other  symbol  or  emblem  calculated  to  excite 
hostility  or  violence  to  the  government.  In 
1921,  the  Legislature  provided  for  a  State  Board 
of  Aviation ;  created  a  State  Board  of  Control 
and  Budget  Commission,  and  made  provision 
for  the  Americanization  of  the  foreign-born.  Tt 
adopted,  subject  to  approval  by  the  people,  which 
was  thereafter  given,  optional  cash  or  loan 
bonuses  to  veterans  of  the  War.  In  1923  the 
Legislature  passed  an  income  tax  law  and  an 
eight-hour  law  for  lumber  workers.  It  also  es- 
tablished a  Judicial  Council  with  the  Chief 
Justice  as  chairman.  At  this  session  measures 
were  passed  against  the  holding  of  land  by 
aliens,  and  a  law  was  enacted  requiring  voters 
to  be  able  to  read  and  write  English.  The  sale 
of  narcotics  was  made  a  felony. 

OREGON,  UNFVEBSITY  OF.  A  coeducational 
State  institution  at  Eugene  and  Portland,  Ore., 
founded  in  1872.  The  Schools  of  Education, 
Physical  Education  and  Sociology  were  founded 
between  1914  and  1924.  During  the  period  the 
enrollment  increased  from  1765  to  approxi- 
mately 2600,  of  whom  1500  were  men  and  1100 


FROM   THE    ORIGINAL.    IN    THE    WORCESTER    ART    MUSEUM,    WORCESTER,    MASS. 


SIR    WILLIAM    ORPEN 

"THE    COSTERMONGER" 


OSBTJBN 


965 


OZONE 


the  most  severe  fighting  of  the  War.  He  re- 
ceived decorations  from  foreign  governments 
and  the  American  Distinguished  Service  Medal. 
He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Public  Serv- 
ice Commission  of  New  York  in  1922.  In  1024 
he  conducted  as  counsel  the  investigation  into 
the  conduct  of  the  Veterans'  Bureau. 

OSBUEN,  RAYMOND  ( 1872-  ) .  An  Amer- 
ican zoologist,  born  at  Newark,  Ohio,  and  edu- 
cated at  Ohio  State  University  and  Columbia 
University.  He  was  instructor  in  biology  a£ 
Starling  Medical  College  (1898-99);  professor 
of  biology  at  the  Fargo  (N.  D.)  College  (1899- 
1902)  ,  instructor  at  the  New  York  High  School 
of  Commerce  (1903-07)  ;  instructor  in  zoology 
(1907-10)  and  assistant  professor  (1910-15) 
at  Barnard  College;  professor  of  biology  at 
Connecticut  Women's  College  (1915-17);  and 
professor  of  zoology  at  Ohio  State  University 
(1917-  ).  Professor  Osburn  published  tax- 
onomic  papers  on  the  bryozoa  and  was  for  a 
number  of  years  on  the  investigation  staff  at 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Fisheries  Labora- 
tory at  Woods  Hole,  Mass 

6'SHATJGHNESSY,  EDITH  COUES  (MRS. 
NELSON  O'SIIAUGHNESSY)  ( ?-  )  An  Amer- 
ican writer,  born  in  Columbia,  S.  C ,  and  edu- 
cated under  private  tutors  In  1901  she  mar- 
ried Nelson  O'Shaughnessy  of  New  York,  who 
was  in  the  diplomatic  service.  While  the  lat- 
ter was  charge"  d'affaires  in  Mexico  in  1916  she 
made  careful  notes  of  political  and  social  affairs 
which  enabled  her  to  write  A  Diplomat's  Wife  in 
Mexico,  an  enlightening  and  entertaining  ac- 
count of  stirring  events  in  that  country.  This 
was  followed  by  Diplomatic  Days  in  Mexico 
(1917);  My  Lorraine  Journal  (1918);  Alsace 
in  Jtust  and  Gold  (1919),  and  Intimate  Pages 
of  Mexican  Wiafori/  (1920). 

OSLEB,  SIR  WILLIAM  (1849-1919).  A  physi- 
cian and  author  (see  VOL.  XVII).  During  the 
period  from  1914  to  the  time  of  his  death,  Dr. 
Osier  wrote  two  major  works,  A  Concise  History 
of  Medicine  (1919)  and  The  Evolution  of  Modern 
Medicine  (1921).  Since  his  demise,  extracts 
from  his  works  have  been  edited  by  C.  N.  B. 
Camac  with  the  title  Counsels  and  Ideals  (1921). 


A  fifth  edition  of  the  essays  entitled  JEquanl- 
mitaa  appeared  in  1923,  and  the  ninth  edition 
of  Osier  and  McCrae's  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Medicine  in  1920. 

OSTWALD,  WILHELM  (1853-  ).  A  Ger- 
man chemist  and  philosopher  (aee  VOL.  XVII). 
He  was  editor  of  Der  Montttt  (1912-15)  and 
later  published  Der  Farbenatlas  (1917);  Die 
Farbenlehre  (1918-19);  Die  Uarmonie  der 
Farbcn  11918),  Goethe,  Schopenhauer,  und  die 
Farbenlehre  (1918);  Die  Farbkorper  (1919); 
Die  Farbschule  (1919)  ,  and  Einfuhrung  in  die 
Farbenlehre  (1919)  He  lectured  at  Columbia 
and  Harvard  Universities  and  founded  a  labo- 
ratory for  color  study  in  Dresden  in  1920. 

OTIBA   TUNNEL.     See   Tt  VNKLS. 

OVERMAN,  LEE  SLATER  (1R54-  ).  An 
American  legislator  (bee  VOL  XVII).  He  was 
reflected  to  the  Senate  for  a  third  term  in  1914. 
This  was  the  first  senatorial  election  by  a  di- 
rect vote  of  the  people  of  the  State.  In  1920 
he  was  reflected  for  a  fourth  term  He  was  one 
of  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  Democratic  mem- 
bers of  the  Senate 

OVEBTON,  GRANT  M(ARTIN)  (1887-  ). 
An  American  writer,  born  at  1'atchoguc,  N.  Y. 
He  studied  at  Princeton  University  from  1904 
to  190G  and  for  several  years  was  on  the  staffs 
of  newspapers  in  New  York,  Denver,  and  Sati 
Francisco  After  a  trip  at  sea  before  the  mast, 
he  became  an  editorial  writer  for  the  New  York 
Run  in  1910  and  was  later  its  literary  editor 
and  contributor  to  several  magazines  His 
hooka  include  The  Women  Who  Make  Our  Novels 
(1918);  Mermaid  (1920);  World  without  End 
(1921)  ,  and  The  Answerer,  a  novel  on  the  life 
of  Walt  Whitman  (1921) 

OWEN,  ROBERT  LATHAM  (185(5-  ).  An 
American  legislator  (Bee  VOL,  XVII)  and  United 
States  Senator  from  Oklahoma.  He  first  took 
his  seat  in  1907  and  was  reflected  in  1912  and 
again  in  1918  for  the  term  expiring  Mar.  3, 
1925  He  was  a  member  of  several  important 
committees  including  that  of  appropriations, 
banking,  and  currency 

OXYGEN.     See  CHEMISTRY. 

OZONE.    See  CHEMISTBY. 


PACIFIC     OCEAN     ISLANDS.    The 
more  important  groups  of  islands  in 
the    Pacific    Ocean    are   given    below. 
For  Ameiican  possessions,  see  PHIL- 
IPPINE    ISLANDS,     HAWAII,     GUAM, 
SAMOA.     For  the  Yap  agreement,  see 
YAP.     For  a  discussion  of  the  political  problem 
of  the  Pacific  see  WASHINGTON  COMEBLNCE. 

Caroline  and  Pelew  Islands.  A  group  of 
islands  in  the  Western  Pacific,  formerly  part  of 
German  New  Guinea,  but  bince  1918  a  Jap- 
anese mandate  teintory.  The  islands  were  di- 
vided into  two  groups  *  (1  j  the  Eastern  Caro- 
lines with  Ponape"  as  the  ecu  tie;  and  (2)  the 
Western  Carolines  with  Yap  as  the  crntre. 
The  population  reported  (1921)  was  made  up  of 
644  Japanese,  14  Europeans,  13  Chinese,  and 
about  40,000  natives  Copra  was  the  chief  ex- 
port See  YAP  for  the  dispute  between  the 
United  States  and  Japan  over  the  disposition 
of  this  island. 

Cook  Islands.  A  group  in  the  Southern 
Pacific  belonging  to  New  Zealand.  Total  area, 
280  square  miles;  population,  in  1921,  13,209. 
In  1913  the  la\\s  for  the  islands  were  con- 
solidated and  a  member  of  the  New  Zealand  Ex- 
ecutive Council  \\as  mad*1  minister  of  the  Cook 
Islands.  In  l';)21,  imports  totaled  £139,313  and 
expoits  £86,082  Trade  was  laigely  with  New 
Zealand,  expoits  being  mainly  fruits.  Copra 
was  sent  to  the  United  States  (Ul,841  in  1921). 
Revenues  for  1921-22  \vere  122,011  and  expendi- 
tures £32,422.  A  \vneless  station  was  erected 
on  Rarotonga,  the  chief  island.  Many  of  the 
islands  weie  leased  to  pnvate  coconut  companies 
for  exploitation  The  Niitf  islands  had  a  pop- 
ulation of  3730  and  were  concerned  largely  with 
copra  production  (exports  in  1920  were  alnnit 
£40.000). 

Fiji  Islands.  A  group  of  230  islands  in  the 
Southern  Pacific,  constituting  a  British  crown 
colony.  The  largest  are  Yiti  Levu  and  Vanua 
Levu.  Total  area,  including  Roturna  (a  de- 
pendency), 7038  square  miles;  population 
(1921),  137,206,  made  up  of  3H78  Europeans, 
84,473  Fijians,  60,034  Indians,  910  Chinese,  2781 
half-castes  In  attendance  at  the  Methodist 
churches  in  1921  were  78,944  natives.  The  gov- 
ernment waft  aiding  50  schools  out  of  a  total 
1000  on  the  islands  In  1921,  there  were  under 
cultivation  by  Europeans  and  Indian  settlers 
43,800  acres  of  coconuts,  68,300  acres  of  sugar 
cane,  11,300  acres  of  rice  Bananas,  maize, 
tobacco,  rubber,  beans,  were  other  crops.  Ex- 
ports in  1913  were  £1,423,940;  in  1921,  £2,457,- 
851  (sugar,  £2,033,000).  Imports  for  the  same 
years  \\eie  £903,968  and  £1,509,732.  The  trade 
was  carried  on  largelv  with  British  possessions. 
Revenues  and  expenditures  for  1913  were  £266,- 

037  and  £238,792;  for  1921,  £569,722  and  £752,- 

038  There  \\as  a  public  debt  in  1922  of  £350,- 
000   (£93,515  in  1911)      Wireless  telegraph  sta- 
tions were  erected  at  Suava,  Labasa,  Taveuni, 
and  Savusavu.    The  governor  of  Fiji  was  also 


high    commissioner    for    the    Western    Pacific. 

Gilbert  and  Ellice  Islands  Colony.  Ihese 
islands  were  annexed  as  a  colony  to  Gieat  Brit- 
ain in  November,  1915.  The  G'llbert  Islands  are 
on  the  equator  and  have  an  area  of  166  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  30,000.  The  Ellice 
Islands  have  an  aiea  of  14  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  3300  Ocean  Island,  the  colony 
headquarters,  had  a  population  of  1000.  A 
wireless  station  here  maintained  telegraph  com- 
munication with  the  outside  world  via  Fiji  and 
Australia  The  very  rich  phosphate  deposits  on 
the  island  were,  after  1921,  \\orked  by  the  Brit- 
ish Phosphate  Commission.  Other  islands  in 
the  colony  weie  the  L'nion  or  Tokelau  group, 
and  the  American  Islands.  Of  the  latter,  Clnist- 
rnas  Island  was  the  largest  atoll  in  the  Pacific. 
It  was  leased  in  1914  to  the  Pacific  Coconut 
Plantations,  Ltd.,  for  exploitation ;  population, 
2  Europeans  and  40  Talutians  Fanning  and 
Washington  Islands,  also  in  this  group,  \\ere 
being  worked  by  a  coconut  company.  Total  reve- 
nues for  the  whole  (olony  for  1920-21  were 
£54,079  and  expenditures  £45,380.  The  trade 
in  1919-20  amounted  to  1129,788  for  imports  and 
£213,042  for  exports  (phosphates,  1158,751; 
copra,  £54,010). 

Marianne  or  Ladrone  Islands.  A  group  of 
islands  in  the  Western  Pacific,  formeily  part  of 
German  New  Guinea,  but  since  1918  a  Japanese 
mandate  territory.  Native  population  inimbeied 
3368  and  the  Japanese,  1754.  Guam  (q  \  ), 
the  largest  island,  belonged  to  the  United  States 

Marquesas  Islands.  A  ijroup  of  islands  in 
the  Western  Pacific  belong. ng  to  France  and 
administered  from  Papeete.  Total  area,  480 
square  miles;  population,  2300,  of  whom  168 
were  white,  llivnoa  and  Nukaluva  were  the 
principal  islands. 

Marshall  Islands.  A  group  of  islands  in 
the  Western  Pacific,  formerly  part  of  Geiman 
New  Guinea,  but  since  1918  a  Japanese  man- 
date territory  The  group  is  made  up  of  two 
chains,  viz.,  Ratack  (13  islands)  and  lialick  (11 
islands).  The  population  consisted  of  102  Japa- 
nese, 5  Europeans,  arid  8901  natives.  Coconut- 
palm  plantations  covered  1275  hectares,  and  the 
chief  export  was  copra 

Nauru.  An  island  in  the  Western  Pacific 
just  south  of  the  equator,  formerly  part  of 
German  New  Guinea,  but  since  1920  adminis- 
tered by  Great  Britain  under  a  mandate  fiom 
the  League  of  Nations.  It  is  a  circular  atoll 
only  12  miles  in  circumference.  Population  in 
1922:  110  Europeans,  514  Chinese,  1113  Nauru- 
ans,  392  other  South  Sea  Islanders.  The  im- 
portant phosphate  deposits  were  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  British  Phosphate  CommiHsion  rep- 
resenting the  governments  of  Great  Britain, 
Australia,  and  New  Zealand.  Costa  of  adminis- 
tration, if  ordinary  revenues  did  not  suffice,  were 
to  be  met  out  of  the  phosphate  sales.  Phos- 
phate exports  increased  from  101,267  tons  in 
1917  to  236,435  tons  in  1921.  Imports  were 


966 


PACIFIC  OCEAN  ISLANDS  94 

'valued  at  £140,302  in  1921.  Of  the  phosphate 
mined  a  royalty  of  sixpence  per  ton  went  to 
the  Commission  and  a  royalty  of  threepence  to 
the  native  landowners.  Of  the  latter,  one  penny 
per  ton  was  paid  into  a  trust  fund  held  for  all 
the  Nauruans.  The  German  wireless  station, 
though  dismantled  by  the  Germans,  was  soon 
restored  The  island  fell  in  September,  1914, 
before  a  British  naval  force  and  from  1915  on 
was  occupied  by  a  civil  administration. 

New  Caledonia.  "A  French  colony  in  the 
Western  Pacific  consisting  of  the  island  of  New 
Caledonia  (area,  7650  square  miles)  and  four 
groups  of  island  dependencies.  Population 
(1921),  47,500,  made  up  of  13,138  free  settlers, 
5671  of  convict  origin,  and  28,075  Melanesians 
and  Polynesians.  Noumea,  the  capital,  had  10,- 
053  inhabitants  of  whom  6502  were  free  (1921). 
Leading  products  were  nickel,  chrome  iron,  man- 
ganese and  cobalt  (mineral  export  in  1921,  5,- 
527,160  francs),  as  well  as  copra,  hides,  and 
preserved  meats.  Local  blast  furnaces  pro- 
duced 4486  tons  of  nickel  valued  at  5,819,300 
francs.  Total  exports  for  1913,  1920,  1921 
were  15,838,405  francs,  43,043,449  francs,  26,- 
676.000  francs.  Imports  for  1921  were  48,565,- 
000  francs  France,  on  an  average,  took  8  per 
cent  of  the  exports  and  sent  18  per  cent  of  the 
imports.  The  budget  for  1922  balanced  at  8,- 
831,925  francs.  The  Loyalty  Islands,  which  be- 
long to  this  group,  possessed  rich  guano  de- 
posits; on  the  Wallis  and  Horn  Islands,  copra 
was  the  leading  product.  The  latter  were 
formed  into  a  colony  in  1913. 

New  Hebrides/  These  were  administered 
jointly  by  French  and  Hntish  officials.  Area, 
5500  'square  miles;  population  (1921),  60,000, 
of  whom  677  were  French  and  226  Hutish. 
Several  French  and  British  trading  companies 
operated  here.  Imports  in  1920  were  £159,174; 
exports  (mai/e,  copra,  coffee, 'cotton,  sandalwood, 
cocoa),  1245, 1S7.  The  French  reported  a  total 
trade  of  13,051,527  francs  in  1921,  of  which 
9,768,625  francs  represented  the  French  activ- 
ities and  3.282.802  francs  the  British.  Inter- 
course was  mainly  with  Sydney  and  Noumea 
(New  Caledonia)  The  joint  reVenues  in  1921 
amounted  to  £25,892,  and  the  joint  expenditures, 
i'l 8,947.  Ownership  of  land  was  divided  as 
follows:  French,  617,000  hectares;  British, 
129,000  hectares.  Beginning  with  1919  the  is- 
lands became  the  seat  of  a  strong  agitation  for 
the  termination  of  the  condominium  (1906)  and 
accession  by  France.  The  question  was  discussed 
at  the  British  Imperial  Conference  in  1921,  and 
again  later  in  the  year,  when  an  offer  was  made 
by  a  French  private  company  to  buy  out  the 
BVitish  rights.  Complaints  were  frequent,  par- 
ticularly over  the  cumbersome  methods  of  ad- 
ministrating justice  However,  the  condomin- 
ium was  renewed  by  the  protocol  of  London  on 
Mar.  18,  1922. 

Norfolk  Island.  An  island  in  the  Southern 
Pacific,  a  dependency  of  Australia.  Area,  13 
square  miles;  population  (1921)  717.  Up  to 
1914  it  was  governed  from  New  South  Wales. 
Imports  in  1920-21  were  £22,673  and  exports 
£13.091,  To  encourage  the  fish  industry  the 
Commonwealth  granted  an  annual  subsidy  of 
£1000  (for  three  years). 

Phoenix  Group.  This  was  made  up  of  eight 
islands  with  a  total  area  of  16  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  59.  They  belonged  to  Great 
Britain  but  were  leased  to  a  trading  company 
for  coconut  planting. 


r  PACIFIC  OCEAN  ISLANDS 

Samoa.  A  group  of  islands  in  the  Western 
Pacific,  formerly  a  German  possession,  but  since 

1920  administered  by  New  Zealand  under  a  man- 
date from  the  League  of  Nations.     The  group, 
comprising  the  large  islands  of  Savaii  and  Upolu 
and  several  adjacent  islets,  was  given  the  name 
Territory  of  Western  Samoa.     Area,  about  1300 
square    miles;    population     (1922),    2074    Euro- 
peans, 33,953  native  Samoaus,  1547  coolie  labor- 
ers, 217  other  islanders     Education  was  in  the 
hands   of   the   London    Missionary   Society,    the 
Methodist   Mission,    the   Calholic   Mission,    and 
the   Latter   Day    Saints'   Mission.     Imports   for 

1921  were  £408,892  and  exports  £241,539   (copra 
arid  cocoa  beans  largely).     Revenues  for  1921-22 
were  £135,569  and  expenditures  £137,181.     The 
United  States  took  most  of  the  copra  exported. 
New    Zealand    forces    occupied    the    islands    on 
Aug.  29,  1914      In  1918,  7500  natives  died  from 
influeri7a,   the    region    being  one   of   those   that 
suffered  most  severely.     A  wireless  station  was 
erected  at  Apia,  the  Territory's  port.    The  local 
administration  made  provision  for  a  nominated 
legislative    council    in    which    native    Snmoans 
might   have   seats.     For   the  American   Samoan 
islands,  sec  article  SAMOA. 

Society  Islands.  A  group  in  the  Western 
Pacific  belonging  to  France.  Total  area,  1650 
square  kilometers;  population,  21,543.  Tahiti, 
the  most  important  island,  has  an  area  of  1042 
square  kilometers,  and  a  population  of  1 1 ,378, 
of  whom  2903  were  white.  Papeete,  on  Tahiti, 
was  the  seat  of  administration  of  the  French 
Establishments  in  Oceania,  and  possessed  a 
wireless  station.  It  had  4601  inhabitants  of 
whom  2126  were  white.  The  chief  industries 
of  Tahiti  were  the  preparation  of  copra,  sugar, 
arid  rum.  Vanilla,  coffee,  and  cacao  were  again 
being  cultivated.  Other  islands  belonging  to 
the  Society  group  were  Moorea  (area,  132 
square  kilometers;  pop.,  1616)  and  Iles-sous-le- 
Vent  (area,  363  square  kilometeis;  j>op.  6689). 

All  the  French  Establishments  (i.e  Society 
Islands,  Marquesas,  Tuamotu,  and  Tubua  groups) 
had  a  total  area  of  4395  squaie  kilometers,  and 
a  population  in  1921  of  31.655,  made  up  of 
2655  French,  2687  other  whites,  743  Chinese,  and 
the  rest  natives  Leading  exports  were  copra, 
mother-of-pearl,  hides,  coconut  oil,  phosphates, 
coffee,  vanilla,  cotton  Exports  in  1913,  1920, 
19:M  were  valued  at  11,554,507  francs,  24,360,- 
900  francs;  and  15,000,000  francs  Imports  in 
1921  wore  14,210.000  francs.  In  1920  only  4 
per  cent  of  the  imports  came  fioin  France,  and 
only  6  per  cent  of  the  exports  went  to  the  mother 
country.  The  budget  for  1922  balanced  at  6,- 
500,000  francs;  in  1911  it  had  been  1,745,000 
francs  Some  5000  lives  were  lo^t  in  these  is- 
lands in  the  influenza  epidemic  of  1918. 

Solomon  Islands.  A  British  protectorate  in 
8°S.  and  160°W.,  made  up  of  15  large  islands 
and  the  following  groups:  Lord  Howe  group, 
Santa  Cruz  Islands,  Mitre  Islands,  and  the  Duff 
or  Wilson  group.  Total  area,  11,000  square 
miles;  European  population  (1919),  675;  native 
population.  150,000;  Asiatics,  75.  Coconuts 
were  cultivated  over  30,000  acres;  other  prod- 
ucts were  rubber,  fruits,  copra  (8160  tons  in 
1919-20).  Imports  for  1921-22  were  £251,564; 
exports  (mainly  copr^i),  £182,887.  Revenues 
for  1921-22  were  £56,433;  expenditures,  £45,- 
451.  The  islands  in  the  group  owned  by  Oer- 
many  became  part  of  the  Australian  mandate 
territory  of  New  Guinea  (q.v.)  after  the  War. 

Tonga   or   Friendly  Islands.    A   group   of 


PACK 


968 


PAGE 


islands  in  the  Western  Pacific,  forming  a  Brit- 
ish protectorate.  Total  area,  386  square  miles; 
population  (1919  estimate),  23,502,  made  up  of 
22,689  Tongans,  250  half-castes,  247  other  Pa- 
cific islanders,  370  Europeans  The  natives 
were  Christians,  belonging  to  the  Free  Church 
of  Tonga,  Methodist,  and  Catholic  Churches. 
Copra  was  the  chief  product,  more  than  half  of 
it  going  to  the  United  States.  Imports  and 
exports  each  averaged  £170,000  after  the  War. 
Exports  in  1920  amounted  to  £380,157.  Reve- 
nues in  1920-21  totaled  £91,000  and  expenditures 
£00,000  A  wireless  station  at  Nukualofa  was 
in  touch  with  Samoa  and  Fiji.  The  reigning 
sovereign,  Queen  Salote,  came  to  the  throne  in 
1918. 

Tuaznotu  Islands.  A  group  in  the  Western 
Pacific  belonging  to  France  and  administered 
from  Papeete.  Total  area,  55  square  kilo- 
meters; population,  2378,  of  whom  82  were  white. 
Makatla,  the  principal  island,  had  important 
phosphate  deposits  In  the  Gambier  Islands, 
pearls  and  mother-of-pearl  were  the  leading 
products. 

Tubuai  Islands.  A  group  in  the  Western 
Pacific  belonging  to  France  and  administered 
from  Papeete*  Area,  124  square  kilometers; 
population,  2301,  of  whom  00  were  white.  Cof- 
fee was  being  grown  here. 

PACK,  CHARLES  LATH  HOP  (1857-  ).  An 
American  forester  and  economist,  born  at  Lex- 
ington, Mich  ,  and  educated  in  the  public  schools 
at  Cleveland  He  studied  forestry  in  Germany. 
For  several  years  he  explored  forests  in  Canada, 
the  Northwest,  Louisiana,  and  Mississippi  He 
was  a  director  and  official  in  many  important 
financial  institutions  and  from  1917  to  1919 
president  of  the  National  War  Garden  Com- 
mission. He  was  president  also  of  the  Amer- 
ican Forestry  Association  from  1916  to  1920 
and  of  the  National  Conservation  Congress  in 
1913.  He  was  chairman  of  the  French  Agri- 
cultural Committee  of  the  American  Commis- 
sion for  devastated  France.  For  his  services  in 
Fiance  he  was  awarded  several  medals  He 
wrote  much  on  agricultural  subjects,  including 
The  War  Garden  Victorious,  Memorial  Trees, 
and  Roads  of  Remembrance. 

PACKING   INDUSTRY.    See  LIVE   STOCK. 

FADELFORD,  FRLDKBKK  MORGAN  (1875- 
).  An  American  educator,  born  at  Haver- 
hill,  Mass  ,  and  educated  at  Colby  College,  Yale, 
and  Oxford  He  was  for  one  year  a  fellow  at 
Yale  and  from  1889  to  1901  was  professor  of 
English  at  the  University  of  Idaho  In  the 
latter  year  he  became  professor  of  English  at 
the  University  of  Washington,  and  in  1920  dean 
of  the  Graduate  School  at  that  university.  He 
was  a  member  of  several  societies  and  author 
of  Old  English  Musical  Terms  (1900);  Early 
Sixteenth  Century  Lyrics  (1906);  Samuel  Os- 
borne,  Janitor  (1913)  ;  George  Dana  Boardman 
Pepper,  a  Biographical  Sketch  (1914)  ;  and 
The  Poems  of  Henry  flonard,  Earl  of  Surrey 
(1920).  He  also  translated  and  edited  many 
English  texts  and  contributed  to  The  Cambridge 
History  of  English  Literature  and  to  European 
and  American  magazines 

PADEBEWSKI,  IGNACE  JAN  (1860-  ). 
A  Polish  pianist  and  composer  (see  VOL  XVII). 
On  May  9,  1917,  he  made  at  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  on  the  occasion  of  a  gala  per- 
foimance  in  honor  of  General  Joffre,  his  farewell 
appearance,  which  he  declared  was  to  close  for- 
ever his  pianistic  career.  He  then  plunged  into 


the  midst  of  the  political  turmoil.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  War  and  after,  he  had  appeared 
at  his  concerts  also  as  a  political  orator  of 
no  mean  ability  and  contributed  the  greater  part 
of  the  proceeds  to  the  cause  of  Poland.  After 
1917  he  devoted  his  entire  time  and  energy  to 
recruiting  from  among  the  Poles  in  the  United 
States  an  army  of  100,000  men  and  50  oihfcrs, 
which  subsequently  constituted  the  greater  part 
of  the  Polish  Army  in  France.  As  soon  us 
circumstances  permitted,  lit*  went  personally  to 
Poland  (1918),  where  he  became  the  leader  of 
the  Conservative  party  and  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  organizing  the  new  Polish  Republic, 
of  which  he  became  Premier  and  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  (Jan.  20,  1919)  In  this  capac- 
ity he  took  active  part  in  the  Peace  Conference 
at  Versailles.  The  unsettled  conditions  in  Po- 
land brought  about  the  downfall  of  the  cabinet 
in  December,  1919;  and  Paderewski,  his  health 
seriously  unpaired  by  the  stress  of  events,  re- 
tired to  his  estate  at  Paso  Robles  (California) 
Here,  however,  he  kept  in  close  touch  with  the 
political  situation  of  his  native  country  As  he 
had  sacrificed  the  greater  part  of  hia  fortune  to 
the  cause  of  Poland,  he  found  himself  compelled 
to  rescind  the  resolution  regarding  his  artistic 
career,  and  on  Nov.  22,  1922,  he  reappeared 
amidst  scenes  of  indescribable  enthusiasm  at  a 
recital  in  New  York.  Fortunately  for  art,  he 
continued  his  distinguished  artistic  career  and 
proved  that  the  intervening  five  years  of  po- 
litical excitement  hud  not  in  the  least  impaired 
his  supreme  mastery  See  POLXND,  History 

PAGE,  HERMAN  (1806-  ).  An  American 
bishop,  born  at  Boston,  and  educated  at  Harvard 
and  at  the  Episcopal  Theological  School  In 
1891  he  was  ordained  a  priest  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  and  until  1900  was  in  charge 
of  mission  churches  in  Idaho.  He  was  rector  of 
St.  Paul's  Church  in  Chicago  from  1900  to  1014 
and  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Spokane,  Wash  , 
in  1914  He  became  bishop  of  Michigan  in  1923 

PAGE,  THOMAS  NELSON  (18r>3-1922).  An 
American  writer  and  diplomat  (see  VOL.  XVII). 
He  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Italy  by  Presi- 
dent Wilson  in  1913  and  served  in  that  posi- 
tion through  the  difficult  period  of  the  \\ar, 
until  1919  His  conduct  in  this  office  did  much 
to  continue  and  increase  the  good  feeling  be- 
tween the  Italian  and  American  governments 
His  later  books  include  The  Land  of  the 
Spirit  (1913)  and  Italy  and  the  World  War 
(1920). 

PAGE,  WALTER  HINES  (1855-1918)  An 
American  publisher,  writer,  and  diplomat  (see 
VOL.  XVII).  In  1913  he  wan  appointed  ambas- 
sador to  (Jreat  Britain  His  strong  and  frankly 
expressed  sympathy  with  the  English  attitude 
during  the  years  in  which  he  held  this  post 
made  him  a  popular  figure  in  England.  Much 
of  his  time,  HH  indicated  in  his  letters,  was 
spent  in  convincing  Piesident  Wilson  and  the 
officers  of  his  government  of  the  necessity  of 
taking  a  more  aggrcsn'ive  attitude  and  in  favor 
of  the  Allies  During  his  ambassadorship,  bo 
won  high  piniwe  in  all  quarters  by  the  tact 
which  he  displayed  and  hm  skill  in  dealing  with 
delicate  and  complicated  problems  Hm  strength 
was  unable  to  withstand  the  strain  imposed  on 
him,  and  he  returned  to  the  United  States  very 
ill,  in  1918  He  resigned  his  post  in  1918  and 
returned  to  the  United  States,  where  he  died  on 
December  22.  His  Life  and  Letters^  published  in 
1923,  is  one  of  the  most  illuminating  records  of 


PAGE 


969 


PAINTING 


the  events  of  1914  to  1018  in  international  poli-      nique  to  mural  painting.    He  was  highly  suc- 
cessful also  as  a   portrait  painter   of   women. 
.    An      Among    other    decorators    of    note 


PAGE,  WILLIAM  HERBERT  (1868-  ) 
American  lawyer  and  educator,  born  at  Mount 
Union,  Ohio,  "and  educated  at  Yale  University 
and  the  law  department  of  Ohio  State  Uni- 
versity, where  he  was  professor  of  law  from 
1806  to  1017.  In  the  latter  year  he  assumed 
a  like  position  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 
His  many  writings  on  legal  subjects  included 
Page  on  Wills  ( 1001 )  ,  Page's  Ohio  Digest 
(1014);  and  Compact  Code  (1021). 

PAHANG.    See  MALAY  STATES,  FEDERATED. 

PAINE,  ALBERT  BIGELOW  (1801-  ).  An 
American  author  and  editor  (see  VOL.  XVII). 
His  later  writings  include-  The  Boy's  Life  of 
Mark  Twain  (1010);  Marl  Twain's  Letters 
(1017);  George  Fisher  Baker,  a  Biography 
(1010);  A  tihort  Life  of  Mark  Twain  (1020); 
The  Car  That  Went  Abroad  (1021);  and  In 
One  Man's  Life  (1021). 

PAINLEVE,  PAUL  (1863-  ).  A  French 
statesman  and  scientist  (see  VOL  XVII).  In 
October,  101.">,  he  was  appointed  Minister  of  In- 
struction and  Inventions  affecting  national  de- 
fense, in  the  Briand  cabinet.  He  later  succeed- 
ed General  Gallon!  as  Minister  of  War  He 
was  also  a  member  of  the  Wai  Committee  and 
from  September  to  December,  1017,  Prime  Min- 
ister and  Minister  of  War.  As  Minister  of  War 
he  was  accused  by  the  supporters  of  General 
Nivelle  (c[v. )  of  having  interfered  with  the 
French  offensive  of  April,  1017.  In  1020  he 
was  appointed  advisory  director  general  of  Chi- 
nese government  railways.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  scientific  books  and  A  Life  of  'Nurse 

PAINTING.  The  history  of  painting  from 
1014  to  1024  was  a  continuation  of  the  strug- 
gle which  became  acute  during  the  first  decade 
of  the  twentieth  century,  between  the  movement 
known  as  modernism,  or  post-impressionism,  or, 
better  still,  as  expressionism,  and  impressionism 
and  other  more  conservative  factors  in  painting. 
The  years  of  the  War  almost  completely  checked 
artistic  production  in  Europe  except  in  so  far 
as  it  could  be  drafted  into  war  service,  and  most 
of  this  war  painting  was  propaganda  rather 
than  art.  At  the  end  of  the  War  the  situa- 
tion was  very  much  the  same  as  in  1014,  and 
the  struggle  was  still  continuing  in  1024.  Paint- 
ers were  concerned  with  studying  the  means  of 
artistic  production  rather  than  with  producing 
real  works  of  art.  Many  theories  were  ex- 
pounded and  still  more  pictures  put  on  canvas 
to  demonstrate  them,  but  relatively  little  of  real 
value  had  been  created.  It  was  the  threshold  of 
a  new  epoch,  but  what  the  result  would  be  no 
one  could  tell.  One  encouraging  sign  was  that 
painters  of  the  new  tendencies  were  so  much 
concerned  with  expression,  with  the  inner  truth, 
with  the  essence  rather  than  with  the  mere 
aspect  of  nature.  On  the  other  hand,  these 
same  men  often  did  inexcusable  violence  to  the 
aspect  of  nature. 


__  were  Jules 

Cheret,  who  united  impressionism  with  the  tra- 
dition of  Fragonard;  Henri  Martin  (1800-  ), 
the  painter  of  Languedoc;  and  Aman-Jean 
(1800-  ).  Most  mural  painters,  however, 
never  fully  accepted  impressionism.  Among 
painters  affected  by  it,  Lucien  Simon,  with  an 
admixture  of  realism,  painted  homely  scenes; 
Charles  Cottet,  Parisian  society.  The  chief  pi- 
oneers of  impressionism  had  for  the  most  part 
passed  on,  De*gas  in  1017,  Renoir  in  1010,  both 
active  and  developing  till  the  end:  Claude  Monet 
was  still  painting  his  scintillating  landscapes. 
Among  the  younger  men  of  strict  impressionistic 
technique  were  Albert  Andre,  who  is  the  best 
in  still  life;  Maufra,  Moiret,  and  Casals  for 
Spanish  subjects. 

Great  as  were  the  achievements  of  impression- 
ism, it  had  a  serious  defect  which  induced  a 
speedy  reaction.  Concerned  only  with  the  rep- 
resentation of  light,  with  the  appearance  of 
things,  it  had  no  inner  life  and  lacked  the  gift 
of  psychology.  The  various  modernist  move- 
ments therefore  insisted  on  expressionism,  i.e. 
that  the  painting  should  not  so  much  represent 
nature  itself  as  the  painter's  reaction  towards 
nature,  the  emotions  roused  in  him  by  the  ob- 
ject depicted.  This  led  to  the  rejection  of 
nature  as  a  norm  Rejecting  also  the  flat  sur- 
faces of  impressionism,  the  post-impressionists 
strove  for  solidity  and  struct uic.  Design  should 
be  organi/ed  and  not  haphazard,  as  it  is  in 
nature;  color  and  form  symbolic,  rather  than 
realistic  One  form  of  this  reaction  was  sym- 
bolism, which  presents  nature  in  a  symbolic  as 
distinct  from  the  actual  form.  Its  foremost 
exponent  was  the  delightful  pastellist  and  illus- 
trator, Odillon  Redon  (1840-1010).  The  group 
included  such  staunch  modernists  as  Paul  Se- 
rusier,  Maurice  Denis,  Pierre  Bonnaid,  and 
Edouard  Vuillard.  The  art  of  the  first  two  is 
mystic  and  religious,  while  that  of  the  others 
is  decorative;  Vuillard  especially  has  been  in- 
fluenced by  Japanese  art.  One  group's  reaction 
against  impressionism  consisted  of  imitation  of 
Italian  fifteenth  century  art,  or  what  the  Eng- 
lish call  Pre-Raphaelitism.  Foremost  among 
them  were  Felix  Valloton  (1805-  )  and  Jean 
Fre"laut  (1879-  ),  both  painters  of  Breton 
subjects. 

The  group  known  as  "Les  Fauves"  was  at  first 
made  up  chiefly  of  pupils  of  Gustave  Morot 
(1820-08),  a  symbolist.  Rejecting  their  mas- 
ter's academic  tendencies,  they  expressed  them- 
selves with  such  wildness  that  this  term,  signi- 
fying "wild  beasts/'  was  applied  to  them.  Fore- 
most among  this  group  was  Henri  Matisse 
(1800-  ),  a  very  abstract  painter  who  pushes 
simplification  to  the  utmost,  striving  indeed  to 
attain  the  vision  of  a  child.  Both  in  line,  of 
which  he  is  a  consummate  master,  especially 
of  outline,  and  in  color,  his  art  recalls  Chinese 
and  Japanese  painting.  The  group  included  also 


France.     By  the  end  of  the  first  decade  of      Kees  van  Dongen  (1877-         ),  a  Dutchman,  who 

.  ,  *     ,1  i « ; ;„ 1...J      «_«  no  in  •fa/I    faali  innaVkln    "Payiuian    artniAfir     an/1    "IV^rk/lirr- 


the  twentieth  century  impressionism  had  con 
quered  its  rivals,  realism  and  other  academic 
tendencies,  and  had  become  dominant  in  official 
ns  well  as  in  artistic  circles.  From  1013-21 
Paul  Albert  Besnard  (1840-  ),  an  impression- 
ist painter,  was  head  of  the  Ecole  do  France  a 
Rome  and  after  1022  director  of  the  national 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  at  Paris.  It  was  he  above 
all  others  who  applied  the  impressionist  tech- 


painted  fashionable  Parisian  society,  and  Modig- 
liani  (1880-1020),  an  Italian,  who  created 
simply  colored  figures  on  the  conventions  of 
negro  art.  Others  of  the  "Fauves"  afterward  de- 
veloped in  various  directions,  some  becoming 
cubists,  others  following  Cezanne's  lead.  As 
time  went  on,  Clzanne  became  more  and  more 
the  dominant  influence  in  modernist  art.  His 
closest  follower  was  Andre*  Derain  (1880-  ), 


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aa  artist  of  great  power,  both  in  figure  and 
landscape,  whose  color  became  increasingly  se- 
vere. Another  important  figure  was  Maurice  de 
Vlaminck  (1876-  ),  a  highly  dramatic  land- 
scape  painter  of  brilliant  technique.  It  was  he 
who  discovered  negro  art  as  revealed  in  the 
wooden  fetishes  of  the  African  savages,  carved 
before  their  association  with  white  men.  Here 
was  an  art  of  pure  plastic  quality,  simplified 
to  the  utmost,  abstract  in  form,  and  with  very 
remote  resemblance  to  actuality.  It  greatly  in- 
fluenced the  new  movement,  especially  cubism. 
Among  other  artists  once  classed  among  the 
"Fauves"  who  were  affected  by  cubism  were  Al- 
bert Marquet  (1875-  ),  Othon  Friesz  (1879- 
),  Jean  Marchand  (1883-  ),  and  Segon- 
zak  (1884-  ) .  There  was  at  the  close  of  this 
period  an  increasing  tendency  among  them  to 
use  forms  based  on  nature  rather  than  pure  ab- 
stractions. A  curious  outgrowth  of  the  modern- 
ist movement  was  feminism  in  painting.  There 
have  been  women  painters  at  all  epochs,  but 
their  art  has  not  differed  materially  from  that 
of  men.  The  art  of  Marie  Laurencin,  subtle 
in  design,  exquisite  in  color,  is  essentially  femi- 
nine in  spirit  and  conception,  such  as  no  man 
could  have  produced.  That  of  ElizalK?th  Fuss- 
Amor^  is  very  rich  in  color,  subtly  personal  and 
feminine. 

As  a  reaction  against  the  flat  surfaces  of  im- 
pressionism, cubism  is  concerned  particularly 
with  the  expression  of  bulk  and  solidity.  This 
it  does  by  means  of  colored  cubes  and  cylinders, 
following  the  dictum  of  Cezanne:  "Nature  can 
be  expressed  by  the  cube,  the  cone,  and  the  cylin- 
der. Any  one  who  can  paint  these  simple  forms 
can  paint  nature."  It  is  an  art  of  organized 
space,  linear  form,  movement,  and  color,  dissoci- 
ated from  the  actual  appearance  of  things.  The 
influences  which  contributed  to  its  foimation 
were  Ce>anne,  Seurat,  and  especially  negro  and 
Polynesian  sculpture.  Matisse  gave  it  its  name 
and"  aided  at  its  formation  in  1008,  but  the 
real  founder  and  leader  had  been  and  still  was 
Pablo  Picasso  (1881-  ),  a  Spanish  sculptor. 
He  was  the  author  of  its  conventions,  such  as 
the  guitar,  clay  pipe,  the  bottle  of  alcohol, 
printed  letters,  etc.  He  has  well  been  called 
"the  chameleon  artist,"  as  he  has  worked  in 
many  different  manners,  with  cubism  as  a 
phase  of  his  development.  His  color,  at  first 
sombre,  had  finally  become  frank  and  clear. 
Georges  Bracque  was  the  purist  of  the  group,  a 
logical,  rigid  cubist;  Fernand  Leger  represented 
the  mechanical  aspect.  Albert  Glcize,  a  facile 
writer  on  cubism,  was  painting  in  two  rather 
than  three  dimensions,  while  Jean  Metzinger 
was  an  orthodox  cubist  of  the  cylinder  and  cube 
variety  Among  other  followers  of  the  move- 
ment in  1024  were  Auguste  Herbin,  Andre" 
L'Hote,  half  cubist,  half  realist;  Jacques  Villon; 
Marcel  Duchamps,  and  Francois  Picabia.  Two 
poets,  Guillaume  Apollinaire  and  Andre*  Sal- 
mon, belonged  to  the  cubist  group  and  wrote  in 
its  interest.  The  influence  of  cubism,  wide  and 
in  many  respects  wholesome,  was  in  the  direc- 
tion of  solidity  and  expression.  Many  painters 
in  different  lands  experimented  with  and  to 
some  extent  adopted  it.  But  in  its  rigid  form 
cuhism  seemed  at  the  close  of  the  period  to  be 
on  the  wane.  Picasso's  latest  works  were  more 
icpresentative,  under  the  influence  of  Ingres. 

There  had  latterly  been  many  secessions  from 
cubism,  mostly  ephemeral,  such  as  Orphism  and 
synchronism,  which  are  concerned  witn  arrange- 


ments of  color  irrespective  of  volume  or  actual- 
ity, and  Dadaism,  founded  in  Switzerland  in 
1917,  by  Tzarra,  a  Rumanian.  This  form  of 
presentation,  which  had  followers  in  France  and 
Germany,  clears  away  the  past  and  is  satirical 
in  character,  better  adapted  to  cartoons  than  to 
paintings. 

Italy.  A  later  and  more  radical  movement, 
futurism,  forms  Italy's  peculiar  contribution  to 
modernism.  It  began  as  a  protest  of  a  band  of 
young  writers,  painters,  and  sculptors  that 
their  country  was  nothing  more  than  a  vast 
museum  of  the  past.  Unlike  the  other  modern- 
ists, the  futurists  break  utterly  with  the  past 
and  look  only  toward  the  future;  hence  their 
name.  The  function  of  painting  as  they  see  it 
is  to  represent  movement  and  growth,  the  dy- 
namic forces  of  modern  life.  Many  of  their 
paintings  bear  the  title  "Dynamics"  of  this  or 
that  subject.  As  their  manifesto  puts  it:  "We 
must  make  a  clean  sweep  of  all  hackneyed  sub- 
jects and  express  henceforth  the  whirl\\  ind  life 
of  our  day,  dominated  bv  steel,  egotism,  feverish 
activity,  and  speed."  This  they  often  seek  to 
accomplish  by  means  not  unlike  cubism,  com- 
bining in  the  canvas  not  only  what  the  artist 
sees  but  all  he  knows  about  the  subject.  A 
typical  futurist  feature  is  the  use  of  so-called 
"force  lines,"  certain  linear  rhythms  whose  con- 
vergence or  divergence  convey  to  the  artist  the 
dominant  thought  or  emotion  he  wishes  to  ex- 
press. Color  is  purely  arbitrary  and  may  he 
used  to  heighten  the  effect.  So  may  all  manner 
of  extraneous  objects,  which  are  simply  pasted 
onto  the  picture.  Futurist  urt  indeed  is  cine- 
matographic, except  that  it  tries  to  show  all 
at  once  \\hat  the  moving-picture  unfolds  in  a 
given  space  of  time. 

The  founder  of  the  movement  was  the  poet 
Marinetti,  who  wrote  its  eloquent  manifestoes 
From  1010,  when  their  first  exhibition  was  held 
at  Milan,  to  1024,  Luigi  Russolo  represented 
futurism  in  its  most  logical  form.  Umborto 
Boccioni,  also  a  sculptor,  was  an  able  theorist 
on  a?sthetics,  whose  paintings  are  often  of  in- 
teresting design.  Gmo  Severini  was  the  illus- 
trator of  futurism,  Carlo  CarrA  its  most  genu- 
ine painter,  who,  unlike  the  others,  uses  gay 
color  Giacomo  Balla's  work  is  merely  pretty. 
Many  of  the  cubists  were  influenced  by 'futurism 
and  experimented  with  it,  and  vice  versa.  It 
had  won  but  few  new  disciples  and  seemed  des- 
tined to  decline 

Great  Britain.  The  latest  effusion  of  mod- 
ernism, vorticism,  is  a*  product  of  conseivative 
Great  Britain;  but  before  examining  it  a  brief 
survey  of  recent  British  art  should  be  made. 
Although  the  chief  influence  was  French,  im- 
pressionism in  its  pure  form  never  played  a 
great  part  in  Great  Britain.  It  was  rather  the 
modified  form  of  early  impressionism,  as  intro- 
duced by  the  American  Whistler  during  his 
long  residence  in  London,  which  prevailed. 
This  was  concerned  rather  with  decorative  and 
tonal  effects  than  with  the  pure  study  of  light, 
especially  in  the  case  of  the  Glasgow  school,  out 
of  which  came  Sir  John  Lavery  (1850-  ),  es- 
pecially known  as  a  portraitist.  The  methods 
of  the  brilliant  Irish  painter,  Sir  William  Orpen 
(1878-  ),  are  more  akin  to  impressionism, 
while  Augustus  John,  a  Welshman  (1870-  ), 
in  .his  powerful  characterizations,  tends  rather 
to  modernism.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of 
two  Americans,  active  in  London,  John  Singer 
Sargent  (1856-  ),  whose  superb  technique 


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971 


combined  realism  with  impressionism,  and  James 
J.  Shannon  (1862-1923),  whose  illustrative  art 
ranges  him  properly  among  British  painters. 
Prank  Brangwyn  (1887-  )  represents  rather 
the  realistic  point  of  view  in  his  recent  superb 
decorations  for  the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition 
and  the  Missouri  State  Capitol.  The  powerful 
individual  landscapes  of  P.  Wilson  Steer  show 
a  transition  from  impressionist  to  modernist 
technique.  An  important  figure  in  the  intro- 
duction of  French  post-impressionism  into  Eng- 
land was  Roger  Fry,  especially  by  his  writings 
and  exquisite  connoisscurship.  It  was  mainly 
the  influence  of  Cezanne  and  Van  Gogh  that 
made  itself  felt,  and  the  aim  was  greater  plastic 
effect  but  with  more  reference  to  nature  than 
in  France  Among  the  leaders  were  Spencer 
F.  Core  (187S-1914)  and  Harold  Oilman  (1876- 
1919),  who  tended  more  strongly  toward  mod- 
ernism, and  diaries  Ginner. 

According  to  the  theory  of  vorticism,  "every 
concept,  every  emotion  presents  itself  to  the 
vivid  consciousness  in  some  primary  form.  It 
belongs  to  the  nrt  of  this  form."  The  "vortex" 
is  the  artist's  faculty  through  which  the  emo- 
tions and  conceptions  pass  to  take  concrete 
shape  041  canvas.  Through  it  they  pass  from 
the  general  to  the  concrete.  Tn  common  with 
post-impressionists,  \orticists  do  not  reject  the 
woik  of  the  past;  but  they  agree  with  the 
futurists  that  modem  art  should  reflect  present- 
djiy  industrial  civilization,  with  its  dominance 
by  the  machine*  Their  paintings  are  in  general 
geomotiic  and  abstract,  not  unlike  cubism. 
Their  aim  is  to  purify  painting,  and  they  rely 
especially  on  the  primary  pigment  of  their  art, 
resemhling  in  this  lopjard  the  Orphists  and  syn- 
chronists  There  was  nothing  essentially  new 
and  original  in  their  art,  which  began  in  1913, 
although  several  interesting  painters  had  taken 
it  up  The  founder  and  principal  leader  was 
Wyndham  Lewis  (1884-  ),  with  whom  were 
associated  Cuthbert  Hamilton,  Frederick  Etchels, 
Edward  Wadsworth,  and  William  Roberts.  The 
poet  of  vorticism  was  an  American,  Ezra  Pound; 
the  sculptor  was  Henry  Gaudier-Brzeska  (1891- 
1915).  Vorticism  was  also  a  passing  phase  in 
the  development  of  C.  R.  W.  Nevinson,  who  ex- 
perimented in  other  styles,  including  cubism 
and  futurism,  only  to  return  in  his  later  work 
to  a  more  conservative  academic  art. 

During  the  War  the  British  government  made 
the  interesting  experiment  of  employing  several 
painters  at  the  front,  and  many  of  their  pic- 
tures were  purchased  by  the  Imperial  War 
Museum.  Most  of  the  men  employed  were  actu- 
ally engaged  in  warfare  and  so  painted  from 
experience  as  well  as  observation.  In  the  choice 
of  artists  a  wise  eclecticism  was  followed;  not 
only  accepted  academicians  but  the  most  radical 
groups  were  included.  And  it  was  just  these 
radicals  whose  art  seemed  especially  adapted  to 
the  mechanical  character  of  modern  warfare. 
Among  the  most  prolific  of  war  painters  was 
Sir  William  Orpen,  a  major  in  the  army,  whose 
portraits  of  the  chief  commanding  officers  are 
well  known;  James  McBey,  official  painter  of 
the  army  of  the  Near  East;  George  Clausen, 
and  Augustus  John,  who  painted  important  com- 
missions for  the  Canadian  government.  The 
futurist  technique  of  C.  R.  W.  Nevinson  grap- 
pled most  successfully  with  searchlights,  shells, 
and  especially  aeroplanes.  Paul  Nash,  a  vision- 
ary post-impressionist,  depicted  what  might  be 
called  nature's  "dance  of  death,"  while  vorticism, 


PAINTING 

through  its  leaders,  Wyndham  Lewis  and  Wil- 
liam P.  Roberts,  showed  itself  well  capable  of 
representing  the  dynamics  of  modern  warfare. 
All  these  artists  wisely  confined  themselves  to 
episodes  of  warfare  and  did  not  attempt  battle 
paintings  on  a  grand  scale.  One  of  the  few 
good  results  of  the  War  was  the  destruction  of 
the  old-fashioned  battle  picture,  with  its  photo- 
graphic detail,  most  characteristically  seen  in 
the  works  of  Meissonier.  The  modern  battle  ex- 
tending along  a  front  of  many  miles  cannot  be 
painted.  The  brave  array  of  soldiers  has  been 
replaced  by  the  invisible  crowds  of  the  trenches. 
The  brightly  colored  uniforms  are  now  sombre 
browns,  grays,  and  greens,  and  the  modern  sol- 
dier is  little  different  in  aspect  from  a  work- 
man. (See  War  Paintings  and  Drawings,  by 
British  artists,  New  York,  1919;  and  Charles 
Holme,  The  War  Depicted  ly  Distinguished  Brit- 
ish Artists,  in  The  Inlcrnaiional  Kiuthn,  1918). 

Germany.  The  War  and  the  succeed  ing 
years  levied  a  hea\y  death  toll  on  the  painters 
of  Germany.  At  the  close  of  the  decade  1914- 
24,  many  of  the  older  men  were  still  active  in 
the  manner  of  their  earlier  uork-  Edward  Geb- 
hardt,  religious  painter,  at  Diisseldorf;  Arthur 
Kampf,  realist,  at  Berlin,  and  Max  Liebermann, 
chief  representative  of  impressionism  and 
leader  of  the  North  German  secessionists,  also 
in  Berlin.  In  Munich  the  " Decorative  School," 
led  by  Franz  Stuck,  was  somewhat  akin  to  mod- 
ernism in  its  realistic  representation  of  mystic 
and  allegorical  subjects  inaugurated  by  Boek- 
lin.  But  even  this  was  in  1924  considered  con- 
servative and  official.  Impressionism  was  an 
importation  which  never  secured  a  firm  foothold 
in  Germany  The  native  tendency  was  all  toward 
its  antipode,  expressionism,  for  which  the  soil 
was  well  prepared  by  earlier  painters  In  the 
early  sixteenth  century  Matthias  Grunewald  dis- 
torted nature  to  express  emotional  mysticism 
much  as  El  Greco  did  later  in  Spain.  H'ans  von 
Marches  (1837-87),  rebelling  against  realism  and 
early  impressionism,  sacrificed  the  appearance 
of  things  to  volume  and  symbolic  expression  in 
his  noble  decorative  figures.  The  Swiss  Ferdi- 
nand Hodler  (1853-1918),  a  powerful  and  arbi- 
trary painter,  developed  in  his  later  works  a 
thoroughgoing  expressionism.  The  influence  of 
Ce*zanne,  Van  Gogh,  and  to  a  less  extent  Gauguin 
was  early  felt  in  Germany.  But  it  was  an  ex- 
hibition of  the  works  of  the  Norwegian  Edvard 
Mflnch  in  Berlin  which  caused  the  separation  of 
the  new  movement  from  the  Berlin  Secession. 
Cubism  and  futurism  never  obtained  an  impor- 
tant following,  for  the  principal  German  tend- 
ency was  toward  forms  of  purer  expressionism. 
There  were  two  chief  groups,  at  Berlin  and 
Munich.  The  former  group  was  the  less  radical. 
The  facile  and  decorative  art  of  Max  Pechstein 
is  more  akin  to  the  post-impressionism  of  other 
lands,  and  so  is  that  of  Albert  Werszgerber  and 
Carl  Caspar,  all  of  whom  were  influenced  by 
Ce*zanne.  Among  the  members  of  a  more  radical 
group  at  Berlin  called  "Die  Brtlcke"  were  E.  L. 
Kirchner,  its  founder,  a  visionary  who  changes 
city  scenes  into  fairyland ;  Erich  Heckel,  a  paint- 
er of  landscapes  'romantic  in  subject;  Karl 
Schmidt-Rottluff,  whose  tendency  is  to  the 
colossal  and  even  brutal;  and  Otto  Miiller,  who 
prefers  rather  lyric  subjects,  painted  in  tempera. 

At  Munich,  Russian  artists  contributed  to 
produce  the  most  radical  type  of  expressionism. 
Foremost  among  them  was  Wassily  Kandinsky 
(1886-  ),  a  theorist  who  writes  as  well  as 


PAH9TING 


97* 


PAXNTENG 


he  paints.  He  maintains  that  the  rhythm  of 
line  and  color  and  of  color  in  juxtaposition  to 
color  should  be  built  up  architecturally,  on  fixed 
principles  of  construction,  as  in  music.  Such 
an  art  appeals  to  the  eye  independently  of  all 
representation,  very  much  as  music  affects  the 
ear.  His  pictures  are  arrangements  of  abstract 
line  and  color  without  attempt  to  represent 
nature.  It  was  he  who  with  a  few  others 
seceded  from  the  other  post-impressionists  to 
form  the  gioup  called,  from  its  publication,  "Der 
Blaue  Reiter"  An  important  member  of  this 
group  was  Franz  Mark  (1880-1916),  who 
painted  impressions  of  animals  in  symbolic 
color.  Others  are  Heinrich  Cnmperdonck,  whose 
quaint  presentations  of  village  and  other  sub- 
jects are  essentially  imaginary  and  unreal  j 
Burljuk,  a  Russian;  Baroness  Werefkin,  Au- 
guste  Macke,  Gabriel  Munter,  and  Adolf  Block. 
Mention  should  also  be  made  of  Oskar  Kokosch- 
ka  (1866-  ),  an  Austrian  painter,  the  most 
radical  of  all,  less  abstract,  but  equally  ec- 
centric, and  powerful  to  the  point  of  brutality; 
and  also  of  Kmil  Nolde  and  Karl  Hofer,  who 
paint  in  a  similar  vein. 

Russia.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  War  the 
Russian  school  of  painting  was  of  great  im- 
portance and  promise.  Two  factors  contributed 
to  make  it  unlike  any  other  school:  stage  deco- 
ration and  peasant  art  The  unparalleled  suc- 
cess of  the  Russian  ballet  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica was  due  as  much  to  its  artistic  settings  as 
to  superb  dancing.  Of  unprecedented  Dower 
and  imagination,  these  decorations  were  all  the 
work  of  Russian  painters.  Diaghilev,  one  of 
the  St.  Petersburg  group,  was  the  pioneer  and 
the  greatest  painter-impresario  in  dramatic  his- 
tory. Other  great  designers  were  the  painters 
Benois,  Golovine,  Lion  Bakst,  Aimfeld,  and 
Larianov.  The  astonishing  freedom  of  presenta- 
tion in  modern  Russian  painting  and  its  highly 
imaginative  and  decorative  qualities  were  due 
largely  to  this  training.  It  was  a  IRQ  profoundly 
affected  by  the  pure,  bright  color  schemes  and 
the  picturesque  settings  and  costumes  of  native 
peasant  art,  and  on  its  imaginative  side  by  a 
vital  school  of  book  illustration,  particularly 
of  folk  tales  and  subjects  The  most  important 
reaction  against  the  realism  of  the  Wanderers, 
chief  of  whom  was  Tlya  Repin,  was  the  "Mir 
Iskousstva"  (Artistic  World)  at  St.  Petersburg. 
Unlike  the  former,  which  painted  Russian  con- 
temporary life,  this  group  sought  subjects  in 
the  past,  was  cosmopolitan  in  character,  and 
showed  French  influence  Alexander  Benois 
chose  the  age  of  Louis  XIV  in  France  and  that 
of  Elizabeth  in  Russia,  Constantine  Somov,  the 
period  of  1830;  Nicholas  Roerich,  the  Viking 
age  The  Moscow  group  was  less  learned  and 
more  pictorial  and  chose  Russian  subjects,  Its 
best-known  representatives  are  Igor  Grabar,  a 
pointilliste,  to-day  an  influential  figure  in  Soviet 
Russia,  and  especially  Maliavin,  who  depicted 
the  gay,  animal  side  of  the  Russian  moujik. 

Meanwhile  various  modernist  tendencies  had 
appeared  in  Russia,  and  their  influence  was  be- 
ginning to  be  felt.  The  War  put  a  stop  to  paint- 
ing, and  during  the  revolution  and  the  years  fol- 
lowing most  of  the  artists  emigrated  from  Rus- 
sia, chiefly  because  the  wealthy  class  which 
patronized  art  had  ceased  to  exist.  They  mi- 
grated to  different  centres,  many  joining  the 
large  Russian  artistic  colony  in  Paris,  where 
they  maintained  their  vital  national  art.  An 
exhibition  of  their  works  was  shown  at  various 


places  in  the  United  States  in  1024.  The  exiles 
included  Fechin,  a  pupil  of  Repin,  Choukhaiev, 
Jakolev,  Sorin,  a  rather  conservative  portrait- 
ist, Soudeikin,  Stelletski,  Burliuk,  and  espe- 
cially Boris  Grigoriev,  whose  apocalyptic  hal- 
lucinations of  the  Bolshevist  revolution  and 
representations  of  the  Russian  populace,  partic- 
ularly on  their  brutal  and  bestial  side,  caused 
a  sensation.  Best  known  in  the  United  States 
was  Boris  Anisfeld  (q.v.),  who  exhibited  re- 
peatedly in  New  York  and  elsewhere.  In  Rus- 
sia itself  the  Revolution  wrought  little  damage 
to  existing  art  works.  The  more  important  pub- 
lic museums,  like  the  Hermitage  in  St.  Peters- 
burg and  the  Tretikov  Gallery  in  Moscow,  were 
greatly  enriched  by  the  confiscation  of  private 
collections;  and  the  Imperial  and  other  impor- 
tant palaces  were  transformed  into  museums. 
Throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land 
new  museums  were  established  The  successful 
management  of  public  art  institutions,  which 
was  conceded  to  be  better  than  ever  before,  was 
due  to  the  efforts  of  Lunacharski,  minister  of 
public  instruction.  One  of  the  daring  schemes 
of  Soviet  Russia  was  the  establishment  of  a  new 
proletarian  art.  Rejecting  cubism  and  futurism 
as  bourgeois  products,  they  acclaimed  a  new 
art,  "suprematism,"  which  denied  not  only  all 
representation  but  even  the  stylization  of  natu- 
ral forms  Kandinsky,  whose  art  most  ap- 
proached this  norm,  was  called  from  Municli  to 
aid  in  its  establishment  as  well  as  that  of  the 
provincial  museums.  The  only  official  exhibi- 
tion of  Bolshevist  paintings  held  outside  of  Hus- 
sia  was  at  Berlin  in  1023.  It  was  about  the 
most  modern  exhibition  ever  seen  The  paint- 
ings were  usually  labeled  "constructions"  or 
"compositions"  and  were  built  up  mathemat- 
ically. Simplification  went  even  beyond  Kan- 
din  sky's  in  the  works  of  such  men  as  Malevitcli 
and  Robcheiiko.  Everywhere  the  search  for  m-w 
forms  of  art  was  in  evidence.  There  were  also 
many  works  of  a  more  conventional  character, 
and  the  impression  of  the  whole  was  that  of  a 
living  and  vital  art  of  telling  forms  and  splen- 
did color.  Whether  such  modernist  paintings 
fulfilled  the  requirements  of  a  Soviet  art  as 
enunciated  by  Kamenev,  "an  art  comprehensible 
to  workmen  and  to  peasants,"  is  another  ques- 
tion. In  subject  it  was  indeed  proletarian,  but 
representation  was  confined  almost  to  posters 
and  Mack  and  whites 

Other  European  Countries.  The  virile  na- 
tional impressionism  of  Sweden  suffered  great 
loss  in  the  death  of  its  two  chief  representa- 
tives, Anders  Zorn  (1860-1920)  and  Carl  Lars- 
son  (1853-1910).  Liliefors  was  still  the  chief 
painter  of  wild  animals,  and  Gustav  Fjaestad 
was  painting  fine  snow  and  water  scenes  in 
pointifliste  technique.  Zorn's  successor  in  paint- 
ing the  Danecarlian  peasantry  was  Mas  Olle, 
another  good  portraitist.  Sweden  had  also  its 
due  proportion  of  modernists,  such  as  Axel 
Torneman;  Gabriel  Strandberg,  who  painted  the 
outcasts  of  Stockholm;  John  Bauer,  whose 
quaint  imagination  found  expression  in  fairy 
tales;  and  Ossian  Elgstrom,  with  a  touch  of 
the  Laplander. 

The  dominant  figure  in  Norwegian  art  until 
his  death  was  Edvard  Mtinch,  who  was  also 
something  of  a  modernist,  influenced  somewhat 
by  Cezanne.  His  successor  was  Ludvig  Karsten. 
The  foremost  talent  of  the  nee-impressionist 
group  was  Hendric  Lund,  while  Sdren  Ansorger 
was  known  for  his  nudes.  Norway  also  had  its 


FROM    KATHERINE    8.    DHEIER    COLLECTION      NEW    YORK 

JOSEPH    STELLA— "BROOKLYN    BRIDGE" 


P 


li  *  *•?•      "^*» 


FROM    THE   METROPOLITAN    MUSEUM    OF   ART,    NEW   YORK 


ERNEST   LAWSON -"WINTER   SCENE'1 


PAINTING 


973 


expressionist  cult,  influenced  chiefly  by  Matisse; 
among  its  foremost  representatives  were  Hen- 
drik  Sorensen  and  Axel  Revold.  The  painting 
of  Denmark  \\&*  more  conservative,  although 
modernism  had  its  representatives. 

Belgium  and  Holland  were  strongly  affected  by 
the  new  movement,  especially  Holland.  In  a 
country  which  had  in  its  art  been  so  closely 
attached  to  the  past  and  realistic  in  character, 
it  was  astonishing  to  what  extent  the  new  move- 
ment had  spread.  Although  Van  Gogh,  one  of 
its  chief  pioneers,  was  a  Dutchman,  his  last  and 
most  radical  works  \\cre  wrought  in  France, 
and  his  influence  entered  Holland  quite  late; 
nevertheless  it  was  powerful  Among  the  chief 
representatives  of  the  new  development  were 
Jan  Toorup,  Thorn -Pnkkcr,  \Villem  van  Konijn- 
burg,  J.  J.  Jsaakson.  and  Jan  Sluyters. 

The  death  of  Sorolla  in  1023  removed  the 
foremost  representative  of  impressionism  in 
Spain.  The  most  interesting  manifestation  of 
contemporary  Spanish  painting  was  the  nation- 
alist school  of  the  North,  founded  by  Zuloaga 
and  ably  seconded  by  numerous  followers,  in- 
cluding the  Zubiaurrc  brothers.  In  subject  and 
treatment  it  was  thoroughly  national  and 
continued  the  traditions  of  El  Greco  and  Goya. 
It  was  decorative  in  style,  with  heavy  outlines, 
rich,  Hombie  color  and  vivacious  expression. 

United  States.  During  the  years  1914-24, 
American  painting  followed  a  normal  develop- 
ment, lea*  changed  by  recent  radical  tendencies 
than  other  important  schools  It  was  also  less 
affected  by  the  War.  During  the  early  years 
of  the  conflict  artistic  production  was  in  no 
A\ise  curtailed,  and  it  was  not  until  after  the 
entry  of  the  Tnited  States  in  1017  that  there 
was  any  perceptible  diminution  in  the  output. 
There  was  comparatively  little  painting  of  war 
subjects.  The  death  toll  among  older  American 
ai lists  during  the  period  was  heavy.  To  men- 
tion a  few  of  the  most  prominent,  William  Mer- 
ritt  Chase  and  Thomas  Eakins  died  in  1016; 
Albert  Ryder  and  Carroll  Berk  with  in  1017; 
henry  Golden  Deaith  in  1018;  C.  Y.  Turner, 
Frank  Duvcneck  (q.v.),  Ralph  A.  Blakelock, 
James  Alden  Weir,  and  Kenyoii  Cox  in  1010; 
Abbott  H.  Thayer  and  J.  Francis  Murphy  in 
1021;  Hamilton  Easter  Field  in  1022,  Elihu 
Vedder,  Joseph  I*.  Decamp,  Max  Bohm.  Paul 
Cornoyer,  and  George  W.  Maynard  in  1023. 
The  former  radicals  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists  were  the  conservatives  of  the  day,  and 
even  those  of  the  next  younger  generation  were 
now  among  the  elect.  All  these  continued  their 
work,  and  many  figured  at  the  exhibitions  and 
as  medalists,  such  as  Douglas  Volk,  Irving 
Wiles,  Dewitt  Lockwood,  Ocilia  Beaux,  Mary 
Cassatt,  Frank  Benson,  and  Edmund  C.  Tarbell, 
among  portraitists  and  figure  painters;  Waugh, 
Woodbury,  and  Emil  Carl&en  as  marine  painters, 
the,  last  'especially  taking  many  medals  in  the 
later  years  for  marines  and  still  life;  Edward 
Redfie'ld,  Elmer  Schofield,  and  Gardner  Symonds, 
as  painters  of  winter  subjects;  and  Childe  ITas- 
sam  (q.v.),  the  most  pronounced  impressionist 
among  the  older  men. 

Arthur  B.  Davies,  (q.v.),  known  as  leader  of 
the  modernists,  continued  his  idyllic  subjects 
with  no  end  of  variety  and  charm.  In  the  years 
following  1013  he  passed  through  a  cubist  pe- 
riod which  added  volume  and  construction  to 

So  also  did  Robert 


PAINTING 

former  pupils,  George  Bellows  achieved  great 
distinction  through  his  bold  and  powerful  por- 
trait and  figure  subjects,  which  won  medal 
after  medal.  Other  important  members  of  this 
group  were  George  Luks,  William  Glackens, 
John  Sloan,  and  Eugene  Speicher.  Powerful 
alike  in  characterization  and  technique  are  the 
portraits  of  Leopold  Seiffert  of  Philadelphia. 
Other  portraitists  known  also  as  figure  painters 
•were  John  C.  Johansen,  Karl  Anderson,  Joseph 
Peaison,  Jean  M.  Lane,  Louis  Betts,  Leon 
Kroll,  and  Henry  R.  Rittenherg,  a  fine  painter 
of  still  life.  In  the  first  rank  of  American  fig- 
ure painters  was  Charles  W.  Hawthorne  (q.v.), 
who  paints  the  inner  life  with  beautiful  and 
highly  characteristic  color.  Of  pronounced  im- 
pressionistic technique  among  the  younger  men 
were  Richard  Miller,  Frederick  Fneseke,  and 
James  Weiland.  Mention  should  also  be  made 
of  a  characteristic  branch  of  American  painting, 
i.e.  Indian  subjects.  The  Taos  group  of  painters, 
so  called  from  their  place  of  residence  in  New 
Mexico,  in  recent  years  painted  many  inter- 
esting representations  of  Indians,  chiefly  of  the 
Southwest.  Among  their  number  were  Julius 
Rolshoven,  Carl  Rungius,  Walter  Ufer,  Ernest 
L.  Blumenschein,  Edward  Potthast,  and  O.  E. 
Berninghaus.  Their  work  was  generally  impres- 
sionistic or  realistic  in  character  and  of  fine  il- 
lustrative quality.  In  this  connection  the  land- 
scapes of  Albert  Groll  (q.v),  the  painter  of 
the  mesas  and  the  desert  landscape,  should  be 
recorded.  Among  painters  devoted  chiefly  to 
decorative  work  were  Violet  Oakley,  whose 
mural  decorations  of  the  Pennsylvania  State 
House  at  Hairisburg  attracted  wide  attention; 
Robert  Chanler,  whose  specialty  was  screens 
showing  Chinese  influence  but  independent  and 
modernistic  in  conception  and  execution;  Hugo 
Ballin,  and  Arthur  Crisp.  Landscape  painters 
among  the  younger  generation  were  many.  One 
of  the  strongest  was  Ernest  Lawson,  whose  win- 
ter scenes  are  particularly  fine.  These  sub- 
jects were  preferred  also  by  John  Folinsbee  and 
Charles  Rosen,  who  in  the  later  years  became 
modernistic  in  tendency.  Jonas  Lie  was  paint- 
ing landscapes  as  well  as  great  industrial  scenes, 
and  GifFord  Beal  brightly  colored  landscapes, 
while  Guy  Wiggins  was  more  tonal.  Among  the 
marine  painters  Paul  Dougherty  painted  the 
Maine  coast  and  William  Ritschel  the  Pacific, 
while  Hayley  Lever  was  known  especially  for  his 
boats,  though  he  later  painted  other  varieties 
of  landscape  with  equal  ability 

After  the  entry  of  the  United  States  into  the 
War,  there  was  considerable  activity  among 
American  painters  in  designing  posters,  especial- 
ly in  aid  of  the  government  loans.  Many  war 
pictures,  intended  to  fire  patriotic  endeavor  and 
represent  important  episodes  of  the  War,  were 
also  painted.  Among  the  most  interesting  of 
these  was  a  series  depicting  Fifth  Avenue  in 
war  time  by  Childe  Hassam.  An  import- 
ant series  "of  war  portraits,  authorized 
by  the  National  Art  Commission  and  paid  for  by 
subscriptions  in  tne  principal  cities  of  the  Uni- 
ted  States,  was  presented  to  the  National  Mu- 
seum at  Washington.  Exhibited  at  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  in  New  York  City  in  1921, 
they  were  all  by  painters  of  conservative  tend- 
encies. The  most  important  was  a  large  pic- 
ture, "Signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,"  by 
John  C.  Johansen.  The  remainder  were  por- 


his  rather  decorative  art.     _  . —  .,.,,,.-  ,  i_  .A-         *     «  -^ 

Henri    (q.v.),  whose  virile  production  and  in-      traits  of  the  chief  war   celebrities   of   all   the 
fluence  continued  almost  undiminished.    Of  his     Allies  by  Cecilia  Beaux,  Jean  McLane,  Joseph 


PAINTING 


expressionist  cult,  influenced  chiefly  by  Matisse; 
among  its  foremost  representatives  were  Hen- 
drik  Sorensen  and  Axel  Revold.  The  painting 
of  Denmark  was  more  conservative,  although 
modernism  had  its  representatives. 

Belgium  and  Holland  were  strongly  affected  by 
the  new  movement,  especially  Holland.  In  a 
country  which  had  in  its  art  been  so  closely 
attached  to  the  past  and  realistic  in  character, 
it  was  astonishing  to  what  extent  the  new  move- 
ment had  spread.  Although  Van  Gogh,  one  of 
its  chief  pioneers,  was  a  Dutchman,  his  last  and 
most  radical  ^orks  were  wrought  in  France, 
and  his  influence  entered  Holland  quite  late; 
nevertheless  it  was  powerful  Among  the  chief 
representatives  of  the  new  development  were 
Jan  Tooriip,  Thorn  Prikker,  \Villem  van  Konijn- 
burg,  J.  J.  Jsaakson,  and  Jan  Sluytcrs. 

The  death  of  Sorolla  in  1023  removed  the 
foremost  representative  of  impreshionisin  in 
Spain.  The  most  interesting  manifestation  of 
contemporary  Spanish  painting  was  the  nation- 
alist school  of  the  North,  founded  by  Zuloaga 
and  ably  seconded  by  numerous  followers,  in- 
cluding the  Zubiaurre  brothers.  In  subject  and 
treatment  it  was  thoroughly  national  and 
continued  the  traditions  of  El  Greco  and  Goya. 
It  was  decorative  in  style,  with  heavy  outlines, 
rich,  sombre  color  and  vivacious  expression. 

United  States.  During  the  years  1914-24, 
American  painting  followed  a  normal  develop- 
ment, less  changed  by  recent  radical  tendencies 
than  other  important  schools  It  was  also  less 
affected  by  the  War.  During  the  early  years 
of  the  conflict  artistic  production  was  in  no 
\\iso  curtailed,  and  it  was  not  until  after  the 
entry  of  the  United  States  in  1017  that  there 
was  any  perceptible  diminution  in  the  output. 
There  was  comparatively  little  painting  of  war 
subjects.  The  deatli  toll  among  older  American 
artists  during  the  period  uas  heavy.  To  men- 
lion  a  few  of  the  most  prominent,  William  Mer- 
litt  Chase  and  Thomas  Kakins  died  in  1016; 
Albert  Ruler  and  Carroll  Bcckwith  in  1017; 
l.enry  Golden  Deaith  in  1018;  C.  Y.  Turner, 
Frank  Duveneck  (<].v.),  Ralph  A.  Blakelock, 
James  Alden  Weir,  and  Kenyon  Cox  in  1010; 
Abbott  H.  Thayer  and  J  Francis  Murphy  in 
1021:  Hamilton  Kastcr  Field  in  1022,  Elihu 
Veclder,  Joseph  It.  Decamp,  Max  Bohm,  Paul 
Cornoyer,  and  George  W.  Maynard  in  1023. 
The  former  radicals  of  the  Society  of  American 
Artists  were  the  conservatives  of  the  day,  and 
even  those  of  the  next  younger  generation  were 
now  among  the  elect.  All  these  continued  their 
work,  and  many  figured  at  the  exhibitions  and 
as  medalists,  such  as  Douglas  Volk,  Irving 
Wiles,  Dewitt  Lockwood,  Cecilia  Beaux,  Mary 
Cassatt,  Frank  Benson,  and  Edmund  C.  Tarbell, 
among  portraitists  and  figure  painters;  Waugh, 
Woodbury,  and  Emil  Carlsen  as  marine  painters, 
the  last  especially  taking  many  medals  in  the 
later  years  for  marines  and  still  life;  Edward 
Redfield,  Elmer  Schofield.  and  Gardner  Symonds, 
as  painters  of  winter  subjects;  and  Childe  Has- 
sam  (q.v. ),  the  most  pronounced  impressionist 
among  the  older  men. 

Arthur  B.  Davies,  (q.v.),  known  as  leader  ot 
the  modernists,  continued  his  idyllic  subjects 
with  no  end  of  variety  and  charm.  In  the  years 
following  1013  he  passed  through  a  cubist  pe- 
riod, which  added  volume  and  construction  to 
his  rather  decorative  art.  So  also  did  Robert 
Henri  (q.v.),  whose  virile  production  and  in- 
fluence continued  almost  unaiminished.  Of  his 


973  PAINTING 

former  pupils,  George  Bellows  achieved  great 
distinction  through  his  bold  and  powerful  por- 
trait and  figure  subjects,  which  won  medal 
after  medal.  Other  important  members  of  this 
group  were  George  Luks,  William  Glackens, 
John  Sloan,  and  Eugene  Speicher.  Powerful 
alike  in  characterization  and  technique  are  the 
portraits  of  Leopold  Sciffert  of  Philadelphia. 
Other  portraitists  known  also  as  figure  painters 
were  John  C.  Johansen,  Karl  Anderson,  Joseph 
Pearson,  Jean  M.  Lane,  Louis  Betts,  Leon 
Kroll,  and  Henry  R.  Rittenberg,  a  fine  painter 
of  still  life.  In  the  first  rank  of  American  fig- 
ure painters  was  Charles  W.  Hawthorne  (q.v.), 
who  paints  the  inner  life  with  beautiful  and 
highly  characteristic  color.  Of  pronounced  im- 
pressionistic technique  among  the  younger  men 
were  Richard  Miller,  Frederick  Frieseke,  and 
James  Wciland.  Mention  should  also  be  made 
of  a  characteristic  branch  of  American  painting, 
i.e.  Indian  subjects.  The  Taos  group  of  painters, 
so  called  from  their  place  of  residence  in  New 
Mexico,  in  recent  years  painted  many  inter- 
esting representations  of  Indians,  chiefly  of  the 
Southwest.  Among  their  number  were  Julius 
Rolshoven,  Carl  Rungius,  Walter  Ufer,  Ernest 
L.  Blumenschein,  Kdward  Potthast,  and  0.  E. 
Berninghaus.  Their  work  was  generally  impres- 
sionistic or  realistic  in  character  and  of  fine  il- 
lustrative quality.  In  this  connection  the  land- 
scapes of  Albert  Groll  (q.v  ),  the  painter  of 
the  mesas  and  the  desert  landscape,  should  be 
recorded.  Among  painters  devoted  chiefly  to 
decorative  work  were  Violet  Oakley,  whose 
mural  decorations  of  the  Pennsylvania  State 
House  at  Hairisburg  attracted  wide  attention; 
Robert  Chanler,  whose  specialty  was  screens 
showing  Chinese  influence  but  independent  and 
modernistic  in  conception  and  execution:  Hugo 
Ballin,  and  Arthur  Crisp.  Landscape  painters 
among  the  younger  generation  were  many.  One 
of  the  strongest  was  Einest  Lawson,  whose  win- 
ter scenes  are  particularly  fine  These  sub- 
jects were  preferred  also  by  John  Folinsbee  and 
Charles  Rosen,  who  in  the  later  years  became 
modernistic  in  tendency.  Jonas  Lie  was  paint- 
ing landscapes  as  well  as  great  industrial  scenes, 
and  Gifford  Beal  brightly  colored  landscapes, 
while  Guy  Wiggins  was  more  tonal.  Among  the 
marine  painters  Paul  Dougherty  painted  the 
Maine  coast  and  William  Ritschel  the  Pacific, 
while  Hayley  Lever  was  known  especially  for  his 
boats,  though  he  later  painted  other  varieties 
of  landscape  with  equal  ability 

After  the  entry  of  the  United  States  into  the 
War,  there  was  considerable  activity  among 
American  painters  in  designing  posters,  especial- 
ly in  aid  of  the  government  loans.  Many  war 
pictures,  intended  to  fire  patriotic  endeavor  and 
represent  important  episodes  of  the  War,  were 
also  painted.  Among  the  most  interesting  of 
these  was  a  series  depicting  Fifth  Avenue  in 
war  time  by  Childe  Hassam.  An  import- 
ant series  *of  war  portraits,  authorized 
by  the  National  Art  Commission  and  paid  for  bv 
subscriptions  in  tne  principal  cities  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  was  presented  to  the  National  Mu- 
seum at  Washington.  Exhibited  at  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  in  New  York  City  in  1921, 
they  were  all  by  painters  of  conservative  tend- 
encies. The  most  important  was  a  large  pic- 
ture, "Signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,'1  by 
John  C.  Johansen.  The  remainder  were  por- 
traits of  the  chief  war  celebrities  of  all  the 
Allies  by  Cecilia  Beaux,  Jean  McLane,  Joseph. 


FAINTING 


974 


PALESTINE 


Decamp,  Charles  Hopkinson,  Edmund  C.  Tarbell, 
Douglas  Volk,  and  Irving  R.  Wiles.  Another 
important  series  consisting  of  portraits  of  Amer- 
icans prominently  identified  with  the  War,  and 
also  presented  to  the  National  Museum,  was 
donated  by  a  Norwegian,  in  gratitude  for  his 
own  financial  benefits  during  the  War.  Several 
of  these  were  painted  by  J.  H.  von  Hehling- 
Quistgaard,  an  American  painter  of  Danish  ex- 
traction, the  remainder  by  artists  chosen  by  a 
committee  of  experts. 

The  brilliant  success  with  which  modernism 
was  launched  in  New  York  City  and  Chicago 
in  1913  gave  great  promise  for  the  future  of 
the  movement.  But  this  promise  was  not  real- 
ized. Factional  differences  soon  dissolved  tho 
International  Association  of  Painters  and  Sculp- 
tors, which  had  organized  the  exhibition;  and 
beyond  separate  exhibitions  of  smaller  groups, 
little  was  heard  of  the  new  painting.  In  1017 
the  Society  of  Independent  Artists  was  founded 
with  unrestricted  membership  to  any  one  pay- 
ing the  nominal  initiation  fee.  Each  member  is 
entitled  to  send  a  limited  number  of  paintings 
or  sculptures  to  the  annual  exhibition.  As 
there  was  no  jury  of  acceptance  and  the  paint- 
ings were  hung  in  alphabetical  order  of  author- 
ship,  these  exhibitions  presented  a  strange 
medley  of  pictures  excellent  and  worthless, 
academic  and  modernist.  Nevertheless  they 
formed  an  open  forum,  uncontrolled  by  official 
juries,  for  the  radicals.  Their  moat  interest- 
ing feature  in  the  later  years  was  the  work  of  a 
group  of  native  Indian  artists,  without  tech- 
nical training  and  therefore  modernist  enough. 
Their  chief  subjects  were  Indian  ceremonial 
dances,  painted  in  pure,  bright  water-color. 
Modernist  paintings  were  constantly  on  exhi- 
bition in  numerous  private  galleries,  and  in  New 
York  they  found  a  special  home  in  the  $ocio*t<j 
Anonyme's  Museum  of  Modern  Art,  founded  for 
this  purpose.  Among  painters  of  distinctive 
modernist  tendencies  were  Rockwell  Kent  (q.v.). 
especially  in  his  Labrador  subjects;  Kenneth 
Hayes  Miller,  of  much  influence  as  a  tenrher; 
Maurice  Sterne  and  Max  Weber,  both  admi- 
rable teachers;  Andrew  Pasburg,  a  follower  of 
Cezanne,  Samuel  Halpert  and  Henry  McFee; 
Walter  Pach,  a  cubist  still-life  painter;  Abra- 
ham Walkowitz,  William  Zorach,  and  most  im- 
portant of  all,  John  Marin,  whose  admirable 
landscapes  and  water-colors  were  accepted  in  all 
circles.  Of  more  radical  tendencies  were  John 
Covert,  A  S.  Baylinson,  Marsden  Hartley,  Man 
Ray,  S.  McDonald  Wright,  Morgan  Russell,  Jay 
Van  Everen,  James  Daugherty,  Henry  Fitch 
Taylor,  and  Katherine  S.  Dreier,  who  is  chiefly 
known  as  a  writer  and  the  founder  of  the  Socie'te 
Anonyme.  The  foremost  representative  of  fu- 
turism in  the  United  States  was  Joseph  Stella, 
who  with  rare  ability  depicted  Brooklyn  Bridge, 
the  subway,  and  other  characteristic  features 
of  New  York. 

Bibliography.  Consult:  W.  H.  Wright, 
Modern  Painting  (New  York,  1910)  ;  Charles 
Marriott,  Modern  Movements  in  Painting  (Lon- 
don, 1020);  Roger  Fry,  Vision  and  Design  (ib., 
1020)  ;  Andre*  Salmon,  L'Art  Vivant  (Paris, 
1020)  ;  Gustave  Coquiot,  Les  Independents  (ib., 
1020)  ;  Max  Deri,  Die  ffeue  Malerei  (Leipzig, 
1021);  Clive  Bell,  Since  Cezanne  (New  York, 
1022) ;  Katherine  S.  Dreier,  Western  Art  and  the 
yew  Era  (ib.,  1023);  L.  M.  Bryant,  American 
Pictures  and  Their  Painters  (ib.,  1023)  ;  Louis 
R6au,  UArt  Russe  (Paris,  1922);  Carl  Laurin 


and  others,  Scandinavian  Art  (New  York,  1922)  ; 
F.  M.  Huebner,  Die  Weue  Malerei  in  Holland 
(Leipzig,  1021). 

PALACHE,  CHARLES  (1869-  ).  An 
American  mineralogist,  born  at  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Califor- 
nia. In  1800  he  became  instructor  in  miner- 
alogy at  Harvard,  where  he  has  since  remained, 
attaining  professional  rank  in  1012.  His  many 
scientific  papers  related  chiefly  to  mineralogy 
and  particularly  to  the  crystallography  and 
paragenesis  of  American  minerals. 

PALAEONTOLOGY.     See  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

PALfiOLOGTTE,  MAURICE  GEORGES  (1859- 
).  A  French  diplomat  and  man  of  letters, 
educated  at  the  Lyct'e  Ilenii  IV  in  Puns,  lie 
entered  the  French  diplomatic  semce,  was  sec- 
retary at  Tangiers  and  at  Rome,  and  was  sent 
on  special  missions  to  Germany,  Korea,  and  Bel- 
gium, lie  was  assistant  director  of  the  Foieign 
Office  and  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Russia ; 
this  post  he  held  during  the  War  and  afterward 
returned  to  the  Quai  d'Orsay  On  the  resigna- 
tion of  Berthellot  as  director  general  of  the 
Foreign  Office,  Paleologue  succeeded  him.  As 
a  writer  of  varied  inteiests,  Palfologue  published 
essays,  biographies,  memoirs,  and  archaeological 
studies.  Ilis  memoirs  on  La  Jtnssie  dcs  Czuis 
pendant  la  Grande  Guerre  (1021)  throw  a 
vivid  light  on  the  decomposition  of  the  Russian 
Empire  under  the  stress  of  the  War.  His  othci 
works  include  Vautenargins.  crowned  by  tho 
French  Academy  (1880),  Alfted  <lc  \  »'/>"/ 
(1802);  L'Art  Chinois  (1SSSK  J'lofil  dr  l\m 
mes  (1805);  Rur  Jcs  Itmnes  MH')7);  Lc  tVnr 
(1001)  :  JRome:  Impressions  d'Htstotrc  ct  d'  \tt 
(1002);  La  (Ira vat  he  (1004),  and  Lc  Point 
d'l/onneur  (KM!?). 

PALESTINE.  A  British  mandate  teiritory 
and  the  Jewish  national  homclund,  SIIKO  Juty 
1,  1020,  under  a  civil  adminUtiation  It  in- 
cludes that  part  of  historic-  Palest  me  \\hich  lies 
to  the  west  of  the  Jordan  and  \\hich  befoie  tho 
War  was  a  vilayet  of  the  Turkish  province  of 
Syria.  Area,  estimated  at  0000  square  miles. 
The  population,  according  to  the  census  of  (Vt 
23,  1022,  \\as  757,182,  comprising  r>!)0,80l>  Mos- 
lems, 83,704  Jews,  73,020  Chi  ist  inns,  7028 
Druses,  103  Samaritans,  and  2(>.">  Bahais.  The 
capital,  Jerusalem,  had  a  population  of  02,578 
Other  principal  cities  are  (population  in  put  en - 
theses):  Jaffa  (47.700),  Haifa  (21,634),  Ga/a 
(17.480),  Ik'kron  (16.377),  Nablus  (15,047). 
Jewish  immolation,  \\hich  was  resumed  after 
the  War,  totaled  27.000  by  Mar.  1,  1023.  Jaffa 
was  the  principal  port  of  entry;  the  immigrants 
came  largely  from  Poland,  Russia,  Morocco, 
Austria,  Syria,  Bulgaria,  Human ia,  Egypt,  Hun- 
gary, etc  Moslem  interests  were  represented 
by  a  Supreme  Moslem  Council;  Jewish  interests 
were  the  concern  of  the  Palestine  Zionist  ex- 
ecutive. 

Jewish.  Colonies.  These  colonies,  totaling  80 
in  number,  were  grouped  in  four  districts,  viz. 
Judea  (2(J),  Samaria  (17),  Lower  Galilee  (27), 
Upper  Galilee  (10).  The  colony  possesses 
schools,  synagogues,  public  libraries,  hospitals, 
and  baths.  By  the  end  of  1023  the  total  popu- 
lation of  these  colonies  numbered  more  than 
20,000  and  the  lands  which  they  worked  in- 
cluded some  160.000  acres.  The  colonies  were 
owned  or  established  by  the  Jewish  National 
Fund,  the  Palestine  Land  Development  Company, 
Baron  Edmund  de  Rothschild,  and  the  Jewish 
Colonization  Association.  Tel  Aviv,  near  Java, 


PALESTINE 

founded    by    Jewish     colonists     in     1009, 
a    population    estimated    at    15,000    to    20,000. 
KH  leal  estate  had  an  assessed  value  of  $12,000,- 
000.     In  June,  1923,  a  £E75,000  loan  for  munic- 
ipal impioveinents  was  floated  in  New  York. 

Education.  In  1024  there  were  the  following 
government  schools:  45  town  schools,  267  vil- 
lage schools.  The  Christian  and  Jewish  chil- 
dren attended  non -government  schools.  Chris- 
tian schools  numbered  103  (13,500  pupils),  the 
.Jewish  schools,  175  (18,000  pupils).  There 
wpro  Jewish  high  schools  at  Jerusalem  and 
Jaffa,  three  teachers'  training  colleges,  schools 
of  music  at  Jerusalem,  Jaffa,  and  Haifa,  and  a 
technical  college  at  Haifa.  In  all  these,  Ile- 
hrew  was  the  medium  of  instruction.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  nori -government  schools  were  re- 
cehing  state  aid 

Industry.  The  productive  portion  of  the 
country  is  the  nairo\\  strip  of  plain  running 
along  the  Mediterranean  from  Gaza  to  Haifa. 
The  richest  region,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Jaffa,  was  developed  by  Jewish  colonists  who 
carried  orange  and  lemon  cultivation  here  to 
a  high  degree  of  production.  The  acreage  of 
the  Jewish  plantations  included  3750  acres  of 
vineyards,  8450  acres  of  almond  groves,  3330 
acres  of  orange  groves,  and  1500  acres  of  eu- 
calyptus In  1022-23,  crop  production  was: 
\\heat,  79,708  tons;  barley,  32,079  tons,  durra, 
21,555  tons;  olives,  14,000  tons;  lentils,  3908 
tons  There  was  in  the  country  the  following 
live  stock-  202,000  sheep,  483,000  goats.  19,000 
camels,  12,000  buffaloes.  Under  the  direction 
of  an  agriculture  department,  export  ad\  ice  was 
rendered  in  matters  pertaining  to  plant  diseases, 
fisheries,  forestiy,  meteorology,  etc.  Mineral 
reaoiuces  included  sulphur,  iion,  coal,  salt,  lime- 
stone, sandstone,  and  gypsum.  The  government 
was  wpplying  itself  to  leforestation  and  the  re- 
claiming of  the  Band-dunes.  Trade,  carried  on 
largely  through  the  ports  of  Jaffa,  Haifa,  and 
(Jaza, 'continued  to  show  an  unfavorable  balance 
o\er  the  period  1919-23.  Imports  for  1919-20 
and  1922-23  totaled  £E4,191,060  and  £E5,428f- 
140;  exports  for  the  same  years  were  £E733,- 
443  and  £K1, 370,640.  The  chief  articles  of  ex- 
port were  oranges,  soap,  melons,  wine,  apri- 
cot paste,  and  almonds;  the  chief  articles  of  im- 
port were  cottons,  cigarettes,  sugar,  petroleum, 
and  rice  The  principal  countries  of  origin  in 
1922-23  woie  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  with  Egypt,  France,  Italy,  and  India 
nevt  in  order  Experts  went  to  Egypt,  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  Great  Britain. 

Finance.  For  the  year  1923-24,  receipts 
weie  estimated  at  iEl,787,200,  divided  into 
££535,000  customs,  £E130,000  house  and  land 
tax.  £E40,000  animal  tax,  £E20(),000  tithes, 
£E43,000  stamp  duties,  £E48,000  excise  duties, 
£K42,000  land  registry  fees,  £E415,000  railways. 
£K1 12,900  posts  and  telegraphs.  Generally,  the 
budgets  balanced  in  the  years  following  the  War 

Hallways.  There  were  in  operation  in  1923 
004  miles  of  railways,  of  which  479  miles  were 
being  operated  by  the  government  of  Palestine, 


975  PALESTINE 

had  unofficial,  of  which  at  least  two  were  to  be 
Christians  and  two  Jews,  was  given  the  power 
to  legislate  for  the  mandate  territory.  The 
High  Commissioner  might  veto  any  ordinance,  or 
the  British  government  might  disallow  it.  By 
1924  the  Legiblative  Council  had  not  yet  been 
convened  because  of  the  abstention  of  the  Ara-bs 
from  the  polls.  The  Jews  chose  an  elected  as- 
sembly, which  in  turn  appointed  a  national  com- 
mittee to  treat  with  the  Palestine  government. 
The  British  mandate  for  Palestine  was  approved 
by  the  League  of  Nations  Council  on  July  24, 
1922,  and  uas  promulgated  on  Sept  29,  1923. 
On  July  1,  1920,  Sir  Herbert  L.  Samuel  became 
High  Commissioner.  See  also  JEWS  AND  JUDA- 
ISM; ZIONISM 

History.  The  home  of  the  ancient  Jewish 
kingdom,  Holy  Land  of  the  Christians,  which 
had  been  subject  to  Mohammedan  rule  since  the 
failure  of  mediaeval  crusades  to  establish  an  en- 
during Christian  government,  entered  upon  a 
new  phase  of  its  checkered  history  in  1917,  when 
it  \\as  wrested  from  the  Ottoman  Empire  by 
British  and  Arab  invaders.  That  Palestine 
would  be  among  the  spoils  to  be  divided  by  the 
victors  had  been  anticipated  By  the  secret 
Sykes-Picot  Agreement  of  May  10,  191C,  France 
and  England  had  agreed  that  the  ports  of  Haifa 
and  Akka  should  be  assigned  to  Britain,  and 
that  Palestine  as  a  whole  should  be  "separated 
from  Turkish  territory  and  subjected  to  a  spe- 
cial regime  to  be  determined  by  agreement  be- 
tween Russia,  France,  and  England."  Xot  con- 
tent with  this  somewhat  ambiguous  pledge,  the 
British  government  skillfully  mano?uvred  to  ob- 
tain sole  jurisdiction  over  the  region.  Of  funda- 
mental importance  in  this  Biitish  mo\e  was  the 
celebrated  Balfour  Dcclaiation  of  Nov.  2,  1917. 
This  highly  important  utteiance  pledged  the 
British  government  to  "establishment  in  Pales- 
tine of  a  National  Home  for  the  Jewish  People, 
...  it  being  clearly  undei  stood  that  nothing 
shall  be  done  which  may  prejudice  the  civil  and 
religious  lights  of  existing  non-Jewish  communi- 
ties in  Palestine  or  the  rights  and  the  political 
status  enjoyed  by  Jc\\s  in  any  other  country." 
The  British  policy  set  forth  in  the  Declaration 
proceeded  from  t\\o  fundamental  mothcs.  As  a 
\\ar  measure  the  Declaration  \vas  calculated  to 
wiir  the  international  Jewry  to  the  cause  of  the 
Entente  Of  much  gi eater  importance,  however, 
was  the  knowledge  that  Palestine  had  been  from 
time  immemorial  the  connecting  link  between 
Mesopotamia  and  Egypt  and  that  it  is  the 
strategic  point  which  potentially  controls  the 
load  to  India  by  land  and  by  sea.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  Zionist  state  under  British  protec- 
tion gave  Great  Britain  this  priceless  and  cov- 
eted possession,  and,  \\hile  it  cemented  the 
foundations  of  the  British  Empire,  homage  was 
done  at  the  same  time  thereby  to  the  Allied 
slogan  of  "self-determination  of  nations."  The 
British  project,  a  superb  combination  of  altruism 
and  imperial  Realpolilrt,  had  unfortunately 
some  serious  drawbacks  which  had  been  left  out 
of  consideration,  namely  the  fact  that  modern 


being  operated  by  the  government  01  raiesime,      of  consideration,  namely  the  fact  tnat  modern 
andl25  miles  by  the  Palestine  Railways  for  the      Palestine   was  not  a  Jewish   country,  and  sec- 


British  Air  Ministry.  The  most  important  lines 
were  the  Kantara-Haifa  (259.5  miles),  Jaffa- 
Jerusalem  (54.2  miles),  Rafa-Beersheba  (37 
miles). 

Government.  By  the  constitution  of  Sept.  1, 
1922,  executive  power  was  vested  in  the  High 
Commissioner,  appointed  bjr  Great  Britain.  A 
legislative  council,  of  10  official  members  and  12 


ondly  the  ever-growing  opposition  of  Arab  na- 
tionalism, of  which  Great  Britain  itself  had 
been  the  chief  instigator.  Moreover,  the  Brit- 
ish had  overlooked  a  very  important  factor. 
Palestine  is  not  only  the  natural  link  between 
Mesopotamia  to  the  northeast  and  Egypt  to  the 
southwest,  hut  it  also  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the 
great  Arab  reservoir  of  man  power  to  the  south, 


PALESTINE 

whence  the  Arabs  bad  poured  forth  since  the 
earliest  days  into  the  neighboring  regions.  The 
attempt  to  close  this  outlet  bjr  an  artificial  Jew- 
ish state  under  the  protection  of  the  British 
Empire  was  naturally  fraught  with  danger,  and 
all  tlie  more  so  since  the  Balfour  Declaration 
conflicted,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Arabs  at  any 
rate,  with  the  British  commitments  to  the  Sherif 
of  Mecca  in  1914  and  1915. 

When  Palestine  was  wrested  from  the  Turks  it 
was  in  an  exhausted  condition.  The  land  was 
untilled  and  production  had  fallen  to  a  low 
ebb.  The  population  had  decreased  considerably 
during  the  War  and  the  whole  system  of  civil 
government  had  fallen  to  pieces.  Immediately 
after  the  occupation  the  British  set  up  a  mili- 
tary administration  which  after  much  effort  suc- 
ceeded in  bringing  about  an  improvement. 
Gradually  cultivation  was  restored  and  normal 
life  began  to  return.  But  much  more  had  to 
be  accomplished.  Palestine,  a  country  with  a 
variety  of  soils  and  climates,  had  always  been 
undeveloped  and  underpopulated  under  Turkish 
rule,  and  the  British  aim  was  to  bring  out  the 
great  latent  fertility  of  the  country.  As  for 
the  Jewish  population,  which  had  been  very 
small  during  the  10th  century  and  had  risen  to 
about  100,000  before  the  War,  it  formed  in  1918 
only  a  fraction  of  a  total  population  which  was 
predominantly  Arabic-speaking  and,  if  not  en- 
tirely Arab  in  racial  composition,  at  least 
claimed  to  be  Arab. 

On  Sept.  27,  1919,  Zionism,  which  had  been  a 
force  in  the  Jewish  world  for  some  time  before 
the  War,  pleaded  its  case  before  the  Supreme 
Council  and  asked  for  the  recognition  of  the 
historic  title  of  the  Jews  to  Palestine  and  for 
the  right  to  reestablish  there  a  national  home. 
Furthermore,  they  requested  that  the  sovereign 
possession  of  Palestine  be  vested  in  the  League 
of  Nations  and  that  Great  Britain  as  a  manda- 
tory of  the  League  be  empowered  to  govern  the 
country.  After  a  long  delay,  during  which  the 
first  manifestations  of  Arab  national  sentiment 
against  this  proposed  settlement  occurred,  the 
Supreme  Council  at  the  Conference  of  San  Remo, 
Apr.  25,  1920,  granted  the  mandate  to  Great 
Britain  and  in  July  of  the  same  year  the  mili- 
tary administration  was  replaced  by  a  civil 
regime  under  Sir  Herbert  Samuel,  a  prominent 
English  Jew,  as  High  Commissioner.  In  Oc- 
tober, 1920,  an  Advisory  Council  was  set  up, 
consisting  of  ten  officials  of  the  administration, 
four  Moslems,  thiee  Christians  and  three  Jews. 
Much  attention  was  given  to  local  government 
and  22  municipalities  and  14  local  village  coun- 
cils were  established.  As  for  education,  the 
Turkish  system  was  reorganized  and  extended 
The  Moslem  children  attended  the  government 
schools  where  Arabic  was  the  principal  medium 
of  instruction,  but  most  of  the  Jewish  children 
went  to  schools  conducted  by  the  Zionist  Or- 
ganization and  the  Christian  children  attended 
the  schools  maintained  by  the  ecclesiastical  and 
charitable  bodies.  Considerable  progress  was 
made  in  the  direction  of  public  health  and  sanita- 
tion, which  had  been  very  low  under  the  Turk- 
ish regime.  The  law  of  the  land  was  in  sub- 
stance that  of  the  Turkish  Code.  The  abolition 
of  the  Capitulations,  which  had  been  decreed  by 
Turkey  at  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  was  main- 
tained, except  in  the  case  of  the  United  States. 
Foreigners  were  tried  by  a  British  magistrate  or 
*—  a  court  with  a  majority  of  British  judges. 

blic  security  was  maintained  by  a  police  force 


976 


PALESTINE 


and  gendarmerie  recruited  from  all  sections  of 
the  population. 

The  Zionist  claims  to  Palestine  were  recog- 
nized in  the  Peace  Treaty  of  Sevres,  and  the  Bal- 
four Declaration  was  incorporated  in  the"  text  of 
that  document  After  much  contention  between 
the  English  and  the  French  over  the  boundaries 
between  Palestine  and  Syria  a  convention  defin- 
ing these  was  signed  on  Dec.  23,  1920.  A  final 
agreement  relative  thereto  was  concluded  on 
Feb.  3,  1922.  The  draft  for  the  Palestine  man- 
date was  submitted  to  the  League  of  Nations  on 
Dec.  7,  1920,  and  approved  in  July,  1922.  Its 
promulgation  was  delayed,  however,  due  to  the 
opposition  of  the  Italians  to  the  French  Syrian 
mandate  with  which  the  Palestine  mandate  was 
bound  up  The  mandate  realized  practically  all 
the  demands  of  the  Zionists  at  the  Paris  Con- 
ference in  1919.  The  region  to  the  east,  known 
as  Transjordania  (q.v.),  was  under  the  authority 
of  the  High  Commissioner,  but  enjoyed  a  specia'l 
status  and  was  not  included  in  tlie  area  of  the 
Jewish  National  Home.  Subsequently  Abdullah, 
son  of  the  King  of  the  Hcdjaz,  was  established 
as  Emir  of  this  region. 

Meanwhile  the  nationalist  sentiment  of  the 
Arab  majority,  which  had  received  a  powerful 
stimulus  in  consequence  of  the  events  of  the 
War,  chafed  against  the  arrangements  for  a 
Jewish  National  Home.  Serious  Hots  took  place 
in  Jerusalem  in  April,  1920.  In  February,  1921, 
a  congress  of  the  Palestinian  Arabs  was  held, 
at  which  protests  were  registered  against  the 
Balfour  Declaration  and  demands  were  made 
for  a  national  government  and  a  legislative  as- 
sembly to  be  elected  by  the  Arabic-speaking 
population  residing  in  the  country  before  the 
War.  A  permanent  committee  was  set  up  whose 
purpose  it  was  to  work  in  this  direction.  On 
May  1,  1921,  the  extreme  anti-Jewish  feeling 
manifested  itself  in  widespread  disturbances  in 
the  course  of  which  military  force  had  to  be  em- 
ployed to  restore  peace.  This  led  to  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  affairs  in  Palestine  by  a 
commission,  in  the  report  of  which  the  Arab 
grievances  were  analyzed  and  both  sides  were 
exhorted  to  refiain  fiom  nil  expression  of  ex- 
tremism and  to  work  in  a  spirit  of  moderation 
for  a  lasting  understanding  and  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country.  But  the  report  uphold  the 
policy  of  the  Balfour  Declaration  and  said 
nothing  which  could  serve  to  allay  the  appre- 
hensions of  the  Arabs  Tn  order  to  settle  the 
grave  difficulties,  the  British  government  drafted 
a  constitution  for  Palestine,  the  chief  provisions 
of  which  were  given  to  the  press  in  February, 
1922.  According  to  this  document  supreme  ex- 
ecutive authority  was  to  be  vested  in  the  High 
Commissioner,  who  was  to  be  assisted  by  an 
Executive  Council.  Provision  was  made  for  the 
establishment  of  a  Legislative  Council,  to  con- 
sist of  10  officials  and  12  unofficial  members,  the 
latter  to  be  elected  under  a  system  of  primary 
and  secondary  elections.  The  acts  of  the  Legis- 
lative Council  were  to  require  the  assent  of  the 
High  Commissioner  or  in  certain  cases  that  of 
the  British  government.  In  regard  to  the  ju- 
dicial system,  provision  was  made  for  the  setting 
up  of  separate  Moslem,  Christian,  and  Jewish 
religious  courts  with  English,  Arabic,  and  He- 
brew as  the  official  languages.  The  British  gov- 
ernment was  to  be  the  arbiter  in  complaints  re- 
garding nonfulfillment  of  the  terms  of  the  man- 
date, but  the  procedure  in  such  cases  was  to  be 
prescribed  by  the  League  of  Nations. 


PALESTINE 


977 


PALMEB 


After  the  publication  of  the  draft  of  the  Con- 
stitution,  a  delegation,  claiming  to  represent  the 
entire  Christ ian-Moalem  population  of  Palestine, 
went  to  England  to  protest  against  the  provi- 
sions. The  chief  complaint  of  the  Arabs  cen- 
tred on  the  limited  self-government  which  was 
to  be  bestowed  on  Palestine  under  the  Constitu- 
tion and  it  was  claimed  that  such  restriction 
was  contrary  to  Article  22  of  the  Covenant  of 
the  League  of  Nations.  The  reply  of  the  Brit- 
ish government  made  clear  that  a  different  course 
and  in  particular  the  establishment  of  a  na- 
tional government  was  not  open  to  Great  Britain 
since  this  would  have  involved  an  abandonment 
of  the  Balfour  Declaration  and  the  pledge  re- 
garding a  Jewish  National  Home.  The  British, 
in  fact,  could  not  repudiate  the  policy  of  the 
Balfour  Declaration  if  they  wished  to  retain 
their  hold  on  Palestine,  the 'possession  of  which 
was  so  invaluable  for  the  safeguarding  of  the 
British  Empire.  In  view  of  the  powerful  pos- 
sibilities inherent  in  Arab  nationalism,  it  was 
doubtful  indeed  whether  an  Arab  Palestine  would 
have  been  as  pliable  an  instrument  in  British 
hands  as  a  Jewish  Palestine  was.  The  Pales- 
tinian Arabs,  on  the  other  hand,  responding  to 
the  virile  movement  of  Arab  nationalism,  could 
not  very  well  recede  from  their  position  of  oppo- 
sition to  Zionist  rule  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  Jews  constituted  only  a  fraction  of  the  total 
population  of  Palestine.  According  to  the  fig- 
ures of  the  official  census  of  1022,  which  divided 
tho  population  along  religious  lines,  the  total 
population  in  that  year  was  755,000,  composed 
as  follows:  Moslems,  589,504;  Christians,  73,- 
020;  Jews,  83,794;  Druses,  7028;  other  religions, 
1440.  Most  of  the  Christians  spoke  Arabic, 
were  racially  akin  to  the  Arabs,  and  sided  with 
the  latter  against  the  Jews.  A  serious  con- 
sideration in  this  connection  was  the  fact  that 
a  Zionist  Palestine  was  a  direct  challenge  to 
that  still  obscure  but  nevertheless  potent  revolt 
against  Western  civilization  which  was  slowly 
crystallizing  in  post-war  Pan-Islamism.  Arab 
nationalism  could  be  regarded  in  many  aspects 
as  the  advance  guard  of  this  movement  which  in- 
volved a  new  form  of  the  Moslem  faith  and  as 
such  stood  for  a  social  and  cultural  conception 
which  was  opposed  to  the  West. 

A  lengthy  declaration  of  the  British  policy, 
issued  in  July,  1922,  attempted  to  allay  the  ap- 
prehensions of  the  Arabs.  It  referred  to  these 
as  "partly  based  upon  exaggerated  interpreta- 
tions of  the  meaning  ...  of  a  Jewish  National 
Home  in  Palestine"  and  stated  at  the  same  time 
that  the  Balfour  Declaration  was  "not  sus- 
ceptible of  change."  While  the  Zionist  Organ- 
ization declared  itself  satisfied  with  this  declara- 
tion, the  Arab  delegation  refused  to  accept  it 
and  returned  home  in  the  fall  of  1922.  There- 
upon the  Arabs  decided  to  boycott  the  elections 
for  the  Legislative  Council  which  were  held  in 
the  beginning  of  1923.  Since  this  boycott  pre- 
cluded the  creation  of  a  legislative  body  repre- 
sentative of  the  majority  of  the  people,  the 
British  government  suspended  for  the  time  being 
the  part  of  the  Constitution  dealing  with  the 
Legislative  Council  and  restored  the  Advisory 
Council  which  was  to  have  been  abandoned  under 
the  Constitution.  This  new  Advisory  Council, 
which  was  to  consist  of  eight  Moslems,  two 
Christian  Arabs,  and  two  Jews,  was,  however, 
impossible  of  formation,  because,  under  pres- 
sure from  the  Nationalists  and  particularly  from 
the  Arab  delegation  which  had  recently  returned 


from  London,  most  of  the  prospective  members 
refused  to  serve  on  it.  Meanwhile  Palestine  had 
become  filled  with  rumors  of  an  agreement  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  the  King  of  the  Hedjaz 
under  which  Palestine  was  to  become  part  of 
the  domain  of  the  latter.  In  spite  of  the 
Palestine  government's  denial  of  the  truth  of 
these  rumors,  considerable  excitement  ensued 
and  the  Sixth  Palestine  Arab  Congress,  which 
met  in  June,  1923,  found  it  necessary,  in  view  of 
the  conflicting  opinions  prevailing  among  Mos- 
lems, Christians,  and  Jews,  to  declare  that  it 
was  opposed  to  any  such  course.  After  the 
Congress,  another  delegation  was  sent  to  London, 
which  soon  returned,  its  mission  having  been  a 
complete  failure.  The  confirmation  in  1923  by 
the  League  of  Nations  of  the  British  mandate 
for  Palestine  and  the  consequent  legalization  of 
the  existing  status  failed  to  impress  the  Arab 
population,  which  continued  its  intransigent  at- 
titude. The  government's  offer  for  the  creation 
of  an  Arab  Agency  similar  to  the  Jewish  Agency 
meeting  the  adamant  opposition  of  the  Arabs, 
the  government  proceeded  to  form  an  Advisory 
Council  consisting  of  officials  only.  At  the  same 
time  a  new  moderate  Arab  Liberal  party  sprang 
into  existence,  which,  in  spite  of  its  opposition 
to  the  old  party,  failed  to  evince  much  modera- 
tion in  its  programme.  The  year  1923  was 
marked  by  a  final  settlement  of  the  frontiers  of 
Palestine  and  Syria  through  agreement  between 
the  mandatory  powers  and  by  Great  Britain's 
recognition  of  Abdullah's  Traimjordanian  gov- 
ernment as  an  independent  state,  although  Trans- 
jordania  (q.v.)  remained  in  fact  a  British  pro- 
tectorate and  was  subsequently  protected,  dur- 
ing an  uprising,  by  British  military  force.  See 
also  ARABIA;  CALIPHATE;  PAN-ISLAMISM. 
TRANRJOUDAMA. 

PALMEB,     A(LLXANDKB)     MllCHELL      (1872- 

).  An  Amcncan  lawyer  and  public  official, 
born  in  Moosehcad,  Pa  ,  and  educated  at  Swarth- 
more  College.  After  studying  law,  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  and  practiced  for  several  years 
in  Stroudsburg,  Pa.  He  was  a  member  of 'Con- 
gress from  1909  to  1915  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  appointed  judge  of  the  United  States  Court 
of  Claims.  This  post  he  resigned  after  a  few 
months.  He  was  appointed  Alien  Property  Cus- 
todian in  1917  and  served  until  1919,  when  he 
was  appointed  Attorney  General  of  the  United 
States  in  President  Wilson's  Cabinet.  He  was 
prominently  mentioned  as  a  presidential  candi- 
date in  1920.  Following  his  retirement  from 
political  life,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law. 

PALMEB,  FREDERICK  (1873-  ).  An 
American  author  and  war  correspondent,  born 
at  Pleasantville,  Pa.,  and  educated  at  Allegheny 
College.  From  1895  to  1897  he  was  a  newspaper 
correspondent  in  London.  As  a  war  correspond- 
ent he  witnessed  the  Greek  War  in  1897.  Dur- 
ing the  Spanish-American  War  he  was  in  the 
Philippines  and  accompanied  the  expedition  for 
the  relief  of  Peking,  China,  in  1900.  Other  cam- 
paigns in  which  he  was  correspondent  were  those 
in  Central  America  and  in  Macedonia  in  1903. 
lie  was  also  a  correspondent  in  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  and  accompanied  the  American 
Battleship  Fleet  in  its  round-the-world  cruise 
(1907-08).  He  investigated  conditions  in  Cen- 
tral America  in  1908-09  and  witnessed  the 
Turkish  revolution  in  1909  and  the  Balkan  War 
of  1912.  From  1914  to  1916  he  was  accredited 
correspondent  of  the  American  press  with  the 
British  army  and  fleet  and  in  1917  was  commie- 


PALMOBEN 

sioned  major  and  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  United 
States  Army  Signal  Reserve  Corps.  His  writ- 
ings include  Going  to  War  in  Greece  (1807); 
The  Ways  of  the  Service  ( 1901 ) ;  Central  Amer- 
ica and  Its  Problems  (1010);  My  Tear  of  the 
War  (1015);  My  Second  Year  of  the  War 
(1017)  ;  America  in  France  (1018) ;  Our  Great- 
est Battle  (1010);  and  The  Folly  of  Nations 
(1021). 

PALMGREN,  SEXIM  (1878-  ).  A  Fin- 
nish  composer,  born  at  Bjorneborg.  After  grad- 
uating from  the  Helsingfors  Conservatory  he 
continued  his  piauistic  studies  in  Berlin  with 
Ansorgc,  Berger,  and  Huron i.  He  was  conductor 
of  a  choral  society  in  Helsingfors  from  1002  to 
1004  and  in  1000-12  conducted  the  orchestral 
concerts  of  the  Music  Society  in  Abo.  He  has 
appeared  extensively  as  a  concert  pianist  and 
guest  conductor  in  Finland  and  Scandinavia. 
In  1000  he  married  the  famous  Finnish  soprano, 
Maikki  Pakarinen.  In  1021-22  both  artists 
made  a  very  successful  tour  of  the  United  States. 
Palmgren's  compositions  are  original  and  beau- 
tiful music  and  yet  conform  to  established  stand- 
ards. He  wrote  two  operas,  Daniel  Hjort 
(Helsingfors,  1010)  and  Peter  Schlemihl  (not 
produced)  ;  a  symphonic  poem,  Floden;  inci- 
dental music  to  Tukkimo;  three  concertos  for 
piano  and  orchestra,  and  songs  and  male  cho- 
ruses. Special  mention  should  be  made  of  his 
compositions  for  piano  solo,  which  show  his 
genius  at  its  best  and  deserve  to  rank  with 
similar  works  of  Orieg. 

PAN-AFRICAN  MOVEMENT.  See  AF- 
RICA. 

PANAMA.  A  Central  American  country 
situated  between  Colombia  and  Costa  Rica. 
Area,  32.380  square  miles;  population,  census  of 
1023,  446,008.  a  gain  of  29  per  cent  over  1010. 
The  Canal  Zone  (not  included  in  the  above) 
had  71.082  inhabitants  in  1011  and  22,858  in 
1020.  Panama,  the  capital,  had,  in  1020,  50,458 
(37,505  in  1011);  Colon,  31,203  (17,748  in  1011 ). 
In  the  330  government  public  schools,  33,255 
children  were  in  attendance  in  1022.  In  1011,  a 
national  college,  the  Institute  Nacional,  was 
erected 

Industry  and  Trade.  Only  a  small  area  con- 
tinued to  be  cultivated.  The  leading  crops  were: 
bananas,  coffee,  cacao,  caoutchouc.  Sugar  was 
beginning  to  take  on  importance,  the  production 
in  1022  being  6,055,700  pounds,  and  consump- 
tion, 8,000,000.  Tolmcco,  too,  was  becoming 
prominent.  As  a  result  of  the  extensive  cattle- 
rearing,  the  export  of  hides  was  large.  In  1005, 
there  were  65,000  cattle;  200,000  in  1010,  and 
300,000  in  1022.  The  trade,  during  the  decade 
1014-24,  showed  little  increase  except  for  1020, 
which  was  the  country's  most  prosperous  year. 
Imports  totaled  $17,561,004,  almost  50  per  cent 
greater  than  those  of  1013.  But  because  of  the 
ensuing  depression,  the  imports  dropped  to  $11,- 
372,370  for  1021,  and  $10,220,168  for  1022.  In 
1012,  the  United  States  supplied  53.7  per  cent 
of  the  imports,  Great  Britain  24.1  per  cent,  Ger- 
many 10.0  per  cent.  In  1020,  the  proportions 
were:  United  States,  76  per  cent;  Great 
Britain,  6.3  per  cent.  In  1922,  they  were: 
United  States,  68.4  per  cent;  Great  Britain,  0.2 
per  cent.  Exports,  by  comparison,  were  worth 
much  less.  In  1013  they  totaled  $5,383,028;  for 
1020,  $3,552,166;  for  1021,  $2,406,407,  and  for 
1022,  $2,487,478.  In  1021,  the  United  States 
took  03  per  cent  of  the  total  value,  and  in  1022, 
87  per  cent.  Bananas  annually  accounted  for 


97« 


PANAMA  CANAL 


more  than  half  the  exports,  Others  were:  coco- 
nuts, balata,  hides,  gum,  sugar.  Principal  im 
ports  were:  cotton,  iron,  steel,  flour.  All  the 
international  commerce  of  Panama  moved 
through  the  ports  of  Colon,  Panama  City,  and 
Cristobal  and  Bulbon  in  the  Canal  Zone. 

Finance.  The  finances,  reorganized  by  an 
American  fiscal  agent,  were  based  on  a  biennial 
budget.  For  the  period  1013  and  1014  the 
budget  balanced  at  $7,682,428.  For  1022,  rev- 
enues were  $5,200,000  and  expenditures  $6,000,- 
217.  The  foreign  debt  ut  the  beginning  of  1022 
was  $2,671,680.  In  1023  a  loan  of  $4,500,000 
was  floated  in  New  York  for  highway  construc- 
tion and  the  development  of  the  country's  re- 
sources. This  was  secured  by  the  income  from 
the  $0.000,000  which  Panama  had  invested  in 
New  York  City  real  estate  after  the  Canal  Zone 
purchase. 

History.  The  constitution,  as  amended  Dec. 
26,  1018,  provides  for  a  president  directly  elected 
and  ineligible  as  his  own  successor,  and  a  di- 
rectly elected  chamber  of  deputies.  The  pro- 
vincial governors  are  also  to  be  popularly 
chosen.  Presidents  for  the  period  were:  1012- 
16,  Belisario  Porras;  1016-20,  Ramon  M.  Valdez 
(died),  Ciro  L.  Urriola;  1020-24,  Belisario  Por- 
ras. By  the  treaty  between  Colombia  and  the 
United  States  (finally  ratified  in  1921)  the 
former  recognized  Panama's  independence. 
Panama,  having  been  an  Associated  Power  in 
the  War,  became  an  original  member  of  the 
League  of  Nations  Panama's  continued  refusal 
to  accept  the  White  decision  (1!)14)  in  respect 
to  her  boundary  dispute  with  Costa  Rica  led 
troops  of  the  latter  to  sei/c  the  town  of  Goto  on 
Feb.  28,  1021.  The  danger  of  general  hostilities 
caused  the  United  States  to  ofl'er  its  good  offices, 
which  both  sides  accepted  on  March  0.  The 
United  States  insisted  that  the  White  award  be 
accepted,  and  Panama,  still  piotesting,  was  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  her  troops  from  Coto.  In 
1022,  the  Hay-Bunau-Varilla  treaty  of  1003  with 
the  United  States  was  the  subject  of  discussion 
in  Washington,  the  purpose  being  the  removal  of 
those  causes  of  friction  under  which  Panama 
had  chafed  for  two  decades.  These  included 
property  valuations  for  the  Canal  /one,  a  free 
port,  docking  privileges,  etc.  In  1024,  negotia- 
tions were  begun  for  the  revision  of  the  Taft 
agreements  of  1024  regarding  the  Canal  Zone 

PANAMA  CANAL.  This  {41  eat  engineering 
work  was  opened  to  traffic  Aug.  15,  1014,  and 
since  that  time  has  proved  an  ever-increasing 
factor  in  the  commerce  of  the  world  It  is  used 
by  ships  of  practically  all  nations  having  mer- 
chant shipping  and  has  served  to  reduce  ma- 
terially the  time  and  cost  of  transportation 
from  one  continent  to  another.  The  canal  was 
opened  in  1014  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
in  the  latter  part  of  1013  there  had  been  se- 
rious earth  slides  in  Culebra  Cut,  and  on  Get 
13,  1014,  navigation  was  seriously  interfered 
with  until  the  material  could  be  dredged  out 
These  slides  have  occurred  from  time  to  time 
and  cut  off  traffic  from  September,  1015,  until 
Mar.  27,  1016;  but  since  that  time,  with  con- 
stant dredging  and  a  careful  study  of  local 
conditions,  it  has  been  possible  to  keep  the 
canal  open  to  traffic. 

As  the  canal  found  increased  use,  docks,  ware- 
houses, and  repair  facilities  were  provided  at 
either  end,  and  the  harbors  were  dredged  to 
give  access  for  the  largest  vessels  using  the 
canal.  Fortifications  protecting  the  canal  and 


PANAMA  CANAL 


its  works  were  constructed,  and  every  effort  was 
made  to  secure  its  maintenance  and  operation 
on  an  economical  and  efficient  basis.  In  fact, 
it  was  not  many  years  before  the  canal  more 
than  paid  all  operating  coats,  and  while  this 
did  not  take  into  consideration  the  overhead  and 
the  interest  on  the  original  outlay,  yet  it 
prevented  the  canal  from  being:  a  burden  to  the 
nation  The  cost  of  the  Panama  Canal  up  to 
the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1915, 
including  the  balance  of  appropi  iations  still  on 
hand  and  available  for  \\ork  in  progress,  was 
$3r>7,430,048,  from  winch  should  be  deducted  re- 
ceipts from  the  pale  of  construction  material  and 
equipment  and  the  value  of  buildings  and  plant 
turned  o^er  to  the  United  States  Ami}  and  the 
Alaska  Hallways  Additional  expense  was  of 
course  invohed  for  government  sanitation,  pay- 
ment to  the  Panama  government,  etc  ,  but  the 
sum  mentioned  covered  the  actual  cost  of  the 
project  See  UMTID  STATES 

The  growing  use  of  the  Panama  Canal  is  indi- 
cated by  the  accompanying  table  and  partiuiluily 
by  llio  statement  that  during  the  calendai  year 
1023,  5037  (omiuercicil  \esscls  passed  through 
the  canal,  a  gieatei  number  than  in  any  previous 
year  Ihe^e  vessels  had  an  aggiegate  net  ton- 
nage. Panama  ('anal  measurement,  of  24,737,437, 
CHI  lied  25,100,543  tons  of  cargo,  and  paid  $22,- 
!KiO,S3S.lS  in  tolls 


979 


(!nlcin- 

No   of 

Prtnuiim 

Tons  of 

'!  ,i 

ships 

(  anal  not 

Tolls 

caiRo 

year 

tonnage 

101  i  " 

:r>o 

1  2*  1  120.1 

$1,  ,"50^,737.56 

i,7r>8,fi2r> 

l<Mr>  '• 

1,1  ")4 

.5  00.2  5tt'2 

4,1247  4t>7  11 

4,H«a,4J2 

«Ui  ft 

1  'J17 

.5  M7  704 

3  <>71  1612  68 

4.774,822 

f  17 

1  ()t>0 

(j  JJ7,IT>I 

(),107  <»9<>  fa,M 

7,44ii,dlO 

'  1H 

12,070 

(•  401)  KH(> 

6  M17  lj">  39 

7.284,159 

1  ll> 

.»,!  J  I 

f)  J>4'.  OH- 

(>.973 00  ">  30 

7,177  945 

1  'JO 

12  814 

IO  '17*  2f>."» 

10  205  H(,2  21 

11/JM6.119 

1  21 

12  7h'{ 

11   4-ti.Ml 

11  2(.l  09*  M) 

10,707  oor> 

1<  L'L! 

12  007 

11:  o<>  '  '>7  : 

1J  17'*  107  77 

13  710,->->6 

1!)J  I 

-»  0  !7 

24  7  17   t'?7 

12U.O(»fi  MH  1H 

2^  100,545 

Tot,.l 

L'2  51.') 

8H  llrt  702 

85  972  321  63 

94,446,808 

"fnnal  opened   to  traffic    Aucr     15,   1914 

b  Cannl    closed    about    thieo   months   liy   slides 

A  total  of  2714  \essels  made  the  transit  of  the 
Canal  from  the  Atlantic  to  tlie  Pacific  as  com- 
pared with  2323  fiom  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic. 
In  tolls  $1 1534023  was  collected  on  vessels 
passing  fiom  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  as  com- 
pared with  $11,432,81357  on  vessels  from  the 
Pacific  to  the  Atlantic. 

An  important  de\elopment  was  the  increas- 
ing use  of  the  Panama  Canal  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  petroleum  l>y  tank  \essels  (see  PETRO- 
J,ETM),  for  the  most  part  loaded  on  the  coast  of 
California.  Dining  the  calendar  year  1023,  1704 
of  the  tank  ships  with  a  tonnage  of  10,070.021 
net  tons  passed  through  the  Panama  Canal,  pay- 
ing $8,007,04741  tolls,  and  carrying  0,625,714 
tons  of  cargo  This  was  33  S  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  of  tiansits  during  the  year,  4074 
per  cent  of  the  total  Panama  net  tonnage,  30  08 
per  cent  of  the  tolls  collected,  and  3H.25  per  cent 
of  the  cargo  carried  through  the  Canal.  Of 
these  vessels  800  were  laden  and  835  were  in 
ballast.  Of  the  former,  804  made  the  transit 
from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic  and  65  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  while  812  vessel*  in 
ballast  went  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
and  23  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic.  In  1022 
the  Panama  net  tonnage  of  tank  ships  passing 
through  the  Canal  was  1,557,931  tons,  with  a 
cargo  of  1,423,695  tons,  as  compared  with  10,- 


PAN-AMEBICAN 

079,021  Panama  net  tons  and  9,625,714  tons  of 
cargo  in  1923,  increases  of  647  per  cent  and  676 
per  cent  respectively.    See  COLOMBIA,  History. 
PANAMA     CANAL     TOLLS     ACT.    See 

UNITED  STATES,  Hilton/. 
PAN-AMERICAN  '  CONFERENCES.    The 

Fourth  Pan-American  Conference,  held  in  Buenos 
Aires  July  1-Aug  30,  1010,  closed  its  sessions 
without  deciding  on  the  seat  of  the  Conference 
to  be  held  during  1014.  Later,  in  1913,  the 
direction  of  the  Pan-American  Union  chose  San- 
tiago in  Chile  as  the  meeting  place  of  the  fifth 
Pan-American  Conference,  but  due  to  the  out- 
break of  the  War  in  1014  the  Conference  was 
postponed  indefinitely  Finally,  in  1922,  it  was 
decided  to  hold  the  Conference  in  the  City  of 
Santiago  during  1023  Meanwhile,  in  the  in- 
terval between  the  Fourth  and  the  Fifth  Con- 
ferences numerous  manifestations  of  Pan-Ameri- 
canism occurred  Thus  the  Second  Pan- 
American  Scientific  Congress,  \\hich  was  in  ses- 
sion at  Washington  during  the  three  weeks  fol- 
lowing Dec.  25,  lOl.i,  appointed  an  International 
High  Commission  \\hich  met  during  1016  The 
two  Financial  Conference^  which  met  in  Wash- 
ington in  1015  and  in  1()20  dealt  primarily  with 
questions  of  public  finance  and  with  the  mone- 
tary and  banking  situation  in  Pan -America  and 
resulted  in  the  creation  in  each  conntrv  of  a 
Financial  Hi  ah  Commission,  presided  over 
by  the  respective  minister  of  finance  At 
the  Conference  of  the  Pan-American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor  in  Laredo,  Texas,  in  Xo\emhei, 
101S,  which  vas  attended  by  delegates  from  the 
United  States,  Mexico,  and  Central  America,  a 
permanent  federation  uas  organized.  Two  Pan- 
American  Child  \\elfare  Congi esses  were  held 
in  Montevideo  in  December,  10 IS,  and  in  May, 
10 JO,  at  the  second  of  \\hirh  provisions  \\ere 
made  for  the  establishment  of  an  International 
Bureau  of  Child  Welfare.  The  Second  Pan- 
American  Commeicial  Conference  was  in  ses- 
sion in  Washington  during  June,  1010. 

The  Fifth  Pan-American  Conference  opened 
at  Santiago  on  Mar.  20,  1023,  and  closed  on 
May  11  after  a  session  as  to  the  results  of 
which  there  is  wide  dhergence  of  opinion.  All 
American  countries  were  represented,  except 
Canada,  which  lacked  "sovereignty,"  Mexico, 
which  at  the  time  vias  not  "recognized"  by  the 
United  States,  and  Peru  and  Bolivia,  which  re- 
fused to  attend  because  of  their  difleiences  with 
Chile  The  18  subjects  on  the  agenda  were  di- 
vided into  the  large  groups  disarmament,  polit- 
ical cooperation,  cooperation  in  commerce,  hy- 
giene, education,  agriculture,  etc.  The  most 
vital  question  by  far  was  the  disarmament  prob- 
lem, which  concerned  chiefly  Argentina,  Brazil, 
and  Chile,  since  the  United  States  was  covered 
by  the  Washington  Arms  Pact  and  the  other 
Latin  American  countries  had  only  insignificant 
armament.  If  the  chief  object  of  the  Conference 
was  the  fostering  of  closer  relations  between  the 
states  of  the  American  continent,  no  such  end 
was  attained  us  far  as  the  A  B  C  States  \u»ro 
concerned,  inasmuch  as  the  negotiations  on  dis- 
armament resulted  only  in  deepening  the  already 
existing  discord  between  them.  No  satisfactory- 
agreement  was  reached  due  to  differences  be- 
tween Argentina  and  Brazil,  each  of  which  ac- 
cused the  other  of  aggressive  aims  and  insisted 
on  her  own  pacific  intentions  While  the  Con- 
ference thus  ended  in  ill  feeling  between  the 
ABC  States,  it  was  not  necessarily  the  total 
failure  which  it  baa  been  regarded  in  many 


980 


PAN-GBBHANT&X 


circles,  for  the  disarmament  question  was  only 
one  out  of   18  subjects  before  the  Conference. 

Under  the  heading1  "political  co6peration"  the 
most  important  topic  under  discussion  was  the 
plan  for  the  formation  of  an  American  League 
of  Nations  for  which  there  seemed  to  be  strong 
sentiment  among  the  Latin  American  delegates. 
Two  methods  were  projected  to  accomplish  this, 
namely,  the  creation  of  a  new  association  of  the 
American  states  and  the  enlargement  of  the 
Pan-American  Union  which  was  the  ad  interim 
Executive  Committee  functioning  in  the  interval 
between  the  Pan-American  Conferences.  The 
Latin  Americans  were  able  to  wrest  an  important 
concession  from  the  United  States  with  respect 
to  the  composition  of  the  governing  board  of 
the  Pan-American  Union.  Hitherto  this  board 
had  been  composed  of  the  diplomatic  representa- 
tives of  the  American  states  in  Washington  and 
of  the  United  States  Secretary  of  State  as  per- 
manent president  Latin  Americans  considered 
this  system  highly  disadvantageous  to  them 
since  thereby  membership  was  restricted  to  coun- 
tries  enjoying  American  approval  and  since  the 
representatives,  due  to  their  diplomatic  status 
in  Washington,  were  prevented  from  comment- 
ing on  important  problems  with  the  necessary 
freedom.  Hence  at  Santiago  the  composition  of 
the  governing  board  was  attacked  by  the  Latin 
American  delegates  with  rather  un-Latin  blunt- 
ness  After  three  weeks  of  struggle  a  final  com- 
promise was  effected  whereby  it  was  provided 
that  the  board  should,  as  heretofore,  be  com- 
posed of  the  diplomatic  representatives  of  the 
American  states  in  Washington  and  of  the  United 
States  Secretary  of  State,  but  that  any  country 
not  having  accredited  representatives  in  Wash- 
ington, or  whose  representative  was  temporarily 
absent,  should  be  free  to  appoint  a  special  repre- 
sentative on  the  board.  At  the  same  time  the 
presidency  was  made  elective  and  Costa  Rica's 
proposal  for  the  free  appointment  of  any  person 
as  a  country's  representative  on  the  governing 
board  was  referred  to  the  governments  for  study 
In  contrast  to  this  partial  success,  Uruguay's 
proposal  to  bind  the  American  nations  closer 
together  by  the  formation  of  a  compact  American 
League  of  Nations  was  shelved  by  the  decision  to 
hold  over  the  plan  and  to  recommend  it  for  re- 
port to  the  next  Pan-American  Conference.  Dur- 
ing the  debate  on  this  subject  some  of  the  Latin 
American  nations,  led  by  Colombia,  made  some 
terse  statements  regarding  the  need  of  defining 
the  Monroe  Doctrine.  Although  the  United 
States  delegation  tried  consistently  to  ignore  the 
topic  it  was  finally  compelled,  under  pressure 
from  all  the  Latin  American  delegations,  to  state 
its  position,  which  was  that  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine was  a  unilateral  doctrine  for  which  the 
United  States  had  been  and  must  continue  to  be 
solely  responsible  A  forward  step  was  the  re- 
vival of  the  commission  of  jurists  to  codify 
American  international  law,  to  whose  next  meet- 
ing, set  for  1925  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  was  referred 
among  other  important  matters  the  proposal  of 
Costa  Rica  for  the  creation  of  an  American 
Court  of  Justice. 

Noticeable  progress  was  made  in  regard  to  the 
third  group  of  subjects  on  the  agenda,  viz.,  co- 
operation in  commerce,  education,  hygiene,  agri- 
culture, etc.  An  advance  was  made  toward  the 
solution  of  the  problem  of  the  adequate  protec- 
tion of  trad?  marks,  a  question  which  had  been 
before  nearly  every  Pan-American  Conference, 
by  an  agreement  which  protects  fully  the  laws 


and  conditions  of  every  American  country  and 
provides  a  simple  way  for  the  registering  of 
trade-marks  in  every  American  country.  The 
Committee  on  Hygiene  worked  out  a  complete 
programme  for  public  health  in  America  and 
reported  favorably  on  the  question  of  the  re- 
striction of  alcoholism  on  the  American  con- 
tinent. The  Committee  on  Education  recom- 
mended the  holding  of  a  Pan-American  Educa- 
tional Conference  in  Santiago  in  1025  to 
consider  the  exchange  of  professors  and  students 
and  the  standardization  of  university  courses, 
credits,  and  degrees 

PAN-AMERICAN  UNION.  See  PAN- 
AMEBICAN  CONFERENCES. 

PAN-QERMANISM.  The  term  Pan-Ger- 
manism has  a  twofold  meaning.  In  a  loose 
sense  it  is  a  term  popularly  employed  in  manv 
countries  to  stigmatize  what  \\as  regarded  as 
the  German  policy  of  imperialism  and  aggres- 
sion befoie  and  during  the  War.  This  popular 
application  of  the  term  to  German  political  and 
economic  imperialism,  or  Germany's  policy  an  a 
world  power,  was  strictly  an  outgrowth  of  war- 
psychology,  stimulated  by  effective  propaganda, 
and  was  valid  only  to  the  very  limited  degree  to 
which  German  world  policy  was  affected  by  the 
aims  and  the  doctrines  of  the  Pan-German  move- 
ment. It  was  only  this  latter  movement,  an  ex- 
pression of  extreme  German  nationalism,  which 
with  justice  could  be  called  Pan-German.  This 
movement,  which  had  its  inception  in  the  'S()'H 
and  'OO's  of  the  last  century  and  the  nucleus  of 
which  was  the  Pan-German  League,  a  numeri- 
cally weak  but  very  aggressive  and  vocal  group, 
aimed  at  the  creation  of  a  Gieater  Germain  — 
to  be  composed  of  the  German  Empire,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium  and  Swit- 
zerland— and  at  the  absolute  hegemony  of  this 
superstate  on  the  European  continent  At  the 
same  time  the  Pan-Germans  strove  for  world 
expansion,  naval  supremacy  and  an  extensive 
colonial  empire.  The  fundamental  thesis  under- 
lying these  aims  was  the  ethnical  superiority 
and  the  cultural  unity  of  the  Teutonic  peoples. 
In  the  German  Empire  the  Pan-Germans  were  a 
relatively  insignificant  group  and  at  the  most 
only  an  extreme  nationalist  minority.  In  the 
eyes  of  the  world  outside,  however,  and  espe- 
cially to  such  people  as  were  only  too  anxious  to 
find  manifestations  of  this  sort  in  Germany,  the 
Pan-Germans  were  proof  of  the  widespread  ex- 
stence  of  aggressive  designs,  and  their  vociferous 
clamoring  assumed  an  importance  which  was 
entirely  disproportionate  to  their  influence  on 
the  government  or  on  public  opinion.  Although 
the  government  attempted  with  bad  success  to 
suppress  the  Pan-Germans  as  much  as  possible 
and  the  latter  attacked  the  government's  policy 
as  sadly  inadequate  and  detrimental  to  Ger- 
many's true  interests,  Germany's  opponents  be- 
fore and  during  the  War  represented  the  Pan- 
German  fulminations  to  be  an  expression  of  the 
real  German  policy.  Thus  there  arose  slowly 
the  popular  conception  that  German  imperialism 
was  a  nation-wide  and  government-directed  Pan- 
German  scheme.  The  contrast  l>etween  the  Pan- 
Germans  and  the  German  government  was  at- 
tested by  the  attempts  of  the  latter  to  suppress 
the  Pan-German  publications  and  pamphlets  im- 
mediately after  the  outbreak  of  the  War. 

Throughout  the  War  the  Pan -Germans  stood 
for  the  application  of  ruthless  methods  of  war- 
fare, notably  for  the  unlimited  employment  of 
the  submarine,  and  for  the  most  far-reaching  an- 


PAN-ISLAMI81C  g 

nexations.  While  they  worked  in  close  harmony 
with  certain  military  and  naval  circles,  they 
exerted  little  influence  over  the  German  people 
and  met  with  determined  opposition  from  the 
civil  government.  It  was  only  due  to  the  inter- 
minable duration  of  the  War,  the  ever-increasing 
sacrifices,  and  the  insufferable  economic  hard- 
ships resulting  from  the  blockade  that  the 
government  and  public  opinion  were  finally  in- 
duced to  look  with  favor  on  unrestricted  sub- 
marine warfare  Whatever  hold  Pan-German 
ideas  had  obtained  on  the  people  during  the  War 
was  swept  away  during  1018  and  after  the 
Armistice  by  the  democratic  wave  which  came 
over  Germany.  The  Kapp  Putsch  in  March, 
1920,  a  Pan-German  attempt  to  seize  power,  was 
foiled  by  the  determination  of  the  workers.  If 
later  there  was  a  revival  of  Pan -German  ism,  it 
must  be  ascribed  to  the  Peace  Treaty  of  Ver- 
sailles and  its  dismal  consequences  for  Germany. 
The  complete  national  humiliation  and  degrada- 
tion, political  and  economic,  which  Germany  ex- 
perienced after  ID  11)  produced  a  recrudescence  of 
extreme  nationalism,  the  results  of  which  were 
numerous  parties  and  organizations  with  Pan- 
German  tendencies  Proof  of  the  revival  of 
Pan-Germanism  as  a  result  of  the  working  of  the 
Peace  Treaty  were  the  nationalist  activities  in 
Bavaria  during  1023  and  the  results  of  the  elec- 
tions in  May,  1924,  when  32  representatives  of 
the  Volkische  party  were  elected  to  the  Reichs- 
tag. The  Volkische  or  National  Socialist  party 
was,  in  1924,  the  strongest  and  most  vocal  ex- 
ponent of  Pan-German  ideas  See  WAR  IN  Eu- 
HOPK. 

PAN-ISLAMISM.  Pan-lslamism  is  a  move- 
ment which  aims  at  the  bringing  together  of  the 
Moslems  of  the  world  regardless  of  nationality. 
As  such  it  is  both  spiritual  and  practical  It 
had  existed  in  home  form  or  other  ever  since 
Islam  first  made  its  appearance,  but  entered  in 
modern  times  into  a  more  active  stage  under 
the  reign  of  the  Turkish  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  when  it  was  made 
to  serve  the  ends  of  the  Turkish  state  Despite 
their  free-thinking  religious  tendencies,  the  young 
Turks,  for  political  reasons,  adopted  in  1911  a 
definite  scheme  of  Pan-Islamic  propaganda  and 
worked  industiiously  in  the  direction  of  the 
union  of  the  Moslems  under  the  leadership  of 
Turkey  The  Turkish-Italian  War  and  the 
Balkan  Wars  gave  new  impetus  to  the  move- 
ment, and  the  Ottoman  empire  received  in  these 
struggles  the  sympathy  of  all  the  Moslems  as 
well  as  active  aid  from  many  Mohammedan 
quarters  outside  of  its  confines  At  the  same 
time,  however,  Pan-lslamism  in  its  broader  sense 
encountered  many  obstacles.  The  Young  Turks 
themselves,  by  reason  of  the  particular  char- 
acter of  their  doctrine,  were  more  and  more 
drifting  into  Pan-Turanian  (q.v  )  channels.  The 
spread  of  nationalism  in  various  Moslem  coun- 
tries like  Mesopotamia  and  Syria  was  detri- 
mental to  Turkish  Pan-Islamism  Other  Mo- 
hammedan peoples,  and  particularly  the  Arabs, 
while  quite  willing  to  acknowledge  the  religious 
power  of  the  Sultan,  objected  to  his  assumption 
of  secular  power  over  the  non-Turkish  Moslems. 
On  the  whole  the  doctrine  of  Pan  Islam  ism,  as 
set  forth  by  the  Turks,  i.e.  the  concerted  action 
of  all  the  Moslems  of  the  world  under  the 
leadership  of  the  Sultan  at  Constantinople,  was 
rather  vague  and  suffered  from  many  incon- 
sistencies,  as  was  conclusively  proved  by  the 
events  of  the  War.  When  Turkey  entered  the 


I  PAN-ISLAMI8H 

War  on  the  side  of  the  Central  Powers,  the 
Grand  Mufti  issued  a  call  to  all  Moslems  to  de- 
fend, in  the  Jihad  or  "Holy  War,"  the  Islamic 
faith  against  the  "Infidels/'  The  call  to  arms 
was  by  no  means  generally  effective,  since  it  was 
realized  by  many  Mohammedan  leaders  that 
Turkey  had  entered  the  war  as  ally  of  infidel 
powers.  Moreover,  the  loyalty  of  the  depend- 
encies of  Great  Britain,  France,  Russia,  and 
Italy,  or  perhaps  the  apathy  of  their  inhabi- 
tants to  the  Turkish  cause,  proved  in  most  cases 
stronger  than  the  incitement  to  religious  fanati- 
cism. Even  in  the  Ottoman  Empire  itself  the 
support  was  by  no  means  encouraging.  The 
Arabs,  who  had  long  resented  the  heavy  hand  of 
their  Turkish  overlords,  revolted  and  by  their 
timely  aid  helped  the  English  to  eliminate  Turk- 
ish rule  in  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  Palestine,  and 
Syria.  The  result  of  this  revolt  was  the  Arabic 
Kingdom  of  the  Iledjaz  and  the  loss  to  Turkey 
of  the  Holy  Places  in  defense  of  which  the 
Jihad  was  to  be  waged.  The  greatest  success 
which  the  Turkish  "Holy  War"  was  able  to 
register  was  the  rising  of*  the  Senussites,  a  Mo- 
hammedan sect  of  great  power  in  northeastern 
Africa  and  the  eastern  Sahara.  The  Jihad  of 
the  Senussites  was  conducted  for  several  years 
against  the  British  on  the  western  border  of 
Egypt  and  in  the  Sudan,  and  against  the  Italians 
in  Tripoli,  but  failed  finally,  chiefly  because  of 
the  failure  of  the  adjoining  Mohammedan  peoples 
to  support  the  movement.  In  the  central  and 
east  Asiatic  possessions  of  Great  Britain  and 
Russia,  and  in  the  French  possessions  in  Africa, 
the  "Holy  War"  aroused  little  enthusiasm,  pri- 
marily because  the  inhabitants  of  these  regions 
were  too  far  removed  from  the  scene  of  action  to 
take  great  interest  in  the  Turkish  cause  and  to 
exert  themselves  for  a  Turkish  Caliph  of  whom 
they  perhaps  had  never  heard  Another  reason 
for  the  failure  of  the  "Holy  War"  was  the  fact 
that  the  old-time  Jihad,  based  on  religious  fa- 
naticism, was  an  antiquated  method  of  waifare 
in  the  twentieth  century.  It  is  no  doubt  true, 
however,  that  the  Jihad  and  the  Turkish  Pan- 
Islamic  movement  succeeded  in  stirring  up  un- 
rest in  the  Asiatic  and  African  possessions  of 
the  Allies,  but  at  no  time  did  the  situation  be- 
come serious  Even  Afghanistan,  which  was 
pro-Turkish  arid  ant i- British  in  sentiment,  failed 
to  take  up  arms  against  the  Allies  at  that  time. 
With  the  breakup  of  the  Ottoman  Kmpire  and 
the  rise  of  the  neu  Turkish  Nationalist  state  in 
Anatolia,  the  main  driving  force  behind  Pan- 
lslamism  as  it  had  been  uridci  stood  before  and 
during  the  War  disappeared  The  Turks  had 
always  been  strangers  to  the  greater  number  of 
the  Moslem  population  and  the  Turkish  Nation- 
alists devoted  their  attention  now  to  their  Tu- 
ranian kinsmen,  many  of  whom  were  non- 
Moslems.  Thus  the  Pan -Turanian  movement  en- 
tered into  a  more  vigorous  stage.  The  Arabs,  on 
the  other  hand,  who  during  and  after  the  War 
had  come  into  their  own  and  who  for  historical 
and  other  reasons  should  have  been  the  natural 
protagonists  of  Pan-lslamism,  had  since  the  War 
gone  in  for  Arab  nationalism  In  addition,  they 
were  divided  by  old  tribal  differences  and  ani- 
mosities and  in  Arabia  itself  bitter  feud  pre- 
vented any  cooperation  between  the  King  of  the 
Iledjaz  and  the  Wahabites,  the  two  all-powerful 
factions  in  the  country.  The  most  conscious  ex- 
pression of  the  Pan-Islamic  idea  was  to  be  found 
in  the  post-war  period  among  the  Moslems  of 
India,  the  leaders  of  whom  set  afoot  an  active 


g8* 


PAN-TTTBANIANISM 


propagandist  movement  and  preached  by  word  of 
mouth  and  through  writings  the  union  of  the 
Mohammedan  peoples.  In  spite  of  its  apparent 
inertia  in  the  last  years,  however,  Pan-lslamism 
was  latent  in  the  steadily  growing  unrest  and 
revolt  against  the  West,  which,  without  any  cen- 
tral direction  for  nationalistic  or  imperialistic 
ends,  had  been  taking  shape  in  the  Asiatic  world 
since  the  Armistice.  This  revolt  of  the  East 
against  the  West  contained  all  the,  essential  ele- 
ments of  Pan-lslamism,  but  was  in  character 
quite  different  from  the  Turkish  conception  of 
this  movement.  It  was  a  spiritual  creed  and 
embodied  at  the  same  time  a  complete  social 
system.  In  this  sense  it  was  the  natural  counter- 
part of  the  Western  nationalistic  movement  and 
a  force  with  which  the  \ATestern  Powers  had  to 
reckon.  That  these  powers  had  some  realization 
of  this  fact  was  clearly  manifested  by  the  eager- 
ness with  which  Great  Britain  and  Fiance  at- 
tempted to  capture  the  leadership  of  the  Pan- 
Islamic  movement  upon  the  abolition  of  the  Cali- 
phate by  the  Turkish  Nationalists.  While  the 
situation  in  the  Moslem  world  was  very  hazy  and 
undefined,  one  thing  seemed  certain,  namely, 
that  Western  materialism  had  encountered  se- 
rious Islamic  opposition.  "The  theory  of  the 
spiritual  and  cultural  unity  of  Islam/'  said  the 
Aga  Khan,  "is  the  foundation  of  its  life  and 
soul "  See,  also,  ABASIA,  CALIPHATE,  PAN- 

TtJRANIANISM,  TlRKEY. 

PAN-SEBBIANISM.     See  WAR  IN  EUROPE. 

PAN-TTJRANIANISM.  The  term  Pan- 
Turanian  ism  is  usually  applied  to  the  rather 
loose  and  vague  movement  which  aims  at  the 
awakening  of  a  sense  of  racial  unity  among  all 
the  various  peoples  of  supposedly  Turanian 
stock,  and,  through  this  means,  the  establish- 
ment of  political  cohesion  among  these  peoples. 
Within  this  wider  movement  Pan-Turanianism 
is  also  used  to  describe  in  a  more  definite  sense 
Turkish  aspirations  toward  the  creation  of  a 
large  Turanian  state  to  be  constituted  of  certain 
closely  related  Turanian  peoples  and  to  operate 
under  the  hegemony  of  the  Osmanli  Turks  in  op- 
position to  other  races  alien  to  the  Turanian  stock 
and  particularly  to  the  expansion  of  the  Western 
Powers  in  Asia  Pan-Turanianism  therefore  cov- 
ers a  broad  racial  and  cultural  movement  which 
strives  toward  Turanian  racial  and  linguistic 
unity  arid  a  more  concrete  political  movement. 
Although  the  drawing  of  clear  lines  of  demarca- 
tion would  be  dangerous,  differentiation  should 
be  made  between  the  wider  cultural  or  truly 
Pan -Turanian  movement  and  the  more  concrete 
Pan -Turkish  or  Pan-Turco-Tatar  movement. 
In  spite  of  its  10  or  more  years  of  existence,  the 
former  is  still  very  undefined  and  represents  at 
best  a  hazy  ideal  which  faces  insurmountable 
obstacles  ^Pan-Turanianism  is  distinct  from 
Pan-lslamism,  both  from  the  Turkish  variety 
which  existed  before  and  during  the  War  and 
from  the  post-war  movement  for  the  religious, 
cultural,  and  social  unity  of  the  Islamic  peoples. 
A  large  percentage  of  the  Turanians  are  non- 
Moslems,  and  for  this  reason  the  protagonists 
of  Pan-Turanianism  were  forced  to  substitute 
for  the  powerful  appeal  to  religious  fanaticism 
the  less  potent  appeal  for  racial  and  cultural  co- 
operation Notwithstanding  this  distinction  and 
certain  anti-Moslem  tendencies  in  the  wider 
movement,  Pan-Turanianism  is  capable  of  effec- 
tive cooperation  with  Pan-lslamism.  This  ap- 
plies particularly  to  the  narrower  or  Turkish 
Pan-Turanian  scheme  which  aims  at  the  creation 


of  a  state  wherein  Islam  would  be  the  dominant 
religion,  and  which  in  its  appeal  to  the  Moslem 
Turanians  made  effective  use  of  the  religious 
motive.  If  carried  to  its  logical  conclusion, 
Pan-Turanianism  would  clash  irreconcilably  with 
Pan-lslamism.  The  great  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  a  realization  of  the  wider  Pan-Turanian  aims 
become  apparent  on  consideration  of  the  ethnical 
groups  which  are  regarded  as  component  parts 
of  the  all-including  Turanian  political  and  cul- 
tural combination.  The  Turanian  family  is  com- 
monly divided  into  five  groups :  ( 1 )  the  Finno- 
Ugrians  in  Scandinavia,  Hungary,  European 
Russia,  and  Siberia;  (2)  the  Samoyeds  in  north- 
ern European  Russia  and  in  northern  and  cen- 
tral Siberia;  (3)  the  Tungus  in  central  and 
eastern  Silieria  and  Manchuria;  (4)  the  Mon- 
gols in  Mongolia  and  the  Caucasus;  (5)  the 
Turks  or  Turco-Tatars  on  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
and  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Caucasus,  northern  Per- 
sia, the  Volga  region,  Russian  Central  Asia, 
Russian  and  Chinese  Turkestan,  and  southwest- 
ern, eastern,  and  northeastern  Siberia.  These 
peoples  inhabit  regions  stretching  from  the 
North  Cape,  the  Danube,  and  the  Dardanelles  to 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  and  the  desert  of  Gobi. 
They  adhere  to  such  widely  different  religions 
as  Christianity,  Islam,  Buddhism,  and  Shaman- 
ism. Although  their  languages  form  one  lin- 
guistic family,  they  show  many  and  wide  dif- 
ferences. Their  cultural  stages  range  from  the 
high  European  culture  of  the  Magyars  and  the 
Finns  through  many  variations  down  to  the 
primitive  level  of  the  Samoyeds,  Tungus,  and 
Yakuts.  For  these  reasons  alone,  aside  from 
political  and  economic  considerations,  the  weld- 
ing together  of  these  cultural  and  territorially 
widely  separated  groups  into  one  coherent 
movement  seemed  a  rather  fantastic  enterprise. 
The  more  practical  aspect  of  the  Pan-Turan- 
ian movement  concerns  itself  solely  with  the 
political  and  cultural  union  of  the  various  peo- 
ples belonging  to  the  Turkish  or  Turco-Tatar 
branch  of  the  Turanian  family.  Since  the 
Turco-Tatars,  with  the  exception  of  the  Yakuts 
in  Siberia,  inhabit  contiguous  stretches  of  ter- 
ritory from  Rumelia  to  the  border  of  Mongolia, 
a  Pan-Turanian  movement  in  this  limited  sense 
presents  a  much  more  feasible  programme  than 
the  wider  movement.  These  peoples,  moreover, 
are  all  adherents  of  Islam,  and  between  them 
a  close  cultural  and  linguistic  affinity  exists. 
At  the  close  of  the  War  the  Turco-Tatars  num- 
bered roughly  20,000,000,  of  winch  about  10,- 
000,000  lived*  in  the  territory  of  the  existing 
Turkish  state.  While  union  of  all  peoples  of 
the  five  Turanian  branches  is  only  a  fantastic 
theory,  the  movement  for  political,  cultural,  and 
religious  cohesion  between  the  Turco-Tatars  was 
a  practical  policy,  pregnant  with  great  pos- 
sibilities. This  is  chiefly  the  result  of  the  un- 
settled conditions  which  exist  in  the  Near  East 
and  Central  Asia  in  consequence  of  the  peace 
treaties  and  the  Russian  Revolution.  Turkey, 
shorn  almost  completely  of  her  alien  subject 
races,  emerged  from  the  War  as  a  compact 
Turco-Tata  state  Smaller  in  territory  but 
stronger  in  vitality  than  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
nationalist  Turkey  abandoned  the  Caliphate  and 
the  old  Turkish  Pan-Islamic  policy,  evolved 
a  race-consciousness  based  on  the  barely  Osmanli 
Turk  peasant  population  of  the  Anatolian 
plateau,  and  adopted  a  Pan-Turanian  policy. 
Instead  of  aiming  at  the  subjection  of  the  alien 
races  to  the  Northwest  and  South,  Turkey  be- 


PAN-TUEANIANISM 


gun  lo  look  eastward,  to  her  Tatar  and  Turco- 
man kinsmen.  Direct  effects  of  the  Russian 
Involution,  such  as  the  establishment  of  the  in- 
dependent republic  of  Azerbaijan  and  the  open- 
ing of  Russian  Central  Asia  to  Turkish  in- 
fluence, brought  this  policy  clearly  within  the 
realm  of  "Realpolitik."  in  the  very  obscure 
and  hazy  picture  which  Central  Asia  presented 
in  the  first  five  years  after  the  V\rar,  strong 
Turkish  influences  could  lie  discerned  at  work  and 
there  were  many  indications  that  a  definite 
policy  was  being  puisued  with  the  view  of  creat- 
ing a  Turanian  federation,  to  consist  of  Tur- 
key, Azerbaijan,  Turkestan,  and  Afghanistan. 
The  actual  conclusion  of  treaties  by  Turkey  with 
Azerbaijan  and  Afghanistan  in  11)22  coiild  lie 
considered  as  a  definite  step  in  this  direction. 
At  the  same  time  Knver  Pasha,  uho  had  been 
branded  a  traitor  b\  tlio  Kemalists  at  Angora 
and  who  previously  had  been  active  in  the  Cau- 
casus, pursued  in  Turkestan  a  Pan-Turanian 
policy  of  his  own.  In  1021  and  11)22  lie  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  Tuicoman  bands  and  at- 
tempted to  establish  in  this  region  a  Turanian 
state  in  opposition  to  the  Central  siatic  policy 
of  Soviet  Russia.  Hi  a  defeat  by  Soviet  troops 


983  PAPER  AND  WOOD  PULP 

nettled  conditions  in  the  Near  East  and  Central 
Asia.  See  TURKESTAN,  RUSSIAN. 

PAPER.    See  CHEMISTRY,  ORGANIC. 

PAPER  AND  WOOD  PULP.  The  growth  in 
the  paper  arid  wood  pulp  industries  during  the 
first  25  years  of  the  twentieth  century  was  ex- 
traordinary, and  the  increased  production  of 
printed  matter  of  vaiious  kinds  was  remarkable 
in  most  of  the  civilized  countries.  The  United 
Htates  ranks  first  among  tae  paper-producing 
countries  of  the  woild  and  is  followed  by  Great 
Britain,  Canada,  and  Oermany,  in  the  order 
mentioned,  although  other  countries  contribute 
wood  pulp,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  industry. 
The  1020  world  production  of  paper  was  es- 
timated at  some  14,000000  tons,  of  which  the 
I'nited  States  contributed  more  than  half.  In 
fact  the  paper  and  printing  industries  combined 
ranked  sixth  in  the  general  f-ensus  of  United 
States  manufactures  taken  in  1021.  Among  the 
four  major  groups  when  considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  product,  they  were  worth  $3,162,- 
7.12,000,  distributed  as  indicated  in  the  accom- 
panying table,  which  gives  statistics  for  the 
census  years  1910  and  1021  and,  where  compa- 
table,  for  11)14 


PM'KK    \ND   PKINTING  INDUSTRIES 

Census 
year 

Esta!) 
lish- 
ments 

Wage 
oarneis 

Wages 

Cost 
of  ma- 
terials 

Thousands 

Value 
added  by 
manu- 
facture 

of    dollars 

Value  of 
product 

Tot  sil 

Paper   and   wood   pulp 

MdtiufiK  lures       of       p/i 
in«r    wnll    paper    not 
poi     mills 
Printing,        publishing, 
industries 

f  1921 
!  1919 
I  1914 

f  1921 
•I  1919 
1  1911 
ipoi,        includ-  |  1921 
made    in    pa-  {  1919 
'  l'H4 
and       allied  |  1921 
!  1919 
I  1914 

25,344 
36  40  '< 
37,196 

4f,8.286 
509,875 
4.VJ.900 

639,124 
504,510 

1,336,232 
1,306,718 

1,826,500 
1,705,866 

3,162,732 
3,012,584 
1,456,046 

726 
729 
718 
1,880 

22,738 
33,707 
33,171 

105,294 
113,759 
88,451 
80,279 
94,759 

282,713 
301,357 
272,092 

127,029 
135,691 
53,  Mb 
76,520 
77,408 

435,575 
351,411 
195.510 

445,992 
167,483 
213,181 
224  416 
253,742 

665,824 
581,493 
257,8-17 

221,414 
320,577 
118,966 
190,479 
210,172 

1,411,577 
1,175,118 
643,687 

667,436 
788,059 
332,147 
414,895 
463,914 

2,080,401 
1,760,610 
901.535 

Huivuu   of   the    Censu.s ,    1921    preliminary   figures 


and  liis  reported  death  in  1022  uere  a  temporary 
setback  to  the  Pan-Tin anian  mo\  einent.  Not- 
withstanding apparent  cooperation  between  An- 
s»oin  and  MORCOU  in  Cential  Asia,  foi  purposes 
of  present-day  policy,  Pan-Turanian  ism  and  com- 
munism aie'  fundamentally  at  \ariance,  and 
clashes  between  the  two  policies  based  on  these 
doctiinos  are  bound  to  appear  in  the  future. 


At  the  base  of  paper  manufacturing  was  the 
production  of  pulp,  \\liich  in  1922  amounted  to 
.S,4(i4,2.'>8  tons,  or  slightly  less  than  the  record 
pioduction  of  1020,  S.MiT.ti.lG.OOO  tons.  There 
aie  four  majoi  giades  of  pulp,  and  the  propor- 
tionate production  in  the  United  States  from 
1014  to  1022  is  indicated  in  the  accompanying 
table. 


PRODUCTION   OF   PULP   IN   TTIK    UNITED   STATES 
(Tons  of  20  00  pounds) 


Orndes 


1911 


1919 


1920 


1921 


1922 


Total                

2,893,150 

3.3H4.768 

3,807,656 

2,801,438 

3,  -164,258 

Ground    wood       
Sulphite        

.      1,305,130 
.      1,187,151 
52,641 

1.449,799 
1.385,706 
161,887 

1,578,300 
1,576,676 

212,888 

1,268,012 
1,105,905 
148,165 

1,481,935 
1,331,691 
256,107 

Soda                       

347,928 

377,473 

431,971 

272,287 

383,055 

Other   than    wood   pulp               

9,903 

7,821 

7,069 

11,470 

Sources-     Figures  for  1914  from  the  report  of  tho  Bureau   of  the  Census,    Paper  and  Wood   Pulp;    1919-22 
figures  from  Federal  Trade   Commission   Summary  for   1922. 


There  is  more  room  for  harmony  between  Pan- 
Turanianism  and  Pan-Islamism  in  Central  Asia. 
On  the  whole  the  limited  Pan-Turanian  move- 
ment aiming  at  a  union  of  the  Turco-Tatar 
peoples  contained  a  strong  element  of  realism 
and  had  marked  political,  economic,  and  cultural 
possibilities,  particularly  in  view  of  the  un- 


The  United  States  does  not  produce  all  the 
vvood  pulp  used  in  its  paper  industry,  and  con- 
siderable amounts  of  sulphite  chemical  wood 
pulp,  both  bleached  and  unbleached,  and  sul- 
phate pulp,  principally  unbleached,  are  imported 
from  Canada,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Finland. 
The  amount  of  sulphite  imported  in  1923  was 


PAPEB  AND  WOOD  PULP 

712,393  tons,  valued  at  $48,701,077.  This  mate- 
rial entered  the  United  States  free  of  duty,  and 
so  did  the  sulphate  wood  pulp,  of  which,  in  un- 
bleached form,  233,503  tons,  imported  in  1023, 
were  valued  at  $1.1,204,012.  The  principal  quan- 
tity came  from  Canada,  which  supplied  131,- 
168  tons,  as  compared  with  76,552  tons  for 
Sweden.  Of  the  sulphite  in  1923,  Canada  fur- 
nished 299,183  tons,  followed  hy  Sweden  with 
201,023  tons,  Finland  with  70,665  tons,  and  Nor- 
way with  68,071  tons. 

In  1921  the  United  States  Census  of  Manu- 
factures showed  that  out  of  726  mills  in  the 
entire  country,  New  York  had  153  and  was  fol- 
lowed hy  Massachusetts  and  Wisconsin  with 
69  and  62  mills  respectively.  These  three  States 
indicated  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
industry,  as  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  were 
first  in  the  number  of  mills,  while  New  England 
and  the  Lake  States  were  second  and  third  re- 


984 


PAPINI 


cept  printed  matter  in  the  year  1923  aggregated 
$25,677,685  in  value,  of  which  newsprint  ac- 
counted for  $1,636,937;  book  paper,  $3,001,149. 
Wrapping-paper,  paper-board  and  straw-board, 
writing-paper,  and  photographic  paper  were 
among  the  other  leading  exports.  The  produc- 
tion of  newsprint  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  is  indicated  in  the  accompanying  table, 
which  shows  the  steady  character  of  the  in- 
dustry in  the  United  "states  as  well  as  the 
marked  increase  in  Canada.  In  the  period  un- 
der review  there  was  an  increase  in  prices 
which  reached  a  maximum  of  about  $.0008  in 
January,  1921,  from  which  it  declined  to  $.0375 
in  January,  1923.  The  increased  demand  for 
newsprint  was  due  largely  to  the  great  exten- 
sion of  advertising,  especially  in  the  daily  and 
Sunday  papers,  and  it  was  estimated  that  "$700,- 
000,000  was  expended  for  newspaper  advertis- 
ing alone  in  1922. 


NEWSPRINT  PRODUCTION  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA 

(Thousands  of  tons) 
1913   1914    1915    1910   1917    1918    1919    1920    1921    1922 


United   Staleb 
Canada    

1 

,305 
350 

1,283 
415 

1,239 
489 

1,315 
608 

1,359 
686 

1,260 
735 

1,375 
803 

1,012 
876 

'808 

1,14* 
1.082 

Totul 


1,655        1,698        1,728        1,923        2,045        1,995        2,178        2,388        2,033        2,530 


spectively.  At  the  beginning  of  11)23  there  were 
1091  paper-making  machines  witli  an  estimated 
capacity  of  9,560,000  tons  per  annum,  and  the 
normal  running  time  of  each  machine  was  stated 
to  be  270  days,  about  75  per  cent  of  the  actual 
capacity.  It  will  appear  from  the  following 
table  that  the  production  of  paper  increased  in 
the  United  States  up  to  1920,  when  the  peak  was 
attained  with  a  total  output  of  7,334,614  short 
tons.  There  was  a  considerable  falling  off  in 
1921  due  to  the  carrying  over  into  that  year  of 
surplus  stock  from  1920,  and  in  the  years  1922 
and  1923  the  quantities  produced  were  less,  al- 
though in  1923  there  was  an  increase  in  value. 
The  table  indicates  the  distribution  of  the  pro- 
duction for  1914  and  the  years  1919-22  and  also 
shows  the  development  and  production  in  the 
various  lines. 


The  Canadian  paper  industry  from  1914  to 
1924  developed  extraordnuiily.  not  only  for 
newsprint  but  also  for  book  paper  and  writing- 
paper.  The  newsprint  product  ion,  which  in 
1913  had  been  less  than  400,000  tons,  had  in- 
creased to  875,696  by  1920,  and  after  a  tem- 
porary decline  in  1921,  reached  a  maximum  of 
1,166,225  tons  in  1923,  of  which  1,043,139  tons 
were  exported.  The  United  States  took  102,- 
558  tons.  For  Conservation  movement,  see  FOR- 
ESTRY. 

PAPINI,  GIOVANNI  (1881-  ).  An  Ital- 
ian writer  (see  VOL.  XV1I1).  He  was  the  ed- 
itor of  Lacerba  from  11)13  to  1915  and  La 
Vrate  Italic  in  1919.  Converted  to  Catholicism 
in  1920,  he  published  in  the  following  year  a 
Life  of  Christ  which  was  translated  into  several 
languages  and  had  a  tremendous  sale  all  over 


ANNUAL  PRODUCTION  OF  PAPER  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES 
(Tons  of  2000   pounds) 


Grades 


1914 


1919 


1920 


1921 


1922 


Totul     

5,270,047 

0,190,301 

7,334,614 

5,356,317 

7,017,800 

1,31.3,284 

1.374,517 
914,823 
1,950,037 
809,631 
343,  7G2 
153,400 
92,136 
281,962 
208,093 

1,511,968 
1,104,464 
2,313,449 
1,043,812 
389,322 
177,447 
113,824 
366,941 
313,387 

1,226,189 
725,992 
1,664,931 
782,468 
212.485 
148,142 
69,725 
286,111 
210,274 

1,447,688 
9M1.910 
2,156,113 
1,048,393 
301,050 
197,524 
91,894 
421,786 
311,433 

Book                         

921,183 

Boar<|                  .  .          

1,291,805 

.  .     .            .       ..          911,029 

Writing       

247,728 

Tissue           

.       .               115,401 
96,527 

243,908 

All  other    .  .      .  .              

129,182 

Sources*     Figures   for   1914   from   the   Bureau   of  the 
flion  Summary   for  1922. 

The  United  States  also  imported  considerable 
paper,  principally  newsprint,  which  entered  from 
Canada  free  of  duty  and  in  1023  amounted  to 
2,017,685,620  pounds,  valued  at  $98,021,045. 
Out  of  total  imports  of  paper  of  $116,137,795, 
the  foreign  paper  entering  the  United  States  did 
not  compete  seriously  with  the  domestic  product 
as  American  mills  could  not  supply  the  great 
demand  for  newsprint.  In  regard  to  exports, 
however,  American  manufacturers  do  not  com- 
pete actively  on  the  basis  of  price  but  rather  on 
that  of  quality.  The  total  exports  of  paper  ex- 


Censub;   figures  for   1919-22,   Federal  Trade  Commin- 

the  world.  In  1122  Four  and  Twenty  Minds 
( Ventiquattro  Cervelli)  was  published.  It  was 
a  collection  of  essays  written  between  1902  and 
1912.  In  his  Life  of  Christ  Papini  made  no  at- 
tempt to  apply  any  of  the  learned  techniques  of 
modern  criticism.  lie  contented  himself  like  a 
true  believer  in  rewriting  the  story  of  the  Gos- 
pels in  an  artistic  and  imaginative  fashion.  In 
America  the  book  was  highly  praised  by  many 
clergymen  but  was  at  the  same  time  severely 
criticized  by  professional  scholars.  In  1924 
Papini  was  invited  to  lecture  at  Columbia  Uni- 


PAPUA 


versity  on  Italian ^life  and  literature,  but  did  not 
accept.  His  autobiography,  The  Failure,  was 
translated  and  published  in  New  York  in  1024. 
•See  ITALIAN  LITERATURE. 

PAPTJA.    See  NEW  GUINEA. 

PAPYRI.       See    PHILOLOGY,    CLASSICAL. 

PAQUET,  ALFONS  (1881-  ).  A  German 
writer  and  traveler,  born  at  Wiesbaden,  and  edu- 
cated there  and  at  the  School  of  Commerce  in 
London  as  well  as  the  Universities  of  Heidel- 
berg, Jena,  and  Munich.  Tie  traveled  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  world.  Of  his  many  works 
may  be  mentioned:  Auf  Erden  (1900);  Held 
Xamenlos  (1911);  Kamer ad  Fleming  (1911); 
Li  Oder  im  Neuen  Oaten  (1912)  ;  Limo,  der  Oros- 
se  ReatumHgc  Diener  (1913);  Erzahlungen  an 
Bord  (1914);  In  Palaatina  (1915);  Wach  Oaten 
(1915)  ;  Im  Kommunistischen  Russland  (1919)  ; 
Der  Geist  der  Ruttttischen  Revolution  (1919); 
and  Der  Rhein  als  Rchicksal  (1920). 

PARAGUAY.  A  republic  of  South  America 
with  an  estimated  area  of  190,000  square  miles. 
The  population  was  estimated  at  800,000.  The 
capital,  Asuncion,  had  an  estimated  population 
of  99,830  in  1920.  Other  large  towns  are: 
Villarrica,  34,500;  Concepcion,  25,000;  Encarn- 
acion,  10,000.  Immigration  increased  little,  in 
1920  only  330  immigrants  receiving  state  aid, 
and  in  1921,  only  570.  In  August,  1921,  in  the 
27  National  Colonies  there  was  a  population  of 
13,808  of  whom  7755  were  males.  Education 
was  still  backward  and  in  1919  the  total  school 
registration  was  only  80,000  pupils. 

Industry  and  Trade.  Agriculture  and  graz- 
ing were  the  leading  activities  though  morn 
than  half  the  total  acreage  was  unexploited. 
The  following  products  figured  in  Paraguay's 
foreign  trade  in  1922-  extract  of  quebracho 
(used  in  tanning),  37,799,984  kilos;  quebracho 
logs,  1,013,090  kilos;  mate!  (Paraguayan  tea), 
5,186.587  kilos:  oranges,  110,008,207  kilos;  to- 
bacco, 4,177.073  kilos.  The  cattle  industry  con- 
tinued to  increase  up  to  1920,  there  being  5,249,- 
043  cattle  in  1910.  Other  animals  included: 
000,000  sheep,  478,000  horses,  25,000  asses  and 
mules,  61,000  pigs,  and  87,000  goats.  In  1922, 
299,522  hides  were  exported  and  1,553,572  kilos 
of  jerked  beef.  Sugar  and  cotton  were  receiv- 
ing greater  attention.  The  sugar  production  in 
1920  was  5230  tons;  in  1921,  2579  tons;  in  1922, 
2400  tons.  In  1922,  844,219  kilos  of  ginned  and 
unginned  cotton  were  exported.  The  1922  pro- 
duction of  cotton  was  7000  metric  tons.  The 
country  enjoyed  great  prosperity  during  the 
War  because  of  the  world  demand  for  meats, 
but  the  depression  of  1921-22  hit  Paraguay  par- 
ticularly because  of  the  low  quality  of  its  beef. 
The  result  was  the  absolute  disappearance  of 
any  market  for  Paraguayan  cattle.  The  fluc- 
tuations are  reflected  in  "the  following  figures 
(gold  peso  =  $0.96):  imports  for  1914,  5,149,000 
gold  pesos;  for  1919,  15,835,970;  for  1921,  8,- 
358,922;  for  1923,  5,514,245;  exports  for  1914, 
4,584,000  gold  pesos;  for  1919,  14,810,117;  for 
1921,  9,316,721;  1922,  9,599,007.  The  follow- 
ing were  the  proportions  in  value  by  countries 
of  origin  of  Paraguay's  imports:  for  1013, 
Great  Britain,  29  per  cent;  Germany,  28  per 
cent;  Argentina,  13  per  cent;  United  States,  0 
per  cent.  For  1920,  1921,  and  first  half  of  1922: 
Great  Britain,  19,  21,  and  25  per  cent;  Germany, 
3,  7,  and  7  per  cent;  Argentina,  38,  39,  and  36 
per  cent;  United  States,  24,  17,  and  15  per  cent. 
Many  of  the  imports  from  Argentina  were 
merely  reshipped.  The  greater  bulk  of  the  ex- 


985  PARIS  CONFERENCE 

ports  went  to  Argentina  for  reshipment  abroad. 

Finance.  The  1913  estimated  revenue  was 
3,248,000  gold  pesos  and  21,688,000  paper  pesos 
(paper  peso  worth  7  cents)  ;  estimated  expendi- 
ture was  1,803,000  gold  pesos  and  48,307,000  pa- 
per pesos.  The  1922-23  estimated  expenditure  was 
1,011,058  gold  pesos  and  90,338,252  paper  pesos 
(paper  peso  worth  3  cents)  ;  estimated  revenue 
was  778,110  gold  pesos  and  99,805,100  paper 
pesos.  On  Dec.  31,  1922,  the  outstanding  ex- 
ternal debt  was  $5,842,092  and  the  internal  debt, 
(including  outstanding  paper  money),  $7,439.- 
180.  In  1914,  the  figures  wore  external  debt. 
$3,757,573;  internal  debt.  $5,001,218. 

History.  Sr.  Eduardo  Schaerer  (1911-15) 
wan  the  first  president  in  40  years  to  complete; 
his  term  He  was  succeeded  by  ,Sr.  Manuel 
Franco  (1910-19)  under  whose  peaceful  admin- 
istration the  countiy  made  advances  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  packing  industry,  the  products 
of  which,  by  1919,  became  Paraguay's  loading 
export.  Sr  Manuel  Gondra  was  elected  for 
1920-24,  but  lie  resigned  in  1921,  and  \\as  suc- 
ceeded by  Dr.  Eusebio  Ayala.  These  changes 
were  due  to  threatened  revolts.  In  1921,  it  was 
announced  that  Paraguay  would  not  moot  her 
external  obligations,  with  the  result  that  an 
American  financial  adviser  was  called  in  to 
render  assistance.  In  1923,  Dr.  Eligio  Ayala 
was  elected  provisional  president. 

PARALYSIS,  INFANTILE.  Sec  INFANTILE 
PARALYSIS 

PARASITOLOGY.  Sec  VETERINARY  MEDI- 
CINE. 

PARAVANE.  A  naval  device  developed  by 
Commander  C  1)  Burney  of  the  British  Navy. 
Its  earlier  form,  the  explosive  paravane,  was 
designed  mainly  for  use  against  submerged  sub- 
marines and  had  many  resemblances  to  the  old 
Harvey  towing  torpedo.  It  consisted  of  two 
cigar-shaped  submerged  mines,  each  carrying  an 
explosive  charge  and  a  depth  mechanism  to  in- 
sure its  sustained  immersion  at  the  dosired 
depth.  The  mines  were  towed  by  cables,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  ship,  and  were  deflected  out- 
ward by  fixed  vanes  on  the  shell  until  the  tow- 
ing cables  made  an  angle  of  20°  to  00°  with  the 
ship's  course,  depending  on  the  speed.  The  ex- 
plosion of  the  charge  took  place  if  the  hull  of  a 
submarine  or  the  shell  of  a  mine  were  struck 
or  if  a  firing  key  on  the  bridge  wore  pressed. 
In  the  later  type,  the  torpedo-shaped  floats,  or 
"otters"  as  they  were  called,  carried  no  explo- 
sive charge  but  were  fitted  with  saw-like  jaws 
for  cutting  mine-anchor  cables.  The  towing 
rope  was  attached  to  the  stem  of  the  ship  a 
dozen  feet  or  more  below  water.  Any  mine 
which  did  not  squarely  strike  the  stem  of  the 
ship  was  caught  by  one  of  the  towing  ropes 
pressing  against  the  anchor  line.  The  latter 
slid  along  the  towing  rope  until  it  reached  the 
"otter's"  jaws,  where  it  was  instantly  cut.  The 
mine  then  rose  to  the  surface  clear  of  the  ship 
and  could  be  easily  destroyed  by  gunfire.  This 
type  of  paravane  was  eventually  fitted  to  all 
large  warships  and  merchant  steamers.  Para- 
vanes saved  many  vessels  from  being  sunk  by 
mines  and  revealed  the  location  of  several  new 
and  unknown  mine  fields.  They  were  also  used 
for  mine-sweeping  and  in  searching  for  mine 
fields.  See  MIXE,  SUBMARINE. 

PARIS.  See  WAR  TN  EUBOPE,  Western 
Front. 

PARIS    CONFERENCE.    See   PEACE   CON- 

FBRENCE  AND  TREATIES. 


PARK  986  PARKS 

An  American  vations  and  prescribe  punishment  for  the  infrac- 
tion of  such  rules  and  regulations.  Up  to  1916, 
16  parks  had  been  created;  the  latest  up  to  that 
time  were  the  Hawaiian  National  Park  in  the 
Territory  of  Hawaii  and  the  La  seen  Volcanic 
National  Park  in  Northern  California.  A  bill 


PARK,  JULIAN  (1887-  ). 
educator,  born  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  educated  at 
Williams  College  and  the  Paris,  Columbia,  and 
Minnesota  Universities.  He  was  assistant  di- 
rector of  the  Buffalo  Fine  Arts  Academy  from 
1911  to  1913  and  in  the  latter  year  was  ap- 


pointed instructor  in  French  at  the  University      was  introduced  into  Congress  in   1910  for  the 


of  Buffalo  He  was  successively  instructor  in 
history,  professor  of  history,  and  department 
head,  secretary  of  the  College  of  Arts  and 
Science,  and  dean.  The  last  office  he  held  after 
1918.  He  was  a  member  of  many  historical  and 
learned  societies  and  was  the  author  of  Phila- 
telic Rambles  (1912);  History  of  the  University 
of  Buffalo  (1917);  Subject  Peoples  under  the 
Teutons  (1918) ;  and  Cuba  in  the  Seven  Years9 
War  (1920).  He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
The  Unii  ersity  of  Buffalo  titurlies. 

PARK,  WILLIAM  HALLOCK  (1863-  ).  An 
American  bacteriologist,  pathologist,  and  sani- 
tarian, horn  in  New  York  City,  and  educated  in 
the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York  and  Colum- 
bia University.  In  1897  he  was  made  professor 
of  bacteriology  and  hygiene  in  the  Bellevue- 
University  Medical  College,  and  after  the  death 
of  Egbert  Lefevre,  dean  of  the  faculty  there. 
In  1894  he  had  been  appointed  director  of  the 
bureau  of  laboratories  of  the  New  York  Board 
of  Health.  In  1900  appeared  his  textbook,  Bac- 
teriology in  Medicine  and  Surgery,  while  in 
1910,  in  collaboration  with  Williams,  he  pub- 
lished Pathogenic  Microorganisms,  which  passed 
through  7  editions  in  10  years.  He  edited  the 
reference  work  Public  Health  and  Hygiene 
(1920)  and  was  a  voluminous  contributor,  alone 
or  in  collaboration,  to  the  periodical  press,  with 
special  reference  to  diphtheria  and  typhoid 
fever 

PARK  COLLEGE.  A  nonsectarian  institu- 
tion at  Parkville.  Mo.,  founded  in  1875.  The 
size  of  the  college  remained  approximately  the 
same  during  the  decade  between  1914  and  1923- 
24,  with  an  enrollment  of  412  students,  a  faculty 
of  24,  and  a  library  of  25,000  volumes  in  the 
former  year,  compared  with  an  enrollment  of 


establishment  of  Mt.  McKinley  National  Park 
in  the  Territory  of  Alaska.  A  tract  of  land  in 
1910  was  given  by  citizens  of  Maine  to  the 
Government  of  the  United  States.  It  has  an 
area  of  10,000  acres,  on  Mt.  Desert  Island.  It 
was  given  by  President  Wilson,  the  name  of  Sicur 
de  Monies  National  Monument,  but  in  1919 
Congress  renamed  it  Lafayette  National  Park. 
The  number  of  visitors  to  the  national  parks 
steadily  increased  during  the  decade.  In  1918 
there  were  451,691  visitors;  in  1920,  If058,4f»5. 
In  view  of  the  increasing  interest  and  importance 
of  the  national  park  system,  the  attempts  of 
private  irrigation  and  water  power  system  in- 
terests to  obtain  control  gave  serious  concern 
to  the  authorities  during  the  decade  Among 
the  various  projects  considered  likely  to  injure 
the  parks  was  that  for  a  dam  at  the  outlet  of 
Yellowstone  Park.  The  formal  dedication  of  the 
Grand  Canyon  of  Colorado  as  a  national  paik 
took  place  on  Apr.  20,  1920.  In  the  year  11)21 
visitors  to  the  national  parks  numbered'  consider- 
ably over  900,000,  \\hile  the  visitois  to  the 
national  monuments  numbered  1(>4,401  The 
first  national  conference  on  State  parks  was 
held  in  1020  at  Des  Moincs,  Iowa  The  purpose 
of  the  movement  is  to  preserve  places  in  the 
various  States  and  to  maintain  them  under 
State  control  as  ccnties  of  health,  recreation, 
and  education.  As  a  lesult  of  the  conference, 
several  States  which  heretofore  had  no  State 
parks  undertook  the  first  steps  to  secure  them. 
The  Hawaiian  National  Paik  was  formally  dedi- 
cated on  July  9,  1921.  This  is  on  the  rim  of 
the  crater  of  Halzmaumau.  The  park  contains 
two  active  volcanoes,  Kilauoa  and  Mukiiuwe- 
oweo.  Bills  were  introduced  in  Congress  dining 
this  year  for  national  ;tarks  in  Utah :  the  Mam- 


443  students,  of  whom  94  were  in  the  prepara-      moth    rave   in   Kentucky;    Mt.    Katahdin,   Me.; 


tory  school,  a  faculty  of  28,  and  a  library  of 
30,000  volumes  in  the  latter.     Seveial  buildings 


Mt.  Baker,  Wash.;   Mt    Battell,  Vt.;   Kill  Deer 
Mountain,  N.  D. ;  and  Roosevelt  National  Park, 


were  put  up,  including  the  president's  residence,       N.   D      There   were   also   se\^ral    proposals   for 

n     wistn'a     r1s\v>m  1 4  f\frr       n     1 1  rrVi  •f  i  n  r»    aurl     V»n«»-fiTirr    nlnift  Via 'fir*  rial        1*1  rvn  lllliatl'f  a        111        C**.i\\f\l' ^  t\f\         \Va  dl  I  I  M  iff  r»M 


a  men's  dormitory,  a  lighting  and  heating  plant, 
and  a  Carnegie  Library,  as  well  as  a  science 
building  which  was  in  course  of  construction  in 
1924.  The  endowment  fund  was  about  doubled 
President,  Frederick  William  Hawley,  D.D., 
LL.D. 

PARKER,  SIB  GILBERT  (1862-  ).  An 
English  novelist  (see  VOL.  XVIIT).  From  1900 
to  1918  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament  from 
Gravesend.  He  was  created  a  baronet  in  1915. 
During  the  first  two  y^ears  of  the  War  he  had 
general  charge  of  British  publicity  in  the  Uni- 
ted States  and  in  this  capacity  did  excellent 
service  in  creating  favorable  sentiment  in  be- 
half of  the  Allies.  His  later  books  include: 
You  Never  Know  Your  lack  (1915) ;  The  World 
For  Sale  (1916);  Wild  Youth  (1919);  No  De- 
fense (1920).  He  also  wrote,  in  1915,  The 
World  in  the  Crucible,  a  book  on  the  War. 

PARKS,  NATIONAL.  Congress  created  in 
August,  1910,  the  National  Park  Service,  which 
placed  the  national  parks  and  monuments  in  the 
Department  of  the  Interior,  under  the  general 
charge  of  a  director.  The  act  provided  also 
that  the  Secretary  might  make  rules  and  regu- 
lations for  the  use  and  management  of  the  reser- 


national  monuments  in  Colorado,  Washington, 
Nevada,  and  other  States.  The  visitois  to  the 
parks  in  1922  numbered  1,21G,49'\  This  year 
marked  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  establish- 
ment of  Yellowstone  Park,  the  first  of  its  kind 
in  the  world.  During  this  year,  legislation  was 
passed  adding  to  the  area  of  Mt.  McKinlr-y  Park 
in  Alaska  and  to  that  of  Hawaii  National  Park. 
Bills  were  also  introduced  for  the  establishment 
of  other  parks  in  Washington,  Arkansas,  South 
Dakota,  Virginia,  and  Georgia.  A  movement 
was  undertaken  to  increase  the  area  of  the 
Sequoia  National  Park  in  California  and  to 
change  its  name  to  the  Roosevelt-Sequoia.  No 
action  was  taken  by  Congress.  The  numl>er  of 
visitors  in  1923  (1,280,886)  again  exceeded  that 
of  the  previous  year;  while  visitors  to  the  na- 
tional monuments  numbered  212,826.  The  move- 
ment to  save  the  great  redwoods  of  California 
which  was  carried  on  throughout  the  decade 
received  fresh  impetus  during  1923  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  California  Legislature,  which  passed, 
in  May,  a  law  calling  for  a  survey  of  all  timber 
lands  available  for  park  purposes  by  the  State 
Forestry  Board.  Congress  in  1923  empowered 
the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  obtain  complete 


PABMOOK 

title  to  any  or  all  of  the  private  holdings  with- 
in Glacier  National  Park,  by  exchanging  them 
for  other  public  lands  of  equal  value  in  Mon- 
tana. Bills  were  introduced  for  the  Appalachian 
National  Park  in  Virginia  and  the  Lincoln  Na- 
tional Park  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Vir- 
ginia. By  presidential  proclamation,  new  na- 
tional monuments  were  established  at  Fossil 
Cycad  in  South  Dakota;  Aztec  lluin  in  New 
Mexico;  Hovenweep  in  Utah  and  Colorado;  and 
Pipe  Spring  in  Arizona.  In  addition,  the  Bryce 
Canyon  National  Monument  and  the  Timpanogos 
Cave  in  Utah  were  established  under  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  and  the  Mt.  City 
Group  National  Monument  in  Ohio  under  the 
War  Department. 

PABMOOB,  CHASLES  ALFRED  CBIPPS,  first 
BABON  (1852-  ).  An  English  lawyer,  edu- 
cated at  Oxford.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prom- 
inent laymen  of  the  Church  of  England.  Elected 
to  Parliament  in  1895,  he  was  a  Conservative  in 
politics  but  later  broke  away  from  his  party 
because  of  his  free  trade  ideas.  He  supported 
Labor,  became  a  strong  believer  in  the  League 
of  Nations,  and  was  appointed  by  Prime  Min- 
ister Ramsay  Macdonald  as  Lord  President  of 
the  Council  in  his  cabinet,  where  he  was  respon- 
sible for  matters  arising  out  of  Great  Britain's 
membership  in  the  League  of  Nations.  He  pub- 
lished Principles  of  Compensation  and  Laws  of 
Church  and  Clergy. 

PABODI,  DOMINIQUE  (1870-  ).  A 
French  philosophical  writer,  disciple  of  Kenou- 
vier  and  Hamelin.  He  published  in  1919  a  com- 
prehensive survey  of  contemporary  French  phi- 
losophy (La  Philosophic  Contemporaine  en 
France,  Essai  de  Classification  des  Doctrines}. 
His  other  works  include  Le  ProWcme  Moral  et 
la  Pensee  Contemporaine  (1910)  and  Tradi- 
tionalisme  et  Dcmorratie  (1909). 

PARSONS,  FRANK  ALVAH  (1868-  ).  An 
artist  and  critic  born  at  Chesterfield,  Mass.,  who 
studied  art  in  Italy.  France,  England,  and 
Austria.  He  has  published  many  books  on  art, 
including  Principles  of  Advertising  Arrange- 
ment; Interior  Decoration,  Its  Principles  and 
Practice;  The  Psychology  of  Dress;  The  Art  Ap- 
peal in  Advertising  Display.  He  was  co-author 
of  Advertising,  Us  Principles  and  Practice,  and 
Arty  Its  Principles  and  Practice.  Applied  to  Mod- 
ern Life.  Besides  writing  books  on  art  be  has 
delivered  lectures  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  written  articles  and  pamphlets  on 
art  subjects.  He  was  president  and  director  of 
the  New  York  School  of  Fine  and  Applied  Art, 
after  1905,  and  one  of  the  most  influential  art 
educators  in  the  United  States. 

PASHITCH,  NIKOLA  (1845-1926).  A  Jugo- 
slav statesman.  For  over  50  years  he  was  one 
of  the  leading  political  figures  in  the  Balkan 
states  and  was  Prime  Minister  of  Serbia  more 
than  12  times.  He  was  twice  imprisoned  for 
refusing  to  lend  himself  to  the  former  Obren- 
ovitch  dynasty  in  behalf  of  Austria-Hungary. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  figures  at  the 
Peace  Conference  in  Paris,  where  largely 
through  his  efforts  the  kingdom  of  Jugo-Slavia 
was  established.  In  1923  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt was  made  on  his  life.  His  negotiations 
with  Italy  settled  in  1923  the  long-disputed 
Fiume  question  See  JUGOSLAVIA. 

PASSY,  PAUL  EDOUABD  (1859-  ).  A 
French  philologist  who  has  made  a  special  study 
of  phonetics  (see  VOL.  XVIII).  His  later  pub- 
lications include:  Phonetic  Reader  (1915); 


987  PAYKE 

Premier  Uvre  de  Lecture  (1917);  Lectures 
Frangaises  Phonetiques  (1918),  and  Conversa- 
tions Frangaisea  en  Transcription  Phonetigue 
(1919). 

FASTOB,  LUDWIG  (1854-  ).  A  German 
historian  (see  VOL.  XVJII).  He  lives  in  Inns- 
bruck and  in  Rome.  His  publications  during 
the  decade  1914-24  were:  Conrad  von  Botzen- 
dorf  (1916);  Qeneralooerst  von  Danke  (1910); 
and  Der  Stoat  Rom  zu  Ende  der  Renaissance 
(1916).  He  edited  Johannes  Janssens  Brief e 
(1922). 

PATEBSON.  A  manufacturing  city  of  New 
Jersey.  The  population  increased  from  123,600 
in  1910  to  135,875  in  1920,  and  to  139,579,  by 
estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  for  1923. 
A  comprehensive  zoning  ordinance  was  adopted 
in  1921,  providing  for  four  residence  and  two 
business  districts  and  a  light  and  a  heavy  in- 
dustrial district.  Four  modern  school  buildings 
were  completed,  1914-1924,  and  in  the  latter 
year  a  $1,250,000  high  school  was  in  process  of 
construction  The  number  of  manufacturing 
plants  increased  from  702  in  1909  to  1200  in 
1923,  and  the  value  of  their  output  from  $67,- 
000,000  to  $225,000,000.  Paterson  is  the  leading 
silk  manufacturing  centre  in  the  United  States, 
About  30,000  persons  were  engaged  in  the  silk 
manufacturing  industry  alone  in  1924.  Bank 
resources  rose  from  $43,000,000  in  1914  to  $110,- 
952,976  in  1924 

PATTERSON,  JOHN  THOMAS  (1878-  ). 
An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Piqua,  Ohio, 
and  educated  at  Wooster  University  and  the 
University  of  Chicago.  He  was  professor  of  bi- 
ology at  Buena  Vista  College  (1903-05);  as- 
sistant in  zoology  at  the  University  of  Chicago 
(1905-08);  and  instructor  (1908-11),  adjunct 
professor  (1911-13),  and  professor  (1913-  ) 
at  the  University  of  Texas.  He  published  ar- 
ticles in  zoological  journals  on  the  embryology 
of  the  armadillo  and  on  polyembryony  in  insects. 

PAUL  TEST.     Sec  SMALLPOX. 

PAVEMENTS.    See  ROADS  AND  PAVEMENTS. 

PAYNE,  GEORGE  HENRY  (1876-  ).  An 
American  writer,  born  in  New  York  City,  and 
educated  at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
tlie  College  of  Pharmacy,  and  the  New  York  Law 
School.  He  was  for  many  years  engaged  in 
newspaper  work  in  New  York  City  and  took  an 
active  part  in  politics  as  manager  of  campaigns 
for  several  candidates.  In  11)17  he  was  ap- 
pointed New  York  City's  representative  on  the 
State  Council  of  Defense  and  organized  the  Com- 
mittee of  American  Business  Men  in  1919.  His 
books  include  History  of  tlte  Child  in  Human 
Progress  (1915)  and  History  of  Journalism  in 
America  (1019).  In  1920 'he  purchased  The 
Forum. 

PAYNE,  JOHN  BARTON  (1855-  ).  An 
American  public  official,  born  at  Pruntytown, 
Va.,  and  educated  at  Orleans,  Va.  He  began 
to  practice  law  in  West  Virginia  in  1877.  He 
was  active  in  politics  and  in  1882  was  elected 
mayor  of  Kingwood,  W.  Va.  He  moved  to  Chi- 
cago in  1883.  He  was  appointed  judge  of  the 
Superior  Court  of  Cook  County,  111.,  holding  the 
office  for  five  years.  He  was  appointed  general 
counsel  of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  in  1917  and  to  the 
director  general  of  railroads  in  1918.  He  held 
the  post  of  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  President 
Wilson's  cabinet  from  February,  1920,  to  Mar. 
4,  1921.  He  was  made  chairman  of  the  Ameri- 
can Bed  Cross  by  President  Harding  on  Oct.  1, 


PEABODY  MUSEUM 

1921.  In  April,  1923,  he  was  one  of  two  com- 
missioners appointed  by  President  Harding  to 
confer  with  representatives  of  Mexico  with  a 
view  to  American  recognition  of  Mexico.  The 
negotiations  were  opened  in  May,  and  after 
weeks  of  discussion  in  regard  to  damage  claims, 
boundary  disputes,  and  the  holding  of  oil  and 
agricultural  lands  by  foreigners,  matters  were 
arranged,  and  recognition  consummated  by  Aug. 
31,  1023. 

PEABODY  MTJSETJM  OF  HARVARD  UNIVER- 
SITY. The  museum  continued  active  work  dur- 
ing the  decade  1014-24.  Expeditions  were  sent 
out  in  1915  to  the  Canary  Islands,  the  Libyan 
Desert,  and  Arizona.  Researches  were  continued 
also  in  Central  America  and  the  Delaware  Val- 
ley and  other  parts  of  the  United  States.  Dur- 
ing 1916  the  museum  was  engaged  in  preparing 
for  publication  the  first  mimbei  of  the  Harvard 
African  Studies,  six  volumes  of  wbicb  were 
published  up  to  1924.  Much  valuable  material 
was  received  from  the  /voren  Arctic  Expedition 
to  northern  Siberia.  In  1917  the  Central  Amer- 
ican Expedition  continued  its  work  and  made 
discoveries  of  large  groups  of  ruins  in  Honduras 
and  Guatemala.  Field  work  was  carried  on  in 
the  cliff-house  region  of  northeastern  Arizona. 
The  seventh  volume  of  the  museum  papers  deal- 
ing with  the  history  of  the  Spanish  conquest  of 
Yucatan  was  issued.  Two  of  the  five  large  ex- 
hibition balls  in  the  new  section  of  the  mu- 
seum were  opened  to  the  public.  After  the 
entry  of  the  United  States  into  the  War,  the  ac- 
tive work  of  the  museum  was  largely  suspend- 
ed, but  in  1918  an  expedition  was  sent  to  the 
Vancouver  Islands  to  study  Indian  remain* 
there.  Explorations  were  also  carried  on  in 
various  parts  of  the  United  States.  The  normal 
activities  were  gradually  reestablished  during 
1919,  but  little  field  work  was  carried  on.  Sev- 
eral valuable  collections  were  received,  includ- 
ing the  Bates  Collection  from  the  shell  leaps  of 
Maine.  The  museum  issued  several  important 
publications  during  this  year  The  field  work 
in  1920  was  confined  chiefly  to  Arizona  and 
Africa.  Much  important  material  i elating  to 
the  cliff  dwellers  wns  collected  fn  1021  exten- 
sive field  work  was  conducted  in  various  fields 
An  expedition  to  Central  America  visited  ruins 
in  northern  Yucatan  and  continued  investiga- 
tions into  northern  Guatemala  Explorations 
into  Arizona  were  continued,  and  researches 
were  carried  on  in  France  and  Belgium.  Con- 
siderable additions  were  made  to  the  collect ionn 
of  the  museum  by  purchases  and  gifts  in  1922, 
and  important  rearrangements  and  exhibits 
were  made.  Field  work  in  Central  America  was 
prosecuted  during  the  year,  and  the  expedition 
to  Arizona  continued  its  investigations.  In 
1923  the  Central  American  expedition  spent 
three  months  in  Yucatan,  Honduras,  and  Guate- 
mala. One  of  the  results  of  this  work  was  the 
discovery  of  an  ancient  culture  previously  un- 
known to  scientists.  Valuable  collections  were 
received  from  the  New  Hebrides  group,  and  the 
museum  received  the  Theodore  N.  Vail  collec- 
tion of  stone  implements. 

PEACE  CONFERENCE  AND  TREATIES. 
A  task  of  world-wide  reconstruction  and  read- 
justment confronted  the  statesmen  and  diplo- 
matists of  the  victorious  Allied  and  Associated 
Powers  at  the  end  of  the  Great  War.  To  ar- 
range a  settlement  of  the  problems  of  peace  a 
whole  series  of  conferences  has  been  held  from 
1019  to  1Q24  and  the  results  of  their  delibera- 


988 


PEACE  CONFERENCE 


tions  have  been  registered  in  numerous  agree- 
ments, treaties,  protocols,  and  conventions,  or 
have  silently  woven  themselves  into  the  very 
warp  and  woof  of  human  society.  During  the 
War  the  Allied  cause  in  general  had  repre- 
sented "a  most  curious  combination  of  lofty 
idealism  with  an  undercurrent  of  selfish  am- 
bition." The  openly  avowed  ideals  were  usually 
at  utter  variance  with  the  more  sordid  ulterior 
aims.  "Practical"  men — nationalists,  imperial- 
ists and  militarists — insisted  that  the  immediate 
problem  was  to  punish  Germany  and  her  allies 
for  their  atrocious  crimes  against  civilization, 
to  exact  the  greatest  possible  indemnity,  to  re- 
duce the  Central  Empires  to  military  impotence 
and  so  to  cripple  (Jerman  industry  and  com- 
merce as  to  make  impossible  any  effective  or 
dangerous  competition  by  her  in  the  future  eco- 
nomic development  of  the  world.  The  German 
colonies  and  the  Turkish  Empire  were  to  be  di- 
vided up  among  the  victors  and  the  litigious 
estates  of  the  Habsburgs  liquidated  to  satisfy 
the  nationalistic  aspirations  of  Italy  and  the 
smaller  Allies.  Moat  of  these  aims  had  been 
embodied  in  the  secret  engagements  and  commit- 
ments negotiate^  by  the  various  Kuropean  Allies 
and  Japan  at  intervals  during  the  years  1915, 
1016,  and  11)17,  before  the  United  States  entered 
the  War.  In  regard  to  Turkey  secret  discussions 
continued  unabated  throughout  the  conflict  and 
at  the  time  of  the  Peace  Conference  in  1910 
Lloyd  George  and  Clemenceau  were  still  hag- 
gling silently  but  strenuously  over  the  division 
of  the  spoils  These  secret  treaties  constituted 
a  comprehensive  programme  for  dividing  up  the 
world,  a  hard  and  fast  basis  for  the  final  peace 
settlement.  They  "were  destined  to  bear  a  crop 
of  suspicion,  controversy,  balked  ambition,  which 
twice  at  least,  nearly  wrecked  the  Peace  Con- 
ference, poisoned  its  aisfussiona,  and  warped  and 
disfigured  HH  final  derisions." 

Entirely  opposed  to  the  plans  of  settlement 
represented  in  the  secret  treaties  were  the  openly 
voiced  aspirations  of  numerous  liberal  and  laboV 
groups  in  the  various  belligerent  countries. 
Some  of  the  statesmen  who  professed  idealistic 
motives  were  sincere  in  their  convictions;  others 
utili/ed  idealism  as  a  cloak  for  tlieir  activities 
while  engaged  in  forging  the  chain  of  secret 
treaties.  Yet  theii  utterances  outwardly  im- 
parted to  the  Allied  cause  during  the  last  few 
years  of  the  War  all  the  moral  elevation  of  a 
crusade  for  human  righteousness.  In  particular 
the  various  addresses  of  Woodrow  Wilson,  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  served  to  clarify  the 
fundamental  issues  of  the  War  and  to  provide  a 
HO!  of  legitimate  aims  and  guiding  principles  for 
the  inauguration  of  a  more  enlightened  era  of 
international  peace  and  cooperation.  From  1917 
on  Mr.  Wilson  enjoyed  an  unparalleled  prestige 
and  influence  in  the  public  opinion  and  counsel 
of  the  world.  The  principles  of  his  war-aims 
addresses  of  1018  were  the  official  basis  of  the 
pre-armistice  terms  agreed  upon  witb  Germany 
and  her  associates.  These  terms  were  binding 
on  all  parties  and  constituted  in  a  technical 
sense  the  legal  basis  of  the  peace  settlement. 
With  two  qualifications  the  Allied  Powers  bound 
themselves  to  impose  no  conditions  of  peace  in- 
consistent with  Mr.  Wilson's  "Fourteen  Points" 
of  January  8,  his  "Four  Principles"  of  February 
11,  his  "Four  Ends"  of  July  4,  and  his  "Five 
Particulars"  of  September  27.  Judgment  was 
reserved  by  the  Supreme  War  Council  on  the 
second  of  the  Fourteen  Points  relating  to  the 


CENTRAL  EDROP 

8c*te  of  M  !!•• 

i— 6— as 


(fete  irt/A  100,000  to  1,000,000  --------  Jl 

GitlM  wit*  100,000  (0  100,000  _________  . 


Ovttoto  »<«A  JMt  fAan  100,000  ________  I 

Cmpittlt  of  CbtmlHM©  OM«r  Ot 


Bv  Ptrmittion  of  The  MacmiUan  Company 


CENTRAL  EUROPE  BEFORE  THE  WORLD  WAR 


CENTRAL  EURO 

Scale  of  Miles 


Berlin 

dt*i  with  «X3.000  to  1  000,000  -----  Niflff 

id*  A  100,000  to  foo.ooo  -  -  T  ---  -Venice 


rt  liw  than  100,000  -----  DEHNH 
tupi«a/«  i,/  Oouttfrtea  ^ 


Bv  P0rmiMton  o/  7A«  Maemillan 


CENTRAL  EUROPE 


PEACE  CONFERENCE  989 

"freedom  of  the  seas";  HUB  was  declared  to  be  them, 
open  to  various  interpretations  some  of  which 
they  were  unable  to  accept.  In  addition  it  was 
expressly  stipulated  that  the  demands  for  the 
restoration  of  territories  invaded  by  Germany 
should  include  compensation  for  all  damages 
done  to  the  civilian  populations  of  the  Allied 
countries  by  land,  by  sea  and  from  the  air  The 
Armistice  signed  with  Austria  and  Hungary  was 
unconditional  as  finally  agreed,  upon,  yet  the 
preceding  diplomatic  exchanges  between  the 
Austro-Hungarian  and  American  governments 
had  created,  if  not  a  legal,  at  least  a  strong 
moral  obligation  to  arrange  peace  upon  the  basis 
of  the  President's  addresses  except  in  regard  to 
Point  Ten,  which  was  modified  by  Wilson  him- 
self to  assure  complete  and  unconditional  self- 
determination  to  the  Czecho-Slovaks  and  Jugo- 
slavs hitherto  incorporated  in  the  Dual  Mon- 
archy. With  Bulgaria  and  with  Turkey  Mr. 
Wilson  entered  into  no  negotiations  at  all,  but 
the  Fourteen  Points  touched  upon  their  cases 

The  two  months  which  elapsed  between  the 
signing  of  the  Armistice  with  Germany  (Nov. 
11,  1918)  and  the  first  meeting  of  the  major 
Allied  plenipotentiaries  in  Paris  (Jan  12,  1019) 
were  marked  by  extremely  significant  develop- 
ments throughout  the  world  The  contempora- 
neous revolutions  in  Central  Europe  which  re- 
mitted in  the  establishment  of  democratic  re- 
publics in  Germany,  Austria,  and  Hungary  failed 
to  effect  any  considerable  change  in  the  attitude 
or  plans  of  the  Allies.  In  Italy  a  tremendous 
wa>e  of  nationalistic  feeling  overwhelmed  all 
efforts  of  liberal  and  socialist  leaders  to  pledge 
the  support  of  that  country  to  a  peace  of  con- 
ciliation. A  ministerial  crisis  was  precipitated 
in  late  December  and  early  Januaiy.  but  with 
th'o  resignation  of  socialists  and  moderates,  the 
imperialist  group  headed  by  Premier  Orlando 
and  Foreign  Minister  Sonnino  strengthened  it<» 
grip  upon  the  government  In  France  Picmier 
riemenceau,  unmoved  by  socialist  attacks,  an- 
nounced his  intention  of  securing  the  utmost 
possible  security  and  indemnification  for  France 
together  with  the  maintenance  of  the  old  system 
of  alliances  "His  government  received  an  over- 
whelming vote  of  confidence  as  he  thus  threw 
down  the  gage.  In  Great  Britain,  Parliament 
was  dissolved  in  November  and  a  general  elec- 
tion held  on  December  14.  Premier  Lloyd 
George,  discarding  the  liberalism  of  his  war-aims 
speech  of  Jan  6,  19 IS,  made  the  issue  of  his 
campaign  a  hard  and  bitter  peace.  His  plat- 
form included  recovery  of  the  entire  costs  of 
the  War — "shilling  for  shilling  and  ton  for  ton" 
— and  punishment  of  war  criminals.  The  re- 
sult was  a  stupendous  triumph  for  his  Coalition 
which  secured  a  majority  of  over  200  seats. 
The  Labor  party  advocating  a  Wilson ian  peace 
secured  61  seats  and  became  the  Official  Oppo- 
sition 

President  Wilson  could  point  to  no  such  popu- 
lar mandate  or  parliamentary  vote  of  confidence 
Indeed,  despite  his  appeal  to  the  American  peo- 
ple for  support  in  the  shape  of  a  Democratic 
Congress,  the  elections  of  November  6  had  re- 
turned small  Republican  majorities  in  both  the 
House  and  the  Senate.  Republican  leaders  in 
office  and  out  were  bitterly  attacking  the  Presi- 
dent's policies  Ex-President  Roosevelt  was  par- 
ticularly vehement.  He  openly  asserted  that 
Mr  Wilson  had  no  authority  whatsoever  to 
speak  for  the  American  people  as  his  leader- 
ship had  just  been  emphatically  repudiated  by 


PEACE  CONFEEENOE 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  Allies  to  impose 
their  common  will  upon  the  nations  responsible 
for  the  hideous  disaster  which  had  almost 
wrecked  mankind.  Mr,  Roosevelt's  manifesto 
harmonized  perfectly  with  the  purposes  and 
plans  of  Clemenceau  and  Sonnino.  Notwith 
standing  the  fact  that  recent  electoral  reverses 
had  thus  seiiously  discredited  his  leadership  at 
home,  Mr.  Wilson,  against  the  advice  of  Secre- 
tary of  State  Lansing,  made  the  momentous  de- 
cision to  go  abroad  as  head  of  the  American  com- 
mission to  negotiate  peace.  He  was  animated 
by  a  sincere  determination  to  work  for  the  in- 
corporation of  his  ideals  into  the  substance  of 
the  peace  treaty,  to  see  to  it  that  no  false  or 
mistaken  interpretation  was  put  upon  them  and 
no  possible  effort  omitted  to  realize  them.  He 
claimed  to  be  under  no  illusions  as  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  realizing  his  programme.  Arriving 
in  France  on  December  13,  Wilson  found  that 
although  the  date  for  the  Peace  Conference  had 
been  set  for  the  17th  a  month  more  was  to  elapse 
before  real  work  began.  He  spent  the  interval 
visiting  the  various  Allied  countries,  conferring 
with  statesmen  and  making  speeches,  being 
warmly  received  by  liberal  and  radical  elements 
which  gave  whole-hearted  support  to  his  reiter- 
ated proposals  for  a  peace  of  justice. 

THE  PABIS  PEACE  CONFERENCE 

The  five  Principal  Allied  and  Associated  Pow- 
ers which  had  contributed  most  to  the  winning 
of  the  War  assumed  supreme  charge  of  arrang- 
ing the  Peace.  It  was  early  decided  to  ex- 
clude the  enemy  powers  from  the  impending 
Congiews  until  preliminary  terms  had  been 
agreed  upon  among  the  Allies.  Paris — the  shell- 
shocked  nerve-centre  of  Allied  resistance  to  Ger- 
many— was  selected  as  the  scene  of  the  Pre- 
liminary Conference.  Here  on  Jan.  12,  1919, 
there  finally  convened  a  meeting  of  the  Su- 
preme Council,  its  membership  now  comprising 
the  chief  executhes  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
Italy,  and  the  United  States,  together  with 
their  respective  foreign  ministers.  Two  Japa- 
nese representatives  were  admitted  on  the  follow- 
ing day  and  this  "Council  of  Ten,"  as  it  came  to 
be  known,  definitely  inaugurated  the  work  of 
the  Peace  Conference  and  continued  to  dominate 
the  course  of  events  until  the  middle  of  March 
when  it  was  transformed  into  the  "Council  of 
Four"  and  a  subordinate  "Council  of  Five." 

Organization.  Quickly  the  Coumil  of  Ten 
proceeded  to  the  organization  of  Peace  Con- 
ference machinery  Thirty-two  states  which  had 
been  at  war  with  Germany  or  had  severed  diplo- 
matic relations  with  her  were  admitted  to  mem- 
bership in  the  plenary  Conference,  though  with 
varying  degrees  of  representation.  Adopting  a 
middle  course  between  the  proposals  of  the  ex- 
treme militarists  who  advocated  a  body  made  up 
of  delegates  from  the  Great  Powers  alone  which 
should  frame  a  treaty  to  be  imposed  on  smaller 
Allied  States  and  enemy  powers  alike,  and  the 
proposals  of  the  extreme  legalists  who  cham- 
pioned the  theoretical  equality  of  nations  with 
uniform  representation  for  all,  the  Supreme 
Council  apportioned  plenipotentiaries  to  each 
on  the  basis  of  size,  military  power  and  prestige 
and  service  or  suffering  in  the  recent  War.  Of 
the  70  officially  authorized  plenipotentiaries  five 
were  assigned  to  each  of  the  Great  Powers — 
France,  Italy,  Japan,  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States;  three  each  to  Belgium,  Brazil,  and 


PEACE  CONFERENCE 


990 


PEACE  CONFERENCE 


Serbia  (later  officially  recognized  as  Jugo- 
slavia) ;  two  each  to  Australia,  Canada,  China, 
Czechoslovakia,  Greece,  Hedjaz,  India,  Poland, 
Portugal,  Rumania,  and  Siam;  and  one  apiece 
to  Bolivia,  Cuba,  Ecuador,  Guatemala,  Haiti, 
Honduras,  Liberia,  New  Zealand,  Nicaragua,  Pan- 
ama, Peru,  and  Uruguay.  While  thus  allocat- 
ing the  formal  representation  for  plenary  ses- 
sions, the  Council  of  Ten  reserved  to  itself  the 
power  of  determining  the  course  of  procedure, 
conducting  preliminary  deliberations  and  mak- 
ing the  really  important  decisions.  The  plenary 
sessions  were  to  prove  almost  entirely  devoid 
of  any  significance  save  the  ceremonial  function 
of  ratifying  and  registering  decisions  already 
made.  On  January  18,  at  the  first  plenary  ses- 
sion, Premier  Clemenceau  of  France,  who  pre- 
sided at  meetings  of  the  Supreme  Council,  was 
elected  as  President  of  the  Conference. 

In  addition  to  formally  authorized  partici- 
pants in  the  Conference,  streams  of  uninvited 
and  sometimes  unwelcome  guests  from  all  parts 
of  the  world  converged  upon  Paris,  in  the  hope 
of  securing  a  hearing  or  at  any  rate  of  arousing 
interest  in  the  aims  and  ambitions  of  their  re- 
spective nationalities.  Armenians,  Syrians, 
Georgians,  Ruthenians,  Esthonians,  Lithuanians, 
Letts,  Finns,  Albanians,  Persians,  Egyptians, 
Koreans,  Zionists,  Schleswigers,  Aland  Islanders, 
Irish-Americans,  Negroes,  and  others  came  to' 
present  ex-parte  evidence  and  plead  for  justice. 
"Never  before  had  Europe  witnessed  such  a 
gathering  of  rulers  and  rivals,  of  realists  bent 
on  material  gains  and  idealists  striving  for  a 
happier  world."  Realists  and  idealists  alike 
usually  met  with  disappointment.  Small  na- 
tions were  to  be  allowed  to  present  their  rases; 
even  neutrals  were  to  be  heard  in  matters  spe- 
cifically affecting  their  interests;  but  the  real 
power  was  to  rest  with  the  chief  representatives 
of  the  five  largest  states. 

To  assume,  however,  that  the  treaties  emanat- 
ing from  Paris  were  drafted  by  a  small  group 
of  men— the  "Ten,"  the  "Four,"  or  the  "Three" 
— and  that  the  terms  were  fixed  by  them  would 
be  highly  erroneous.  Each  delegation  at  the 
Conference  had  a  numerous  staff  of  territorial, 
ethnographic,  and  historical  specialists,  eco- 
nomic advisers  and  other  experts,  and  these  to- 
gether with  the  plenipotentiaries  supplied  the 
personnel  for  some  58  technical  commissions 
constituted  during  the  first  six  months  of  1910 
to  make  preliminary  investigations  and  reports 
on  various  problems  of  the  settlement.  These 
commissions  held  over  1000  meetings  and 
their  conclusions  and  recommendations  were  dis- 
cussed by  the  Council  of  Ten,  winch  held  72 
meetings*  the  later  Council  of  Four,  which  held 
145  sessions,  and  the  subordinate  Council  of 
Five,  which  met  39  times.  Most  of  the  articles 
in  the  treaty  were  taken  bodily,  without  change, 
from  the  reports  of  commissions. 

Wilson's  First  Point  declaring  for  "open 
covenants  openly  arrived  at"  was  seriously 
vitiated  at  Paris.  Despite  a  keen  struggle  waged 
by  the  Americans  for  a  wider  measure  of  pub- 
licity, only  the  plenary  sessions  of  the  Confer- 
ence were  opened  to  the  press.  Lloyd  George, 
Clemenceau,  and  Orlando  uniting  to  demand  that 
the  executive  councils  deliberate  in  secret,  it 
was  decided  and  announced  that  publicity  with 
regard  to  their  proceedings  "must  be  subject  to 


to  be  content  with  brief  and  non-committal  com- 
munique's issued  each  day,  the  scanty  substance 
of  which  had  to  be  supplemented  with  the  glean- 
ings of  gossip,  semi-oilicial  conferences  with  di- 
rectors of  publicity  appointed  by  each  delegation, 
and  occasional  interviews  with*  important  pleni- 
potentiaries. But  in  devious  ways  and  for 
ulterior  purposes  reports  of  secret  proceedings 
frequently  reached  the  printed  page,  garbled, 
perhaps,  to  advance  the  interests  of  those  who 
instigated  publication. 

"The  Big  Four."  In  addition  to  running  the 
conference  machinery  and  determining  final 
terms  of  peace,  the  members  of  the  Supreme 
Council  were  burdened  with  complicated  and 
urgent  tasks  of  administration.  Each  leader 
had  to  consider  public  opinion  and  political  de- 
velopments at  home,  problems  of  demobilization 
and  economic  readjustment.  The  armistice  terms 
with  Germany  had  to  be  renewed,  measures  taken 
to  combat  the  spread  of  Bolshevism,  and  to  feed, 
clothe,  and  house  refugees  in  a  dozen  regions  of 
Europe.  Eastern  Europe  was  in  chaos,  Central 
Europe  was  in  revolution,  and  Western  Europe 
trembled  on  the  verge  of  exhaustion  and  collapse 
Everywhere  the  various  nationalist  groups  were 
attempting  to  anticipate  the  decisions  of  the 
Conference  by  seizing  as  wide  an  area  of  debat- 
able territory  as  possible.  At  one  time  American 
observers  counted  as  many  as  14  small  wars 
raging  in  various  parts  of  Europe.  The  mainte- 
nance of  political  stability  and  the  restoration 
of  economic  processes  to  more  normal  function- 
ing had  to  be  accomplished  in  the  face  of  nation- 
alistic quarrels  and  social  unrest  that  threatened 
to  plunge  all  Europe  into  renewed  anarchy  and 
to  spread  the  tenets  and  tentacles  of  commun- 
ism westward  to  the  Rhine  and  the  Adriatic. 

The  position  of  Woodrow  Wilson  and  his 
American  colleagues  was  at  once  highly  ad- 
vantageous and  supremely  difficult.  Mr  Wilson 
enjoyed  great  prestige  as  the  head  of  a  wealthy, 
powerful,  and  influential  nation.  The  moving 
eloquence  of  his  lofty  declarations  on  the  issues 
of  the  Great  War  and  the  principles  of  a  lasting 
settlement  together  with  his  vigorous  advocacy 
of  a  league  of  free  nations  cooperating  in  the 
fruitful  processes  of  peace  had  earned  him  a 
numerous  following  among  liberal  and  labor 
elements  the  woild  over.  His  programme  for 
world  settlement  had  been  officially  endorsed  as 
the  basis  of  peace  at  the  time  of  the  aimistice 
negotiations,  and  he  came  to  Paris  determined 
to  secure  the  application  of  the  twin  principles 
of  national  self-determination  and  international 
cooperation. 

But  speaking  broadly  one  may  say  that  the 
representatives  of  the  other  Allied  rowers  did 
not  \iew  with  entile  favor  the  policies  of  Mr. 
Wilson.  They  might  with  diplomatic  tact,  with 
reassuring  cordiality,  agree  with  Mr.  Wilson  "in 
principle,"  yet  their  manifest  purpose  was  to 
negative  his  projects  in  detail.  Throughout  the 
long  negotiations  during  the  first  six  months  of 
1919  with  the  endless  proposals  and  counter- 
proposals, discussions,  and  decisions,  the  cen- 
tral ideas  of  the  leaders  of  the  different  delega- 
tions, except  possibly  the  British,  remained  fairly 
consistent.  Premier  Clemenceau  of  France,  in 
addressing  the  assembled  plenipotentiaries  on 
January  18,  announced  that  the  principles  of 
the  peace  had  been  laid  down  by  President 


the  limitations  necessarily  imposed  by  the  diffi-  Wilson  and  adjured  all  to  work  quickly  and 
cult  and  delicate  nature  of  their  object."  The  well.  Yet  there  was  not  in  Paris  a  more  per- 
army  of  newspaper  correspondents  was  obliged  flistent  or  dogged  opponent  of  Mr.  Wilson's 


PEACE  CONFEBENCE 


991 


ideals  and  policies  than  Clemenceau  A  states- 
man and  politician  of  the  realist  school,  steeled 
by  half  a  century's  experience  in  French  politics, 
he  was  cynical  of  the  idealism  which  had  been 
so  widely  extolled.  Being  utterly  convinced  that 
the  Germans  understood  nothing  but  force,  he 
made  no  pretense  of  being  bound  by  the  Four- 
teen Points.  His  one  interest  was  his  beloved 
France  and  his  one  dominating  purpose  the 
demolition  of  (Germany  and  the  achievement  of 
security  for  France.  "The  French  position  at 
Paris  was  set  forth  and  defended  with  match- 
less ingenuity  and  obstinacy.  .  .  .  Foch  had  a 
military  plan  of  safety,  Bourgeois  a  diplomatic 
plan,  Loucheur  and  Klotz  an  economic  plan, 
but  the  coordination  between  them  was  perfect 
and  demenceau  was  the  supreme  strategist  of 
the  entire  campaign  " 

David  Lloyd  George,  the  leader  of  the  British 
delegation,  was  perhaps  the  most  unstable  char- 
acter at  the  Conference.  No  plenipotentiary  ever 
approached  the  task  of  readjusting  a  shattered 
international  order  with  a  more  slender  equip- 
ment of  detailed  knowledge  and  though  he  pos- 
sessed the  capacity  of  acquiring  effective  infor- 
mation at  lightning  speed,  he  seemed  to  have  no 
guiding  principles  Leaping  nimbly  from  ex- 
treme to  extreme — a  human  barometer  charged 
with  Celtic  quicksilver — he  seemed  to  live  in 
constant  apprehension  of  parliamentary  reper- 
cussions Guided  by  the  dictates  of  expediency 
alone,  Lloyd  George  sought  always  to  advance 
the  interests  of  the  British  Empire,  to  prevent 
the  French  from  getting  too  much,  to  render 
Germany  incapable  of  offense  by  land  or  sea, 
to  make  her  pay  for  the  War  up  to  the  measure 
of  her  ability,  and  to  surrender  her  war  crim- 
inals, yet  not  to  impose  terms  of  such  severity 
that  the  German  government  would  refuse  to 
sign.  The  surrender  of  the  German  fleet  had 
already  secured  Great  Britain  in  the  supremacy 
of  the  seas  and  this  the  British  determined  to 
maintain.  They  had  specifically  reser\ed  ap- 
pioval  of  Mr  Wilson's  Second  Point  relating  to 
the  "freedom  of  the  seas"  and  it  was  a  distinct 
concession  to  their  susceptibilities  that  so  little 
discussion  of  this  subject  took  place  at  Paris. 
Outside  of  that  the  mam  interest  of  the  British 
was  in  the  disposition  of  the  former  German 
colonies  and  the  dismemberment  of  the  Tuik- 
ish  Empire  Here  their  claims  clashed  both 
witli  rival  French  and  Italian  interests  and  with 
Mr.  Wilson's  principles.  Subject  to  these  modifi- 
cations and  exceptions  the  British  tended  to 
favor  a  League  of  Nations 

Equally  distrustful  of  the  Wilsonian  pro- 
gramme of  peace  and  equally  importunate  in 
their  demands  for  territorial  cessions  were  the 
Italians  represented  in  Paris  bv  Premier  Or- 
lando and  his  foreign  minister,  Sidney  Sounino 
Though  less  powerful  than  their  colleagues,  these 
Italian  delegates,  supported  by  a  strong  na- 
tionalist and  imperialist  sentiment  at  home,  de- 
termined to  complete  Italian  national  unifica- 
tion, obtain  strategic  security  and  imperial  ag- 
grandizement on  the  north  and  in  the  Adriatic, 
and  share  more  largely,  even  though  at  French 
and  British  expense,  in  the  political  control  and 
economic  exploitation  of  Africa  and  Asia  Minor. 

The  Japanese  plenipotentiaries  came  to  Paris 
with  two  major  aims-  first,  a  more  complete 
recognition  of  the  status  of  their  nation  as  a 
Great  Power  on  a  plane  of  equality  with  the 
others,  and  second,  acquisition  of  Shantung  and 
the  German  islands  in  the  North  Pacific  Ocean. 

33 


PEACE  CONFERENCE 

Sphinx-like  and  reticent  they  participated  but 
little  in  the  resettlement  of  Europe,  but  where 
their  own  interests  were  involved  they  stood 
ready  to  fight  for  their  claims  even  to  the  extent 
of  threatening  to  leave  the  Conference. 

In  addition  to  these  aims  and  interests  of  the 
Great  Powers  there  was  another  grave  obstacle 
to  the  realization  of  a  Wilsonian  peace,  namely, 
the  inordinate  ambitions  and  conflicting  claims 
of  the  smaller  nations  now  newly  vindicated, 
emancipated  or  unified  The  representatives  of 
Belgium,  Paderewski  (the  pianist  premier  of 
Poland),  Bratiano  of  Rumania,  Pasitch  of  Serbia, 
and  the  gifted  Venizelos  of  Greece,  all  asked  for 
territory  which  could  only  be  assigned  to  them 
on  the  inveterate,  but,  to 'Wilson's  mind,  iniqui- 
tous principle  of  the  division  of  the  spoils  among 
the  victors.  It  was  partly  because  of  these 
overweening  pretensions  on  the  part  of  the 
smaller  states  that  Wilson  agreed  to  their  ex- 
clusion from  the  Supreme  Council  of  the  Allies 
which  directed  the  Conference. 

The  Bussian  Problem.  The  vexatious  and 
long  unsolved  problem  of  Russia  roue  to  con- 
front the  Supreme  Council  during  the  early 
weeks  of  the  Conference  The  danger  of  Bol- 
shevism loomed  large  on  the  Eastern  horizon, 
for  despite  the  ring  of  domestic  and  foreign 
enemies  which  surrounded  them  the  Communists 
had  managed  to  maintain  their  position  Though 
they  were  generally  regarded  as  traitors  and 
outlaws,  the  inherent  difficulties  of  the  problem 
of  dealing  with  them  were  rendered  still  more 
complicated  by  the  divergent  aims  and  sym- 
pathies of  the  Allies.  Early  in  January,  the 
French,  mindful  of  the  billions  of  francs  which 
they  had  invested  in  Russia,  urged  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  combined  resources  of  the  spveral 
countries  to  overthrow  the  Bolshevist  regime; 
but  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  refused 
to  fiuninh  any  troops  for  this  enterprise  Presi- 
dent \\ilHon  "strongly  opposed  Foch's  plan  for 
sending  troops  to  Poland,  saying  lie  had  great 
doubts  whether  the  spread  of  Bolshevism  could 
be  checked  by  the  use  of  armed  force  He  and 
Lloyd  George  suggested  a  plan  for  holding  a 
confpiencp  with  the  various  Russian  factions  in- 
cluding the  de  facto  Bolshevist  government. 
Clenioncpau  refusing  to  ha\p  bis  capital  con- 
taminated, the  place*  and  date  of  meeting  were 
set  for  the  island  of  Prinkipo  in  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  in  February,  but  to  the  ill-concealed 
joy  of  the  French  the  project  fell  through  owing1 
to  the  contemptuous  refusal  of  the  counter- 
revolutionary leaders  Denikm  and  Kolchak  to 
consider  any  pioposal  for  a  tiuce  and  a  con- 
ference During  the  several  subsequent  months 
the  British  and  the  Americans,  recognizing  the 
danger  of  a  policy  of  drift,  persisted  in  their 
endeavor  to  make  some  sort  of  a  settlement  re- 
garding Russia,  but  due  to  diplomatic  tactless- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  Bolshevists,  hostile  com- 
ment in  the  Allied  press,  the  vacillation  of  Lloyd 
George  in  the  face  of  this  comment,  and  the 
unbending  rigor  of  official  France,  nothing 
was  accomplimied,  and  the  Allies  finally  reverted 
to  the  policy  of  supporting  the  royalist  counter- 
revolutionists.  Much  valuable  time  had  been 
wasted  and  meanwhile  the  tide  of  Bolshevism 
seemed  to  be  sweeping  irresistibly'  westward, 
into  Hungary,  into  Austria,  into  Bavaria  The 
Conference  lived  throughout  under  the  menacing 
shadow  of  impending  revolution. 

The  League  of  Nations.  One  of  the  earliest 
and  perhaps  the  most  vital  of  the  many  struggles 


PEACE  OONFEBENOE 


993 


PEACE  00291 


at  the  Peace  Conference  was  the  effort  to  bring 
into  being  a  League  of  Nations  and  relate  it 
definitely  to  the  Treaty  of  Peace.  (See  LEAGUE 
OP  NATIONS.)  The  French  were  desirous  of  post- 
poning consideration  of  a  League  until  the  ma- 
terial problems  of  peace  had  been  settled — new 
states,  boundaries,  colonies,  disarmament  of  the 
enemy,  and  indemnity.  But  Wilson  placed  the 
league  project  first  on  his  list  of  subjects,  and 
in  compliance  with  his  demand  the  Council  of 
Ten  passed  a  resolution  on  January  22,  sanc- 
tioning the  creation  of  a  League  which  should 
be  incorporated  "in  the  general  treaty  of  peace." 
This  resolution  was  approved  by  the  second 
plenary  session  on  January  25,  and  a  commis- 
sion constituted  to  draft  a  covenant  for  the  pro- 
posed league. 

On  January  23  Lloyd  George,  supported  bjr 
Clemenceau  and  Sonnino,  precipitated  an  acri- 
monious discussion  of  the  disposition  of  the 
German  colonies  and  the  dismemberment  of 
Turkey,  which  consumed  the  greater  part  of  a 
week  and  generated  much  heat  and  bitterness. 
German  sea -power  and  economic  rivalry  having 
been  crushed,  the  British  moved  quickly  to  their 
next  objective — the  division  of  the  spoils  of  war 
Wilson  vigorously  opposed  the  move,  but  had  to 
compromise.  It  was  agreed  (January  24)  that 
the  colonies  should  not  be  restored  to  Germany, 
though  on  the  question  of  future  control  grave 
differences  of  opinion  developed.  The  Bi  itish 
premier  and  the  Dominion  prime  ministers  de- 
manded outright  annexation  of  the  territories 
which  the  secret  treaties  assigned  to  the  Brit- 
ish Empire.  On  the  27th,  the  Japanese  an- 
nounced their  unconditional  claim  to  Shantung 
and  the  North  Pacific  islands  as  per  see-ret  treaty 
engagements.  On  the  28th,  the  French  demanded 
annexation  "pure  and  simple"  of  Togolaml  and 
the  Cameroons,  basing  their  claims  in  part  upon 
the  existence  of  secret  arrangements  with  Great 
Britain  and  requesting  that  France  "he  allowed 
to  continue  her  work  of  civilization  in  tropical 
Africa."  Belgium  presently  intimated  a  de- 
sire for  territorial  increases  in  Africa,  and  Italy 
put  forward  provisional  claims  based  upon  the 
secret  treaty  of  London.  Wilson  adhering  to 
his  programme  of  "self-determination"  with  "no 
annexations"  proposed  that  the  areas  in  ques- 
tion should  be  held  in  "trusteeship  by  the  League 
of  Nations  through  the  appointment  of  manda- 
tories." Smuts  of  South  Africa  had  originally 
proposed  the  application  of  the  mandatory  prin- 
ciple to  the  Turkish  and  ITabsburg  Empires,  but 
Wilson  in  adopting  his  suggestion  widened  its 
application,  thereby  incurring  bitter  attacks 
in  the  French  press  which  denounced  him  and 
his  "impracticable  ideals."  The  British  shifted 
their  attack,  accepted  the  mandatory  scheme  in 
principle  and  attempted  to  have  a  preliminary 
allocation  of  colonies  made  before  the  League 
came  into  existence.  Hughes  of  Austialia  and 
Massey  of  New  Zealand  now  uttered  a  virtual 
ultimatum,  but  Wilson  stood  adamant,  and  con- 
sideration of  the  problem  was  postponed  pending 
the  drafting  of  the  League  Covenant,  work  upon 
which  was  expedited  during  the  first  two  weeks 
of  February.  Simultaneously  other  commis- 
sions which  had  been  appointed,  such  as  those 
on  various*  territorial  problems,  responsibility 
for  the  War,  reparations,  etc.,  immediately  com- 
menced their  arduous  task  of  preparing  the  for- 
mulas of  settlement. 

Following  the  plenary  session  of  February 
14,  there  was  a  month's  interregnum  due  to  the 


absence  of  the  "Big  Four,"  Lloyd  George  was 
absent  from  the  Conference  from  February  7 
to  March  5.  His  place  was  temporarily  taken 
by  Winston  Churchill,  perhaps  the  most  mili- 
taristic and  ultra-imperialistic  member  of  the 
British  cabinet.  Mr.  Wilson,  who  left  for  Amer- 
ica on  February  14,  to  attend  to  administra- 
tive duties,  did  not  return  to  Paris  until  March 
14.  Premier  Clemenceau,  wounded  by  a  French 
anarchist  on  February  19,  was  confined  to  his 
home  until  March  10.  Premier  Orlando  went 
to  Italy  for  some  time  leaving  his  more  reac- 
tionary colleague  Sonnino  in  control. 

During  the  week  before  his  departure,  espe- 
cially on  February  7,  and  February  12,  Wilson 
advocated  the  immediate  imposition  upon  Ger- 
many of  military  and  naval  terms  providing  for 
her  disarmament  as  a  preliminary  preparation 
for  Allied  demobilization.  This  would  separate 
military  terms  from  general  considerations  of 
peace  and  tend  to  remove  the  Conference  from 
the  militarist  atmosphere  created  by  the  mainte- 
nance of  large  standing  armies.  Clemenceau  bit- 
terly denounced  this  plan.  He  desired  expan- 
sion of  the  old  conditions  for  Germany  but  not 
demobilization  for  the  Allied  armies.  Balfour 
of  Great  Britain  supported  the  President  in 
resolutions  renewing  the  old  armistice  terms  for 
an  indefinite  period  and  providing  for  a  pre- 
liminary treaty  containing  the  military,  naval 
and  air  terms  to  be  drafted  immediately  by  a 
committee  of  military  experts  during  \Vilgon's 
absence  in  America.  But  those  delegates  who 
favored  imposing  general  territorial  and  repara- 
tion terms  on  Germany  before  considering  a 
League  of  Nations  took  advantage  of  the  situa- 
tion to  sidetrack  the  League  project  and  work 
for  the  expansion  of  the  preliminary  military, 
naval  and  air  treaty  authorized  by  the  resolu- 
tion of  February  12,  into  a  general  settlement. 
On  February  2*2,  Mr.  Balfour,  responding  to 
pressure  by  Churchill,  introduced  a  new  resolu- 
tion providing  for  a  preliminary  peace  treaty 
with  Germany  which  should  include,  besides  dis- 
armament clauses,  the  approximate  future  fron- 
tiers of  Germany,  financial  arrangements,  post- 
war economic  relations,  and  responsibility  for 
breaches  of  the  Laws  of  War.  The  various  com- 
missions which  had  been  constituted  to  investi- 
gate these  matters  were  directed  to  report  not 
later  than  March  8  (one  week  before  Wilson's 
expected  return).  This  resolution  received  the 
cordial  endorsement  of  the  French  and  the  Japa- 
nese. Baron  Sonnino  of  Italy  favored  the  prin- 
ciple though  he  was  averse  to  having  the  Ger- 
man settlements  made  before  Italian  claims  to 
Austrian  territory  were  satisfied.  *.Ir.  Lansing 
and  Colonel  House  of  the  American  delegation, 
desirous  of  securing  a  speedy  peace,  acted  against 
their  absent  chief's  wishes  and  assented  to  the 
project.  Lord  Milner  of  the  British  delegation 
alone  opposed  the  move,  but  in  vain.  The  foes 
of  the  League  secretly  rejoiced  at  this  victory, 
and  it  was  openly  declared  that  the  League  was 
shelved.  On  March  1,  Marshal  Foch  pre- 
sented a  report  on  the  military  terms  of  the 
Treaty.  No  sooner,  however,  had  the  Council 
of  Ten  resolved  to  frame  a  general  preliminary 
treaty  of  peace  omitting  the  League  than  diffi- 
culties were  encountered.  All  sorts  of  contro- 
versies began  to  crop  out.  The  British  and  the 
French  differed  about  the  disposition  of  the 
German  war  vessels,  the  British  and  Japanese 
about  former  German  cables.  Lloyd  George  no 
sooner  returned  to  Paris  than  he  had  a  falling- 


PEACE  CONFEBEKCS 


993 


PEACE  CONFEBENCE 


out  with  Clemenceau.  To  make  matters  worse, 
the  Italians  objected  very  vociferously  to  a  quick 
peace  with  Germany  which  left  Austrian  prob- 
lems in  abeyance. 

Such  was  the  situation  upon  the  return  of 
President  Wilson  to  Paris  on  March  14.  In 
many  respects  his  visit  home  had  been  dis- 
couraging, for  he  had  learned  that  he  could  not 
count  with  certainty  upon  the  American  people's 
support  of  his  peace  programme  Circumstances 
demanding;  decisive  action  on  his  part,  the  very 
next  day  he  issued  a  strong  proclamation  re- 
pudiating American  support  of  the  scheme  for  a 
•reliminary  comprehensive  peace  settlement  with- 
out the  League  and  announcing  that  the  resolu- 
tion adopted  at  the  second  plenary  session  on 
January  26  to  the  effect  that  the  League  should 
l>e  made  an  integral  part  of  the  general  treaty 
of  peace,  was  of  final  force 

Reports  of  commissions — territorial  and  other 
— were  now  being  received,  but  they  had  been 
prepared  for  the  most  part  by  subordinate  mem- 
bers of  the  various  delegations  without  super- 
vision or  direction  on  the  part  of  the  chief  pleni- 
potentiaries. The  time  \vas  rapidly  approaching 
when  formal  decisions  bad  to  be  reached  on 
questions  on  which  it  was  known  that  grave  dif- 
ferences existed  among  the  various  statesmen. 
Secrecy  was  deemed  an  essential  condition  for 
the  arrangement  of  those  compromises  by  which 
alone  amity  and  unanimity  could  be  preserved. 
Manv  complaints  had  arisen  about  the  delay  of 
making  peace  and  tbe  slow  progress  of  the!  Con- 
ference seemed  to  necessitate  a  radical  reorgan- 
ization of  the  form  and  procedure  of  the  Su- 
preme Council  Under  pressure  of  the  British 
delegates  it  was  decided  about  the  third  week  of 
March  to  substitute  a  Council  of  the  Heads  of 
the  Four  Great  Powers  of  France,  Italy,  the 
United  States,  and  Great  Britain  for  the  larger 
and  more  unwieldy  Council  of  Ten  Definite  an- 
nouncement of  the  change  was  made  on  March 
25.  Marquis  Saionji,  tbe  head  of  the  Japanese 
delegation  might  have  claimed  a  seat  in  this 
conclave  but  abstained  from  so  doing  except 
when  his  nation's  interests  were  specifically  in- 
volved on  the  ground  of  his  ignorance  of  Euro- 
pean languages  The  foreign  ministers  who  had 
been  members  of  tbe  Council  of  Ten  henceforth 
met  separately  as  a  subordinate  Council  of  Five 
to  which  was  intrusted  decisions  on  matters  of 
secondary  importance,  preliminary  preparation 
of  miscellaneous  material  for  the  consideration 
of  the  Supreme  Council  of  Four  and  the  execu- 
tion of  numerous  administrative  tasks  which 
had  formerly  consumed  the  time  and  energy  of 
the  old  Supreme  Council  of  Ten 

From  March  26  to  May  7  the  Four  worked 
at  high  pressure  to  complete  the  German  treaty. 
Meeting  two  or  three  times  a  day  they  decided 
questions  of  principle  and  high  policy,  consult- 
ing tbe  experts  on  technical  points  and  details 
of  the  subjects  discussed.  The  intensified  se- 
crecy of  their  procedure  reacted  upon  the  press 
and  public  to  produce  considerable  irritation  and 
much  confusion  Its  sole  justification  was  that 
it  concentrated  power  in  the  hands  of  respon- 
sible statesmen  and  promised  a  more  expeditious 
settlement. 

The  Trench  Demands.  The  somewhat  cool 
reception  which  Wilson  had  encountered  at  home 
did  not  pass  unnoticed  in  Europe  Clemenceau 
and  Lloyd  George  undoubtedlv  felt  that  Wilson's 
domestic  support  was  so  unstable  that  they  who 
could  point  to  the  tangible  popular  mandates  of 


victorious  elections  and  votes  of  confidence  were 
justified  in  adopting  a  stronger  tone.  These 
three  chief  conferees  now  faced  in  all  its  acute- 
ness  the  problem  of  finding  some  basis  of  unity 
among  themselves  upon  which  the  terms  of  the 
peace  settlement  might  rest.  In  January  Wil- 
son bad  insisted  upon  immediate  steps  toward 
the  creation  of  a  League  of  Nations  The  French 
now  resolved  to  carry  through  in  its  entirety 
their  formidable  programme  of  security,  repara- 
tion, and  expansion  It  embraced  the  follow- 
ing points:  (1)  French  military  control  of  the 
Rhine;  (2)  a  permanent  alliance  of  the  Great 
Powers  to  help  France  hold  it,  (3)  erection  of  a 
group  of  smaller  allies  to  menace  Germany  from 
the  East;  (4)  territorial  reduction  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire;  (5)  crippling  of  the  German 
political  organization  through  the  encourage- 
ment of  separatist  movements;  (6)  disarmament 
of  Germany  but  not  of  the  Allies;  (7)  a  crush- 
ing indemnity  to  cover  not  merely  restoration 
of  northern  France  but  as  much  of  the  French 
war  debt  as  possible,  (8)  appropriation  of  Ger- 
man economic  resources;  (0)  a  set  of  commercial 
agreements  preferential  to  France,  prejudicial  to 
Germany  In  addition  the  French  were  deter- 
mined to  acquire  a  large  share  of  the  economic 
opportunities  of  developing  parts  of  Turkey  and 
the  former  German  colonies 

Wilson  recognized  that  his  programme  of  perma- 
nent world  peace  based  upon  sound  moral  prin- 
ciples backed  by  mutual  guarantees  was  se- 
riously jeopardized  by  the  French  demands  He 
had  upset  many  plans  on  March  13,  by  declaring 
that  the  League  must  be  an  integral  part  of 
the  Treaty.  He  consistently  opposed  Marshal 
Foch's  projects  of  sending  military  expeditions 
to  coerce  Soviet  Russia,  and  on  March  17,  during 
the  final  consideration  of  the  military,  na\al  and 
air  terms  of  the  Treaty,  caused  the  "rejection  of 
an  elaborate  scheme  advanced  bv  the  French  for 
perpetual  control  over  the  military  and  naval 
affairs  of  Germany.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was 
instrumental  in  again  defeating,  in  the  League 
of  Nations  Commission,  the  plan  sponsored  by 
M  Bourgeois  to  make  the  League  practically  a 
military  alliance  for  the  defense  of  France.  *  In 
addition,  while  on  his  way  back  to  France  he 
had  refused,  by  wireless,  to  consent  to  the  French 
proposal  to  include  the  entire  costs  of  the  War 
in  Germany's  reparations  bill.  Such  actions, 
though  maintaining  his  position,  served  to  irri- 
tate and  consolidate  the  opposition. 

The  French  determined  not  to  yield  on  any 
more  points.  Though  unanimously  assured  of 
the  return  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  political,  mili- 
tary, and  economic  motives  impelled  them  to  de- 
mand a  more  complete  "rectification"  of  their 
eastern  frontier  The  secret  agreement  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1017,  with  Russia  had  assigned  them, 
first,  outright  annexation  of  the  entire  iron  dis- 
trict of  Lorraine  and  the  entire  coal  district  of 
the  Saar  Valley,  and,  second,  the  separation 
from  Germany  of  the  remaining  territories  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  and  their  erection  into 
an  autonomous  neutral  state  to  be  occupied  by 
French  troops  pending  final  fulfillment  of  all 
conditions  of  peace  to  be  imposed  upon  the 
enemy  With  minor  modifications  the  execu- 
tion of  their  agreement  together  with  a  proposal 
for  an  indefinitely  extended  inter-Allied  con- 
trol of  the  Rhine  'bridges  was  vigorously  advo- 
cated by  the  French  delegation  at  the  'Confer- 
ence, and  the  debate  on  this  subject  of  funda- 
mental importance  was  keen  and  protracted, 


PEAGE  CONFERENCE 


994 


PEACE  OONFEBBNOE 


lasting  off  and  on  for  the  first  six  months  of 
1010.  On  March  14,  Wilson  and  Lloyd  George 
offered  to  pledge  their  respective  countries  to 
aid  the  French  in  case  of  an  unprovoked  attack 
by  Germany.  Clemenceau  accepted  this  extraor- 
dinary guarantee  with  much  gratitude,  but  in- 
sisted that  it  supplement  rather  than  supersede 
the  French  plan  for  indefinite  occupation  of  the 
Left  Bank  and  military  control  of  the  Rhine. 
On  March  27,  the  French  finally  presented  their 
definitive  claim  to  the  Saar,  paied  down  to  an 
irreducible  minimum  providing  first  for  political 
annexation  of  that  part  of  the  Saar  basin  which 
had  belonged  to  France  under  the  frontier  of 
1814  but  had  been  relinquished  to  Prussia  as 
an  additional  penalty  after  Napoleon's  debacle 
at  Waterloo,  and,  second,  for  full  French  owner- 
ship of  the  mines  in  the  adjoining  regions. 
The  whole  controversy  on  this  issue,  together 
with  disputes  about  reparation,  amendments  to 
the  covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations,  and  other 
points,  came  to  a  head  late  in  March.  From 
March  25  to  April  7,  the  Conference  seemed  to 
have  reached  a  standstill  as  the  major  pleni- 
potentiaries battled  for  supremacy  Affairs  had 
reached  an  impasse 

Working  in  supposedly  strict  secrecy,  the 
Council  of  Four  struggled  frantically  to  dis- 
cover some  working  arrangement.  American  ex- 
perts had  recommended  granting  a  portion  of 
the  Saar  region  to  France  as  compensation  for 
the  wanton  destruction  by  the  Germans  of  mines 
in  northeastern  France.  Wilson  readily  ac- 
knowledged the  validity  of  French  claims  to 
coal  from  the  Saar,  and  was  eaily  convinced  that 
transfer  of  the  mines  was  the  surest  method  of 
just  compensation,  but  could  not  be  brought 
to  consent  to  French  annexation  of  any  part  of 
the  Saar  or  to  political  separation  of  the  Left 
Bank  from  Germany.  The  British,  though  sym- 
pathetic with  French  desire  for  security,  unre- 
lentingly opposed  a  separate  buffer  state  on  the 
Rhine.  As  regards  the  Saar  they  favored  the 
transfer  of  the  mines  but  instead  of  direct  an- 
nexation preferred  the  creation  of  a  larger  au- 
tonomous state  under  French  protection  To 
the  anger  of  the  French,  Lloyd  George,  in  a 
memorandum  circulated  on  March  25,  pro- 
tested that  the  Treaty  as  it  was  being  framed 
could  only  operate  to  cause  new  and  more  ter- 
rible wars  in  the  future  and  made  a  strong  plea 
for  moderation  and  justice  in  territorial  read- 
justments. Clemenceau  in  a  biting  and  sar- 
castic reply  complained  that  all  of  Lloyd  George's 
proposed  concessions  were  in  military  and  Euro- 
pean matters  at  the  expense  of  French  security, 
not  in  naval  or  colonial  matters  at  the  expense 
of  British  security  or  aggrandizement. 

The  opening  days  of  April  have  truly  merited 
the  caption  "the  Peace  Conference's  blackest 
hour."  In  the  Council  of  Four,  Clemenceau  was 
at  loggerheads  with  Wilson  and  Lloyd  George 
and  threatened  to  resign  unless  his  demands  were 
granted.  His  fall  would  probably  have  resulted 
in  an  even  more  obstinate  French  resistance.  Tn 
the  sessions  of  the  League  of  Nations  Commis- 
sion the  French  were  insisting  on  the  adoption 
of  amendments  favoring  militarization  of  the 
League  and  the  maintenance  of  French  security 
There  were  grave  premonitory  rumblings  of  fu- 
ture disputes  with  the  Italians  and  Japanese 
over  their  respective  territorial  claims.  The  in- 
spired French  press  and  certain  sections  of  the 
English  and  Italian  press  uniting  in  a  vitupera- 
tive attack  upon  Wilson  and  to  some  extent  upon 


Lloyd  George,  anathematized  the  former  as  a 
pro-German  and  the  sole  obstacle  to  a  speedy 
and  satisfactory  peace.  On  April  3,  the  Presi- 
dent succumbed  to  physical  exhaustion  and  for 
four  days  was  confined  to  his  bed.  On  April  4, 
came  news  of  renewed  disorders  and  aggressive 
Bolshevist  projects  in  Hungary;  on  the  same 
day  King  Albert  of  Belgium  arrived  to  insist 
upon  Belgian  priority  in  reparations  payments. 
On  April  5,  it  was  learned  that  Bavaria  had 
embraced  Bolshevism  and  on  the  sixth  there 
were  socialist  demonstrations  in  the  streets  of 
Paris 

Wilson  determined  to  force  a  showdown.  His 
first  action  upon  leaving  his  sick-bed  was  to 
order  the  George  Washington  to  sail  for  Brest 
immediately.  This  was  his  ultimatum:  either 
the  French  had  to  recede  from  their  extreme  de- 
mands or  he  would  leave  the  Conference.  The 
result  was  an  era  of  compromise  Working  un- 
der the  necessity  of  preserving  Allied  solidarity 
and  preventing  a  disruption  of  the  Conference, 
Wilson  and  Clemenceau  gradually  fought  out 
the  problems  of  Frencn  tecurity  and  reparation. 
On  April  10,  a  solution  of  the  Saar  Basin  (q.v.) 
question  was  attained.  The  mines  were  to  be 
given  outright  to  the  French,  but  politically  the 
region  was  to  be  administered  for  15  years*  by  a 
special  League  of  Nations  Commission  after 
which  a  plebiscite  was  to  determine  its  future 
status.  On  April  16,  Wilson  and  Lloyd  George 
agreed  to  a  15-year  occupation  of  the  Left  Bank 
of  the  Rhine,  together  with  Allied  control  of  the 
three  principal  bridge-heads,  the  demilitarization 
of  all  this  territory  and  also  of  a  zone  stretch- 
ing 50  kilometers  east  of  the  river.  Simul- 
taneously it  was  definitely  decided  to  sign  the 
three-power  defensive  alliance  as  an  additional 
guarantee  of  French  security,  though  in  so  doing, 
Wilson  laid  himself  open  to  serious  charges  of 
inconsistency  as  he  had  hitherto  opposed  special 
alliances  within  the  general  family  of  the  League 
of  Nations  Meanwhile  in  the  final  sessions  of 
the  League  Commission,  April  10  and  11, 
Wilson  carried  through  certain  American  amend- 
ments that  he  considered  necessary  to  meet  do- 
mestic opposition  but  with  Clemenceau's  consent 
the  proposed  French  amendments  were  rejected 
On  April  12,  a  compromise  was  reached  on 
the  reparations  issue  ( see  REPARATIONS  ) .  These 
decisions  in  regard  to  reparations,  the  Saar 
Valley,  and  the  Left  Bank  of  the  Rhine  com- 
pleted the  main  outlines  of  the  settlement  with 
France.  Though  the  worst  period  of  the  crisis 
was  thereby  weathered  the  compromises  on  these 
vital  issues  satisfied  no  nation  and  extraordi- 
nary attempts  were  subsequently  made  to  evade 
or  modify  them,  for  the  French  never  stopped 
fighting  for  their  full  programme,  and  the  Brit- 
ish and  the  Americans,  regretting  their  con- 
cessions, endeavored  to  secure  a  reconsideration. 
However,  by  April  14,  sufficiently  comprehen- 
sive agreements  had  been  reached  by  Wilson, 
Clemenceau,  and  Lloyd  George  to  justify  sum- 
moning the  German  delegation  to  Versailles 
But  three  weeks  were  yet  to  elapse  before  the 
tentative  draft  treaty  was  completed  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  enemy  plenipotentiaries,  for  barely 
had  the  worst  period  of  the  French  crisis  been 
safely  weathered  when  another  storm — the 
Italian  crisis — burst  upon  the  Conference. 

The  Italian  Demands.  The  Italians  had 
been  growing  restive  under  the  apprehension 
that  the  German  terms  would  be  settled  before 
they  had  a  chance  to  bargain  for  concessions  in 


PEACE  CONFEEENCE  995 

the  Adriatic,  Asia  Minor  and  elsewhere  as  the 
price  of  their  approval  of  the  settlement.  Ital- 
ian claims  for  territory  were  based  primarily 
upon  the  secret  treaty  of  London  of  April,  1915, 
by  which  Italy  was  promised  the  southern  part 
of  Austrian  Tirol,  up  to  Brenner  Pass  and  in- 
cluding the  Dozen  district  with  some  200,000 
Austro-Germans  in  addition  to  the  ethnograph- 
ically  Italian  region  of  Trentino;  also  Trieste; 
Gori/ia,  Gradisca,  and  Istria,  a  majority  of 
whose  inhabitants  were  Slavic;  part  of  Dalma- 
tia  with  all  the  best  harbors  except  Fiume  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic;  the  town  and 
district  of  Valona  in  Albania;  the  Dodecanese 
Islands  in  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  wholly 
inhabited  by  Greeks;  imperialistic  compensation 
in  Africa  and  Asia  Minor;  and  "a  share  of  the 
war-indemnity."  Subsequent  secret  arrange- 
ments, notably  that  of  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne  in 
April,  1917,  had  elaborated  prospective  Italian 
gains  in  the  Turkish  Empire.  The  Treaty  of 
London,  as  its  terms  gradually  became  known, 
had  a  poisoning  and  disillusioning  effect  all 
through  the  Balkans,  and  proved  to  be  one  of  the 
chief  obstacles  to  a  speedy  and  satisfactory  set- 
tlement at  Paris.  "More  actual  time  was  de- 
voted by  the  Council  of  Four  and  other  councils 
and  com  mi  «a  ion  s  to  the  controversies  which  raged 
around  this  treaty  than  to  any  other  single  sub- 
ject discussed."  In  a  session  of  the  Supreme 
War  Council  on  Nov.  4,  1918,  at  the  time  of 
the  armistice  negotiations,  Premier  Orlando  had 
made  a  reservation  on  Point  Nine  of  Wilson's 
Fourteen  regarding  the  readjustment  of  Italian 
frontiers  "along  clearly  recognizable  lines  of  na- 
tionality," but  this  was  not  incorporated  in  the 
note  to  Germany  on  November  5,  on  the 
ground  that  it  concerned  the  peace  with  Austria- 
Hungary,  not  with  Germany.  The  Italians  not 
only  refused  to  abide  by  the  Fourteen  Points, 
but  \\ent  a  step  beyond  the  Treaty  of  London 
and  claimed  in  addition  the  Port  of  Fiume,  the 
annexation  of  which  they  had  expressly,  though 
it  appears  unwillingly,  renounced  in  1915  At 
that  time  it  was  agreed  to  offer  Fiume  to  Croa- 
tia, Serbia,  and  Montenegro  as  compensation  for 
certain  sacrifices  of  Serbian  territory  to  be 
utilised  in  enticing  Bulgaria  into  the  War  on 
the  side  of  the  Allies  The  latter  project  fall- 
ing through,  Italy  revived  her  claim  to  Fiume 
in  ordei  to  secure  undisputed  economic  domina- 
tion of  the  Adriatic  and  to  prevent  any  poten- 
tial rivalry  on  the  part  of  Jugo-Slavia. 

The  attitudes  of  the  Big  Three  toward  Italian 
aspirations  were  veiy  divergent.  Sympathizing 
with  the  Jugo-Slavs,  Wilson  desperately  en- 
deavored to  attain  settlements  not  only  just  in 
themselves  but  based  upon  a  broad  and  generous 
programme  of  cooperation.  Clemenceau  and 
Lloyd  George,  entangled  in  the  commitments  of 
the  secret  treaties,  tended  to  recognize  the  ob- 
ligations they  had  thereby  incurred  though  op- 
posing undue  greediness  on  Italy's  part.  The 
scholarly  and  impulsive  Orlando  and  the  grim- 
faced  Sonnino,  so  dissimilar  in  temperament 
and  training,  lacked  sufficient  unity  of  purpose 
and  method  to  secure  any  substantial  diplomatic 
victory.  Hitherto  somewhat  in  abeyance,  the 
Italian  claims  were  taken  up  in  real  earnest 
about  the  middle  of  April.  Experts  of  the  va- 
rious delegations  prepared  reports  and  recom- 
mendations. Wilson  intimated  to  Orlando  that 
he  would  accept  the  northern  frontier  assigned 
by  the  Treaty  of  London  and  also  Italian  annex- 
ation of  Lissa  and  Valona,  but  demanded  that 


PEACE  COtfPEREKOE 

as  the  natural  outlet  for  the  trade  of  Jugo- 
slavia and  Austria,  Fiume  should  be  made  a 
free  city  within  the  Jugo-Slav  customs  area. 
Advocating  the  assignment  of  Dalmatia  to  Jugo- 
slavia under  guarantees  protecting  the  rights 
of  Italian  minorities  therein,  he  rejected  a  pro- 
posal subsequently  made  by  Clemenceau  and 
Lloyd  George  to  award  Fiume  to  Italy  if  she 
renounced  treaty  claims  upon  Dalmatia.  From 
April  19  to  23,  stoiuiy  discussions  raged 
upon  various  phases  of  the  problem.  On  April 
20,  VVilson  read  a  memorandum  setting  forth 
his  views  which  he  proposed  to  publish  if  the 
Italians  rejected  all  compromise.  The  British 
and  French  premiers  approved  the  memorandum 
and  Wilson  evidently  understood  both  of  them 
to  favor  publication.  On  April  23,  Orlando  hav- 
ing refused  to  participate  in  any  further  delib- 
erations until  the  question  was  settled  in  Italy's 
favor,  Wilson  caused  a  tremendous  sensation 
throughout  the  world  by  publishing  an  appeal 
to  the  Italian  people  over  the  heads  of  their 
duly  authorized  representatives.  The  outraged 
Orlando  threatened  to  go  home  and  lay  the  mat- 
ter before  Parliament.  To  his  surprise  Wilson 
eagerly  supported  the  proposal  and  to  save  their 
faces  the  Italians  had  to  go,  receiving  cold  com- 
fort from  Lloyd  George  and  Clemenceau  who  in- 
formed Orlando  in  a  secret  memorandum  that 
although  against  their  better  judgment  they 
would  stand  by  the  Treaty  of  London  they  could 
not  admit  the  justice  of  the  Italian  claim  in 
Fiume.  This  second  memorandum,  if  published, 
would  have  completely  isolated  the  Italians,  but 
due  to  Lloyd  (George's  temporizing  it  was  sup- 
pi  eased,  and  Italian  public  opinion  skillfully 
manipulated  to  confuse  the  issues  and  injure 
Wilson.  In  the  Supreme  Council,  Lloyd  George 
pressed  for  compromise  and  concessions,  bring- 
ing up  the  broad  subject  of  spheres  of  influence 
in  Turkey.  But  other  problems  required  atten- 
tion; it  was  necessary  to  go  on  with  the  work 
in  hand.  Though  receiving  a  vote  of  confidence 
in  his  parliament  on  April  30,  the  Italian  pre- 
mier, recognizing  the  futility  of  further  absten- 
tion from  the  proceedings,  left  Rome  for  Paris 
on  May  5.  The  Adriatic  question  was  still  un- 
decided. For  its  ultimate  settlement,  see  Fl- 
ITMF-ADRIATIC  CONTROVERSY 

The  Japanese  Demands.  Contemporaneous- 
ly with  the  Italian  crisis  over  Fiume,  there  had 
taken  place  a  shai  p  encounter  with  the  Japanese 
over  Shantung.  The  Mikado's  representatives 
had  hitherto  confined  themselves  largely  to  si- 
lent observation  of  the  wranglings  of  other  na- 
tions and  to  a  protracted  though  fruitless  ef- 
fort to  secure  insertion  in  the  League  of  Nations 
Covenant  of  the  principles  of  racial  equality. 
Smarting  under  their  defeat  on  this  issue,  the 
Japanese  began  strenuously  to  urge  their  claims 
to  imperialistic  aggrandizement  in  the  Far  East. 
Their  diplomatic1  position  was  well-nigh  im- 
pregnable. A  secret  agreement  with  Great  Brit- 
ain of  February,  1917,  subsequently  approved 
by  France,  Russia,  and  Italy,  assured  Japan  of 
the  acquisition  of  Germany's  rights  in  Shantung, 
and  island  possessions  in  the  North  Pacific,  those 
south  of  the  Equator  being  assigned  to  the 
British.  Several  secret  agreements  negotiated 
with  China  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  in  1915 
and  September,  1918,  had  secured  reluctant 
Chinese  assent  to  the  Japanese  plan  for  eventual 
restoration  of  Shantung  to  China  only  upon  con- 
ditions favoring  the  enhancement  of  Japanese 
interests  in  Shantung  and  Manchuria.  The 


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996 


PEACE  CONFERENCE 


Chinese  having  consented  to  these  arrangements 
only  under  duress  (see  CHINA,  History,  and 
JAPAN,  History)  now  asked  the  complete  abro- 
gation of  all  these  old  treaties  and  the  direct 
restoration  of  Shantung  without  the  intermedia- 
tion or  interference  of  the  Japanese.  The  Jap- 
anese, bitterly  denouncing  Chinese  participation 
in  the  discussion  of  their  claims,  and  grimly 
resolved  to  stand  their  ground,  demanded  the 
absolute  surrender  to  themselves  of  the  former 
German  "rights,  privileges  and  concessions"  in 
Shantung,  after  which  they  were  to  be  left  free 
to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  of 
1015  and  the  arrangements  of  1018.  They  sum- 
marily rejected  a  proposal  made  by  Secretary 
Lansing  in  the  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers  on 
April  15,  and  strongly  supported  by  President 
Wilson  in  the  Council  of  Four,  providing  for 
the  blanket  cession  of  all  German  rights  in 
China  to  the  Allied  and  Associated  Powers  for 
subsequent  disposition.  Lloyd  George  adduced 
the  secret  treaty  of  1917*  in  justifying  the 
Japanese  claims,  but  his  loosely  made  sugges- 
tion for  a  League  of  Nations  mandate  for 
Shantung  was  rebuffed  by  them.  The  Japanese 
peremptorily  demanded  an  immediate  and  defi- 
nite settlement  of  the  problem  in  accordance 
with  their  stipulations  since  otherwise  they  had 
strict 'orders  from  home  not  to  sign  the  treaty. 
The  departure  of  the  Italians  redoubled  the 
gravity  and  effectiveness  of  their  threat  to  leave 
the  Conference.  The  Belgians  were  simultane- 
ously manifesting  discontent  over  the  reparations 
settlement  and  a  complete  break-up  again  seemed 
imminent.  Against  the  strong  ad\ice  of  his 
advisers  and  fellow-plenipotentiaries,  including 
Secretary  Lansing  and  General  Bliss,  Wilson 
finally  decided  to  yield  to  the  practical  con- 
siderations of  the  moment  and  on  April  30,  it 
was  agreed  that  Shantung  should  be  ceded  to 
Japan  in  the  actual  Treaty,  but  that  Japan  in 
a  supplementary  verbal  agreement  was  specif- 
ically to  reaffirm  her  promise  to  return  it  to 
China  under  more  explicitly  defined  conditions. 
This  compromise  solution  saved  the  day,  but 
was  satisfactory  to  no  one  except  the  Japanese 
It  embittered  the  Chinese  and  led  to  their  re- 
fusal to  sign  the  treaty.  It  disheartened  Wil- 
son more  than  any  other  decision  at  the  Con- 
ference. It  stirred  up  great  criticism  in  Amer- 
ica and  furnished  a  formidable  weapon  of  op- 
position to  the  Treaty  there.  Not  until  the 
time  of  the  Washington  Conference  waH  an 
amelioration  of  the  settlement  made  which  mol- 
lified the  United  States  and  China.  (See  SHAN- 
TUNG and  WASHINGTON  CONFERENCE.) 

The  Polish  Demands.  On  the  contentious 
issues  of  Fiume  and  Shantung,  Wilson  received 
scant  support  from  his  colleagues  in  the  Council 
of  Four,  but  when  it  came  to  the  extravagant 
Polish  demands  supported  by  the  French,  Lloyd 
George  entered  the  diplomatic  lists  in  the  guise 
of  an  embattled  advocate  of  justice  and  modera- 
tion. In  1017  France  in  her  secret  arrangements 
with  Russia  had  agreed  to  allow  the  Czar's  gov- 
ernment a  free  hand  in  drawing  Germany's 
western  boundaries,  i.e.  in  annexing  Prussian 
and  Austrian  Poland.  But  the  advent  of  revolu- 
tion in  Russia  and  the  subsequent  regime  of  the 
Bolsheviks  profoundly  altered  French  policy. 
Having  lost  their  powerful  ally  in  the  East  and 
being  interested  in  the  creation  of  a  ring  of 
buffer  states  around  Germany,  the  French  ar- 
gued for  a  great  and  strong  Poland,  which  would 
not  only  hem  in  the  Germans  on  the  East  but 


also  form  a  link  in  the  cordon  uanitaire  to  be 
forged  around  Bolshevist  Russia.  The  British, 
while  committed  to  the  restoration  of  Polish 
statehood,  refused  to  countenance  the  projects 
of  aggrandizement  advanced  by  the  Poles  and 
the  French,  as  they  served  no  direct  British  in- 
terest and  promised  to  cause  unrest  and  possibly 
war  in  Eastern  Europe.  The  Territorial  Com- 
mission appointed  to  consider  the  problem  of 
Poland  recommended  the  cession  to  her  of  al- 
most the  whole  of  the  Provinces  of  Posen  and 
West  Prussia  which  had  anciently  constituted 
parts  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland,  together  with 
the  district  of  Marienwerdcr  controlling  the 
railroad  from  Danzig  to  Warsaw.  Poland  was 
also  to  get  the  greater  part  of  Upper  Silesia, 
which  had  not  been  Polish  for  centuries.  Mr. 
Lloyd  George  strongly  opposed  the  transfer  of 
2,000,000  Germans  to 'Polish  rule  and,  supported 
by  President  Wilson,  he  secured  a  decision  al- 
lowing a  plebiscite  in  Marienwerder,  aud  mak- 
ing Danzig  a  free  city  under  the  League  of 
Nations  though  subject  to  Poland  in  customs 
regulations  and  conduct  of  foreign  relations. 

The  essential  terms  of  the  treaty  were  now 
complete.  On  April  28,  at  the  fifth  plenary  ses- 
sion, the  League  of  Nations  Covenant  and  the 
International  Labor  Charter  were  adopted  by 
the  Conference,  and  on  May  6,  despite  a  strong 
undercurrent  of  dissatisfaction  among  the  smal- 
ler powers  "with  special  interests"  who  felt  that 
their  views  had  not  been  sufficiently  considered, 
a  summary  digest  of  the  whole  treaty  was  read 
and  approved 

German  Reception  of  the  Treaty.  Headed 
by  Count  BrockdorflT-Kant/au,  foreign  secretary 
of  the  republican  government  at  Berlin,  the 
German  plenipotentiaries  arrived  at  Versailles 
on  April  20.  Here,  on  May  7,  the  Preliminary 
Conference  was  transformed  into  a  definitive 
Peace  Congress  and  at  a  ceremonial  meeting  the 
proposed  treaty  was  formally  transmitted  to 
the  German  delegation  by  Clemenceau  whose 
tart  speech  declaring  that  the  war  had  coat  the 
victors  too  much  to  allow  the  remission  of  any 
precautions  or  guarantees  necessary  to  ensure 
a  lasting  peace,  elicited  from  Brockdbrflf-Rantzaii 
an  extremely  defiant  and  tactless  reply  marked 
by  bitter  denunciation  of  the  Allies  and  a  vigor- 
ous denial  that  Germany  was  solely  responsible 
for  the  war. 

Seven  weeks  of  uncertainty  ensued,  taken  up 
with  the  analysis  of  German  protests,  the 
formulation  of  the  Austrian  peace  treaty  (see 
below),  and  the  last  great  crisis  that  preceded 
the  signature.  Oral  discussion  being  barred, 
the  Germans,  commencing  May  10,  submitted  an 
extended  series  of  notes  criticizing  various  parts 
of  the  Treaty,  and  on  May  29  advanced  an 
elaborate  set  of  counter-proposals.  Complaining 
that  the  principles  of  the  Armistice  under  which 
Germany  had  laid  down  her  arms  had  been  vio- 
lated in  letter  and  spirit,  they  asserted  that 
the  terms  imposed  upon  their  now  thoroughly 
democratic  government  were  intolerably  severe. 
They  demanded  a  plebiscite  to  determine  the 
future  status  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  suggested 
that  instead  of  ceding  West  Prussia,  Danzig, 
and  Memel  they  should  be  allowed  to  make  Dan- 
zig, Konigsberg,  and  Memel  free  ports  under 
German  sovereignty.  They  offered  fixed  annual 
supplies  of  coal  to  France  in  lieu  of  the  Saar 
mines  and  argued  that  the  retention  of  Upper 
Silesia  was  absolutely  necessary  if  Germany 
were  to  fulfill  her  obligations.  They  requested 


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997 


that  Germany  be  admitted  to  the  League  of  Na- 
tiona  immediately  without  conditions,  and  pro- 
posed that  she  retain  her  colonies  under  a 
League  mandate.  They  advocated  general  in- 
stead of  unilateral  disarmament  and  asked  the 
Allies  to  abolish  compulsory  military  service 
in  two  years. 

These  and  numerous  other  suggested  changes 
and  interpretations  were  considered  by  the  Al- 
lied Councils  and  13  special  committees  Of 
great  significance  was  an  eleventh-hour  attempt 
on  the  part  of  Lloyd  George  to  secure  modifica- 
tion of  the  terms  of  peace.  Publication  of  a 
digest  of  the  treaty  had  elicited  vociferous  de- 
nunciation of  its  provisions  in  liberal  and  labor 
circles  in  Great  Britain  and  to  some  extent  in 
the  United  States  Certain  plenipotentiaries 
and  experts  in  the  British  and  American  delega- 
tions at  Paris  were  emphatic  in  their  criticisms 
Mr.  John  Meynaid  Keyues,  a  financial  adviser 
on  the  British  staff,  resigned  in  protest,  as  did 
likewise  Mr.  William  C.  Bullitt  of  the  Ameri- 
can commission.  In  Germany  all  parties  de- 
nounced the  treaty  and  hujze  demonstrations  of 
protest  led  to  inci  rasing  anxiety  about  its  pos- 
sible rejection  Alarmed  by  the  spread  of  dis- 
satisfaction and  fearful  lest  the  Germans  would 
refuse  to  sign,  the  con  sum  in  fife  politician,  Lloyd 
George,  who  on  May  0  had  been  stronger  than 
any  of  the  others  for  coercion,  swung  suddenly 
toward  the  other  extreme  and  began  1o  demand 
somewhat  radical  re\  isions  of  the  Treaty.  He 
particularly  attacked  the  provisions  regarding 
the  army  of  occupation  and  the  Silesian  settle- 
ment Clemenccau  criticized  in  France  for  hav- 
ing already  yielded  too  much,  convinced  as  al- 
ways that  the  Germans  understood  nothing  but 
force,  and  believing  that  once  a  few  concessions 
were  made  they  would  insolently  demand  more, 
bristled  with  opposition  and  refused  to  agree  to 
a  leconsideration  Lloyd  George  turned  to  the 
Americans  for  support  Wilson  having  strug- 
gled all  through  the  Conference  to  abate  exces- 
sive British,  French,  Italian,  Japanese,  and 
Polish  demands,  was  not  impressed  by  the  Brit- 
ish premier's  periodic  conversions  to  wisdom  and 
sanity.  On  June  1,  Lloyd  Geoige  consulted  his 
cabinet  at  a  special  meeting  convened  in  Paris, 
and  the  very  next  day  he  threatened  to  go  home 
and  lay  the  \\hole  matter  before  Parliament  if 
Clemenceau  did  not  consent  to  changes.  The 
French  premier,  himself  facing  a  ministerial 
crisis,  declined  to  budge.  Wilson,  at  a  special 
meeting  of  the  American  delegation  on  June  3, 
announced  that  he  was  stiongly  in  favor  of  mak- 
ing any  changes  that  would  ensure  more  com- 
plete justice,  but  he  opposed  granting  any  last 
minute  concessions  merely  to  placate  the  enemy. 
He  feared  that  the  resumption  of  conversation 
about  French  security  and  other  points  would 
imperil  the  whole  delicate  structure  of  the  set- 
tlement. With  the  President's  consent  the 
American  experts  did  urge  that  a  definite  and 
moderate  sum  of  reparation  be  fixed;  but  Lloyd 
George,  remembering  his  election  pledge  about 
recovering  the  costs  of  the  war — some  $120,000,- 
000,000 — frankly  opposed  the  move.  On  June 
16,  however,  he  secured  a  convention  providing 
for  supreme  civil  rather  than  military  control 
of  the  occupied  territory  and  a  declaration 
limiting  the  cost  of  the  Army  of  Occupation  to 
be  assessed  upon  the  enemy  The  Allied  reply 
to  the  German  observations  on  the  conditions  of 
the  Peace  which  was  dispatched  on  the  same 
day,  registered  certain  additional  modifications 


PEACE  CONFEBENCE 

including  the  requirement  of  a  plebiscite  foi 
Upper  Silesia,  a  slight  readjustment  of  Poland's 
western  frontier,  a  retardation  of  the  required 
reduction  of  the  German  army,  and  a  provision 
for  the  collaboration  of  a  German  commission 
in  discussing  methods  of  reparation  payments. 
Despite  these  concessions  the  Allied  reply  was 
in  effect  an  ultimatum  calling  for  Germany's 
acceptance  or  refusal  on  or  before  June  23* 

The  return  of  the  German  delegates  from  Ver- 
sailles with  the  modified  treaty  conditions 
precipitated  a  ministerial  crisis  at"  Berlin  The 
Hcheidemann  government  which  had  fomented 
resistance  to  the  treaty,  and  threatened  not  to 
accept  it,  resigned  on  June  21,  and  was  re- 
placed bv  a  transitional  ministry  under  Adolph 
Bauer  pledged  to  acceptance  of  the  treaty  An 
effort  to  secure  the  omission  of  the  articles  re- 
quiring the  confession  of  war  guilt  and  the  sur- 
lender  of  war  criminals  met  with  an  absolute 
refusal  by  the  Supreme  Council  to  consider  any 
further  modifications  and  a  demand  for  immedi- 
ate compliance  Marshal  Foch  was  ordered 
to  advance  on  Berlin  with  the  Allied  armies 
should  the  German  government  not  submit  with- 
in the  time  limit,  and  preparations  were  made 
for  tightening  the  blockade.  The  Germans 
reluctantly  gave  way.  On  June  23,  the  National 
Assembly  at  Weimar  voted  237  to  138  to  accept 
the  treaty  unconditionally  and  the  next  day  the 
Allied  Supreme  Council  was  informed  of  the 
fact.  Dr  Hermann  Muller,  the  new  foreign  sec- 
retary, and  Dr  Johannes  Bell,  colonial  secretary, 
were  prevailed  upon  to  act  as  plenipotentiaries 
in  place  of  Brockdorff-Rantzau  and  his  col- 
leagues. On  June  28,  1019,  five  years  to  a  day 
after  the  assassination  of  the  Austrian  Arch- 
duke Francis  Ferdinand,  the  two  representatives 
of  the  new  German  Republic  attached  their  sig- 
natures to  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  which,  being 
signed  by  the  delegates  of  all  the  Allied  nations 
except  China,  officiallv  terminated  the  Great 
War. 

Attacks  on  the  Treaty.  The  Treaty  of  Ver- 
sailles met  with  a  mixed  reception  in  all  quar- 
ters of  the  world.  It  was  no  peace  of  reconcilia- 
tion— in  some  respects  it  was  a  peace  of  ven- 
geance, for  the  legacy  of  hatred  left  by  the  war 
had  proved  exceedingly  potent  There  were 
liberals  and  radicals  everywhere  who  vehemently 
assailed  the  Treaty  as  an  ''iniquitous  docu- 
ment," a  surrender  to  the  forces  of  reaction,  "a 
crime  against  civilization";  there  were  nation- 
alists, and  imperialists  and  militarists  in  every 
country  who  scored  the  leniency  of  the  terms 
and  denounced  their  respective  plenipotentiaries 
for  sacrificing  legitimate  national  interests  in 
return  for  vague  assurances  of  international  co- 
operation. Many  Frenchmen  were  incensed  be- 
cause their  demands  for  a  Rhine  frontier  had 
been  negatived;  certain  Belgians  complained 
about  the  failure  of  the  Conference  to  arrange 
to  have  Holland  cede  them  the  left  bank  of  the 
Scheldt;  the  great  mass  of  Italians  were  em- 
bittered by  the  defeat  of  some  of  their  more  ex- 
treme projects  of  aggrandizement  in  the  Adri- 
atic; the  Chinese,  as  we  have  seen,  refused  to 
sign  the  Treaty  because  of  the  unjust  Shantung 
settlement.  General  Smuts  of  South  Africa, 
while  attaching  his  signature,  openly  protested 
in  Wilson ian  phraseology  against  the  severity 
of  the  terms.  Mr.  Wilson  himself,  who  had 
struggled  so  sincerely  for  a  settlement  of  a 
different  type,  now  became  an  ardent  defender 
of  the  Treaty,  being  convinced  that  it  was  the 


PEACE  CONFERENCE 

best  obtainable  under  the  circumstances.  The 
Treaty  was  perforce  promptly  sanctioned  by  the 
German  National  Assembly,  which  ratified  it  on 
July  7.  Most  of  the  other  nations  accepted  it 
at  intervals  throughout  the  year,  and  on  Jan 
10,  1920,  an  exchange  of  ratifications  between 
the  Allies  and  Germany  was  effected  at  Paris 
But  among  the  Great  Powers  the  United  States 
conspicuously  abstained  from  ratifying  the 
treaties  and  eventually  made  a  separate  peace 
settlement  with  Germany.  (See  UNITED  STATES, 
History  )  Thus  the  three-power  defensive  pact 
with  France  and  Great  Britain  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  French  security  which  was  signed  at 
the  same  time  as  the  Versailles  Treaty  lapsed, 
for  although  the  Anglo-French  treaty  had  been 
ratified  by  the  British  it  was  not  to  come  into  ef- 
fect until  the  ratification  of  its  Franco-Ameri- 
can counterpart. 

THE  TBEATY  OF  VERSAILLES 

The  Treaty  of  Versailles,  as  signed  on  June 
28,  1919,  revolutionized  the  international  status 
of  Germany,  territorially,  politically,  militarily 
and  economically.  By  its  terms  Germany  lost 
her  navy,  her  merchant  marine,  her  colonial  em- 
pire, invaluable  natural  resources;  and  her 
army  was  reduced  to  impotence.  The  first  20 
articles  of  the  Treaty  constituted  the  Covenant 
of  the  League  of  Nations,  but  from  this  Ger- 
many was  to  be  temporarily  excluded.  (See 
LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS.)  The  rest  of  the  large- 
sized  volume  of  440  articles  and  annexes  set 
forth  more  specific  conditions  of  peace. 

Political  Terms.  Germany  recognized  the 
complete  independence  and  unconditional  sov- 
ereignty of  Belgium,  Poland,  Czechoslovakia, 
and  German  Austria,  denounced  the  treaties  of 
Brest-Litovsk  and  Bucharest,  and  agreed  to  al- 
low the  Allies  carte  blanche  in  dealing  with 
Russia,  Turkey,  Bulgaria,  Hungary,  and  Aus- 
tria. 

Territorial  Terms.  Germany  lost  all  of 
her  overseas  possessions  and  some  27,500  square 
miles,  or  a  trifle  over  13  per  cent  of  her  Eu- 
ropean domain.  Alsace-Lorraine  (q.v.)  was  re- 
turned to  France,  and  the  Saar  Basin  (q.v.) 
placed  under  a  League  of  Nations  Commission 
for  15  years  as  described  above.  Belgium  re- 
ceived the  small  districts  of  Eupen  (q.v.),  Mal- 
me*dy,  and  Moresnet.  Under  plebiscites  held  in 
February  and  March,  1920,  to  determine  the 
status  of  Northern  and  Central  Schlcswig 
(q.v.),  the  former,  comprising  some  1537  square 
miles,  was  reunited  with  Denmark,  but  the  lat- 
ter remained  with  Germany.  To  Poland  were 
ceded  large  parts  of  the  provinces  of  Posen  and 
West  Prussia.  In  July,  1920,  plebiscites  in 
southern  East  Prussia  and  the  Marienwerder 
(q.v.)  district  of  West  Prussia  produced  very 
substantial  majorities  for  Germany.  The  plebi- 
scite in  Upper  Silesia  (qv.)  in  March,  1921, 
gave  a  majority  for  Germany,  but  to  the  dis- 
appointment of  the  Germans,  in  October,  1921 
the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations,  having 
been  invited  to  settle  the  controversy,  awarded 
the  richest  part  of  the  region,  some  12.55  square 
miles,  to  Poland.  A  small  portion,  110  square 
miles,  of  Upper  Silesia  was  ceded  to  Oecho 
Slovakia  on  July  28,  1920.  The  port  of  Memel 
(q.v.)  with  adjacent  territory  was  ceded  to 
the  Allies  for  ultimate  transfer  to  Lithuania. 
The  port  of  Danzig  was  likewise  ceded  to  the 
Principal  Allied  and  Associated  Powers,  who  in 


998 


PEACE  OOHTEBENCE 


accordance  with  the  agreement  described  above 
recognized  Danzig  as  a  free  city  administered 
under  the  League  of  Nations  but  subject  to 
Polish  jurisdiction  as  regards  customs  and  for- 
eign relations  Germany  renounced  all  special 
rights  and  privileges  in  China,  Egypt,  Siam,  Si- 
beria, Morocco  and  Turkey  Her  rights  and 
privileges  in  Shantung  were  ceded  to  Japan 
(Sec  WASHINGTON  CONFERENCE  for  eventual  Jap- 
anese settlement  with  China.)  Germany  coded 
to  the  Principal  Powers  all  of  her  remaining 
overseas  possessions  which  in  accordance  with 
Article  22  of  the  League  of  Nations  Covenant 
wore  to  be  administered  by  the  mandatoiien  of 
the  League.  Already  on  May  6,  1919,  the  Su- 
preme Council  had  made  a  piovisional  distribu- 
tion of  mandates  Gieat  Bntain  was  to  receive 
Geiman  East  Africa  On  May  30,  however,  the 
British  government  resigned  to  Belgium  the  dis- 
tricts of  Urundi  and  lUianda  contiguous  to  Bel- 
gian Congo  to  be  administered  under  separate 
mandate  German  Southwest  Africa  went  to 
the  British  dominion  of  South  Africa.  France 
and  Great  Britain  were  to  receive  a  joint  man- 
date ovor  Cameroon  and  Togol.ind  with  per- 
mission to  partition  them  by  mutual  agreement 
German  New  Guinea  was  assigned  to  Australia, 
German  Samoa  to  New  Zealand,  the  island  of 
Nauru  to  Great  Britain,  and  the  German  inlands 
north  of  the  Equator  to  Japan.  On  Feb  21, 
1921,  President  Wilson  announced  that  the 
United  States  could  not  agree  to  have  the  cable 
centre  on  the  island  of  Yap  (q.v.)  assigned  to 
Japanese  control  and  a  new  arrangement  in  re- 
gard to  it  was  made  at  the  time  of  the  Wash- 
ington Conference.  (For  account  of  the  man- 
datory system  see  MANDATES  and  also  LEAGUE 
OF  NATIONS.) 

Military  Terms.  Germany  was  required  to 
abolish  compulsory  universal  service;  to  reduce 
her  army  to  06,000  men  and  4000  oflicers  re- 
cruited by  voluntary  enlistment,  to  demilitarize 
all  the  territory  on  the  Left  Bank  of  the  Rhino 
and  also  that  on  the  right  bank  to  a  depth  of 
150  kilometers;  to  stop  all  importation,  ex- 
portation, and  nearly  all  production  of  war  ma- 
terial; to  limit  her  navy  to  six  battleships,  six 
light  cruisers,  and  12  toipedo  boats,  with  no 
submarines,  the  naval  personnel  not  to  exceed 
15,000  officers  and  men;  and  to  abandon  all  mil- 
itary and  naval  aviation  by  Oct.  1,  1919.  The 
execution  of  most  of  these  provisions  was  to 
be  supervised  by  an  inter-Allied  Commission  of 
Control  endowed  with  full  powers  of  inspection 
and  investigation.  (See  below,  Continuation 
Conferences  )  In  addition,  she  agreed  to  de- 
militarize the  island  of  Helgoland,  to  open  the 
Kiel  Canal  to  all  nations,  to  surrender  her  14 
submarine  cables,  and,  last  but  not  least,  to 
permit  the  trial  of  her  ex-Emperor  by  an  in- 
ternational high  court  on  the  charge  of  "a  su- 
preme offense  against  international  morality," 
and  of  other  officials  for  violation  of  the  laws 
and  customs  of  war. 

Economic  Terms.  The  economic  and  repara- 
tion provisions  of  the  Treaty  were  exceedingly 
drastic  and  constituted  a  perplexing  problem 
which  more  than  any  other  aspect  of  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles  has  subsequently  disturbed  the 
peace  of  the  world.  (See  PLPAKATIONS.)  In 
addition  to  paying  heavy  indemnities  the  Ger- 
mans were  required  to  grant  nonreciprocal 
most-favored-nation  treatment  to  the  commerce 
of  Allied  nations  for  a  period  of  years.  As 
guarantees  for  the  payment  of  reparations  the 


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999 


Allies  were  to  maintain  military  occupation  of 
the  Left  Bank  of  the  Rhine  and  of  the  bridge- 
heads at  Cologne,  Coblenz  and  Mainz,  with  pro- 
visions for  the  evacuation  of  the  latter  three  dis- 
tricts at  live  year  intervals  should  Germany  be 
duly  fulfilling  her  obligations.  Including  the  Saar 
Basin  (742  square  miles)  a  total  area  of  12,338 
square  miles  was  to  be  occupied  by  the  Allies 
and  the  subsequent  seizure  of  the  Ruhr  by  the 
French  in  1923  added  nearly  a  thousand  more. 

TIIE   AUSTRIAN   TREATY  OF   ST.    GERMAIN 

With  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
with  Germany  on  June  28  the  major  task  of 
the  Peace  Conference  was  concluded,  and  the 
most  important  plenipotentiaries  except  Premier 
Clemcnceau  departed  from  Paris  leaving  subordi- 
nate statesmen  and  diplomatists  in  charge  Mr. 
Lansing,  succeeding  Mr.  Wilson  as  head  of  the 
American  delegation,  stayed  until  July,  when 
he  withdrew,  leaving  Mr.  Polk,  Vnder-Secretary 
of  State,  to  act  for  him.  Mr.  Balfour  became 
the  chief  of  the  British  delegation,  but  in  Sep- 
tember lie,  too,  departed,  surrendering  the  head- 
ship to  Sir  Eyre  Crowe.  Premier  Orlando's 
cabinet  had  fallen  from  power  on  June  10  as  a 
result  of  Italian  dissatisfaction  over  the  Adri- 
atic negotiations  and  his  successor,  Signer  Nitti, 
refrained  from  visiting  Paris. 

Claims  of  the  Succession  States.  Although 
giving  priority  to  the  settlement  with  Germany 
during  the  first  six  months  of  1019,  the  Peace 
Conference  had  simultaneously  taken  tinder  con- 
sideration the  problem  of  arranging  terms  of 
peace  with  Austria,  Hungary,  Bulgaria,  and 
Turkey.  It  was  planned  to  have  the  five  treat- 
ies form  part  of  the  same  general  settlement, 
each  beginning  \\ith  the  League  of  Nations  Cove- 
nant, and  employing  as  far  as  possible  the  same 
form  and  phraseology  The  second  treaty  to 
be  drafted  and  signed  was  that  with  Austria. 
Italy  was  the  only  Great  Power  with  vital  in- 
terests at  stake,  although  France  was  insistent 
on  preventing  the  union  of  Austria  with  Ger- 
many and  carried  her  point  during  the  era  of 
compromise  following  the  French  crisis  in 
April  She  also  favored  a  confederation  of 
satellite  states  on  the  Danube  to  act  as  a  bul- 
wark against  Germany  in  the  southeast.  To 
the  numerous  other  "heirs  of  the  Hahshurgs," 
however,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Poland,  and  the  Bal- 
kan Allies,  the  disposition  of  Austrian  territory 
was  of  supreme  importance.  As  a  result  of  the 
nationalistic  revolution  in  the  l>ual  Monarchy, 
the  division  had  already  taken  place  along  broad 
lines  by  the  time  the  Peace  Conference  met. 
But  problems  of  frontiers  still  remained,  some 
of  which  occasioned  most  violent  conflicts.  In 
Silesia,  Poles  and  C/echs  struggled  for  the  con- 
trol of  the  district  of  Teschen  with  its  invalu- 
able coal  mines.  (For  discussion  of  this  problem 
see  TESCHEN.)  In  the  Adriatic,  Italians  and 
Jugo-Slavs  came  to  swords'  points  over  Palma- 
tia.  In  the  Klagenfurt  Basin,  Italians,  Jugo- 
Slavs,  and  German  A  list  nans  were  ready  to  come 
to  blows.  The  conflicting  claims  and  charges  of 
the  various  litigants,  each  of  which  viewed  af- 
fairs through  the  colored  prism  of  its  own  na- 
tionalistic ambition,  rendered  extremely  diffi- 
cult the  task  which  confronted  the  Supreme 
Council  as  regards  Austria  in  the  spring  of 
1019.  Despairing  of  having  the  disputants  ar- 
rive at  amicable  agreements  among  themselves, 
the  Council  of  Ten  constituted  territorial  com- 
missions in  February,  1919  to  study  the  bound- 


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ary  problems  of  the  various  states  except  Italy. 
By  the  time  the  reports  of  these  commissions 
were  ready  the  Council  of  Four  had  superseded 
the  Ten  and  with  few  exceptions  the  unanimous 
recommendations  of  the  commissions  were  ap- 
proved without  alteration.  Over  points  in  dis- 
pute the  Four  worked  earnestly,  paying  little 
attention  to  the  small  states.  President  Wilson 
finally  acknowledged  Italy's  claim  to  the  Brenner 
frontier,  involving  thougli  it  did  the  expatriation 
of  over  200,000  Germans.  The  approximate 
boundaries  of  Czechoslovakia  and  Jugo-Slavia 
were  settled  during  May,  the  former  being  as- 
signed regions  of  Bohemia  inhabited  by  3,000,- 
000  Germans,  the  transfer  being  dictated  by  eco- 
nomic and  strategic  considerations. 

Work  was  rushed  on  the  Austrian  treaty  so 
that  it  might  be  in  the  hands  of  the  Austrians 
before  the  treaty  with  Germany  was  signed,  for 
each  contained  the  provision  prohibiting  union 
of  Austria  with  Germany,  each  was  to  contribute 
to  the  territorial  resurrection  of  Poland,  and 
last  but  not  least,  Italians  were  insistent  upon  a 
simultaneous  settlement  with  the  two  coun- 
tries. An  incomplete  draft  of  the  treaty  was 
presented  to  the  seventh  plenary  session  with 
the  intention  of  communicating  it  to  the  Aus- 
trians on  the  following  day  but  the  plenipoten- 
tiaries of  the  Succession  and  Balkan  States  de- 
manded time  to  study  the  document.  Two  days 
later  at  the  eighth  plenary  session,  Premier 
Bratiano  of  Rumania  supported  by  the  Polish, 
Czecho-Slovak  and  Jugo-Slav  representatives 
protested  against  having  the  Great  Powers  pre- 
scribe regulations  for  the  protection  of  minorities 
within  their  separate  states.  Mr.  Wilson  an- 
swered that  the  Principal  Powers  could  not  be 
expected  to  guarantee  the  independence  and  in- 
tegrity of  the  new  states  unless  the  latter  would 
on  their  side  guarantee  equality  of  rights  to 
racial  or  religious  minorities  transferred  to 
their  control  under  the  peace  settlement.  Ru- 
mania and  Jugo-Slavia,  though  greatly  enlarged 
by  the  new  readjustments,  were  old  states  and 
denied  the  right  of  the  Conference  to  limit  their 
sovereignty  by  special  restrictions.  Mr.  Veni- 
/elos  of  Greece  suggested  that  a  joint  meeting 
of  the  Council  of  Four  with  the  smaller  Allies 
ought  to  be  held  to  consider  the  legitimate 
anxieties  of  the  latter.  But  all  objections  were 
overruled  by  Clemenceau,  Lloyd  George,  and 
Wilson.  The  Austrian  delegates  had  arrived  at 
St.  Germain  near  Paris  on  May  14,  and  on  June 
2,  the  preliminary  draft  of  the  treaty  was  trans- 
mitted to  them.  On  July  20,  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cil transmitted  a  more  complete  and  revised 
draft  of  the  treaty  to  the  Austrians,  informing 
them  that  Burgenland  or  German  West  Hun- 
gary for  whose  annexation  they  had  asked  would 
be  ceded  without  a  plebiscite.  (See  BURGEN- 
LAND.) The  Austrians  formulated  and  presented 
their  observations  on  the  revised  terms  on  Au- 
gust 6,  still  protesting  against  the  patent  vio- 
lations of  the  principle  of  self-determination. 
In  their  final  reply  of  Sept.  2,  1919  the  Allied 
and  Associated  Powers  made  few  additional 
concessions — perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  being 
the  return  to  Austria  of  the  important  rail- 
way junction  of  Radkersburg  originally  assigned 
to  Jugo-Rlavia.  On  September  8,  the  Austrian 
National  Assembly  authorised  its  delegates  to 
sign  the  treaty,  and  this  ceremony  took  place 
at  St.  Germain  on  Septemlier  10.  But  the  op- 
position of  Rumania  and  Jugo-Slavia  to  accep- 
tance of  Minorities  Treaties  to  which'  they 


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would  have  pledged  themselves  by  underwriting 
the  Austrian  treaty  led  them  to  refuse  to  sign, 
until  some  time  later.  Though  the  Austrian  Na- 
tional Assembly  had  already  perforce  ratified 
the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  on  October  17,  rati- 
fications were  not  exchanged  until  July,  1020. 
Political  and  Military  Terms.  The  Treaty 
of  St.  Germain  required  Austria  to  recognize  the 
complete  independence  of  Jugo-Slavia,  Czecho- 
slovakia, Poland  and  Hungary,  to  make  liberal 
cessions  of  territory  to  various  victorious  neigh- 
bors including  Italy,  and  to  accept  elaborate 
regulations  for  the  protection  of  such  racial,  re- 
ligious, or  linguistic  minorities  as  remained 
within  her  much-diminished  territorial  confines. 
As  described  above  the  cession  of  lands  to  Italy 
included  not  only  Italia  Irredenta  but  also  for 
strategic  reasons  the  Brenner  Pass  frontier  in 
the  Tirol  with  about  250,000  German  inhabi- 
tants. One-fourth  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
new  state  of  Czech o-Slovakia  were  Germans  in 
Bohemia  and  Moravia,  this  violation  of  the 
principle  of  self-determination  being  motivated 
by  economic  and  strategic  considerations  and 
justified  on  historical  grounds.  Eastern  Galicia, 
inhabited  by  a  Ruthenian  majority  with  a  strong 
Polish  minority,  had  been  bitterly  contested  be- 
tween these  two  nationalities,  and  had  been 
seized  by  the  Poles  during  the  Conference ;  it  was 
renounced  by  Austria  in  favor  of  the  Principal 
Allied  and  Associated  Powers,  who  acquiesced 
in  Poland's  de  facto  possession  of  the  region, 
without  definitively  settling  the  question  of 
sovereignty.  The  Duchy  of  Bukovina,  with  300,- 
000  Ruthenian  and  273,000  Rumanian  inhabi- 
tants, was  renounced  by  Austria  in  favor  of 
Rumania.  AH  a  result  of  the  Klagenfurt  plebi- 
scite of  October,  1920,  the  whole  of  that  much- 
contested  area  remained  Austrian.  An  addi- 
tional solace  was  the  award  of  German  West 
Hungary  (Burgenland).  Thus  through  revolu- 
tion and  dismemberment  the  state  of  Austria 
shrank  from  its  pre-war  expanse  of  110,000 
square  miles  to  the  diminutive  area  of  32,000 
square  miles.  The  Austrian  army  was  reduced 
to  30,000  men  recruited  by  long-term  voluntary 
enlistments;  military  aeronautics  were  pro- 
hibited; all  war  vessels  were  surrendered  and 
future  maintenance  of  naval  forces  obviated 
through  loss  of  maritime  ports.  Commercial 
clauses  of  general  similarity  to  those  in  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  were  imposed  upon  Austria. 
She  was  guaranteed  free  access  to  the  Adriatic. 
A  commission  on  which  Great  Britain,  France, 
Italy,  Rumania,  and  the  riparian  states  were 
represented  was  established  to  regulate  traffic  on 
the  Danube.  All  transferred  territories  were 
made  responsible  for  their  fair  shares  of  the 
pre-war  Austrian  debt.  Austria  was  obligated 
to  pay  such  indemnities  as  might  be  prescribed 
by  the  International  Reparation  Commission, 
but  so  crippled  was  the  new  republic  politically, 
industrially,  and  commercially  that  in  a  few 
years  intervention  by  the  League  of  Nations 
proved  necessary  to  straighten  out  her  finances 
(see  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS;  AUSTRIA;  REPAKA- 

TIONS). 

THE  BULGARIAN   TREATY  OF  NEUILLT 

Following  the  settlement  with  Austria,  the 
Supreme  Council  devoted  more  attention  to  the 
task  of  arranging  peace  with  Bulgaria — the 
first  of  the  Central  Powers  to  lay  down  its  arms 
at  the  end  of  the  Great  War.  The  protracted 
delay*  which  intervened  between  the  arrival  of 


the  Bulgarian  delegation  on  July  26  and  the 
formal  presentation  of  a  preliminary  draft  of 
their  treaty  on  Sept.  19,  1019,  led  to  considerable 
exasperation  on  the  part  of  their  truculent  lead- 
er, M.  Theodoroff  Learning  the  substance  of 
the  treaty  conditions  from  the  press  he  lodged 
strenuous  objections  with  the  Supreme  Council 
on  September  2,  denying  that  Bulgaria  was  the 
one  "guilty,  imperialistic  and  aggressive  nation" 
in  the  Balkans  and  protesting  against  the  viola- 
tions of  the  principle  of  self-determination  pre- 
figured in  the  proposed  dismemberment  of  Bul- 
garia. These  objections  to  the  territorial  terms 
were  reiterated  in  the  formal  observations  sub- 
mitted on  October  24.  The  Bulgarians  also 
complained  about  their  exclusion  from  the  League 
of  Nations  and  demanded  changes  in  the  mili- 
tary provisions  so  as  to  permit  the  retention  of 
conscription.  The  reply  of  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cil on  Novemlier  3  promised  speedy  admission 
to  the  League  but  otherwise  made  no  substan- 
tial concessions.  Further  remonstrances  from 
the  Bulgarians  had  no  effect  other  than  the  is- 
suance of  an  ultimatum  on  November  5  demand- 
ing acceptance  or  rejection  in  ten  days.  Mean- 
while in  Bulgaria  a  general  election  held  in 
August  had  resulted  adversely  to  the  govern- 
ment and  a  new  ministrv  recruited  from  the 
Agrarian  party  under  the  leadership  of  M. 
Stammilisky  came  into  power  in  the  midst  of 
the  agitation  about  the  treaty.  On  November 
13  the  Bulgarians  still  protesting  yielded  to  su- 
perior force.  Premier  Stambuliwky  declared 
that  he  had  "no  illusions"  and  would  sign 
"even  a  bad  peace."  He  was  the  sole  signatory 
for  Bulgaria  when  the  Treaty  was  signed  at 
Neuilly  on  November  27.  Jugo-Slavia  and  Ru- 
mania were  not  permitted  to  sign  until  they  had 
accepted  the  Minorities  Treaties  supplementary 
to  the  Austrian  Treaty.  Ratifications  of  the 
Treaty  of  Neuilly  were  exchanged  on  Aug.  9, 
1920. 

Many  clauses  of  the  treaty  wore  identical  with 
those  of  the  Treaties  of  Versailles  and  St.  Ger- 
main, notably  the  League  of  Nations  Covenant, 
the  Labor  Convention,  aeronautical  provisions, 
penalties,  etc.  Politically,  Bulgaria  was  re- 
quired to  recognize  the  independence  of  Jugo- 
Slavia,  to  renounce  the  benefits  of  the  Treaties 
of  Bucharest  and  Brest-Lit ovsk  and  to  accept 
regulations  for  the  protection  of  racial,  national, 
religious,  and  linguistic  minorities.  Territori- 
ally, Bulgaria  was  deprived  of  most  of  her  gains 
resulting  from  the  Balkan  Wars  and  all  of  her 
conquests  made  during  the  Great  War.  The 
Dobruja  went  to  Rumania,  as  before  1914,  leav- 
ing for  future  consideration  the  problem  of  in- 
ducing Rumania  to  relinquish  such  Bulgarian 
districts  as  it  included.  Thrace  was  ceded  to 
the  Principal  Powers  for  ultimate  assignment 
to  Greece.  Particularly  embittering  to  Bulgaria 
was  the  loss  of  the  small  districts  of  Tsaribrod, 
Bosilegrad,  Strum itsa,  and  Timok  Valley — all 
predominantly  Bulgarian  but  all  transferred  to 
Jugo-Slavia  for  strategic  reasons.  Jugo-Slavia 
had  suffered  grievously  from  Bulgarian  attack 
and  domination  during  the  recent  war,  and  in 
the  bitterness  of  retaliation  demanded  other  ter- 
ritorial annexations,  but  these  were  denied  to 
her  on  ethnographic  grounds.  A  small  district 
of  former  Turkey  was  added  to  Bulgaria  on  the 
southeast.  Bulgaria  was  obliged  to  abandon 
conscription,  to  reduce  her  army  to  20,000  offi- 
cers and  men  together  with  gendarmes  and 
other  police  to  a  number  not  exceeding  13,000. 


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All  war  vessels  except  four  torpedo  boats  and 
six  motor  boats  were  to  be  surrendered  or  de- 
stroyed, military  aeronautics  prohibited,  and 
the  manufacture  of  munitions  strictly  limited. 
In  addition  Bulgaria  was  to  pay  extensive  repa- 
rations (two  and  a  quarter  billion  gold  francs 
in  37  years),  supply  live  stock  for  devastated 
areas,  and  ship  large  allotments  of  coal  to  Jugo- 
slavia annually  for  five  years.  Commercially, 
she  agreed  to  give  the  Allied  and  Associated 
Powers  most-favored-nation  treatment  and  free- 
dom of  transit  for  goods  and  persons,  receiving 
in  return  the  guarantee  of  freedom  of  transit 
to  the  ^Egean  with  which  her  territory  was  no 
longer  contiguous. 

THE   HUNGARIAN   TREATY  OF  TRIANON 

The  conclusion  of  peace  with  the  Hungarian 
wing  of  the  old  Habsburg  Dual  Monarchy  was 
a  protracted  and  difficult  task,  complicated  alike 
by  perplexing  boundary  deputes  among  the  vic- 
tors and  by  political  instability  and  intransige- 
ance  upon  tlie  part  of  the  vanquished.  The 
democratic  republican  regime  established  in  Hun- 
gary by  the  revolution  of  November,  1918,  was 
supplanted  in  March,  1019,  by  a  Bolshevist  dic- 
tatorship on  the  Russian  soviet  model  just  at 
the  most  critical  moment  of  the  Paris  Peace 
Conference  (See  above  )  The  communist  lead- 
er, Bela  Kun,  defied  the  Supreme  Council  during 
the  crucial  months  of  April,  May,  and  June 
However,  due  to  the  exigencies  of  diplomacy  and 
the  nationalistic  ambitions  of  the  Balkan  Pow- 
ers, early  decisions  were  arrived  at  regarding 
the  territorial  dismemberment  of  Hungary. 
Great  difficulty  was  encountered  in  reconciling 
and  adjusting  the  divergent  interests  and  con- 
flicting claims  of  Jugo-Slavia  and  Rumania. 
The  secret  treaty  of  August,  1910,  which  pur- 
chased Rumania's  entrance  into  the  Great  War 
proved  a  source  of  much  bickering  and  bitter- 
ness Premier  Bratiano  of  Rumania  asked  for 
the  complete  fulfillment  of  treaty  stipulations, 
hut  the  Big  Four,  arguing  that  all  previous 
commitments  were  cancelled  by  Rumania's  sig- 
nature of  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest  in  May,  1918, 
refused  to  accede  to  his  demands  The  Banat  of 
Temesvar  (qv.)  all  of  which  had  been  assigned 
to  Rumania  by  the  Treaty  of  1910,  was  now  par- 
titioned between  her  and  Jugoslavia  Despite 
reiterated  Rumanian  claims  and  objections  the 
terms  of  this  settlement  were  definitely  arranged 
in  June,  1919.  On  June  13  the  Supreme  Coun- 
cil informed  the  Hungarians  of  the  proposed 
cessions  of  territory  to  Rumania,  Jugo-Slavia, 
and  Czecho-Slovakia,  and  on  July  20  as  re- 
counted above  the  rich  district  of  Burgenland 
(German  West  Hungary)  was  promised  to  Aus- 
tria. (For  Hungarian  political  developments 
during  this  period,  see  HUNGARY.)  On  January 
7  the  Hungarian  delegates,  after  the  establish- 
ment of  a  home  government  satisfactory  to  the 
Supreme  Council,  arrived  at  Trianon,  France,  and 
here  January  15  they  were  formally  presented 
with  a  preliminary  draft  of  their  treaty  the 
main  terms  of  which  had  been  ready  as  early 
an  September,  1919. 

Council  of  Ambassadors.  One  week  later 
— on  January  21 — the  Supreme  Council  convened 
for  the  last  time  and  the  Peace  Conference  of 
Paris  was  thus  formally  dissolved  approximate- 
ly one  year  after  its  sessions  had  begun  To 
the  Council  of  Allied  Ambassadors  in  Paris  was 
intrusted  the  task  of  completing  the  settlements 
with  the  remaining  enemy  powers  of  Hungary 


and  Turkey  though  periodic  conferences  of  the 
Allied  premiers  were  shortly  to  be  inaugurated 
for  the  purpose  'of  dealing  with  other  unliqui- 
dated problems  of  the  peace.  (See  below: 
Continuation  Conference*.) 

On  February  12,  the  Hungarians  submitted  a 
set  of  observations  and  counter-proposals  which 
breathed  a  spirit  of  hostility  and  recalcitrance. 
They  demanded  the  retention  of  the  Czechlers 
(Magyars)  of  East  Transylvania,  and  asked  that 
no  territories  be  transferred  without  plebiscites 
according  the  inhabitants  the  right  of  self-de- 
termination. All  transferred  territories  were 
to  be  retained  in  the  Hungarian  customs  regime 
for  a  period  of  years,  and  better  safeguards  pro- 
vided for  the  protection  of  Hungarian  minor- 
ities. The  Allies  were  in  no  mood  to  make  eon- 
cessions.  The  strong  reactionary  nationalist 
and  monarchist  sentiment  rampant  in  Hungary 
elicited  a  joint  statement  from  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Italy  on  February  12  to  the  effect 
that  a  Habsburg  restoration  would  ipso  facto 
violate  one  of  the  fundamental  conditions  of 
the  peace  settlement  and  call  forth  condign  pun- 
ishment. The  new  parliament  elected  earlv  in 
1920  designated  Admiral  von  Horthy  as  'Pro- 
tector of  the  Magyar  Republic"  but  desmte  the 
emphatic  pronouncement  of  the  Allies  the  mon- 
archical character  of  the  constitution  was  re- 
affirmed on  March  23  Hungary  was  a  kingdom 
without  a  king  Such  being  the  situation  the 
requests  of  her  delegates  for  more  moderate 
treatment  met  with  scant  consideration.  The 
reply  of  the  Council  of  Ambassadors  on  May  6 
contained  but  slight  alterations  though  it  was 
asseverated  that  the  League  of  Nations  would 
be  free  to  make  such  minor  modifications  of 
boundaries  on  ethnological  or  economic  grounds 
as  the  future  might  reveal  as  feasible  or  desir- 
able. The  treaty  was  formally  signed  at  Trianon 
on  June  4.  Hungary  ratified  the  treaty  on  Nov 
13,  1920  and  was  admitted  to  the  League  of 
Nations  in  September,  1922 

The  Treaty  of  Trianon  duplicated  the  main 
features  of  'the  Austrian  treaty  except  as  re- 
gards territorial  adjustments  By  its  terras 
Hungary  was  transformed  from  a  maritime,  im- 
perialistic country  of  128,000  square  miles  into 
a  landlocked  fourth -rate  power  of  some  35,000 
square  miles  On  all  sides  liberal  cessions  were 
to  be  made  to  neighboring  states  The  region 
of  Slovakia  on  the  southern  slope  of  Carpathian 
mountains,  though  containing  a  large  minority 
of  Magyars,  was  incorporated  in  the  new  state  of 
Czecho-Slovakia  for  economic  and  strategic  as 
well  as  ethnic  reasons  To  Rumania  was  as- 
signed Transylvania  with  its  compact  Magyar 
minority  in  the  East  A  broad  strip  of  Hun- 
garian plain  was  also  detached  to  secure  Ru- 
mania's railroad  communications  with  the  Dan- 
ube. Of  the  much  contested  Banat  of  Temesvar 
(q.v.)  Jugo-Slavia  received  the  county  of  Toron- 
tal  in  the  went,  the  remainder  going  to  Rumania. 
Jugo-Slavia  also  received  Croatia-Slavonia,  Bos- 
nia and  Herzegovina  Fiiune  (qv)  was  re- 
nounced, to  be  disputed  by  Italy  and  Jugo- 
slavia. Likewise  to  Czecho-Slovakia,  almost 
purely  for  strategic  reasons,  was  given  the 
region  called  sub-Carpathian  Huthenia,  autono- 
my being  stipulated  for  the  benefit  of  the  572,- 
000  inhabitants  To  Austria  was  renounced  the 
region  of  Burgenland  (see  above)  Hungary 
was  precluded  from  alienating  her  independence 
except  with  the  consent  of  the  League  Council. 
Compulsory  military  service  waft  abolished  and 
her  army  was  reduced  to  35,000  men  together 


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with  police  to  a  number  not  exceeding  31,500. 
She  was  required  to  pay  a  reasonable  sum  of 
reparations  before  May  1,  1921  and  such  total 
sums  in  sixty  semi-annual  installments  there- 
after as  might  be  decided  upon  by  the  Repara- 
tions Commission.  All  of  her  merchant  shipping 
and  up  to  20  per  cent  of  her  river  fleet  were  to 
be  surrendered,  an  indefinite  quantity  of  live 
stock  was  to  be  furnished  for  devastated  coun- 
tries; and  Jugo-Slavia  was  to  be  supplied  with 
annual  allotments  of  coal  for  five  years.  De- 
prived of  two-thirds  of  her  territory  and  popula- 
tion, crippled  economically  and  surrounded  by 
more  or  less  hostile  states,  Hungary  yet  consti- 
tuted a  potent  menace  to  the  future  peace  of 
the  Balkans.  Three  million  Magyars,  now  aliens 
in  adjacent  countries,  created  a  new  irredentist 
problem  so  dangerous  that  in  1020  the  Succes- 
sion States  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  Jugo-Slavia  and 
Rumania  formed  the  so-called  "Little  Entente" 
to  meet  it — an  alliance  calling  for  the  indefinite 
maintenance  of  standing  armies  to  guard  against 
the  restoration  of  the  Habsburgs  or  Hungarian 
war  of  revenge.  (See  LITTLE  ENTENTE.) 

CONTINUATION   CONFERENCES,    1919-1924 

The  Paris  Peace  Conference,  as  we  have  seen, 
adjourned  on  Jan  21,  1920,  before  the  Hunga- 
rians had  decided  to  accept  their  treaty  and  be- 
fore the  Adriatic  question  including  the  prob- 
lem of  Fiume  and  the  disposition  of  Dalmatia, 
Albania,  and  Thrace  had  been  settled.  Even  more 
important,  no  agreements  had  been  reached  up- 
on three  outstanding  and  vital  issues,  viz ,  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  with  Turkey,  the  question 
of  future  relations  with  Soviet  Kussia  and  the 
fringe  of  states  on  her  western  border,  and  the 
enforcement  of  the  treaties  already  signed  or 
projected,  especially  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
with  Germany,  the  task  of  executing  which  em- 
braced a  whole  range  of  subjects  such  as  repara- 
tions, disarmament,  punishment  of  war-crimi- 
nals, plebiscites,  etc.  These  three  major  prob- 
lems to  say  nothing  of  a  host  of  subsidiary  and 
secondary  issues  engaged  the  attention  of  the 
world  continuously  from  1919  to  1924  and  neces- 
sitated a  protracted  scries  of  difficult  and  deli- 
cate negotiations  during  which  the  appearance 
of  Allied  unity  which  had  l>een  so  precariously 
maintained  hitherto  was  even  more  seriously 
undermined  On  Jan  10,  1920,  pursuant  to  the 
call  of  President  Wilson  the  first  session  of  the 
League  of  Nations  Council  convened  in  Paris, 
but  though  inextricably  interwoven  with  the 
terms  of  the  peace  treaties  and  specially  devised 
as  a  convenient  and  indispensable  instrument  of 
international  cooperation  and  adjustment,  the 
League  was  destined  to  play  a  relatively  insig- 
nificant role  in  the  controversies  growing  out  of 
the  territorial  and  economic  settlement.  (See 
LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS  )  Rather  the  work  of  car- 
rying on  diplomatic  arrangements  at  the  termi- 
nation of  the  Peace  Conference  devolved  upon 
the  two  agencies  already  mentioned:  the  Coun- 
cil of  Ambassadors  and  the  Council  of  Allied 
Premiers  and  Foreign  Ministers.  These  councils 
held  a  rapid  succession  of  formal  and  informal 
conferences  during  the  ensuing  years,  now  deal- 
ing with  Russia,  now  with  the  execution  of  the 
German  Treaty,  then  again  with  Turkey,  Fiume, 
or  Upper  Silesia  It  was  impossible  to  confine 
attention  to  any  one  problem  until  it  was 
solved  Others  simultaneously  pressed  for  ad- 
justment and  the  divergence  of  national  inter- 
ests led  inevitably  to  the  use  of  the  traditional 


and  time-honored  diplomatic  methods  of  quid 
pro  quo,  compromise  and  compensation,  inter- 
jected with  accusations,  threats,  economic  retali- 
ation, ultimatums  and  armed  clashes.  The 
liquidation  of  two  of  these  problems,  i.  e.  the 
Turkish  peace  and  the  enforcement  of  the  trea- 
ties, is  discussed  below.  Under  RUSSIA  will  be 
found  an  account  of  the  handling  of  the  Russian 
problem. 

THE  SETTLEMENT  WITH  TURKEY 

The  Turkish  Secret  Treaties.  Of  all  the 
spoils  of  the  Great  War,  the  Ottoman  Empire 
was  among  the  richest.  "Her  undeveloped  wealth 
in  minerals  and  fuel,  her  potentialities  as  a 
producer  of  foodstuffs,  cotton,  and  other  agri- 
cultural products,  her  possibilities  as  a  maikct 
— these  were  alluring  as  war  time  necessities 
and  peace-time  assets.  Her  strategic  position 
was  of  inestimable  importance  to  any  nation 
which  hoped  to  establish  colonial  power  in  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  Her  future  as  a  sphere 
of  influence  promised  unusual  opportunities  for 
the  investment  of  capital  and  the  acquisition 
of  exclusive  economic  rights"  A  long  scries  of 
secret  agreements  were  negotiated  among  the 
Allied  Powers  from  11)15  to  1010  conceinmg  the 
future  political  control  and  economic  exploita- 
tion of  Turkey.  In  March,  1915,  Russia  was 
assured  of  the  annexation  of  the  Straits  and  of 
Constantinople  in  return  for  assent  to  the  assign- 
ment of  the  neutral  /one  of  Persia  to  Great 
Britain  and  concessions  to  -British  interests  in 
Mesopotamia  and  Egypt  On  Apr  20,  1013,  by 
the  Treaty  of  London,  Italy  was  promised,  among 
other  things,  a  share  in  the  Turkish  Kmpiic 
equal  to  that  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Russia,  and  including  the  port  of  Ad  alia  and 
its  hinterland.  A  more  specific  delimitation  of 
interests  took  place  in  1010.  On  April  26,  one 
year  after  the  Treaty  of  London,  rr.ince  and 
Russia  signed  the  secret  Sa/onov-Palcologue 
Treaty  dealing  with  their  respective  interests  in 
northern  Asiatic  Turkey  Kussia  was  awarded 
a  vast  domain  of  60,000  square  miles  between 
the  Persian  frontier  and  the  Black  Sea,  with 
immense  deposits  of  silver,  salt  and  copper. 
The  French  were  assigned  a  large  slice  of  terri- 
tory reaching  south  and  west  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  exact  boundaries  to  be  arranged 
with  the  British  Two  weeks  later  on  May  9, 
the  famous  Sykes-Picot  Treaty  prospect ively 
partitioned  the  southern  part  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
allotting  Syria,  Cilicia  and  Southein  Armenia  to 
France  in  full  sovereignty  and  establishing  a 
French  sphere  of  influence  over  the  extensive 
and  valuable  provinces  of  Aleppo,  Damascus, 
Deir,  and  Mosul  Great  Britain  was  given  com- 
plete control  over  the  Mediterranean  ports  of 
Acre  and  Haifa  and  the  region  of  lower  Mesopo- 
tamia stretching  from  Bagdad  to  the  Persian 
Gulf.  Italy  was  excluded  from  these  pacts,  but 
learning  of  them  in  roundabout  ways  manifested 
such  grave  discontent  that  on  Apr.  17,  1017,  a 
new  secret  agreement,  that  of  St  Jean  dc  Maur- 
ienne,  was  signed.  As  subsequently  modified  in 
August,  1917,  it  provided  that  Italy  was  to  get 
almost  complete  possession  of  the  southern  half 
of  Anatolia,  including  the  cities  of  Adalia,  Konia, 
and  Smyrna,  together  with  an  extensive  sphere 
of  influence  in  the  region  northeast  of  Smyrna 
inhabited  chiefly  by  Greeks  and  Turks, 

Curiously  enough  it  was  at  this  same  time 
that  the  United  States  entered  the  war  and  that 
Allied  statesmen  were  issuing  fresh  declarations 


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of  unselfish  war  aims.  To  be  sure  the  Russian 
Revolution  and  subsequent  socialistic  renuncia- 
tion of  all  imperialistic  ambitions  combined 
with  growing  labor  unrest  to  complicate  the 
situation.  In  his  address  of  Jan,  5,  1918,  Mr. 
Lloyd  George,  speaking  for  the  British  govern- 


concessions  in  Asia  Minor  and  Africa  but  they 
all  fell  through.  The  collapse  of  Russia  caused 
a  long  and  acrimonious  discussion  of  the  future 
disposition  of  Constantinople  and  the  Straits. 
France,  Great  Britain  and  Italy  being  seriously 
distrustful  of  one  another,  the  United  States  was 


merit,  disclaimed  any  intention  of  depriving  Tur-      offered  a  mandate  as  early  as  February,   1919. 


key  of  its  capital,  "or  of  the  rich  and  renowned 
lands  of  Asia  Minor  and  Thrace  .  .  .  predomi- 
nantly Turkish  in  race,"  but  did  advocate  a  rec- 
ognition of  the  separate  national  conditions  of 
Arabia,  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  Pales- 
tine. Three  days  later  Mr.  Wilson  in  his  Four- 
teen Points  speech  stated  that  the  Turkish  por- 
tion of  the  Ottoman  Empire  "should  be  assured  a 
secure  sovereignty,"  but  that  submerged  nation- 
alities should  be  accorded  "unmolested  oppor- 
tunity of  autonomous  development"  and  the 
Dardanelles  should  be  permanently  neutralized 
under  international  guarantees.  This  very  defi- 
nite pledge  formed  part  of  the  pre-Armistice 
agreement  which  both  Germany  and  the  Princi- 
pal Powers  agreed  to  be  morally  binding  for 
the  Peace  Settlement.  Secret  negotiations,  how- 
ever, continued  to  vitiate  professed  idealism. 
Lloyd  George's  speech  in  addition  to  reassuring 
British  labor,  mollifying  Indian  Moslems,  and 
supporting  Wilsoman  internationalism  served 
the  ulterior  but  no  less  effective  purpose  of 
intimidating  the  French  in  secret  dealings  with 
regard  to  Turkey,  hi  December,  1918,  Clemen- 
ceau  having  visited  Lon^jn  to  secure  confirma- 
tion of  the  Sykes-Picot  arrangement  of  1916, 
Lloyd  George  demanded  the  transfer  of  the 
valuable  oil  region  of  Mosul  from  the  projected 
French  sphere  of  influence  to  British  control  and 
also  permission  to  determine  the  future  of  Pales- 
tine. Secret-  conversations  continued  unknown  to 
"allied"  Italians  and  "associated"  Americans, 
and  on  February  15,  a  month  after  the  Peace 
Conference  began,  the  French  were  eventually 
obliged  to  accept  the  British  proposal.  On 
Mar.  20,  1919,  just  on  the  eve  of  the  great 
Frencli  crisis  described  above,  the  finely  spun 
network  of  secret  treaties  seriously  entangled 
the  Big  Four  in  its  meshes,  when  in  secret 
session  of  that  supreme  conclave  Lloyd  George 
pressed  for  the  dismemberment  of  Turkey.  A 
heated  controversy  ensued  between  the  British 
and  the  French.  Wilson  refused  to  acknowledge 
the  validity  of  the  secret  engagements  and 
proposed  a  settlement  on  the  basis  of  his  Twelfth 
Point.  The  matter  was  eventually  compromised 
by  the  application  of  the  mandate  principle  to 
transferred  territories. 

Other  disputes  arose  continually.  Early  in 
February,  1919,  the  Italian  claim  to  the  Smyrna 
area  having  lapsed  owing  to  the  failure  of 
Russia  to  sanction  the  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne 


Wilson  favored  the  idea,  but  refused  to  pledge 
the  American  people.  The  subsequent  course  of 
events  in  America  led  to  the  abandonment  of 
the  project,  caused  great  fluctuations  in  Allied 
policy  and  indefinitely  delayed  the  signing  of 
the  Turkish  Treaty.  In  November  and  Decem- 
ber, 1919,  while  the  Supreme  Council  was  yet 
functioning,  the  Turkish  settlement  was  dis- 
cussed by  representatives  of  Italy,  France,  and 
Great  Britain  in  special  conferences,  and  on 
Feb.  16,  1920  at  a  conference  held  in  London, 
it  was  finally  announced  that  Constantinople 
would  be  left  under  Turkish  suzerainty.  The 
work  of  drafting  the  treaty  was  then  pushed. 

The  San  Remo  Conference.  On  April  24, 
at  the  Conference  of  San  Remo  the  main  out- 
lines of  the  settlement  were  completed.  Man- 
dates for  Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Lebanon  were  prom- 
ised to  France;  for  Adalia  and  Rhodes  to  Italy; 
for  Palestine  and  Mesopotamia  (including  Mo- 
sul) to  Great  Britain;  and  for  Armenia  offered 
first  to  the  League  of  Nations  and  later  to  the 
United  States,  both  refusing  to  accept.  Simul- 
taneously the  French  and  British  delegates  at 
San  Remo  signed  a  secret  agreement  providing 
for  an  equal  division  of  interests  and  exploita- 
tion in  Rumania  for  the  transfer  of  the  formerly 
German  owned  quarter  interest  in  Mesopotamia 
oil,  together  with  a  quarter  interest  in  Anglo- 
Persian  oil  piped  to  the  Mediterranean  through 
territory  under  French  mandate  in  return  for 
the  provision  by  France  of  pipe  lines  and 
branch  railways  for  the  movement  of  their  oil. 
The  terms  of  this  agreement  gradually  tran- 
spired despite  denials  by  the  signatories,  and  on 
November  20,  Secretary  of  State  Colby  (succes- 
sor of  Mr.  Lansing)  lodged  a  vigorous  protest 
refusing  to  recognize  the  establishment  of  these 
oil  monopolies  in  Mesopotamia  and  elsewhere. 
This  merely  stimulated  the  British  to  negoti- 
ate a  new  secret  convention  with  France  on 
Dec.  23,  1920,  confirming  the  previous  agree- 
ment. On  May  11,  the  preliminary  draft  was 
handed  to  the  Turkish  delegates  at  Sevres, 
France.  Its  terms  produced  great  excitement 
among  the  Nationalists  in  Turkey,  who,  under 
the  leadership  of  Mustapha  Kemal  Pasha, 
evinced  a  determination  to  defy  the  Allies  and 
work  for  the  regeneration  of  their  country's 
fallen  prestige  and  power.  (See  TTJBKEY  ) 

Boulogne  and  Spa  Conferences.  During 
May  and  June,  the  Nationalists,  in  control  of 


arrangement,  the  Greeks  put  in  a  claim  to  that  Asiatic  Turkey,  drove  the  French  to  the  coast 
region  and  also  disputed  Italian  occupation  of  "f  ri:i!™  -~J  *l™  *u— «*~~~i  *u~  a*.*:*-  » — 
the  Dodecanese.  Italy  sent  expeditions  to  Smvr- 
na  and  otherwise  showed  a  disposition  to  antici- 
pate decisions  by  the  Conference.  But  when  the 
Italians  were  absent  from  Paris  in  late  April 
and  early  May,  1919,  during  the  Fiume  impasse, 
Venizelos  pressed  his  claim  and  on  May  6,  un- 
known to  the  Italians,  secured  the  secret  au- 
thorization of  the  Big  Three  to  occupy  Smyrna. 
This  move,  being  duly  executed  in  the  space  of 
a  fortnight,  further  embittered  the  Italians,  and 
contributed  to  arousing  Turkish  nationalism 
with  the  dire  consequences  noted  below.  Lloyd 


of  Cilicia  and  then  threatened  the  Straits  zone. 
So  menacing  did  the  situation  become  that  on 
June  21,  the  Conference  of  Boulogne  at  which 
were  represented  France,  Great  Britain,  Italy, 
Japan,  Belgium,  and  Greece,  authorized  the 
Greeks  to  undertake  military  operations  against 
tho  Nationalists.  At  the  Conference  of  Spa 
Turkish  requests  for  modifications  in  the  peace 
conditions  were  rejected  and  an  ultimatum  was 
issued  to  coerce  the  Sultan's  government,  whose 
authority,  due  to  the  nationalist  revolt,  now 
scarcely  extended  beyond  the  confines  of  Con- 
stantinople, where  it  was  both  bolstered  up  and 


George  advanced  numerous  sordid  schemes  for      seriously  limited  by  Allied  occupation.    On  Aug. 
wiving  the  Fiume  situation  by  granting  Italy      10,  1920,  the  Treaty  was  signed  at  Sevres,  gimul- 


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taneously  with  the  signature  of  a  secret  tripartite 
agreement  among  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Italy  and  also  of  a  special  convention  between 
Italy  and  Greece.  Representatives  of  the  United 
States  and  of  Hedjaz  were  not  present,  and  the 
Jugo-Slav  delegates  refused  to  sign. 

Treaty  of  Sevres.  By  the  terms  of  this 
Sevres  Settlement  of  Aug.  10,  1020  the  century- 
long  devolution  and  dismemberment  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire  was  virtually  consummated.  Terri- 
torially it  was  reduced  from  its  1014  area  of 
710,000  square  miles  to  a  small  Turkish  na- 
tional state  confined  mainly  to  the  interior  of 
Asia  Minor  and  embracing  an  area  of  less  than 
100,000  square  miles.  The  Arab  State  of  the 
Hedjaz  was  emancipated  from  Turkish  sovereign- 
ty though  subjected  to  British  control.  Armenia 
became  a  free  Christian  Republic,  her  boundarv 
with  Turkey  to  be  arbitrated  by  President  Wil- 
son. Palestine,  including  Transjordania,  under 
a  League  of  Nations  mandate  held  by  Great 
Britain,  was  to  afford  a  national  homeland 
for  the  Jews.  Syria,  with  Cilicia,  was  likewise 


obliterated  the  Armenian  Republic,  rendered 
the  French  position  in  Cilicia  untenable,  forced 
the  British  army  of  occupation  back  into  the 
Ismid  peninsula,  and  compelled  the  Italians  to 
withdraw  their  troops  to  Adalia.  Menaced  by 
an  Arab  rebellion  in  Syria,  unable  to  protect 
Cilicia  against  the  Nationalists,  unwilling  to 
increase  the  size  of  their  Syrian  military  estab- 
lishment which  already  numbered  100,000  men, 
Dissatisfied  with  the  distribution  of  spoils  in  the 
Near  East,  fearful  of  the  augmenting  power  and 
prestige  of  British  imperialism,  the  French  de- 
cided to  scrap  the  Treaty  of  Sevres  and  come 
to  terms  with  the  Angora  government  of  Mus- 
tapha  Kemal  Pasha.  Having  broached  the  proj- 
ect to  the  non-committal  Lloyd  George  at  the 
London  Conference  of  February-March,  1021, 
they  negotiated  directly  with  the  Angora  dele- 
gation and  on  March  9,  there  was  signed  at  Lon- 
don a  Franco-Turkish  agreement  terminating 
hostilities  in  Cilicia.  The  Nationalists  recog- 
nized the  special  social  and  cultural  interests 
of  France  in  Turkey,  confirmed  French  interests 


detached  from  Turkey  and  made  a  mandate  of      in  the  Bagdad  Railway  and  promised  favorabl 


France.  Southern  Anatolia,  including  the  port 
of  Adalia,  was  constituted  as  an  Italian  "sphere 
of  influence,"  being  a  sorry  remnant  of  the 
princely  domain  marked  out  for  Italy  by  the 
St.  Jean  dc  Maurienne  agieement  Smyrna  and 
its  hinterland  were  transferred  to  Greece  to- 
gether with  Thrace,  Adrianople,  the  peninsula 
of  Gallipoli,  and  the  inlands  of  Tenedos  and 
Inibros.  By  special  arrangement  with  Italy  the 
Dodecanese  Islands  in  the  -Egean  which  had 
been  occupied  by  Italy  since  the  end  of  the 
Tripolitan  \\ar  in  1012,  were  to  be  yielded  to 
Greece  with  the  exception  of  Costellorizo  and 
Rhodes  whoso  status  was  to  be  determined  by 
plebiscites  In  the  cahe  of  the  latter  the  plebi- 
scite was  to  be  held  only  in  case  Great  Britain, 
whose  sovereignty  o\er  Cyprus  was  recognized 
by  Turkey,  ceded  that  Island  to  Greece.  The 
French  protectorates  over  Tunisia  and  Morocco 
were  validated  as  wcie  also  those  exercised  by 
Great  Britain  over  Egypt  and  the  Sudan  The 
coasts  of  the  Dardanelles,  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
and  the  Bosporus  were  erected  into  a  neutral- 
ized "zone  of  the  straits"  controlled  by  a  League 
of  Nations  commission  consisting  of  British, 
French,  Italian,  Japanese,  Rumanian,  Greek, 
and  Turkish  members  The  Capitulations  which 
the  Sultan  had  abrogated  in  1014  were  revived 
and  amplified  ;  Turkey  was  made  responsible 
for  the  costs  of  the  Allied  military  occupation, 
and  her  own  army  was  to  be  reduced  to  a  maxi- 
mum size  of  50*000  men  A  Financial  Com- 
mission was  instituted  to  supervise  taxation, 
customs,  loans,  and  currency,  to  control  the 
Turkish  budget,  and  ratify  or  reject  proposed 
economic  concessions  and  all  of  this  was  to 
be  done  in  the  language  of  the  tripartite 
agreement,  "to  help  Turkey,  to  develop  her  re- 
sources, and  to  avoid  the  international  rival- 
ries which  have  obstructed  these  objects  in  the 
past." 

Rejection  of  the  Sevres  Treaty.  Despite 
the  acceptance  of  the  Treaty  of  Sevres  by  the 
Sultan's  government  at  Constantinople,  the  di- 
vergent interests  of  the  Great  Powers  created  a 
serious  lack  of  unity  on  the  Near  Eastern  ques- 
tion which  proved  fatal  when  the  Turkish  Na- 
tional Assembly  at  Angora  refused  to  ratify 
such  an  unjust  convention.  By  October,  1020, 
through  a  series  of  succeflsful  military  cam- 
paigns (see  TURKEY)  Mustapha  Kemal  Pasha 


concessions  to  French  capitalists  in  Cilicia  and 
southern  Armenia.  France  on  her  part  was  to 
evacuate  Cilicia,  readjust  the  Turco-Syrian 
boundary,  and  adopt  a  more  l>enevolcnt  attitude 
toward  the  Grand  National  Assembly  (See 
CILICIA;  BAGDAD  RAILWAY.) 

The  Italian  situation  in  Turkey  was  also  very 
menacing  for  Italian  troops  had  been  driven  out 
of  Konia  and  maintained  but  an  increasingly 
precarious  position  at  Adalia.  The  Treaty  of 
Sevres  Mas  distinctly  unpopular  in  Italy  for  it 
had  registered  a  subversion  of  Italian  prospects 
in  Asia  Minor  to  the  advantage  of  the  hated 
Greeks  Accordingly  on  March  13.  a  Turco- 
Italian  agreement  was  signed  at  London  provid- 
ing for  the  withdrawal  of  Italian  troops  from 
Ottoman  soil  and  for  economic  collaboration  be- 
tween Italy  and  Turkey  in  the  Adalian  hinter- 
land, together  with  the  granting  of  certain  valu- 
able concessions  to  Italian  capitalists.  The 
Italian  Government  also  pledged  itself  to  support 
effectively  Turkish  demands  for  un  trammeled 
sovereignty  and  the  restitution  of  Thrace  and 
Smyrna.  Their  valiant  resistance  having  elicited 
a  sympathetic  response  from  Bolshevist  Russia, 
on  Mar  16,  1921,  the  Turkish  nationalists 
achieved  another  diplomatic  triumph  when  a 
treaty  was  signed  at  Moscow  with  the  Russian 
Socialist  Federated  Soviet  Republic.  Russia  re- 
fused to  recogni/e  the  validity  of  the  Treaty  of 
Se\res,  disavowed  all  imperialist  ambitions  in 
Turkey,  ceded  outright  the  Caucasian  territories 
of  Kara  and  Ardahan,  and  declared  the  capitula- 
tory  regime  null  and  void  as  being  incompatible 
with  the  autonomous  national  development  of 
Turkej 

Further  negotiations  conducted  between  France 
and  Turkey  during  the  summer  of  1921  for  the 
purpose  of  confirming  and  elaborating  their 
March  agreement  culminated  in  the  signing  of 
the  Treaty  of  Angora,  on  October  20.  The 
British  were  outraged  at  what  they  termed  this 
breach  of  good  faith  and  stimulated  the  Greeks 
to  renewed  efforts  against  Turkey.  The  Franco- 
British  Entente  Cord  i  ale  wan  strained  to  the 
breaking  point,  not  alone  by  antithetical  policies 
in  the  Near  East,  but  by  acute  differences  simul- 
taneously manifested  over  relations  with  Russia, 
naval  disarmament,  and  German  reparations. 
During  the  protracted  and  sanguine  war  be- 
tween Greece  and  the  Turkish  Nationalists  in 


PEACE  CONFEBENGE 


Asia  Minor  during  1921-1922,  the  British  sup- 
ported the  Greeks  as  convenient  tools  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  their  own  interests,  but  the  French 
and  Italians  aided  and  abetted  the  Turks  even 
to  the  extent  of  withdrawing  their  troops  from 
Constantinople.  The  decisive  victories  of  Mus- 
tapha  Kemal  Pasha  during  the  late  summer 
and  autumn  of  1922  swept  the  Greeks  out  of 
Smyrna.  An  armistice  between  the  Turks  and 
the  Allies  wan  signed  at  Mudania,  Oct.  10, 
1022,  permitting  the  former  to  retain  Smyrna, 
take  over  the  administration  of  Constantinople, 
and  reoccupy  Eastern  Thrace,  pending  the 
formulation  of  a  new  peace  treaty,  to  replace 
tlip  thoroughly  discarded  Treaty  of  Sevres. 

Lausanne  Conference.  A  conference  of 
the  Turks  and  the  European  Powers  was  con- 
vened at  Lausanne,  Switzerland  on  Nov.  20,  1922 
and  was  in  session  for  eleven  weeks,  when  it 
broke  clown,  on  Feb.  4,  1923,  owing  to  the 
peremptory  refusal  of  the  Turkish  delegation  to 
accept  a  treaty  drafted  by  the  allied  leaders. 
All  hopes  of  destroying  Turkish  power  by  fos- 
tering (Jreek  imperialism  in  Asia  Minor  had 
been  dissipated,  but  Great  Britain  was  deter- 
mined to  maintain  control  of  Mesopotamia 
(particularly  Mosul)  and  to  secure  continued 
iieutrali/atinn  of  the  Straits.  The  French  sup- 
porting the  Turks  on  these  territorial  ques- 
tions, nevertheless  aroused  their  suspicion  and 
opposition  by  insisting  on  the  maintenance  of 
the  Capitulations  and  the  confirmation  of  all 
Allied  concessions  in  Turkey.  French  prestige 
recei\ed  a  substantial  setback  with  the  grant- 
ing (April  10)  to  American  interests  of  the  Ches- 
ter concessions  which  authorized  railroad  con- 
struction and  industrial  developments  through- 
out Kastern  Asia  Minor.  The  breach  between 
France  and  1  urkey  grew  wider  with  the  lapse 
of  time  and  when  at  Turkish  suggestion  and 
with  Allied  acquiescence  the  Conference  of 
Ijjiusannc  was  resumed  on  April  22,  the  French 
steadily  lost  ground,  but,  their  power  being  al- 
most wholly  absorbed  in  the  contemporaneous 
occupation  of  the  Kuhr,  they  were  unable  to 
coeice  the  'lurks  into  any  measurable  recogni- 
tion of  their  claims.  On"  May  15,  it  was  dis- 
closed that  a  syndicate  of  British  interests  had 
purchased  a  controlling  interest  in  the  Bagdad 
Kail  way. 

The  Lausanne  Treaty,  On  July  24,  1923, 
the  treaty  was  finally  signed  at  Lausanne  by 
representatives  of  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy, 
Japan,  Greece,  Rumania  and  Turkey  which  con- 
stituted a  drastic  revision  of  the  whole  Near 
Eastern  Settlement  as  registered  in  the  Treaty 
of  Sevres.  Jugo-Slavia  alone  refused  to  sign 
because  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  Ottoman 
debt  settlement  Turkey  definitely  resigned  all 
claims  to  TIed.jaz,  Palestine,  Transjordania, 
Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  but  she  retained  all  of 
Anatolia,  Turkish  '  Armenia,  Cilicia,  Adalia, 
Smyrna,  Constantinople,  Gallipoli.  Adrianople 
and  Eastern  Thrace  to  the  Maritza  River. 
Along  the  new  European  frontier  a  neutral  or 
demilitarized  zone  60  kilometers  wide  was  cre- 
ated, to  prevent  border  conflicts.  Likewise, 
but  for  a  different  purpose,  the  Gallipoli  penin- 
sula and  the  shores  of  the  Straits  were  demili- 
tarized and  the  Straits  themselves  were  placed 
under  an  international  commission  supervised 
by  the  League  of  Nations.  The  "freedom  of 
the  Straits,"  for  which  the  British  foreign  min- 
ister, Lord  Curzon,  had  so  valorously  battled, 
was  assured  by  a  separate  convention,  bearing 


1005 


PEACE  CONFEBEHCE 


all  the  earmarks  of  compromise,  by  which  mer- 
chant and  war  vessels,  the  latter  in  restricted 
number,  were  permitted  liberty  of  passage  in 
peace  and  war,  except  in  case  Turkey  should  be 
one  of  the  belligerent  powers.  Disposition  of 
the  coveted  oil  fields  of  Mosul,  in  dispute  -be- 
tween Britain  and  Turkey,  was  to  be  decided 
by  diplomatic  agreement,  or,  that  failing,  by 
reference  to  the  League.  Not  only  were  the  fet- 
tering restrictions  which  the  Allies  had  at- 
tempted to  place  on  Turkish  finance,  army,  and 
navy,  struck  off,  but  reparation  claims  were 
canceled  and  the  Allies  recognized  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  Capitulations,  stipulating  merely 
that  Turkey  should  appoint  for  a  transitional 
period  of  five  years  four  legal  councilors,  from 
neutral  states,  to  observe  the  working  of  the 
Turkish  courts.  The  Nationalists,  in  short, 
won  a  remarkable  diplomatic  victory  in  their 
single-handed  diplomatic  combat  with  the  pow- 
ers of  Europe.  The  erstwhile  aggressive  Greeks 
were  thoroughly  humiliated.  Not  only  were 
they  compelled  to  surrender  Smyrna,  Gallipoli, 
and  Eastern  Thrace  to  Turkey,  but  also  to  re- 
sign again  to  Italy  the  Greek-speaking  Dodeca- 
nese islands  in  the  JSgean.  Some  000,000 
Gieek  nationals  were  to  be  deported  from  Turk- 
ish territory  in  exchange  for  Turkish  nationals. 
As  the  United  States  had  not  participated  in 
the  Lausanne  Conferences  except  through  an 
"observer"  (Mr.  Grew),  it  was  necessary  to 
negotiate  a  separate  treaty  between  Turkey  and 
the  United  States,  recording  the  consent  of  the 
latter  to  the  abrogation  of  the  Capitulations 
and  other  changes  made  by  the  treaty  above  de- 
scribed. Accordingly,  on  August  2  Turkish 
and  American  delegates  at  Lausanne  signed  a 
treaty  of  commerce  and  amity.  Ratification 
by  the  Senate  being  delayed,  this  treaty  was 
subjected  to  the  buffets  of  political  controversy 
in  the  United  States,  and  its  ultimate  accept- 
ance was  far  from  certain  in  August,  1924. 

ENFORCEMENT  OF  THE  VEBSAILLES   TREATY 

Some  portions  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
such  as  the  guarantees  of  its  execution  pre- 
scribed in  Part  14  were  merely  recognitions 
of  faits  accomplis,  and  others  were  speedily  put 
into  operation.  The  League  of  Nations  and 
the  International  Labor  Organization  author- 
ized by  Parts  1  and  13  respectively  were  early 
established — the  first  International  Labor  Con- 
ference being  held  in  1910  and  the  first  session 
of  the  League  of  Nations  being  convened  in 
1920  Part  7  relating  to  penalties  proved 
practically  impossible  of  execution.  On  the 
ground  that  no  existing  International  Court 
possessed  legal  jurisdiction,  the  Dutch  govern- 
ment refused  to  comply  with  reiterated  allied 
demands  for  the  extradition  and  trial  of  the 
former  German  Emperor,  and  in  March,  1920, 
the  "solemn  farce"  was  terminated  by  an  un- 
derstanding that  William  II  would  be  indefi- 
nitely interned  in  Holland  and  prevented  from 
participating  in  any  further  international  mis- 
chief. A  similar  demand  made  upon  Germany 
in  February,  1020,  for  the  extradition  of  some 
882  war  criminals,  including  civilians  and  mili- 
tary and  naval  officers  of  high  rank,  was  final- 
ly 'abandoned  in  favor  of  a  German  proposal 
that  the  accused  l>e  tried  by  a  German  Federal 
Court  at  Leipzig.  The  Inter-allied  Justice 
Commission  promptly  transmitted  to  Berlin 
the  names  of  some  46  offenders  against  whom 


PEACE  CONFEBENCE 


1006 


PEACE  CONTEBEXOH 


the  evidence  was  most  conclusive,  the  Allies  re- 
serving the  right  to  hold  retrials  should  they 
consider  the  verdicts  palpably  unjust.  The 
Germans  were  very  dilatory  about  proceeding 
to  try  these  men  and  though  the  matter  was 
discussed  at  the  Spa  Conference  (July  5-16, 
1920)  it  was  not  until  after  the  Allied  ulti- 
matum of  Apr.  30,  1021,  demanding  action  on 
this  point  among  others,  that  trials  began  at 
Leipzig.  A  few  convictions  resulted  but  the 
whole  proceeding  was  rather  farcical. 

Territorial  cessions  and  boundary  readjust- 
ments prescribed  under  Parts  2,  3,  and  4  were 
effected  as  far  as  Germany  was  concerned  with- 
out great  difficulty  except  in  the  case  of  Upper 
Silesia.  The  economic  sections  of  the  treaty 
relating  to  Ports,  Waterways  and  Railroads, 
etc.,  occasioned  some  difficulty,  but  the  really 
great  conflicts  took  place  over  German  disarma- 
ment, involving  the  all-important  issue  of 
French  security,  and  over  reparations  involv- 
ing a  whole  complex  of  issues  such  as  time  and 
methods  of  payment,  inter-allied  allocation  of 
the  proceeds,  inter-allied  cancellation  of  debts, 
the  restoration  of  northern  France,  Belgium 
etc.,  the  economic  rehabilitation  of  Europe, 
French  security,  extension  of  Allied  occupation 
of  German  territories  (e.g.  seizure  of  the 
Ruhr),  and  the  maintenance  or  disruption  of 
Allied  solidarity.  (See  REPARATIONS.) 

The  treaties  of  1010-1020  as  we  have  seen, 
provided  for  the  unilateral  application  of  the 
principle  of  disarmament  with  the  avowed 
purpose  of  attaining  that  long  sought  objec- 
tive— the  destruction  of  Gorman  militarism. 
Throughout  1020,  the  Allies  had  to  insist  on  re- 
duction of  the  German  army  to  the  100,000  lim- 
it imposed  by  the  treaty.  At  the  Spa  confer- 
ence (April  18-2,1)  Premier  Milleiand,  yield- 
ing to  an  Italian  demand  for  trade  negotia- 
tions with  Russia,  and  to  Lloyd  George'*  Near 
Eastern  importunities,  secured  as  the  price  of 
his  consent  on  these  two  points,  a  joint  de- 
mand upon  Germany  for  immediate  disarma- 
ment, a  refusal  of  a  German  request  for  a  per- 
manent army  of  200,000  men,  and  a  severe 
warning  against  future  infractions  of  the  Trea- 
ty. At  the  Spa  Conference  (July  f>-l (5)  Ger- 
man disarmament  was  the  first  question  con- 
sidered. After  a  heated  discussion  Germany 
in  return  for  her  promise  to  disband  immedi- 
ately certain  auxiliary  forces  such  as  the 
Micherheitspohsei  and  Einwohnerwchr,  was  fi- 
nally granted  (July  9)  permission  to  postpone 
until  Jan.  1,  1921  the  reduction  of  her  army 
to  the  prescribed  limit,  though  it  was  stipu- 
lated that  it  should  not  exceed  150,000  effec- 
tives after  Oct.  1,  1920.  As  a"  guarantee  of  her 
faithful  execution  of  these  requirements,  the 
Allies  reserved  the  right  to  invade  and  occupy 
the  Ruhr  Valley  or  other  regions.  After  the 
Spa  Conference  the  question  of  German  disarm- 
ament continued  to  be  the  subject  of  numerous 
notes  exchanged  between  the  Entente  Powers 
and  the  German  government.  The  Germans, 
however,  failed  to  live  up  to  their  promises, 
and  disarmament  along  with  leparations  again 
came  to  the  fore  at  the  Paris  Conference  Jan. 
24—29,  1921,  at  which  time  they  were  given  un- 
til July  1  to  comply  with  the  Spa  agreement. 
Persistent  dilatoririess  on  this  point  together 
with  non-payment  of  reparations  and  postpone- 
ment of  war-criminals  trials,  led  to  the  Usu- 
ance  of  an  ultimatum  (May  7,  1921)  by  the 
London  Conference  threatening  invasion  of  the 


Ruhr  should  not  the  Germans  without  reserva- 
tions comply  with  treaty  requirements  by  May 
12.  On  May  10  the  Reichstag  voted  to  submit. 
Thereafter  better  progress  was  made.  The 
work  of  disarmament  continued  under  the  su- 
pervision of  the  inter-allied  military  control 
commission.  French  security  constituted  an 
important  subject  of  discussion  at  the  Cannes 
Conference  January,  1922.  As  the  best  method 
of  adequately  protecting  France  against  attack 
and  of  fostering  peace  in  Europe,  Lloyd  George, 
voicing  English  opinion,  advocated  a  tripartite 
agreement  embracing  England,  France,  and  Ger- 
many. Premier  Briand  vehemently  opposed  this 
plan  and  demanded  an  Anglo-French  military 
alliance.  After  considerable  parley,  a  10-year 
treaty  was  signed  (but  never  ratified)  by 
\*hich  both  powers  reaffirmed  their  common  in- 
terest in  those  provisions  of  the  Versailles  Trea- 
ty relative  to  German  fortifications  and  mili- 
tarv  activities  along  the  Rhine;  both  powers 
undertook  also  to  act  in  concert  should  Ger- 
manv  take  any  measures  incompatible  with  the 
Treaty,  and  Great  Britain  specifically  prom- 
ised to  place  her  naval,  military,  and  aerial 
forces  at  the  disposal  of  France  in  the  event  of 
direct  and  unprovoked  aggression  by  Germany. 
Bitter  opposition  in  the  French  Chamber  of 
Deputies  to  Premier  Briand's  promises  to  mod- 
erate his  attitude  toward  Geimany  led  to  his 
supersession  by  the.  nationalistic  Poincare". 
This  change  in 'the  French  government  put  an 
end  temporarily  to  the  chance  of  recementing 
Entente  solidarity  and  foreshadowed  the  mili- 
tary occupation  of  the  Ruhr.  At  the  Genoa 
Conference  (Apr.  10-Alay  15,  1922)  Lloyd 
George  proposed  a  10-year  European  non-ag- 
gression compact,  but  the  French  refused  to  ac- 
cept this  plan  unless  every  other  European  na- 
tion agreed  to  sign,  unless  Russia  recognized 
all  her  existing  boundaries  during  the  10-year 
period  and  unless  France  forfeited  none  of  her 
rights  for  enforcement  of  the  Versailles  Trea- 
ty. During  1920-1021,  France  and  Great  Brit- 
ain had  drifted  apart  due  to  divergence  of  in- 
terests and  policies,  as  regards  German  repara- 
tions, Poland  and  relations  with  Russia,  and 
Turkey  and  the  Near  Eastern  settlement.  On 
January,  1923,  the  Franco-Belgian  seizure  of 
the  Ruhr  further  undermined  their  relations, 
and  by  1924  the  entente  cordiale  of  1904  had 
been  definitely  transformed  into  suspicion  and 
dislike,  exacerbated  not  only  by  the  above-men- 
tioned differences  on  questions  of  policy  but  al- 
so by  a  keen  rivalry  in  aeronautical  expansion. 
France,  meanwhile,  in  an  endeavor  to  stabilize 
the  treaties  of  which  she  had  been  the  most  ac- 
tive and  powerful  defender,  had  forged  a  net- 
work of  alliances  with  other  European  states. 
In  July,  1920,  a  defensive  alliance  was  con- 
cluded with  Belgium;  in  February,  1921,  with 
Poland;  and  in  1924  with  Czecho-Slovakia  and 
Rumania,  France  therefore,  became  by  the 
spring  of  1924,  the  leading  spirit  in  a  system 
of  European  alliances  maintaining  standing  ar- 
mies aggregating  nearly  2,000,000  men,  and 
consecrated  to  the  preservation  of  the  newly 
made  peace  treaties  by  force  if  necessary. 
However,  with  the  advent  to  power  of  the  La- 
bor ministry  in  Great  Britain  (January,  1924) 
and  the  replacement  in  France  of  the  National- 
istic government  of  Poincar*4  by  a  Radical-So- 
cialist ministry  under  Herriot  (June,  1924), 
the  prospects  of  a  European  settlement  percep- 
tibly brightened.  The  avowed  intentions  of 


PEACH  BOEEB 

Macdonald    and    Herriot    to    pursue 


Premiers 

more  pacific  policies  and  to  utilize  the  League 
of  Nations  as  a  universal  guarantee  of  national 
security  and  an  instrument  of  international  co- 
operation, the  favorable  reception  of  the  Dawes 
Iteport,  the  evidence  of  a  new  cooperative  spir- 


1007  PKLLACtBA 

professor  (1912-19)  and  professor  of  zoology 
(1019-  )  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 
Professor  Pearse  published  articles  on  animal 
behavior,  fishes,  and  Crustacea,  as  well  as  Gen- 
eral Xoitloqy  (1917). 
PEGBAM,  OEOROE  BRAXTON  (1876-  ). 


armament,  the  more  widespread  resumption  of 
amicable  relations  with  Russia,  and  the  favor- 
able outcome  of  the  London  Conference  of  July- 
August,  1924,  all  seemed  to  presage  a  new  era 
in  the  liquidation  of  post-war  problems  of  re- 


it   in   Germany  regarding  reparations  and  dis-      An  American  physicist,  born  at  Trinity,  N.  C., 
urmaYw«,,+    +i,A  ™«™  ™iA*a^aoA   Mo»mn«;nyi   *f      an(j  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Durham,  N.  C., 

at  Columbia  University,  and  at  Berlin  and  Cam- 
bridge. In  1900  he  became  assistant  in  physics 
at  Columbia,  where  in  1916  he  became  full  pro- 
fessor and  in  1917  dean  of  the  faculty  of  applied 
construction  and  readjustment.  Other  phases  science.  He  was  a  magnetic  observer  with  the 

of      intornntinnul      nnai-u'nr      urnhlnima      nro      Hia-        United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey    ( 1902- 

06).  Dr.  Pc-gram  made  original  studies  on  the 
electromagnetic  theory  and  on  radioactivity. 

PEIXOTTO,  ERNEST  CLIFFORD  (1869-  ). 
An  American  artist,  born  in  San  Francisco. 
He  studied  in  Paris  as  a  pupil  of  Benjamin 
Constant  and  Jules  Lefebvre  at  the  Academic 
Julien.  Tie  spent  much  of  his  time  in  Europe 
writing  and  illustrating  for  American  periodi- 
cals and  during  the  War  directed  the  American 
Expeditionary  Forces  art  training  centre  at 
Bellevue,  France.  He  was  elected  Associate  of 
the  National  Academy  in  1919  and  Chevalier  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1921.  Besides  having 
exhibited  many  pictures  at  the  Paris  Salon  and 
in  leading  American  galleries,  he  produced 
many  books  on  travel  in  Europe  and  America. 
He  executed  mural  friezes  and  was  director  of 
mural  painting  at  the  Beaux-Arts  Institute  of 
Design,  New  York,  after  1919.  His  later  hooks 
include:  By  Italian  Seas;  Through  the  French 
Provinces;  Romantic  California;  Pacific  Shores 
from  Panama;  Our  Hispanic  Southwest;  A 
Jf evolutionary  Pilgrimage,  and  The  American 
Front. 

PELLAGRA.  The  nature  of  this  strange 
malady  was  not  cleared  up  in  the  interval  be- 
tween 1914  and  1924;  if  anything,  less  was 
known  about  it  in  1924  than  ever.  In  the 
south  of  Europe,  pellagra  was  known  continu- 
ously for  centuries  and  seemed  to  be  nothing 
more  than  a  form  of  poisoning  by  spoiled  maize. 
Study  in  the  United  States  showed  many  facets 
of  the  disease,  and  now  it  is  known  that  many 
who  have  been  committed  to  insane  asylums  in 
the  northern  States,  Canada,  Great  Britain,  and 
other  cool  countries  in  which  pellagra  has  nev- 
er been  recognized,  have  in  reality  been  suffer- 
ers from  this  same  affection.  Cases  were  re- 
ported in  England,  where  maize  is  not  eaten, 
and  once  attention  had  been  focused  on  the  pos- 
sibility of  further  cases,  numbers  were  recog- 
nized among  the  insane  population,  and  the  sup- 
position that  this  is  nothing  new  asserted  it- 
self. The  theory  of  spoiled  maize  which  was 
reasserted  in  connection  with  new  cases  of  the 
disease  in  Rumania  gave  way  to  another,  after 
the  discovery  of  vitamine,  to  the  effect  that  pel- 
lagra is  not  a  form  of  food  intoxication  but  is 
due  to  the  absence  of  some  vitamine-like  prin- 
ciple in  the  food.  This  view  was  soon  shown 
to  be  fallacious,  but  it  was  found  that  the  dis- 
ease could  at  times  be  prevented  by  a  well- 
balanced,  nutritious  diet,  while  pellagrins  also 
improved  and  even  appeared  to  recover  on  such 
a  diet.  The  theory  of  a  deficient  diet  was  part- 
ly exploded  by  the  discovery  that  in  California 
and  Louisiana  prosperous  and  well-nourished 
people  were  developing  the  disease.  Despite  all 
negative  evidence,  it  cannot  bo  denied  that  in 
one  locality  spoiled  maize  and  in  another  a 
merely  defective  diet  has  precipitated  the  dis- 


of  international  post-war  problems  are  dis- 
cussed under  the  following  heads:  LEAGUE  OF 
NATIONS;  LABOR  ORGANIZATION,  INTERNATIONAL; 
MANDATES;  REPARATIONS;  WASHINGTON  CON- 

WRENCE;      RACIAL      MINORITIES     TREATIES.      For 

national  points  of  view,  see  the  history  sections 
under  the  articles  UNITED  STATES;  GREAT  BRIT- 
AIN; FRANCE;  GERMANY;  RUSSIA;  TURKEY; 
AUSTRIA;  HUNGARY;  etc  Detailed  treatment 
of  the  territorial  and  political  disputes  that 
arose  out  of  the  making  of  the  Peace  and  its 
application  will  be  found  under  the  following: 
IIKOL,  GERMAN  SOUTH;  BLRGENLAND;  FIUME- 
AIWIATIC  CONTROVERSY;  KLAUENFUKT;  THRACE; 
JUisAT;  TRANSYLXANIA;  BESSARABIA;  BUKO- 
VIN\;  SIIISIA,  UPPER;  TESCIIF.N,  ZIPS,  AND 
OIIAVA;  DANZIG;  ALLENSTEIN-MARIENWERDER; 
(iAiifiA;  VILNA;  MEMKL;  LITHE  ENTFNTL; 
SAAR  BASIN;  EUPEN,  MAIM£DY,  AND  MORESNET; 

LlMUL'Rti,  SOUIIIERN;  LUXEMBURG;  ScilLKSWIG; 
i'lllNELANl);  DoUECANKHh;  SMYRNA;  ClLlCIA ; 

DARDANELLES  AND  BOSPORUS  STRAITS;  KURDI- 
STAN; SHANTUNG.  See  the  articles  EUROPE  and 
AFRICA  for  a  general  presentation  of  the  ter- 
ritorial readjustments  effected  by  the  \\ar  in 
these  two  continents. 

For  preliminary  discussions  of  peace,  see 
WAR,  DIPIOMACY  OF  THE. 

PEACH  BOBEB.  See  ENTOMOLOGY,  ECO- 
NOMIC. 

PEAK.    THBIPS.    See    ENTOMOLOGY,    Eco- 

NOM  1C. 

PEARL,  RAYMOND  (1879-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can biologist  and  statistician,  horn  in  Farming- 
ton,  N.  H.,  and  educated  at  Dartmouth  and  the 
the  University  of  Michigan  lie  taught  at  the 
latter  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  until 
1007,  when  he  received  the  appointment  of  bi- 
ologist and  head  of  the  department  of  the 
Maine  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  He  re- 
signed this  position  in  11)18  to  become  profes- 
sor of  biometry  and  vital  statistics  at  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University  School  of  Hygiene  and 
Public  Health.  Ho  was  also  made  official  sta- 
tistician of  the  university  and  consultant  in 
vital  statistics  and  epidemiology  to  the  United 
States  Public  Health  Service.  His  published 
works  comprise:  Modes  of  Research  in  (Gene- 
tics (191.5);  The  Nation's  Food  (1920);  The 
Biology  of  Death  (1922)  ;  Introduction  to  Med- 
ical Biometry  and  Statistics  (1923).  In  col- 
laboration with  Mitchell  he  wrote  the  Refer- 
ence Handbook  of  Food  Statistics. 

PEABSE,  ARTHUR  SPERRY  (1877-  ).  An 
American  zoologist,  born  at  Crete,  Neb.,  and 
educated  at  the  University  of  Nebraska  and 
Harvard.  He  was  Austin  teaching  fellow  at 
Harvard  (1907-08);  instructor  in  zoology 
(IQOf)-ilO)  and  assistant  professor  (1910-11) 
at  the  University  of  Michigan;  assistant  pro- 
fessor of  zob'logy  at  the  University  of  the  Phil- 
ippines for  three  months  in  1911;  and  associate 


PELLE 


1008 


PENNSYLVANIA 


ease,  and  that  when  the  cause  was  withdrawn 
the  disease  receded.  In  1024  it  seemed  that 
several  quite  dissimilar  factors  could  either  pre- 
dispose to  or  excite  the  disease  and  that  the  es- 
sential causal  factor  was  as  yet  unknown. 

PELLE,  M.  C.  J.  (1800-1024).  A  French 
soldier  and  diplomat,  born  in  18C9.  During  the 
War  he  was  cnief  of  staff  to  Marshal  Joffre  and 
in  1020  was  appointed  High  Commissioner  to 
Constantinople.  lie  endeavored  to  bring  about 
a  cessation  of  hostilities  between  the  Turks  and 
the  Greeks  and  to  promote  harmony  between 
the  Turks  and  the  Allies.  He  was  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  Treaty  of  Lausanne  Later  he 
was  sent  to  Czechoslovakia  as  chief  of  the 
French  mission,  and  on  Mar.  15,  1024,  the 
French  government  conferred  on  him  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  appreciation 
of  his  services. 

PELLIOT,  PAUL  (1878-  ).  A  French 
archaeologist  and  Orientalist,  born  in  Paris.  In 
1800  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Archaeolog- 
ical Mission  to  French  Indo-China,  subsequent- 
ly the  French  School  of  the  Far  East.  In  1905 
he  was  named  by  the  Minister  of  Education  to 
head  an  archaeological  expedition  to  Central 
Asia  and  China,  to  investigate  traces  of  pre- 
Islamic  liuddhism  in  China.  At  Tunchuk,  in 
the  Chinese  Turkestan,  Pelliot  discovered  the 
ruins  of  a  Buddhist  temple  built  in  the  Gracco- 
Buddhist  style,  and  from  there  he  was  directed 
to  a  monastery  at  Tuen  Huang,  where  he  made 
an  amazing  find  of  some  15,000  manuscripts 
and  silk  paintings.  He  brought  back  most  of 
the  manuscripts  as  well  as  other  objects  of  his- 
torical value  to  Paris.  The  collection  of  Chi- 
nese manuscripts  which  he  organized  at  the 
Bibliotheque  Nationale  was  larger  than  any  to 
be  found  in  China  proper.  rJhe  manuscripts, 
which  all  date  before  the  eleventh  century,  are 
in  Chinese,  Tibetan,  and  Sanskrit  The  French 
government  rewarded  Pelliot  for  his  expedition 
by  creating  for  him  at  the  College  de  France  a 
chair  on  the  languages,  history,  and  archaeology 
of  Central  Asia.  In  1021  he  was  elected  to  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.  A  catalogue  and  de- 
scription of  the  findings  of  his  expedition  was 
published  under  the  title  La  Mission  Pelliot  en 
Atrie  Centrale,  5  vols.  (1014-21). 

PENANG.     See  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 

PENNELL,  JOSEPH  (1800-1026).  An  Amer- 
ican etcher,  illustrator,  and  author  (see  VOL. 
XVIII).  His  later  publications  include  Pic- 
tures of  War  Work  in  America.  (1018)  and 
Etchers  and  Etching  (1010).  With  his  wife 
he  edited  The  Whistler  Journal  (1021).  He 
was  chairman  of  the  jury  of  the  International 
Exhibition  at  Leipzig  in  1014  and  also  at  the 
Panama-Pacific  Exposition  in  1015,  where  he 
was  awarded  a  commemorative  medal.  He  won 
the  Grand  Prix  in  Florence  in  1915  and  was 
elected  to  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Letters  in  1922.  In  recent  years  he  has  con- 
ducted a  wide  and  influential  propaganda  for 
better  education  in  the  graphic  arts  in  the 
United  States. 

PENNINQTON,  MARY  EITOLE  (1872-  ). 
An  American  chemist,  born  at  Nashville,  Tenn., 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, where  she  was  a  fellow  in  botany.  During 
1897-98  she  was  a  fellow  in  physiological  chem- 
istry at  Yale.  In  1808  she  became  director 
of  the  chemical  laboratory  of  the  Women's  Med- 
ical College  of  Pennsylvania,  meanwhile  serving 
as  chief  of  the  Philadelphia  Chemical  Labora- 


tory. These  positions  she  resigned  in  order  to 
accept  the  office  of  chief  of  the  food  research 
laboratory  of  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  in 
Washington  (1908),  which  she  held  until  1919, 
when  she  became  manager  of  the  research  and 
development  division  of  the  American  Balsa 
Company  of  New  York.  Her  original  investi- 
gations pertained  to  the  chemical,  bacteriologi- 
cal, and  histological  study  of  flesh  foods,  as 
\\G\\  as  of  milk,  on  which  she  published  her  re- 
sults in  the  publications  of  the  American  Chem- 
ical Society,  the  Society  of  Biological  Chemists, 
and  other  scientific  organizations. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  Pennsylvania  is  the 
thirty-second  State  in  si/e  (45,126  square  miles) 
and  the  second  in  population;  capital,  Harris- 
burg.  The  population  increased  from  7,005,111 
in  1010  to  8,720,017  in  1020,  a  gain  of  13.8  per 
cent.  The  white  population  increased  from  7,- 
407,713  to  8,432,726;  negio,  from  103,010  to 
284,508;  native  white,  from  0,0.28,994  to  7,044,- 
876.  The  foreign-born  white  population  de- 
creased from  1,438,710  to  1,387,850.  Both  ur- 
ban and  rural  populations  increased  in  the  dec- 
ade, the  former  from  4,630,660  to  5,607,815; 
the  latter  from  3,034,442  to  3,112,202  The 
growth  of  the  principal  cities  was  as  follows: 
Philadelphia,  from  1,540,008  in  1010  to  1,823,- 
779  in  1020;  Pittsburgh,  533,005  to  588,343; 
Scranton,  120,867  to  137JK3;  Reading,  96,071 
to  107,784;  Erie,  66,525  to  03,372.  See  article* 
on  these  cities. 

Agriculture.  Pennsylvania  is  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  eastern  agricultural  States,  but 
in  common  with  nearly  all  of  them  it  sho\\ed  a 
general  decline  in  agriculture  during  the  de- 
cade 1010-20.  While  the  population  of  the 
State  increased  13.8  per  cent  in  that  decade, 
the  rural  population  decreased  from  45.3  per 
cent  in  1000  and  30.6  per  cent  in  1010,  to  35.7 
per  cent  in  1020  The  total  acreage  in  farms 
in  1010,  18,586,832,  fell  off  to  17,657,513  in 
1020,  or  5  per  cent.  The  number  of  farms  de- 
creased from  210,205  to  202,250  or  7.8  per  cent, 
the  improved  land  in  farms,  fiom  12,673,519 
acres  to  11,847,719,  or  6.5  per  cent.  The  per- 
centage of  total  land  area  used  for  agricultural 
purposes  decreased  from  64.8  in  1010  to  61.5  in 
1920;  the  percentage  of  land  improved,  from 
68.2  to  67.1.  The  total  value  of  all  farm  proper- 
ty showed  an  apparent  increase,  from  $1,253,274,- 
862  to  $1,720,353,034,  or  38  per  cent,  tho  aver- 
age value  per  farm,  from  $5715,  to  $H551.  In 
interpreting  these  values,  however,  and,  indeed, 
all  comparative  values  in  the  decade  1014-24, 
the  inflation  of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers 
of  farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104 
in  1010  and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  total  of  202,- 
250  farms  in  1020,  153,408  were  operated  by 
owners,  4400  by  managers,  and  44,262  by  ten- 
ants. The  comparative  figures  for  1010  were 
164,229,  3961,  and  51,105.  White  farmers  in 
1920  numbered  201,700,  of  whom  187,277  were 
native  and  14,522  foreign-born.  The  negro 
farmers  numbered  451.  Farms  free  from  mort- 
gage in  1020  numbered  93,804,  compared  with 
112,156  in  1010.  Those  under  mortgage  num- 
bered 48,498,  compared  with  50,600  in  1010. 
The  total  number  of  dairy  cows  in  1920  was 
1,049,763;  933,640  in  1910.  "Beef  cows"  num- 
bered 57,440,  compared  with  99,220  in  1910; 
and  sheep  declined  in  number  from  637,541  to 
508,711.  There  were  977,637  hogs  in  1910,  and 


PENNSYLVANIA 


1009 


PENNSYLVANIA 


1,190,951  in  1920  The  estimated  production 
of  the  principal  farm  crops  in  1923  was  as  fol- 
lows: corn,  62,002,000  bushels;  spring  wheat, 
221,000;  winter  wheat,  24,168,000;  oats,  31,- 
090,000;  rye,  3,655,000;  barley,  282,000;  pota- 
toes, 20,530,000;  sweet  potatoes,  235,000;  to- 
bacco, 57,408,000  pounds;  buckwheat,  4,434,000 
bushels;  and  hay,  3,019,000  tons.  Comparative 
figures  for  1913  are:  corn,  57,057,000  bushels; 
wheat,  21,862,000;  oats,  35,774,000;  rye,  4,900,- 
000;  barley,  182,000;  potatoes,  23,320,000;  hay, 
4,146,000  tons;  and  tobacco,  46,680,000  pounds. 
The  apple  crop  in  1909  amounted  to  11,048,430 
bushels;  in  1919,  to  5,512,795.  The  production 
figures  for  peaches  in  those  years  were  1,023,570 
and  1,099,737  bushels,  respectively. 

Mining.  Pennsylvania,  in  point  of  value  of 
products,  is  most  important  of  the  mineral-pro- 
ducing States.  In  the  order  of  their  impor- 
tance, these  products  are  coal,  cement,  natural 
gas,  and  clay  products.  Petroleum,  of  which 
the  State  was  the  original  and  for  many  years 
the  chief  producer,  lost  importance  through  the 
gradual  exhaustion  of  the  wells  and  the  discov- 
ery of  large  areas  of  petroleum  land  in  other 
States.  Pennsylvania  is  the  only  State  which 
produces  both  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal. 
All  the  anthracite  coal  produced  is  obtained 
from  the  Pennsylvania  fields.  The  progress  of 
the  coal  mining  industry  during  the  decade 
1914-24  is  indicated  by  the  following  produc- 
tion figures:  1914,  bituminous,  147,983,294  net 
tons  valued  at  $159,000,296;  anthracite,  90,821,- 
507  net  tons  valued  at  $188,181,399.  1915,  bi- 
tuminous, 157,955,]  37,  $167,419.705;  anthracite, 
K8.9!>5,061,  $184,653,498.  1916,  bituminous,  170,- 
295,424,  $221,685,175;  anthracite,  87,578,493, 
,$202,009,501.  1917,  bituminous,  172,448,142, 
$421,268,808;  anthracite,  99,611.811,  $283,6/50,- 
723.  1918,  bituminous,  178,550,741,  $463,150,- 
736;  anthracite,  98,826,084,  $336.480,347.  1920, 
bituminous,  170,607,847,  $642,630,000;  anthra- 
cite, 8!),5l)8,249,  $434,252,198.  1021,  bituminous, 
1 16,013,942,  $322,538,300;  anthracite,  90,473,- 
451,  $452,304,903.  In  1922  the  bituminous  pro- 
duction was  113,148,308  net  tons:  the  anthra- 
cite, 54,683,022.  The  greatly  increased  value  of 
coal  in  the  later  years  of  the  decade  was  due 
partly  to  conditions  arising  from  the  coal  min- 
ers* strikes  and  partly  to  the  inflation  of  the 
currency.  In  shipments  of  Portland  cement 
Pennsylvania  ranks  first  among  the  States, 
with  25,985,106  barrels,  valued  at  $20,944,787, 
in  1914;  28,748,546  barrels,  $27,915,298,  in 
1916;  22,238,689  barrels,  $33,600,956,  in  1918; 
27,662,116  barrels,  $52,632,082,  in  11)20;  and  in 
1922,  34,023,695  barrels.  The  production  of 
petroleum  during  this  period  averaged  about 
8,000,000  barrels  per  year:  In  1914  it  was  8,- 
170,335  barrels;  1916,  7,592,394;  1918,  7,407,- 
812;  1920,  7,438,000;  1922,  7,425,000.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  minerals  noted  above,  the  State  pro- 
duces large  quantities  of  clay  products,  natural 
gas  and  natural  gas  gasoline,  sand  and  gravel, 
and  stone.  The  total  value  of  the  mineral 
products  in  1921  was  $944,688,650,  compared 
with  $1,314,332,585  in  1920;  $918,048,917  in 
1919;  $979,245,098  in  1918,  and  $452,824,034  in 
1914. 

Manufactures.  Pennsylvania,  ranking  second 
among  the  States  in  industrial  importance,  was 
surpassed  only  by  New  York.  There  were,  in 
1920,  77  cities  having  more  than  10,000  inhabi- 
tants, which  formed  50.8  per  cent  of  the  total 
population  of  the  State  and  which  reported,  in 


1919,  63.7  per  cent  of  the  State's  manufactured 
products.  There  were  in  the  State,  in  1909, 
27,563  manufacturing  establishments;  in  1914, 
27,521;  and  in  1919,  27,973.  Persons  engaged  in 
manufacture  numbered  1,002,171,  1,060,562,  and 
1,323,662;  and  the  capital  invested  amounted 
to  $2,749,005,975,  $3,149,411,089,  and  $6,177,- 
729,968,  in  those  years.  The  value  of  products 
in  1909  was  $2,620,742,034;  in  1914,  $2,832,- 
349,437;  and  in  1919,  $7,315,702,867.  The  large 
increase  in  the  value  of  products  in  1914-19. 
was,  however,  due  largely  to  changes  in  indus- 
trial conditions  brought  about  by  the  War  and 
cannot  properly  be  used  to  measure  the  growth 
of  manufactures  during  the  period;  but  the  in- 
crease in  number  of  wage  earners  clearly  indi- 
cates a  decided  growth  in  the  manufacturing 
activities  of  the  State.  Steel  works  nnd  rolling 
mills,  chief  in  point  of  value  of  product,  had  an 
output  valued,  in  1009,  at  $300,344,000 ; 
1914,  $448,106,000;  1919,  $1,296,412,000  Foun- 
dry and  machine  shop  products  rank  second  in 
this  respect,  amounting  in  1901)  to  $210,746,- 
000;  1914,  $233,016,000;  and  1919,  $624,415,- 
000.  Iron  and  steel  blast  furnace  production 
is  third  in  value  of  output:  in  1909,  $168,578,- 
000;  in  1914,  $135,806,000;  in  1919,  $311,080,- 
000.  Ship  and  boat  building,  in  fourth  place, 
in  1909  amounted  to  $6,178,000;  1914,  $0,540,- 
000;  and  in  1919,  $237,325,000.  The  extraordi- 
nary increase  in  the  value  of  the  shipbuilding 
industry  from  1914  to  1919  was  due,  of  course, 
to  the  unusual  demand  for  ships  during  the 
War,  and  cannot  be  taken  as  an  index  of  the 
normal  increase  of  the  industry.  The  most  im- 
portant manufacturing  cities  of  the  State  are 
Philadelphia,  Pittsburgh,  and  Reading.  There 
were  (1909),  in  Philadelphia,  8375  manufactur- 
ing establishments,  with  a  product  valued  at 
$743,720,000;  in  1914,  8.545,  with  $784,500,000; 
and  in  1919,  9064,  with  $1,906,481.  In  Pitts- 
burgh, in  1909,  there  were  1658  with  $243,392,- 
000;  in  1914,  1741  with  $246,694.000;  and  in 
1919,  1875  with  $014,727,000.  Similai  figures 
for  Reading  are:  in  11)09,  482,  with  $51,135,000; 
in  1!)14,  486  with  $53,232,000;  and  in  1919,  527 
with  $141,561,000.  Other  manufacturing  cities 
are  Allentown,  Altoona,  Bethlehem,  Erie,  Scran- 
ton,  and  Wilkes-Bai  re. 

Education.  While  Pennsylvania  has  always 
been  aggressive  in  the  education  of  its  citizens, 
in  many  respects  the  laws  under  which  its  sys- 
tem was  administered  both  previous  to  and  dur- 
ing the  decade  1913-23  were  unsatisfactory. 
To  remedy  this  condition  the  Legislature  of 
1921  passed  a  number  of  laws.  These  provided 
for  the  raising  of  the  standard  qualifications 
of  teachers;  established  a  higher  schedule  of 
salaries;  added  to  the  support  of  the  normal 
schools,  increasing  their  facilities  and  improv- 
ing their  work;  intTcased  the  length  of  the 
school  term,  especially  in  fourth-class  districts; 
reinforced  compulsory  school  attendance;  es- 
tablished State  aid  to  local  communities  for 
the  maintenance  of  new  and  higher  standards; 
established  a  budget  system  in  every  school  dis- 
trict; encouraged  the  consolidation  of"  rural 
schools;  and  centralized  and  unified  the  State 
school  administration  by  abolishing  the  State 
Board  of  Education  and  the  college  and  univer- 
sity council  and  creating  in  their  place  the 
State  Council  of  Education.  These  new  meas- 
ures were  proving  most  beneficial  in  their  re- 
sults. One  of  the  best  evidences  of  the  results 
was  the  remarkable  response  of  the  teachers  to 


PENNSYLVANIA 


xozo 


PENNSYLVANIA 


the  new  demands  for  improved  qualifications; 
for  nine  weeks  during  the  summer  vacation  in 
1022,  more  than  25,000  school  teachers  attended 
summer  school,  taxing  the  colleges  and  normal 
schools  of  the  State  to  their  utmost  capacity. 
The  total  number  of  pupils  in  the  State  in 
1913-14  wa«  1,401,325.  This  had  increased  in 
1920-21  to  1,709,677  The  enrollment  in  kin- 
dergarten nnd  elementary  schools  in  the  latter 
year  was  1,514,825,  in  the  high  schools,  194,- 
852.  The  total  expenditures  for  education  in- 
creased from  $52,544,030  in  1013-14  to  $129,- 
344,099  in  1921-22,  The  percentage  of  illiter- 
acy in  the  State  decreased  from  7.3  in  1910  to 
0  in  1020;  among  the  native  white  population, 
from  1.8  to  1;  among  the  foreign-born  white, 
from  20.8  to  20.1 ;  and  among  the  negro  popu- 
lation from  11  to  73 

Finance.    For  finance,  see  article  on  STATE 
FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  Pennsylvania 
remained  strongly  Republican  as  heretofore  in 
the  decade  1914-24  In  1914  elections  were 
held  for  United  States  Senator  and  for  Gov- 
ernor and  other  state  offices.  Martin  G.  Brum- 
baugh, Republican,  was  elected  governor,  against 
Vance  G.  McCormick,  Democrat.  The  Republi- 
can candidate  for  reelection  to  the  Senate  was 
Boies  Penrose.  He  was  opposed  bv  A.  Mitchell 
Palmer,  Democrat,  and  Gilford  Pinchot,  Wash- 
ington party  Senator  Penrose  received  519,- 
80i  votes;  Pinchot,  209,265;  and  Palmer,  206,- 
415.  In  1916  Philander  C.  Knox,  Republican, 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  In 
the  presidential  election  that  year  Charles  E. 
Hughes  receded  703,823  votes;  \Voodrow  Wil- 
son, 521,784.  The  1917  municipal  primary 
elections  in  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh  were 
marked  by  more  than  ordinary  factional  bitter- 
ness which  had  not  been  entirely  eliminated  up 
to  1924.  There  was  serious  trouble  in  Phila- 
delphia, where  a  number  of  officials  were  ac- 
cused of  having  brought  gunmen  from  New 
York  into  one  uard  to  influence  the  election. 
In  1918  William  Cameron  Sproul,  Republican, 
was  elected  governor,  together  with  the  entire 
State  ticket  of  that  party.  At  the  game  elec- 
tion the  people  approved  a  constitutional  amend- 
ment providing  a  $50,000.000  bond  issue  for 
highways  In  1920  Boies  Penrose  was  reflected 
to  the  "Senate,  with  1,007,989  votes.  John  A. 
Farrell,  Demociat,  received  484,3(J2  votes,  while 
132.010  were  cast  for  Leah  C'obb  Marion,  Pro- 
hibitionist, the  first  woman  in  a  Pennsylvania 
State-wide  political  contest.  In  the  presidential 
voting  Wairen  G.  Harding  receixed  1,218,216 
votes;  James  M.  Cox,  503,843  President  Hard- 
ing appointed  two  Pennsylvania  Republicans  to 
cabinet  positions.  They  were  Andrew  W.  Mel- 
lon, Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  James  J. 
Davis,  Secretary  of  Labor.  In  1921  the  people 
rejected  a  proposal  to  hold  a  constitutional  con- 
vention. Senator  Knox  died  suddenly  in  Octo- 
ber, 1921,  and  William  E.  Crow  of  Uniontown 
was  named  by  Governor  Sproul  to  succeed  him. 
Senatgr  Penrose,  the  recognized  leader  of  the 
State  Republican  organization,  died  on  New 
Year's  Eve  of  the  *ame  year.  George  Wharton 
Pepper  of  Philadelphia  was  appointed  to  his 
place  In  August,  1922  Senator  Crow  died. 
He  was  succeeded  by  David  Aiken  Reed  of  Pitts- 
burgh. The  Republican  primary  election  in 
May,  1922,  was  marked  by  a  bitter  contest  for 
the  gubernatorial  nomination  between  Gifford 
Pinchot,  supported  by  the  Progressive  element, 


and  Attorney  General  George  E.  Alter,  whose 
chief  support  came  from  the  Philadelphia  and 
Pittsburgh  organizations.  Pinchot's  majority 
was  9259  votes,  and  he  was  elected  Governor 
in  November  over  John  A.  McSparran,  Demo- 
crat, head  of  the  State  Grange.  Senators  Pep- 
per and  Reed  were  elected  at  the  same  time. 
In  1923  Governor  Pinchot  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  averting  the  threatened  anthracite 
coal  miners'  strike.  In  the  spring  election  of 
1924  the  people  approved  another  constitution- 
al amendment  providing  an  additional  $50,000,- 
000  bond  issue  for  loads  The  most  interesting 
event  of  that  election  was  the  defeat  of  Gov- 
ernor Pinchot  for  delegate-at-large  to  the  Re- 
publican national  convention  by  an  eleventh- 
hour  attack  on  the  part  of  disgruntled  politi- 
cal leaders  and  liquor  interests  led  by  Repre- 
sentative William  S  Vare  of  Philadelphia.  In 
June,  1924,  W.  Harry  Baker  was  reflected 
chairman  of  the  Republican  State  Committee 
without  opposition,  while  Joseph  F.  Guffey,  aft- 
er a  bitter  fight,  seized  control  of  the  Demo- 
cratic organization  in  spite  of  opposition  from 
the  faction  headed  by  Judge  Eugene  C.  Bonni- 
well  and  Judge  Samuel  E  Shull  and  fiom  the 
wing  led  by  Vance  McCormick  and  Bruce  F. 
Sterling.  John  Bigelow,  a  Guffey  adherent, 
was  elected  Democratic  chairman.  Before  the 
general  election  of  1924  the  political  complex- 
ion of  Pennsylvania's  congressional  delegation 
was:  Senate — Republican,  2;  House — Republi- 
can, 30;  Democratic,  0. 

Legislation.  I  lie  most  important  acts  of  the 
Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted  be- 
low. The  Legislatuie  of  191,1  approved  a  reso- 
lution for  a  State  constitutional  amendment  pro- 
\iding  for  woman  suffrage;  this  was  voted 
down  by  the  people  by  a  o«3,08ti  majority.  In 
1917  a  direct  inheritance  tax  law  was  passed. 
As  a  war  measure  a  State  council  of  defense 
was  created  and  $5,000,000  provided  for  it.  The 
1919  Legislature  ratified  the  woman  suffrage 
amendment  to  the  national  Constitution  on  Jan- 
uary 24  and  the  prohibition  amendment  on 
February  25.  In  1921  bitter  opposition  de- 
\eloped  to  a  legislative  programme  proposed  by 
Governor  Sproul  On  April  25  his  supporters 
held  a  rump  session,  ousted  the  Speaker,  elected 
another  in  his  place,  and  passed  all  administra- 
tion measures.  These  included  taxes  on  an- 
thracite coal  and  gasoline,  a  measuic  repealing 
non-partisan  election  laws  in  Pittsburgh  and 
Scranton,  and  a  bill  creating  a  State  depart- 
ment of  public  welfare.  The  1U23  Legislature, 
with  eight  women  members,  repealed  the  high 
license  law  for  saloons  and  adopted  one  more 
in  harmony  with  the  Volstead  Act.  It  passed 
a  modified  old-age  pension  bill,  approved  a 
measure  providing  for  a  constitutional  conven- 
tion in  192C.  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  vot- 
ers, and  favored  a  constitutional  amendment 
providing  a  $35,000,000  bond  issue  for  a  sol- 
diers' bonus,  which  had  been  approved  by  the 
1921  Legislature  also.  The  gasoline  tax  was 
increased  and  a  small  tax  placed  on  profits,  but 
proposals  to  tax  bituminous  coal  and  the  capi- 
tal stock  of  manufacturing  corporations  and  to 
repeal  the  anthracite  coal  tax  were  defeated. 
An  extensive  reorganization  of  the  State  gov- 
ernment, proposed  by  Governor  Pinchot,  was 
adopted.  A  series  of  12  election  reform  bills 
was  defeated  In  1024  the  State  Supreme  Court 
ruled  that  owing  to  technical  defects  the  pro- 
posed soldiers'  bonus  amendment  could  not  be 


PENNSYLVANIA 


ion 


PENOLOGY 


submitted  to  the  people.  In  July,  1924,  the 
Dauphin  County  court  held  the  old-age  pension 
bill  unconstitutional.  Constant  legislative  ef- 
forts to  improve  the  educational  facilities  of  the 
State  resulted  in  an  elaborate  educational  sys- 
tem for  which  the  1923  Legislature  appropri- 
ated $46,401,881  to  be  administered  by  the  De- 
partment of  Public  Instruction. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  LNIVERSJTY  OF  Located 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  founded  in  1740  and  de- 
veloped hv  Benjamin  Franklin.  During  the  10- 
year  period  from  1914  to  1924  the  university 
developed  in  every  line.  The  student  enroll- 
ment increased  from  2245  in  1014  to  8302  in 
the  regular  courses,  and  7438  in  the  extension 
courses  in  1023-24.  The  faculty  increased  from 
241  to  1100  members  including  administrative 
officers  and  research  workers  The  library  in- 
creased from  75,000  to  548,387  volumes  The 
development  of  the  university  during  this  peri- 
od was  shown  by  the  establishment  of  the  fol- 
lowing separate  Bchools,  each  with  its  own  dean 
or  director:  (1)  the  School  of  Education,  es- 
tablished in  1914;  (2)  the  Graduate  School  of 
Medicine,  said  to  be  the  only  one  of  its  kind 
in  existence,  formed  in  1919  by  a  merger  with 
the  university  of  the  Medico-Chirurgical  Col- 
lege and  Hospital  and  the  Philadelphia  Poly- 
clinic  Hospital  and  College  for  Graduates  in 
Medicine,  (3)  the  School  of  Hygiene  and  Pub- 
lic Health,  developed  in  1920  from  the  former 
Laboratorv  of  Hygiene ;  (4)  the  School  of  Fine 
Arts,  formed  in  1920  by  a  merger  of  the  for- 
mer separate  departments  of  music  and  architec- 
ture; (5)  the  Moore  School  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neering, established  in  1923  by  a  merger  of  the 
courses  at  the  university  in  electrical  engineer- 
ing with  the  School  of  Electrical  Engineering 
provided  for  in  the  will  of  the  late  Alfred  Fit- 
ler  Moore.  Ihc  new  school  had  an  endowment 
of  approximately  $1,600,000.  Other  develop- 
ments were  the  establishment  of  a  course  in 
military  science  and  tactics  in  1917  and  the 
construction  in  1922,  at  a  cost  of  $825,000,  of 
the  new  stadium  on  Franklin  Field,  which  had 
a  seating  capacity  of  53,000. 

A  number  of  important  gifts  were  received  by 
the  university  during  this  period.  Among  them 
was  a  gift  of  $400,000  from  the  estate  of  Dr 
J.  William  White  to  establish  the  White  pro- 
fessorship of  surgical  research;  a  gift  of  $500,- 
000  from  Helen  T  Mawsey  to  increase  the  sal- 
aiies  of  faculty  members  in  the  College:  a  gift 
of  $549,730  from  the  estate  of  William  B.  Ir- 
vine to  construct  nn  auditorium;  and  a  gift  of 
$113,518  from  the  estate  of  Abraham  S.  Wolf 
through  the  generosity  of  Miriam  H.  Wolf  for 
a  ward  in  the  Uimersity  Hospital.  New  build- 
ings erected  included  the  J.  William  White  Sur- 
gical Pavilion;  a  maternity  building  for  the 
Universitv  Hospital,  and  a  new  wing  for  the 
University  Museum. 

The  dismissal  of  Prof.  Scott  Nearing  in  1915, 
on  the  ground  that  he  made  speeches  of  a  radi- 
cal nature  which  injured  his  usefulness  as  a 
member  of  the  faculty,  attracted  wide  atten- 
tion, and  much  was  published  in  defense  and 
criticism  of  the  action.  Fifteen  hundred  of  the 
students  signed  a  petition  asking  the  Board  of 
Trustees  to  recall  Dr.  Nearing,  but  they  de- 
clined to  reconsider  their  decision. 

During  the  War  the  university  conducted  its 
regular  courses  in  military  science  and  tactics 
and  maintained  training  units  for  the  United 
Army  and  Navy.  It  also  organized  * 


base  hospital  in  France,  seven  Red  Cross  units, 
and  three  ambulance  units. 

Edgar  Fahs  Smith,  Ph.D.,  ChemJX,  Sc.D., 
Litt.D.,  L.H.D.,  LL.D.,  resigned  as  provost  in 
1920  and  was  succeeded  by  Josiah  H.  Penni- 
man,  Ph.D.,  LL.D ,  as  acting  provost.  Dr. 
Penniman  was  elected  provost  in  January, 
1923,  and  president  of  the  university  in  Octo- 
ber, 1923.  - 

PENNSYLVANIA  STATE  COLLEGE.  A 
nonsectarian,  coeducational  institution  at  State 
College,  Centre  C  ounty,  Pa ,  founded  in  1859. 
The  student  enrollment  of  the  college  increased 
from  2245  in  1914  to  3300  undergraduates  and 
professional  students  and  150  graduate  students 
in  the  year  1923-24,  with  more  than  2000  in 
the  summer  session  of  1923,  the  faculty  in- 
creased from  241  to  031  members,  with  320  res- 
ident members,  31  research  workers,  and  280 
extension  workers;  the  library  increased  from 
75,000  to  81,000  volumes  A  group  of  four 
largo  engineering  buildings  was  completed  in 
the  decade  in  addition  to  a  mechanical  engineer- 
ing building  finished  in  1920.  A  new  residence 
hall  for  men  and  a  new  beef  cattle  barn  were 
completed  in  1923,  and  an  18-hole  golf  course 
was  laid  out.  Farm  land  holdings  were  in- 
creased to  2000  acres  and  the  campus  proper  to 
200  acres.  A  Graduate  School  was  authorized 
in  1922,  and  a  School  of  Education  was  created 
in  1923.  John  Martin  Thomas,  D.D.,  LL  D., 
formerly  president  of  Middlebury  College,  Vt., 
in  1921  succeeded  Edwin  Erie  Sparks,  LL.D.,  as 
president. 

PENNSYLVANIA  UNIVERSITY  MU- 
SEUM. See  EXPLORATION. 

PENOLOGY.  The  outstanding  event  in 
penology  within  the  decade  1914-24  was  the 
extension  of  the  plan  of  inmate  self-government 
to  prisons  for  male  adults.  This  plan  was  not 
of  sentimental  origin,  as  some  critics  have 
charged,  hut  was  based  on  the  therapeutic  prin- 
ciple that  to  reform  law-breakers  it  is  wise  to 
hold  them  during  confinement  in  a  social  mi- 
lieu similar  to  that  into  which  they  will  later 
be  discharged,  and  further  to  give  them  an  op- 
portunity to  use,  under  such  limits  as  restraint 
imposes,  those  faculties  or  qualities  of  self-re- 
liance, initiative,  judgment,  and  responsibility 
which  normal  life  requires.  As  such,  it  is  op- 
posed to  the  traditional  system  of  autocratic 
discipline  or  rule  in  prisons,  by  which  substan- 
tially every  movement  of  the  prisoner's  day  is 
fixed  for  him.  Self-government  had  been  a 
feature  of  the  George  Junior  Republic,  founded 
by  William  K  George  at  Freeville,  N.  Y.,  in 
1895,  and  in  1912  Calvin  Derrick  had  adapted 
the  plan  to  the  State  reformatory  at  lone,  Cal. 
The  first  extension  of  the  idea 'to  adult  male 
prisoners  was  made  at  the  New  York  State 
prison  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  in  1914  under  the  un- 
official inspiration  and  guidance  of  Thomas 
Mott  Osborne,  who  later  in  the  same  year  be- 
came warden  of  Sing  Sing,  another  prison  for 
confirmed  male  offenders  in  the  same  State,  and 
incorporated  the  plan  there.  In  both  instances 
the  self-governing  body  was  named  the  Mutual 
Welfare  League.  Each  incoming  prisoner  be- 
came a  participant  in  the  self-governing  activ- 
ities and  could  be  expelled  by  the  members. 
The  activities  consisted  of  advising  and  to  a 
large  extent  conducting  the  routine  affairs  of 
the  prison;  this  was  done  both  through  elected 
officials  from  the  mass  of  prisoners  and  through 
committees.  The  prisoners  handled  much  of 


PENOLOGY 


ion 


PENOLOGY 


the  discipline  of  the  prison  also  and  punished 
their  own  members  through  inmate  courts. 
Later,  Osborne  put  the  plan  into  effect  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Prison  at  Portsmouth,  N. 
H.,  where  he  was  commandant  for  two  years. 
At  none  of  these  three  places  did  it  remain  in 
effect  in  1924,  except  in  a  somewhat  emascu- 
lated form  at  Sing  Sing.  The  State  reforma- 
tories at  Rahway,  N.  J.,  and  Cheshire,  Conn., 
adopted  the  plan  for  a  time  but  abandoned  it 
It  is  now  in  effect  at  the  Westchester  County 
Penitentiary  at  White  Plains,  N.  Y ,  and  at  the 
New  Jersey  State  Reformatory  for  Women  at 
Clinton,  N.  J.  A  beginning  toward  its  adop- 
tion was  made  at  the  Detroit  House  of  Correc- 
tion. At  a  number  of  other  penal  institutions 
there  were  modifications  in  the  traditional  auto- 
cratic regime  in  response  to  the  educational  ef- 
fect of  the  self-government  idea 

Unquestionably  the  decade  saw  a  rapidly 
growing  interest  in  the  law-breaker  and  a  more 
scientific  approach  to  the  difficulties  of  his 
treatment.  This  wan  evidenced  by  a  number  of 
careful  studies  of  State  and  municipal  penal 
systems  in  the  United  States  In  1910  the  New 
Jersey  Prison  Inquiry  Commission  made  a 
searching  Htudy  of  all  correctional  and  penal 
institutions  in  that  State.  A  similar  study  wan 
made  in  Pennsylvania  jn  1917-18  The  Nation- 
al Committee  on  Prison*  and  Prison  Labor 
made  a  study  of  the  District  of  Columbia's  pe- 
nal institutions,  and  the  Prison  Survey  Commit- 
tee of  New  York  State  published  the  results  of 
a  survey  of  the  penal  system  of  that  State  in 
1920.  A  very  thorough  'study  of  the  penal  sys- 
tem of  Texas  was  begun  by  the  Texas  Commit- 
tee on  Prisons  and  Prison  Labor  in  1923  In 
all  these  studies  the  aim  was  to  supply  infor- 
mation in  regard  to  the  disciplinary,  educa- 
tional, vocational,  dietetic,  medical,  and  other 
aspects  of  penal  and  correctional  systems  on 
which  improvements  calculated  to  make  offen- 
ders better  members  of  society  could  be  based. 
The  Cleveland  Foundation,  after  an  exhaustive 
study  of  criminal  lustice  in  Cleveland,  pub- 
lished its  report  in  1922;  this  covered  police 
administration,  prosecution  of  a  ecu  Red  persons, 
criminal  courts,  correctional  and  penal  treat- 
ment, medical  science  and  criminal  justice,  le- 
gal education,  and  newspapers  and  criminal  jus- 
tice. The  range  of  this  arid  other  studies 
showed  a  growing  reali/ation  that  whatever  so- 
ciety does  to  an  offender,  from  his  first  appre- 
hension to  his  ultimate  release  from  prison,  is 
part  of  a  continuous  process,  and  that  from 
the  point  of  view  of  its  effect  on  him,  each  step 
in  the  process  niunt  be  taken  into  account 

In  general,  actual  treatment  in  penal  and 
correctional  institutions  may  be  said  to  have 
responded  slightly  to  the  doctrine  that,  since 
all  prisoners  except  those  who  are  killed  or  ac- 
tually confined  for  life,  are  ultimately  restored 
to  society,  they  should  l>e  no  treated  as  to  make 
them  better  members  of  society  TliiH  has  led, 
with  other  things,  to  an  agitation  for  more 
vital  education  arid  a  more  educative  vocation- 
al life  Farm  prisons  on  wide  acreage  have 
been  established  in  several  States,  and  more 
careful  assignment  of  prisoners  to  work  has 
been  made  in  some  prisons.  The  principles  of 
the  indeterminate  sentence,  probation,  suspended 
sentence  (especially  for  first  offenders),  sepa- 
rate or  juvenile  courts  for  children,  and  parole 
or  after-care  attention  for  released  prisoners 
were  accepted  to  a  somewhat  greater  extent  by 


judges,  lawmakers,  and  prison  officials;  proba- 
tion was  slightly  extended  to  adult  offenders. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  held  that  Federal  courts  did  not  have 
power  to  suspend  sentence  or  to  use  probation; 
bills  granting  such  power  uere  presented  at 
each  subsequent  session  of  Congress.  The  coun- 
ty jail,  in  wliich  both  sentenced  prisoners  and 
persons  merely  awaiting  trial  were  commonly 
kept,  was  increasingly  seen  in  a  bad  light,  al- 
though little  actual  attempt  was  made  to  im- 
prove it  or  to  alter  its  function.  Under  the  in- 
fluence of  so-called  "crime  waves"  in  a  number 
of  cities,  some  Legislatures  increased  the  sever- 
ity of  penalties;  four  States  which  had  abol- 
ished capital  punishment  restored  it.  The  War, 
too,  had  a  deterrent  influence  on  reform,  al 
though  both  in  the  United  States  and  CJreat 
Britain  it  had  in  one  way  a  good  effect;  pris- 
oners sentenced  under  espionage  and  other  war- 
time acts  have,  on  their  release,  written  vivid- 
ly about  prison  evils  and  so  awakened  public 
consciousness  toward  them. 

It  is  already  evident  that  penology  will  in 
time  be  profoundly  affected  by  developments 
during  the  decade  in  criminology  The^e  have 
to  do  with  closer  study  of  the 'heredity.  erni- 
ronment,  and  mental  peculiarities  of  individual 
offenders  The  purpose  of  such  studies  is  two- 
fold: first,  to  discover  general  causes  of  crime, 
secondly,  to  discover  those  causes  operating  in 
an  individual  which  may  make  successful  treat- 
ment more  assured  In  such  studies  every 
branch  of  psychology  is  called  into  play.  Wil- 
liam Healy  made  perhaps  the  first  notable  con- 
tribution to  the  study  of  mental  peculiarities 
in  offenders  when  he  published  The  Individual 
Delinquent  (Boston,  1915),  based  on  a  study 
of  juvenile  law-breakers  in  Chicago  Some  ear 
lier  research  had  been  done  in  Germany,  and 
since  then  numerous  detailed  investigations  of 
other  groups  have  been  undertaken  The  Bu- 
reau of  Social  Hygiene,  originally  organized  at 
the  New  York  State  Reformatory  for  Women 
at  Bedford  Hills,  N  Y.,  conducted  several  such 
studies  A  psychiatric  clinic  for  the  study  of 
offenders  was  'formed  at  Sing  Sing  under  Os- 
borne, and  psychiatric  work  was  done  at  other 
prisons  Several  States  created  the  position  of 
State  criminologist  In  general,  the  theory  un- 
derlying this  development  is  that  crime,  like 
all  conduct,  is  the  reaction  of  a  particular  per- 
sonality to  a  particular  environment,  and  that 
successful  therapy  or  reformative  treatment  re- 
quires the  discovery  of  those  factors  in  the  per- 
sonality or  the  environment,  or  both,  which 
cause  crime,  and  their  removal  or  modification. 
Some  courts  made  much  use  of  diagnostic  men- 
tal reports  on  offenders  before  sentencing  them, 
and  some  prisons  used  such  studies  of  inmates 
in  treatment  in  prison.  In  general,  however, 
actual  application  in  institutions  of  psychiat- 
ric information  and  methodology  was  slight 

Although  the  United  States  is  the  only  great 
civilized  country  which  does  not  gather  its 
criminal  statistics,  a  special  committee  of  the 
American  Bar  Association  made  interesting 
comparisons  in  1923.  From  1910  to  1922,  ac- 
cording to  this  committee,  the  general  popula- 
tion in  this  country  increased  14.9  per  cent; 
the  criminal  population  16.(5  per  cent.  Crime 
decreased  noticeably  during  the  War  but  after- 
ward rose.  The  country  continued  to  have  far 
more  crimes  than  western  Europe.  In  all  Eng- 
land and  Wales  in  1921  there  were  63  murders, 


PENBXONS 


1013 


PERCEPTION 


and  in  1922  there  were  17  murders  in  London; 
the  number  of  murders  in  France  in  1010  was 
585.  In  New  York  City  alone  there  were  200 
murders  in  1021,  and  in  Chicago  137;  the  esti- 
mated number  of  homicides  in  the  whole  United 
States  in  1022  was  14,640.  Of  robberies,  05 
were  committed  through  England  and  Wales  in 

1021,  and   121    in   France.     In    1022  New  York 
City    alone    reported    1445    robberies;    Chicago, 
2417.     The   total   number   of   persons   in    penal 
and  correctional  institutions  in  the  country  on 
July    1,    1022,   according  to  the   United   States 
Census,    was    103,880. 

PENSIONS.  See  LABOR  LEGISLATION; 
MOTHERS'  PENSIONS;  OLD  AGE  PENSIONS,  SO- 
CIAL INSURANCE 

PEPPEB,  GEORGE  WHABTON  (1807-  ). 
An  American  legislator  (see  VOL.  XV III).  In 
1014  he  participated  in  the  movement  for  na- 
tional preparedness.  During  the  War  he  was 
chairman  of  Hie  Pennsylvania  Council  of  Na- 
tional Defense  and  in  1020-21  a  member  of  the 
Commission  on  Constitutional  Revision  in  Penn- 
sylvania In  1015  he  was  Lyman  Beecher  lec- 
turer at  Yale  Following  the  death  of  Senator 
Penroso  lie  was  appointed  by  the  Governor  of 
Pennsylvania  to  succeed  him  and  held  office  un- 
til after  the  popular  election  in  November, 

1022,  when    he   was   elected    by    a    plurality   of 
more    than    350,000    votes      In*  June,    1022,    he 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Republican  Nation- 
al   Committee    to   succeed   Senator   Penrose.     On 
taking    his    seat    in   the    Senate   he   assumed   a 
prominent    place    in   the   debates    and    work   of 
that   body. 

PERAK.     See  MALAY  STATES,  FEDERATED. 

PERCEPTION.  The  problem  of  perception 
has  been  the  stumblmgblock  of  scientific  psy- 
chology ever  since  its  inception.  The  reason 
for  this  is  quite  simple.  Positive  science  has 
always  been  committed  to  the  atomistic  analy- 
HIS  arid  to  the  mechanistic  explanation  in  gen- 
oral.  In  the  physical  sciences  the  perception 
of  objects,  i  e  the  perception  of  unities  over 
and  above  the  conglomeration  of  atomic  ele- 
ments, was  always  taken  for  granted;  but  psy- 
chology, so  far  from  avoiding  this  problem,  at- 
tempted to  deal  with  it  by  the  orthodox  method 
of  atomic  divisions.  Metaphysically,  the  task 
was  complicated  by  the  relation  of  body  and 
mind,  or  matter  and  consciousness  At  the 
very  outset  of  modern  science  the  paradoxes  of 
Descartes'  mechanistic  dualism  had  become  ap- 
parent to  every  reflective  thinker,  and  not  even 
Leibnit/'s  ingenious  hypothesis  of  preSstab- 
lished  harmony  could  bolster  up  the  belief  in 
a  strict  causal  correspondence  between  physi- 
cal and  mental  events  The  psychological  analy- 
sis of  Locke,  Berkeley,  and  Hume  had  later 
transformed  the  problem,  and  when  nineteenth 
century  psychology  took  the  field,  it  had  the 
great  advantage  over  the  Cartesians  of  coupling 
an  improved  physiological  technique  with  a 
more  refined  method  of  psychological  introspec- 
tion. Withal,  it  was  committed  to  psychophys- 
ical  parallelism,  and  although  this  doctrine 
was  discredited  philosophically,  it  seemed  to 
impose  itself  scientifically  by  the  very  neces- 
sities of  experimentation 

The  orthodox  method  of  explaining  percep- 
tion was  to  split  up  the  problem  into  sensation, 
image,  memory  association,  and  attention  The 
sensation  was  a  unit  element  of  psychological 
experience  corresponding  to  a  specific  physical 
stimulus.  As  the  sensation  fades  out  of  con- 


sciousness, it  becomes  a  potential  image,  for 
the  stimulus  leaves  a  residue  in  the  nervous 
system  which  is  capable  of  arousing  a  faint 
copy  of  the  original  sensation.  Since  each  sen- 
sation leaves  behind  it  a  separate  residuum, 
there  is  a  vast  number  of  such  residua  in  mem- 
ory, each  of  which  may  be  separately  aroused, 
thus  allowing  for  a  certain  independence  of  the 
original  arrangement  in  which  the  sensations 
were  experienced.  At  this  point  the  doctrine 
of  association  is  invoked  to  provide  an  ad  hoc 
explanation  for  the  selection  of  certain  mem- 
ories on  the  occasion  of  a  particular  stimulus 
instead  of  any  others  The  doctrine  of  associa- 
tion dates  back  to  Aristotle,  and  the  reason  for 
its  long  life  is  its  ambiguous  meaning,  express- 
ing as  it  does  both  a  dynamic*  process  and  a 
static  law  of  memory  According  to  the  doc- 
trine, sensations  or  images  tend  to  call  up  mem- 
ory images  which  are  similar  or  which  have 
once  been  experienced  in  spatial  or  temporal 
contiguity  with  the  present  sensations  or  im- 
ages All  attempts  on  the  part  of  modern  psy- 
chologists to  reduce  similarity  to  spatio-tem- 
poral contiguity  which  could  be  measured  quan- 
titatively and  statistically  in  the  laboratory 
have  failed.  Now  similarity  of  meaning  in  ex- 
perience is  not  something  that  can  !>e  deter- 
mined in  advance,  but  ex  post  facto  one  may 
always  gay  that  a  bond  has  become  established 
between  the  old  bit  of  experience  and  the  new, 
in  this  case  we  are  speaking  of  association  as 
a  dynamic  process.  It  is  questionable  whether 
by  this  explanation  we  are  really  adding  knowl- 
edge or  whether  we  are  not  merely  picturing 
the  act  of  mnemonic  imagination  itself. 

Similarity  of  meaning  is  thus  seen  to  be  the 
very  nature  of  the  associative  process,  for  con- 
tiguity in  time  and  space  is  but  one  of  the 
lowest  formy  of  this  similarity  and  fortunately 
a  form  whose  properties  can  be  studied  in  ad- 
vance of  objective  content.  Hut  for  modern 
psychologists,  as  KofTka  points  out,  meaning  is 
itself  explained  by  the  working  of  associations 
which  in  themselves  are  meaningless.  There  is 
perhaps  no  better  commentary  on  this  attitude 
than  the  vast  amount  of  experimental  work 
which  has  been  done  on  the  memori/ation  of 
noiifle nne  syllables  Thin  work  was  performed 
on  the  theory  that  one  was  getting  at  the  fun- 
damental conditions  of  memory,  but  actually 
all  that  was  accomplished  was  the  formulation 
of  statistical  and  contingent  laws  for  the  mem- 
orization of  specific  nonsense  syllables,  more 
laws  and  more  nonsense  syllables  than  even  the 
most  modern  theories  of  education  will  have 
need  for  in  the  next  1000  years  One  mav  con- 
trast with  this  type  of  experimentation  the  di- 
rect clinical  methods  invoked  by  the  new  psy- 
chology. So  far  from  attempting  to  determine 
the  conditions  of  memory  and  association  along 
merely  spatial  and  temporal  lines,  which  must 
necessarily  be  limited  at  best  to  nonsense  syl- 
lables, a  psychiatrist  like  Jung  attempts  to  de- 
termine concretely  for  a  given  person  in  a  given 
situation  the  method  behind  that  person's  imag- 
ination. (See  ASSOCIATION  TESTS  )  He  does 
this  by  noting  down  the  random  associations, 
together  with  any  expressions  of  emotion,  which 
certain  words  call  forth  from  a  patient  The 
task  here  falls  entirely  on  the  psychiatrist,  for 
there  is  no  mechanical  rule  by  which  to  meas- 
ure the  minds  of  all  men;  some  general  no- 
tions and  a  practical  sympathy  and  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  observer  simply  enable  him  to  pic- 


DION 


1014 


'BBCBWION 


ture  in  his  own  mind  the  processes  of  his  pa- 
tient. It  is,  moreover,  significant  to  point  out 
the  failure  of  the  attempts  made  by  Freud's 
disciples  and  by  Freud  himself  to  take  the  mas- 
ter's solution  of  specific  dreams  on  the  basis  of 
certain  symbolisms  as  scientific  and  all  valid 
for  all  cases,  instead  of  as  suggestive  examples 
to  incite  the  use  of  one's  creative  imagination. 
Turning  now  to  attention,  we  find  here  the 
great  scapegoat  of  experimental  psychology. 
While  every  direct  study  of  attention  has  sought 
to  define  it  in  terms  of  the  stimulus  and  the 
physiological  process,  yet  in  experiments  on 
perception  it  was  treated  as  a  menial  element, 
as  an  unpredictable  determining  tendency 
which  prevented  the  expected  reaction  from 
taking  place,  in  short,  so  far  from  using  a 
strict  parallelistic  procedure,  experimental 
psychologists  explained  conscious  phenomena 
in  a  physiological  fashion  whenever  they  could 
and  then  invoked  mental  concepts  to  explain 
discrepancies.  Behind  these  mental  concepts, 
such  as  attention,  association,  and  memory, 
they  indeed  postulated  corresponding  physiolog- 
ical entities;  but  these  were  in  no  wise  observ- 
able and  amenable  to  scientific  measurement. 
In  Germany  the  school  of  the  Qestaltqualitat 
or  form  quality,  following  up  Wundt's  concep- 
tion of  creative  synthesis,  had  given  up  the 
attempt  to  maintain  psychophysical  parallel- 
ism in  the  higher  mental  processes.  They  em- 
§  ha  si  zed  the  fact,  well-known  in  music  and 
u  plica  ted  in  other  phases  of  psychological 
experience,  of  the  form  of  a  perception  existing 
over  and  above  the  so-called  objective  content. 
Thus  a  melody  has  a  real  quality  over  and 
above  the  physical  notes  of  which  it  is  com- 
posed, since  it  may  be  transposed  to  totally  dif- 
ferent notes,  provided  the  order  and  rhythm 
are  maintained.  On  this  theory  all  higher 
perceptual  acts  are  instances  of  forms  which 
have  reality  of  their  own,  although  they  are 
ultimately  "founded"  on  sensations  with  their 
psychophysical  relationship  of  stimulus  and 
consciousness 

Between  the  Qestaltqualitat  psychologists, 
such  as  Meinong,  Ehrenfels,  and  Witasek,  and 
their  radical  descendants,  the  school  of  Qestalt- 
theorte,  there  may  be  traced  an  evolution  almost 
identical  with  that  which  occurred  in  philos- 
ophy in  the  descent  from  Locke  to  Berkeley 
and  Hume.  Locke  began  with  sensation  pro- 
duced by  external  substances,  and  with  reflec- 
tion which  the  mind  contributed  to  the  ordering 
of  its  external  impressions.  Berkeley  and 
Hume  found  the  Lockian  conception  of  external 
substances  completely  useless  inasmuch  as  these 
substances  could  not  be  known  except  through 
the  "higher"  faculties  of  reflection,  which  in 
the  nature  of  the  case  are  subjective.  And 
so  the  final  result  of  the  current  of  criticism 
which  Locke  started  was  the  development  of 
empirical  or  phenomenal  idealism.  In  point 
of  fact,  what  the  Vest  alt  psychologists  have 
done  was  to  apply  experimentally  the  idealis- 
tic criticism  to  structural  and  physiological 
psychology.  Only  recently  Dr.  J.  S.  Haldane, 
tho  eminent  Oxford  biologist,  had  publicly  de- 
clared that  although  he  was  a  physiologist  he 
"could  not  for  a  moment  agree  with  the  as- 
sumptions on  which  what  is  called  physiolog- 
ical psychology  is  ordinarily  based.  These 
assumptions  appear  to  me  as  a  mixture  of  very 
rudimentary  physiology  with  a  psychology 
which  has  been  obsolete  since  Hume  and  Kant. 


It  is  doubtless  the  case  that  a  very  wide  public 
is  still  ready  to  accept  the  assumptions  in 
question,  but  a  still  wider  public  would  accept 
the  assumption  that  the  sun  goes  around,  the 
earth."  (Proc.  Aria.  8oc.,  Sup.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  05.) 

Among  the  assumptions  that  Dr.  Haldane 
had  in  mind  is  the  constancy  hypothesis,  ac- 
cording to  which  a  definite  conscious  sensation 
corresponds  to  every  single  stimulus.  This 
assumption  having  been  riddled  experimentally 
by  the  proponents  of  form-quality,  it  remained 
for  the  more  radical  psychologists  to  show 
that  the  whole  notion  of  an  objective  physical 
or  physiological  stimulus  is  quite  misleading. 
They  did  this  by  reinterpreting  in  a  new  fash- 
ion the  standard  experiments  with  changing 
figures  and  perceptions  of  movement.  In  his 
laboratory  studies  of  visual  movement,  Wert- 
heimer  showed  how  both  the  illusion  and  direc- 
tion of  movement  could  be  obtained  by  preparing 
a  pattern  in  the  mind  of  the  observer.  Thus, 
if  in  the  tachistoscope  the  experimenter  exposes 
in  succession  two  lines,  first  an  oblique  line 
making  an  acute  angle  with  the  horizontal, 
and  then  the  horizontal  itself,  the  observer  will 
see  the  oblique  line  rotate  in  the  direction  of 
the  hori/ontal,  passing  through  the  acute  angle. 
Now  if  the  experiment  is  repeated  and  the  si/e 
of  the  angle  is  increased  gradually  until  it 
passes  a  right  angle  and  becomes  an  obtuse 
angle,  the  observer  will  still  see  the  oblique 
line  rotate  in  the  original  direction.  If  the 
experiment  had  !>een  started  with  the  oblique 
line  making  an  obtuse  angle,  the  illusion  of 
rotation  would  have  come  about  in  the  other 
direction,  the  illusion  of  movement  being  pro- 
duced in  the  direction  of  the  supplementary 
acute  angle. 

In  the  case  of  changing  figures,  which  struc- 
tural psychology  had  never  been  able  to  explain 
satisfactorily,  e\en  the  subsequent  distinction 
between  form  and  objective  content  was  value- 
less. Here  there  was  no  fixed  physical  content 
with  a  perceptual  form  superimposed,  but 
rather  there  was  an  alternation  of  figure  and 
ground,  with  the  figure  becoming  the  ground 
and  the  ground  the  figure  when  the  meaning 
of  the  experience  changed  Add  to  these  ex- 
periments the  investigations  of  Kohler  on  the 
perceptual  experiences  of  animals,  the  last  resort 
of  old-time  physiological  psychology,  and  the 
foundation  was  laid  for  a  new  systematic  ap- 
proach to  psychological  experimentation.  The 
question  winch  Kohler  set  himself  to  answer 
was  this:  if  an  animal  is  confronted  with  two 
stimuli  and  is  trained  to  react  positively  to 
the  one  and  negatively  to  the  other,  what  has 
it  leained?  According  to  traditional  theory 
the  animal  has  formed  a  connection  between 
the  one  sensation  coi  responding  to  the  first 
stimulus  and  the  positive  reaction,  and  like- 
wise between  the  other  sensation  and  the  neg- 
ative reaction.  Kohler,  however,  introduced 
an  experimental  variation  which  tested  this 
theory.  He  placed  before  the  animal  two 
stimuli,  b  and  c,  the  one  lighter  and  the  other 
darker,  with  variations  in  their  spatial  ar- 
rangement. From  b  food  could  be  taken  but 
not  from  c.  After  a  certain  amount  of  train- 
ing, the  animal  invariably  chose  the  positive 
5.  Then  this  pair  of  stimuli  was  replaced  by 
another  pair,  a  and  6,  with  a  lighter  than  6. 
The  animal  now  reacted  not  to  the  stimulus  6, 
as  the  older  theory  would  suppose,  but  to  a 
as  the  lighter  stimulus*  The  conclusion  was 


PERIODIC  SYSTEM 


20x5 


PERSIA 


inevitable  that  animals  learned  to  perceive 
structures  and  forms  rather  than  identical 
physicochemical  stimuli.  The  same  set  of  ex- 
periments was  repeated  in  the  case  of  fowls, 
chimpanzees,  and  a  three-year-old  child,  and 


cated  at  Mt.  Holyoke  College,  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  Columbia  University. 
From  1907  to  1909  she  was  secretary  to  the 
Philadelphia  Research  and  Protective  Associa- 
tion, and  from  1910  to  1912,  executive  see- 


the results  were  the  same;  this  showed  that  the      retary    of    the    Consumers'    League.     She    was 


principle    was    sufficiently    fundamental    to    be 
continuous  in  the  biological  realm. 

The  theory  of  perception  which  the  new 
school  of  Oestalt  psychology  has  built  up  is 
that  in  the  act  of  perception  the  entire  con- 
figuration is  cognized  and  not  an  isolated  object. 


director  of  investigations  for  the  New  York 
State  Factory  Commission  in  1912-13  and  exec- 
utive director  of  the  New  York  Council  of 
Organizations  for  War  Service  from  1917  to 
1019.  In  the  latter  year  she  became  a  commis- 
sioner of  the  New  York  State  Industrial  Com- 


If  we  see  a  specific  object,  we  see  it  in  much      mission.     She  was  a  member  of  many  sociolog* 

the   same  way  that  we   appreciate  the  subject      *""1  •— "'  !-  — -  *•      --  •         '     .   ,     ,. 

of  a  tableau.  The  centre  or  focus  of  the  pic- 
ture is  unintelligible  without  the  background. 
Carrying  this  analysis  further  back,  the  theory 
holds  that  in  every  act  of  perception  the  gen- 
eral psychological  state  constitutes  the  field  or 
screen  and  the  external  Rtimulus  the  picture 
on  the  screen.  Field  and  object  are  thus  rel- 
ative to  one  another,  but  the  relation  of  rel- 
ativity, if  we  may  so  speak,  is  not  constant 
and  predetermined.  For  certain  configurations 
one  may  alter  the  background  within  various 
limits  and  not  change  the  poiception  of  the  ob- 
ject. Again,  object  and  background  are  rel- 
atively interchangeable  but  not  absolutely  so. 
This  interchangeability  or  reversibility  reaches 
its  maximum  in  the  case  of  the  angular  drawings 
and  changeable  figures  mentioned  above,  which 
may  bo  seen  facing  either  "inward"  or  "out- 
ward at  the  will  of  the  observer,  provided  his 
frame  of  mind  has  not  been  prepared  Accord- 
ing to  this  theory  the  experimental  psychology 


ical  and  economic  societies  and  wrote  Life  Haz- 
ards from  Fire  in  New  York  Factories  (1912)  ; 
The  1'roblem  of  Mercantile  Fire  Hazards 
(1914);  A  Plan  for  Maternity  Care  (1918); 
Women  as  Employers  (1919)  ;  and  .1  Social  Ex- 
periment under  the  Workmen's  Compensation 
Jurisdiction  (19121). 

PEBLIS.     See     MALAY     STATES,     NON-FED- 

KBATLD. 

PERMANENT  COUBT  OF  INTERNA- 
TIONAL JUSTICE.  See  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS. 

PERNICIOUS  AN-fflMIA.     See  ANEMIA. 

PERONNE.  See  WAB  IN  EUROPE,  Western 
Front. 

PERRY,  RALPU  BARTON  (1870-  ).  An 
American  philosopher  (see  VOL.  XVIII).  Aft- 
er 1914  he  concerned  himself  largely  with  prac- 
tical and  ethical  problems.  His "  books,  The 
Free  Man  and  tlie  tioldier  (1916)  and  The 
Plattslurg  Movement  (1921),  deal  with  the 
problem  of  military  preparedness  in  a  democ- 
racy. The  Present  Conflict  of  Ideals  (1918)  is 


of  perception   has  for  its  task  the  determining      a   companion    volume    to   Present    Philosophical 


Tendencies^  and  surveys  the  clash  of  consciences 
in  the  contemporary  world.  Professor  Perry's 
other  publications  since  1914  include  An  Anno- 
tatcd  Bibliography  of  the  Writings  of  William 
James  (1920)  and  numerous  studies  in  Ameri- 
can and  French  philosophical  periodicals. 

PERSHING,  JOHN  JOSEPH  (I860-  ). 
An  American  army  officer,  born  in  Linn  County, 
Mo.,  and  educated  at  the  United  States  Mili- 
tary Academy.  He  served  in  the  Apache  Indi- 
an campaign  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  in 
1886,  in  Cuba  in  1898,  and  in  the  Philippines 
from  1899  to  1903.  In  1905  he  was  with  Kuro- 
ki's  army  in  Manchuria.  In  1916  he  was  ap- 
pointed major-general.  In  1917  President  Wil- 
son made  him  commander-in-chief  of  the  Amer- 
ican forces  in  France,  and  he  conducted  their 
operations  in  the  War  with  conspicuous  success. 
In  1915  the  tragic  loss  of  his  wife  and  three 
daughters,  who  were  burned  to  death  in  a  fire 
during  his  absence,  roused  the  sympathy  of  the 
country.  He  was  appointed  chief  of  staff  of 
the  United  States  Army  in  1921  and  retired  on 
Sept.  12,  1924. 

PERSIA.  A  monarchy  of  southwestern 
Asia  extending  north  from  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Gulf  of  Oman  to  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Area,  variously  estimated  at  from  (528,000  to 
the  appended  references,  in  the  Psychological  635,135  square  miles;  population,  from  8,000,- 

»»-.»!_/•—      i     _  •—      i  nnr>     ^      KOI         T?~—    ~ ^IJiJ-i^nnl          f\(\C\     +r»      1  ft  (\(\(\  (\i\C\        Tina     vu-vmilafirm     ivan     nnlv- 


of  specific  relationships  existing  between  so 
called  objective  stimuli  and  the  various  frames 
of  reference  in  which  they  happen  to  be  put. 
In  other  woida,  experimental  psychological 
analysis  would  be  no  different  from  analysis  of 
the  artist  who  steps  back  from  his  picture  and 
tries  to  see  it  at  the  distance  from  which  it 
would  be  been  in  the  salon.  The  picture,  we 
may  say,  remains  the  same,  but  the  perception 
of  the  picture,  which  is  what  actually  counts, 
varies  in  accordance  as  it  IB  seen  at  six  inches 
or  at  three  feet  distance,  in  accordance  as  it  is 
seen  with  the  eye  of  a  connoisseur  or  with  the 
untutored  eye  of  the  man  in  the  street. 

The  (icstalt  school  has  produced  a  number 
of  echoes  from  America.  R.  M.  Ogden  in  nu- 
merous articles  expounded  a  theory  of  mean- 
ing embracing  the  general  view  of  the  new 
psychology,  But  the  mass  of  experiments 
on  perception  will  probably  continue  to  be  inter- 
preted from  the  methodological  approach  of  in- 
trospective structuralism  with  its  postulate 
of  psychophysical  parallelism.  See  PSYCHOLOGY, 
CKNLKAL. 

Bibliography.  For  the  theoretical  discus- 
sion of  the  problem  of  perception,  consult  the 
article  by  Kurt  KofTka,  "Perception:  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  'Oestalttheorie/ "  together  with 


Bulletin,  vol.  xix,  1922,  p.  531.  For  additional 
references  on  the  experimental  side  of  percep- 
tion, consult  the  American  Journal  of  Psychol- 
ogy, vols.  xxxiii  and  xxxiv,  particularly  the 
articles  of  F.  L.  Dimmick,  M.  Zigler,  L.  W. 
Cobbey,  A.  H.  Sullivan,  E.  Bershansky,  L. 
Knight,  and  E.  Shults 

PERIODIC  SYSTEM.    See  CHEMISTRY. 

PERKINS,  FBANCES  (1882-  ).  An 
American  sociologist,  born  at  Boston,  and  edu- 


000  to  10,000,000.  The  population  was  poly- 
glot, and  being  scattered  in  widely  separated 
centres,  was  difficult  of  contiol.  In  the  west, 
Kurds,  Armenians,  and  Arahs  were  to  be 
found;  in  the  northeast,  Turks  from  Kuseian 
Turkestan;  along  the  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  Arab  and  Negroid  elements.  Nomads 
numbered  about  3,000,000;  Europeans,  1200,  of 
whom  600  were  British.  Populations  of  the 
principal  cities  were  estimated  as:  Teheran,  the 


PERSIA 


10x6 


PEBSIA 


capital,  220,000;  Tabriz,  200,000;  Isfahan,  80,- 
000;  Meshed,  70,000;  Kerman,  70,000.  About 
00  per  cent  of  the  population  were  Moham- 
medans of  the  Shiah  sect. 

Industry  and  Commerce.  The  large  desert 
areas  and  the  dependence  upon  irrigation  for 
the  cultivation  of  crops  accounted  for  the  com- 
parative unimportance,  economically,  of  agri- 
culture. Grain  crops  and  rice  were  raised  for 
local  consumption,  while  fruits,  tobacco,  cotton, 
and  opium  were  exported  to  some  extent.  The 
keeping  of  sheep  and  sericulture  supported  the 
native  carpet  and  silk  stuff  establishments. 
Wool  and  prepared  skins  also  entered  into  the 
foreign  trade.  Mineral  resources  were  exten- 
sive and  included  oil,  iron,  coal,  copper,  lead, 
manganese,  marble,  nickel,  and  cobalt,  though 
none  was  worked  except  oil.  The  Anglo-Per- 
sian Oil  Company  (controlled  by  the  British 
government)  held  concessions  covering  all  but 
five  northern  provinces  and  though  the  work- 
ings were  as  yet  confined  only  to  a  single  area, 
the  wells  yielded  2,950,000.  tons  in  1022-23  and 
3,775,000  tons  (estimated)  in  1023-24.  The 
indications  were  that  the  Persian  oil  fields 
were  among  the  richest  in  the  world.  In  De- 
cember, 1023,  it  was  reported  that  the  Ameri- 
can company,  the  Sinclair  Consolidated  Oil  Cor- 
poration, had  received  concessions  in  four  of 
the  five  northern  provinces.  Complete  ratifica- 
tion was  to  depend,  however,  on  the  approval 
of  the  Persian  Parliament  as  well  as  on  the 
ability  of  the  American  group  to  raise  a  loan 
of  $10,000,000  for  the  government.  The  impor- 
tance of  oil  in  the  economic  life  of  the  country 
may  be  gauged  from  the  fact  that  while  before 
the  War  its  export  was  negligible  and  in  1915- 
16  was  valued  at  only  21,758,000  krans  (1 
kran  =  9  cents),  by  1022-23  the  oil  export  to- 
taled 429,000,000  krans,  being  nearly  60  per 
cent  of  the  entire  exports.  Exports  for  1913- 
14  were  455,839,635  krans;  imports,  647,164,- 
841  krans.  For  1922-23  exports  were  733,982,- 
943  krans  and  imports  619,201,046.  The  chang- 
ing emphasis  in  the  economic  life  was  indicated 
by  the  following  comparative  figures  in  articles 
exported  for  1013-14  and  1022-23  (in  thou- 
sands of  krans)  :  fruits,  70,000  and  34,000;  car- 
pets, 54,000  and  93,000;  cotton,  85,000  aud  17,- 
000;  rice,  42,000  and  13,000;  opium,  38,000  and 
41,000;  skins,  12,000  and  10,000;  petroleum, 
17,000  and  429,000.  Leading  imports  remained 
cotton  tissues,  sugar,  tea,  yarn.  Up  to  1917 
the  country  was  barely  touched  by  the  War  but 
following  that  year  it  suffered  severely.  The 
presence  of  the  demoralized  Russian  troops 
through  1917,  the  depredations  of  the  Turk  in 
Azerbaijan  and  the  rich  plains  of  the  Urumiah, 
and  the  flight  of  the  Assyrian  Christians  ac- 
counted for  great  losses.  Drought  and  famine 
visited  the  country  in  1917;  the  influenza  took 
its  toll  in  1918.  Flocks  and  herds  fell  off  great- 
ly and  through  the  shortage  of  forage  many 
beasts  of  burden  were  lost.  The  interruption 
of  commerce  with  Russia  visited  great  distress 
on  all  industries.  Before  the  War,  imports 
from  Russia  totaled  355,000,000  krans  and  ex- 
ports to  it,  300,000,000  krans;  in  1922-23  im- 
ports were  73,446,237  krans  and  exports  62,- 
122,678,  showing  considerable  improvement  over 
1921-22.  Great  Britain,  Egypt,  and  Mesopo- 
tamia had  in  the  interim  forged  ahead  so  that 
by  1922-23  they  were  taking  the  great  propor- 
tion of  the  Persian  products  and  supplying  as 
well  moat  of  the  country's  wants.  In  1922-23 


exports  to  the  United  States  were  about  $5,- 
000,000;  imports  about  $500,000.  These  more 
than  trebled  the  1913  trade. 

Communications.  Internal  transport  was 
carried  on  by  caravan.  To  1914,  only  6  miles 
of  railway  were  in  existence.  In  1016,  a  Rus- 
sian constructed  railway  from  Julfa  (Per so- 
Russian  frontier)  to  Tabri/  (85  miles)  was 
opened;  another  line  from  Pirebazar  to  Resht, 
7  miles  long,  wan  also  opened;  a  military  rail- 
road in  southern  Persia.  52  mi  lew  long,  was 
constructed  from  Bushir  to  Borazjan;  the  rail- 
road from  Quetta  to  Xushki,  in  India,  was  ex- 
tended to  Duzdab.  The  total  railway  mileage 
was  350  miles.  Before  the  War,  Great  Britain 
and  Russia  had  launched  ambitious  projects  for 
the  railway  development  of  the  country,  but  the 
collapse  of  Russia  and  the  outbreak  of  the  War 
made  the  realization  of  any  programme  impos- 
sible. But  the  dependence  of  the  economic  ex- 
ploitation of  the  country  upon  a  decent  system 
of  transport  turned  British  capitalists  once 
more  to  the  railroad  problem.  A  scheme  for  a 
line  from  Teheran  to  Kuraitu  on  the  Persian 
frontier  to  connect  with  the  Kuraitu-Bagdad 
line  and  thence  with  the  whole  Bagdad  system 
was  under  consideration. 

Finance.  The  latest  available  figures  for 
revenues  were  those  of  1012-13  which  amounted 
to  £1,05.5,792.  The  increase  in  revenues  may 
lie  ascertained  from  the  gioss  customs  receipts 
(a  little  less  than  half  the  total  receipts) 
which  were  £1,308,725  in  1020-21.  In  addition 
to  the  loans  made  l>efore  the  War,  the  following 
foreign  debts  were  contracted  British  ad- 
>ances,  1012-14,  £400,000,  Russian  advances, 
1,891,500  rubles;  British  ad\ances,  1015-17, 
£817,000;  ditto,  in  kraiiH.  1.000,000;  ditto, 
1018,  in  krans,  02,500,000;  British  loan  of  1010, 
£2,000,000  (riot  advanced).  By  the  treaty  with 
Soviet  Russia,  of  1921,  all  Russian  loans  and 
advances  were  canceled.  In  1020,  a  British  fi- 
nancial adviser  was  appointed  to  the  Persian 
government  but  he  never  actively  functioned; 
in  1922,  because  of  the  increasing  friendliness 
toward  the  United  States,  an  American  adviser 
was  attached  to  the  administration  The  first 
year's  activit}",  1023,  showed  a  balanced  budget, 
an  increase  in  re\enues  by  a  better  control  of 
assessment  and  collection,  and  a  movement  to- 
ward the  revision  of  taxation.  The  1024  budg- 
et estimate  carried  $20,700,000  for  revenue 
and  $20,661,500  for  expenditure.  The  Russian 
Banque  d'Escompte  was,  in  March,  1921, 
handed  over  to  the  Persian  government  by  the 
Soviet  officials  as  a  result  of  the  understanding 
that  had  been  effected. 

Army.  The  refusal  of  Persia  to  ratify  the 
Anglo-Persian  agreement  of  1919  which  pro- 
vided for  a  uniform  military  force  under  Brit- 
ish officers  caused  the  collapse  of  the  military 
establishment.  All  British  officers  and  men 
were  withdrawn  after  1921.  Tt  was  fortunate, 
for  internal  security,  that  the  American  fiscal 
commission  was  able  to  put  finances  into  a  de- 
cent order  and  allow  for  the  creation  of  an 
army;  it  was  equally  fortunate  that  Persia  had 
at  hand  an  administrator  to  construct  an  effi- 
cient machine  almost  overnight.  Under  Riza 
Khan,  and  aided  by  an  appropriation  of  two- 
fifths  of  the  annual  income,  an  army,  with 
tanks,  airplanes,  mobile  artillery,  and  wireless, 
was  created,  which  in  three  years  was  able  to 
pacify  the  province  of  Khorassan,  disband  the 
followers  of  the  bandit  Kuchik  Khan,  and  the 


PEBBIA 


1017 


PERSIA 


Kurd  robbers  on  the  west,  and  subdued  the 
long  defiant  Sheik  of  Mohommeseb.  Pacifica- 
tion and  tax-collecting  went  hand  in  hand. 

History.  That  Persian  Azerbaijan  should 
become  a  theatre  of  war  was  inevitable  in  spite 
of  the  declared  neutrality  of  the  government. 
Turks  aided  by  the  Kurds  marched  on  Tabriz 
and  took  it  in  January,  1015,  only  to  be  driven 
out  soon  after  by  Russian  forces.  Urmia  was 
the  scene  of  severe  fighting  in  1015,  the  Chris- 
tian inhabitants  in  particular  suffering  at  the 
hands  of  Kurds  and  Turks.  Meanwhile  British 
foices,  beginning  operations  to  the  southwest 
in  Mesopotamia,  pushed  into  Persia  to  defend 
the  pipe  lines  running  from  the  oil  wells  at 
Maidan-i-Xaftun  and  here  encountered  tnbe*- 
men  in  sympathy  with  the  Turks  The  British 
were  successful  in  expelling  the  hostile  foices 
who  fell  back  on  Amara,  thus  leaving  south- 
west Persia  clear  In  the  west  and  north  the 
struggle  continued  between  the  Turks  and  Rus- 
Hians  In  1016  the  Turku  had  succeeded  in  dis- 
lodging the  Russians  fmm  Kennanshah  and 
Hamadan,  which  they  held  until  the  end  of  the 
year.  In  IflHJ,  on  the  othei  hand,  British  oper- 
ation^ became  more  aggressive  A  column  un- 
der Sir  Percy  Sykes  maiched  from  Bandar  Ab- 
bas to  Kerinan,  put  an  end  to  the  German  in- 
fluence among  the  tribesmen,  and  then  pene- 
tiated  into  the  heart  of  Peisia  to  Isfahan 
throughout  1017,  Sir  Percy  Sykes  worked  ef- 
fectively in  the  rebtoiation  of  order  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Fars.  Looting  was  stopped  and  the 
(aravan  routes  opened  Early  in  1017,  the  fall 
of  Bagdad  in  Mesopotamia  had  tendered  the 
Imkish  position  at  Kennanshah  a  precarious 
one  so  that  a  letreat  back  to  the  f  ion  tier  fol- 
lowed. The  British  now  pushed  north  to  effect 
a  juncture  with  their  Hussian  allies  but  the 
disintegration  of  the  Russian  forces  after  the 
Russian  Revolution  put  an  end  to  what  seemed 
an  easy  triumph  The  danger  to  India  now 
seemed  indeed  real  The  impossibility  of  dis- 
patching a  heavy  military  force  to  the  northern 
Persian  frontiers  compelled  the  Bntish  to  re- 
sort to  political  measures.  A  mission  was  sent 
into  the  north  in  It)  18,  its  objective  being  Baku, 
but  was  compelled  to  stop  at  Enxeli  on  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  then  soon  after,  to  retire  to 
Hamadan.  In  the  autumn  the  mission,  rein- 
forced, held  Baku  for  a  time,  but  Turkish  forces 
compelled  it  to  fall  back  on  En/eli  once 
more.  Meanwhile  a  second  mission,  working  its 
way  from  Afghanistan  through  the  northeast, 
reached  the  Transcaspian  province  in  Turkestan 
and  united  with  the  Mensheviks  against  Soviet 
Russia.  However,  southern  Persia  once  more 
began  to  present  a  serious  problem.  In  early 
1018,  the  Kashgais  tribesmen  in  force  attacked 
Sir  Percy  Sykes's  small  column  at  Shira?  and 
for  months  the  British  position  was  a  precari- 
ous one.  The  support  of  the  Persian  govern- 
ment and  the  preaching  of  a  holy  war  for  a 
time  presaged  the  complete  destruction  of  the 
British  unit  But  some  sensational  successes, 
and  the  gradual  defection  of  the  tribesmen, 
effected  a  triumph  for  Sir  Percy  Sykes  and  by 
October,  1018,  the  Kashgais  were  completely 
overthrown.  The  loute  from  Bushire  on  the 
Persian  Gulf  to  Shiraz  was  reopened  by  1019 

The  continual  presence  of  the  British*  in  the 
country,  with  the  threat  of  complete  submer- 
gence now  that  the  Russian  hold  had  been  bro- 
ken, prompted  Persian  leaders  to  appeal  their 
case  to  the  Peace  Conference.  Their  demands 


included  complete  economic  and  political  inde- 
pendence, territorial  expansion,  and  reparation 
for  the  very  heavy  losses  suffered  at  the  hands 
of  the  warring  nations.  British  intervention, 
however,  prevented*  the  presentation  of  these 
matters  before  the  Conference  so  that  the  way 
lay  clear  for  the  Anglo-Persian  Tieaty  of  Au- 
gust, 1010.  By  the  ternih  of  this  convention, 
the  British  go\ernment  promised  to  respect  the 
independence  of  Pet  sia— with  the  following  res- 
ervations: the  British  go\ernment  was  to  sup- 
ply expert  adxisers  to  the  Persian  government 
at  the  latter's  expense;  the  British  government 
was  to  furnish  and  equip  a  military  force  for 
the  presenation  of  order  in  the  country  and  on 
the  frontiers,  the  British  goveinment  was  to 
giant  a  loan  to  be  guaranteed  by  the  customs 
revenues  and  other  sources,  railroads  were  to 
be  built  by  British  enterprise;  the  tariff  was  to 
be  revised*  by  Peisian  and  British  experts  The 
agreement  nexer  received  ratification,  however. 
The  growing  influence  of  Soviet  Russia  in  Per- 
sia strengthened  its  irreconcilable  temper.  In 
May,  1020,  Bolshevist  forces  occupied  Enzeli 
and  bj  the  end  of  the  year  the  greater  part 
of  the  province  of  Gilan  was  under  their  influ- 
ence. I  he  gro\\  ing  movement  against  Great 
Britain  finally  foiced  the  British  evacuation  of 
Kn/vin  eaily  in  1021;  the  last  remnants  of 
British  participation  in  internal  affairs  disap- 
peared with  the  departure  from  the  capital  of 
the  British  controller  of  Persian  finances  and 
the  disbanding  of  the  South  Persian  Rifles 
(September,  1021).  In  March,  1021,  a  treaty 
between  Kussia  and  Persia  was  signed  by  which 
diplomatic  rights  were  accorded  to  the  former 
while  the  Russian  loans  and  advances  were 
completely  canceled,  Russian  concessions  were 
abrogated,  and  Russia's  special  rights  in  the 
northern  zone  under  the  Anglo-Russian  agree- 
ment of  1007  were  renounced,  the  Capitulations 
weie  terminated,  and  the  Russian  discount  and 
land  bank  was  tuined  over  to  the  Persian  gov- 
ernment. Free  from  Anglo-Russian  domina- 
tion, Persia  in  1021  ;,gain  turned  to  the  United 
States  for  unofficial  assistance  and  obtained  the 
services  of  an  American,  Mr.  A.  C.  Millspaugh, 
as  financial  adviser;  other  American  experts 
were  secured  to  aid  in  sanitation  In  1023, 
boycotts  were  launched  against  British  goods 
as  well  as  imports  via  Mesopotamia.  In  this 
case  anti-British  sentiment  was  accentuated  by 
a  boundary  dispute  which  opened  old  sores,  for 
negotiations  were  begun  regarding  the  revision 
of  the  former  Turco-Persian  frontier  In  meas- 
ure as  the  Persian  leaders  grew  more  antago- 
nistic toward  Great  Britain,  they  displayed  a 
definite  orientation  toward  the  United  States. 
The  success  of  Mr.  Millspaugh  in  reorganizing 
Persian  finances  and  the  cordial  cooperation  of 
Persian  authorities  with  American  experts 
helped  to  strengthen  this  policy  Moreover,  in 
the  hope  of  securing  ready  capital,  of  which  the 
country  stood  in  desperate  need,  the  govern- 
ment turned  to  American  oil  companies  There 
ensued  a  tortuous  series  of  quasi-diplomatic  oil 
negotiations.  When,  in  1021,  tlic  Standard  Oil 
put  forth  claims  to  exclusive  oil  exploitation  in 
the  five  northern  provinces,  the  Anglo-Persian 
Oil  Company  countered  by  presenting  conces- 
sions which  had  been  obtained  by  a  certain  Rus- 
sian. Khostaria.  in  1800  and  1010.  and  sold 
by  him  to  a  subsidiary  of  the  Anglo-Persian; 
but  the  latter  was  willing  to  compromise  by 
sharing  the  northern  field  equally  with  the 


PEBU 


1018 


PBBTT 


Standard.  The  Persian  Mejliss,  however,  dis- 
countenanced this  amicable  arrangement,  and, 
in  December,  1923,  the  Persian  government 
made  a  preliminary  contract  with  the  Sinclair 
interests  for  oil  exploitation  in  four  of  the 
northern  provinces,  on  condition  that  the  con- 
cessionaires advance  $10,000,000. 

It  was  natural  that  the  ferment  of  national- 
ism should  begin  to  work  soon  in  internal  af- 
fairs. Young  Persians,  learning  their  lesson 
from  Western  methods,  gained  control  of  the 
government  early  in  1923  and  agitated  for  a 
strengthening  of  the  military  establishment. 
Riza  Khan,  the  leader  of  this  movement,  became 
prime  minister  on  October  25,  and  with  funds 
gained  as  a  result  of  the  fiscal  reforms  effected 
by  the  American  controller,  applied  himself  to 
reorganizing  the  army  and  establishing  domes- 
tic tranquillity.  Press  reports  early  in  1924  in- 
dicated that  the  premier  was  fostering  a  re- 
publican agitation,  inspired  doubtless  by  the 
example  of  Nationalist  Turkey;  but  so  strong 
was  the  monarcbist  sentiment  of  the  more  con- 
servative classes  that  Riza  had  to  content  him- 
self with  the  deposition  of  the  reigning  but  ab- 
sentee Shah,  and  the  succession  of  the  latter's 
infant  son  to  the  throne. 

PERU.  A  South  American  republic  on  the 
Pacific  coast  between  Ecuador  and  Chile.  Xo 
official  census  was  taken  after  1876,  with  the 
result  that  estimates  must  be  unscientific  in  the 
extreme  An  estimate  in  1922  put  the  popula- 
tion at  4,620,000  (as  compared  with  2,597,604 
in  1876),  though  any  increase  in  population 
was  questioned  in  many  quarters.  The  bound- 
aries in  1024  were  not  definitively  settled,  es- 
timates placing  the  area  at  from  679,600  to 
722,461  square  miles  Lima,  the  capital,  has  a 
population  of  173,000  and  Callao,  52,000,  ac- 
cording to  a  census  of  1920;  Arequipa  was  es- 
timated to  have  a  population  of  from  35,000  to 
40,000. 

Industry  and  Trade.  Sugar,  cotton  and 
coffee  continued  to  occupy  the  most  important 
places  in  Peruvian  agricultural  life.  Cotton 
culture  in  1921  brought  in  36,000  tons  as  com- 
pared with  a  crop  of  26,170  tons  in  1913.  The 
values  of  cotton  exported  in  the  two  years  were: 
1913,  1,424,000  Peruvian  pounds;  1920,  11,- 
190,061.  In  1923,  the  value  was  6,027,849  Peru- 
vian pounds.  The  1923-24  crop  was  greatly  re- 
duced by  a  severe  drought.  (The  Peruvian 
pound  equals  the  pound  sterling  at  par.  On 
Jan.  1,  1920,  it  stood  at  $4.74;  in  1921,  it  aver- 
aged $364;  in  1922,  $4.10;  in  1923,  $4:135) 
Sugar  production  in  1921  totaled  300,000  tons 
as  compared  witli  192,754  tons  in  1912.  Sugar 
exports  in  1913  were  valued  at  1,380,000  Peru- 
vian pounds;  in  1920,  15,584,888;  in  1923,  6,- 
266,209  Among  the  minerals,  copper  up  to 
1920  occupied  the  leading  place,  the  1920  out- 
put being  32,982  metric  tons  with  a  value  of 
2,358,243  Peruvian  pounds.  This  showed  a  neg- 
ligible gain  over  1913  output.  The  production 
in  1922  was  36,408  tons.  On  the  other  hand, 
petroleum  production  in  the  decade  1914-24 
forged  steadily  ahead  so  that  by  1920  the 
value  of  the  output  exceeded  that  of  copper. 
In  1905,  the  petroleum  production  was  worth 
not  much  more  than  £pl25,000.  In  1920,  it 
reached  £p2,494,570  and  in  1921,  £p 3, 01 8, 9 55. 
In  1923,  petroleum  was  exported  to  the  value 
of  £p4,446,561.  Other  important  industries 
included:  silver,  vanadium  ore,  wool,  cacao, 
guano,  coca,  and  the  making  of  Panama  hats. 


Exports  totaled  $165,929,441  in  1920,  $93,464,- 
350  in  1922,  and  $99,037,331  in  1923,  as  com- 
pared with  $45,871,504  in  1912.  The  leading 
imports  were,  in  1923,  foodstuffs,  cotton  goods, 
metal  goods,  and  machinery  of  all  kinds.  Im- 
ports lor  1920  were  valued  at  $86,283,654,  for 
1922  at  $52,962,770,  for  1923  at  $58,437,089  as 
compared  with  $25,015,460  in  1912.  The  excess 
of  exports  over  imports  regularly  mounted  dur- 
ing the  decade  1910-20,  reaching  the  high  figure 
of  $79,645,787  in  1920.  In  1921,  for  the  first 
time  the  trade  record  showed  an  unfavorable 
balance  of  $42,520  In  the  period  1910-24,  the 
United  States  forged  ahead  of  Great  Britain  in 
Peru's  commerce.  The  typical  years  shown  in 
the  table  reveal  the  situation  (in  Peruvian 
pounds ) . 

VALUES  IN  PERUVIAN  POUNDS 

Imports  from  Imports  from 

Great  Britain  United  States 

1910 1,676543  1,12«,395 

1914    1598,605  1,570,723 

1917      1,9,J4,W>5  H.79'2.710 

1920 2,694,195  10,168.937 

1922 2,024,903  4,212,971 

Exports  to  Exports  to 

Great  Britain  United  States 

1910 3,403,127  2,032510 

1914  8,403,109  3  033  259 

1917  3,792.750  10942407 

19'JO 12,681,632  16,265,092 

1922 5,592,071  6,582,712 


In  1913,  the  United  States  furnished  28.8  per 
cent  of  the  imports  and  received  33  2  per  cent 
of  the  exports  of  Peru.  In  1923,  that  country 
furnished  40.4  per  cent  of  Peru's  imports  and 
took  40.1  per  cent  of  Peru's  exports.  Other 
countries  took  the  following  portion  of  Peruvi- 
an exports:  Great  Britain,  329  per  cent; 
Chile,  8.7  per  cent;  Argentina,  3.6,  and  Ger- 
many, 3  per  cent.  Great  Britain  supplied  202 
per  cent  of  Peru's  imports,  Germany,  10.5,  Ita- 
ly, 4.2,  and  Argentina,  3.7  per  cent. 

Communications.  In  1922,  there  were  1935 
miles  of  railway  in  operation.  This  was  a  gain 
of  216  miles  over  1912.  The  Peruvian  mer- 
chant marine  consisted  of  only  15  steamers  of 
14,248  tons.  The  trade  of  the  country  was  car- 
ried in  foreign  bottoms,  the  nationality  of  the 
575  ships  calling  at  Callao  in  1921  being:  179 
British,  106  Chilean,  25  Japanese,  112  Ameri- 
can. In  March,  1921,  the  Marconi  Company 
took  over  the  management  of  the  Peruvian  pos- 
tal, telegraph,  and  wireless  services  for  25 
years.  In  1920,  there  were  8817  miles  of  tele- 
graph line,  723  post  offices  and  19  wireless  sta- 
tions 

Finance.  In  1922,  the  revenues  of  the  gov- 
ernment amounted  to  £p7, 032,506  and  expendi- 
tures to  £p8,083,183  (compare  with  the  1912 
figures  of  £p3,425,543  and  £p3,493,629).  In 
1913,  the  internal  debt  amounted  to  £p3,792,- 
855,  and  in  1921  to  £p4,f)41,290;  the  foreign 
debt  in  the  two  years  was  £pl, 162,700  and 
£p934,840;  the  floating  debt,  £p5,392,457  and 
£p2,261,644.  On  Dec.  31,  1922,  the  total  debt 
had  increased  to  £pl  1,125,093  This  was  due 
to  two  loans  contracted  in  1922:  a  petroleum 
loan  of  $2,500,000  and  a  guano  loan  of  £1,250,- 
000.  In  1922,  also,  a  bill  was  passed  authoriz- 
ing a  sanitation  loan  of  $25,000,000.  In  the 
same  vear  an  important  step  was  taken  for  the 
stabilizing  of  business  affairs  in  the  creation 
of  the  Reserve  Bank  of  Peru  (Banco  de  Reserve 


PEBTJ 


1019 


PETBOLETTM 


del  Peru),  a  central  bank  of  i*sue  and  discount      nally,  the  beginnings  of  a  labor  code  were  at- 
Government.    Up   to    1020,   internal   affairs      tempted  in  1024  with  the  passage  of  laws  for 


were  the  exclusive  concern  of  the  central  gov- 
ernment located  at  Lima,  and  provincial  mat- 
ters were  handled  through  a  corps  of  prefects 
and  subprefects,  responsible  entirely  to  the 
president.  The  new  constitution  of  Jan.  18, 
1020,  the  result  of  a  movement  toward  decen- 
tralization, provided  for  the  installation  of 
three  regional  congresses  in  the  north,  south, 
and  centre,  with  considerable  local  autonomy. 
The  president's  term  was  increased  to  five  years 
and  he  was  made  ineligible  for  a  succeeding 
term.  (This  provision  was  amended  in  1023  to 
permit  one  reflection.)  The  number  of  sena- 
tors was  fixed  at  57;  deputies  at  128.  An  im- 
portant step  taken  was  the  grant  of  absolute 
political  and  religious  liberty,  though  Roman 
Catholicism  was  still  retained  as  the  state  re- 
ligion. 

History.  During  the  administration  of  Dr. 
Jose*  Pardo,  1015-10,  Peruvian  affairs  centred, 
of  course,  on  two  main  concerns;  ie.  the  War, 
and  the  country's  economic  status  which  was 
so  much  dependent  upon  foreign  markets.  In 
spite  of  sympathies  for  Germany  which  so 
many  of  the  upper  class  entertained,  the  infec- 
tious democratic  doctrine  of  President  Wilson 
gained  great  popularity  in  Peru,  with  the  re- 
sult that  diplomatic  relations  with  Germany 
were  broken  in  1917.  After  a  single  year's  de- 
pression, 1915,  Peru  rapidly  adjusted  itself  to 
the  war  situation,  its  raw  products  being  great- 
ly sought  after  by  the  belligerents;  HO  that  by 
1919  imports  had  doubled,  and  exports  trebled 
the  figures  of  1913  Because  of  its  favorable 
trade  balance  in  1917,  Peru  received  $13,505,- 
068  in  bullion  from  the  United  States.  The 
disputed  election  of  May  18,  1919,  resulted  in 
the  sei/ure  of  President' Pardo  by  adherents  of 
Augusto  B.  Legufa  and  the  installation  of  the 
latter,  first,  as  provisional  president,  and  then 
as  regularly  elected  president.  Under  Sr.  Le- 
gufa (1919-24)  ambitious  projects  were  set  un- 
der way  for  the  modernization  of  the  country. 
The  president,  committed  to  an  extension  of  the 
federal  principle,  promulgated  the  new  consti- 
tution (above)  and  invited  foreign  countries, 
through  expert  commissions,  to  participate  in 
Peru's  reconstruction.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  attract  immigrants  in  1919  by  an  offer  of 
free  transportation;  the  construction  of  the 
Ayacucho-Cuzo  railway  to  put  the  capital  in 
touch  with  southern  Peru  was  pushed;  and  a 
movement  was  made  to  withdraw  the  paper 
notes  issued  during  the  War  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  stable  currency.  In  1921,  negotia- 
tions were  started  with  a  British-Canadian  com- 
pany for  the  construction  of  some  1500  miles  ot 
railway  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  In 
1922,  a  programme  for  important  irrigation 
works  was  projected  to  centre  around  the 
Caflete  and  Moche  Rivers.  An  American  sani- 
tary expert,  beginning  with  1919,  was  given 
full  powers  to  stamp  out  malaria  and  yellow 
fever,  and  in  1919,  General  Gorgas  was  re- 
quested to  undertake  the  sanitation  of  Peru's 
important  cities.  The  General's  death  tempo- 
rarily checked  the  plan.  The  reorganization  of 
the  army  during  1010-21  was  placed  in  the 
hands  or  a  French  commission  and  the  navy, 
in  1020,  under  an  American  commission  with 
full  powers.  In  1021,  several  American  edu- 
cational experts  went  to  Peru  and  one  of  their 
number  was  made  director  of  instruction.  Fi- 


workmen's  compensation  and  the  arbitration  of 
industrial  disputes.  Results  of  these  progres- 
sive activities  were  at  once  evident.  By  1022, 
foreign  interest  had  increased  so  enormously 
that  it  was  estimated  British  holdings  totaled 
$125,000,000,  American  $90,000,000,  Italian  $50,- 
000,000  and  German  $10,000,000. 

In  South  American  affairs,  Peru's  position 
was  affected  by  its  long  outstanding  controversy 
with  Chile  over  the  Tacna-Arica  provinces. 
For  the  ramifications  of  this  dispute  see  CHILE, 
BOLIVIA,  TACNA-ABICA.  The  protocol  signed  by 
the  disputants  at  Washington  on  July  15,  1922, 
to  hasten  the  arbitration  of  the  controversy  was 
accepted  in  October  by  the  Peruvian  national 
congress,  though  by  1924  no  settlement  had  yet 
been  effected.  Other  boundary  questions  were 
settled  more  amicably;  that  with  Bolivia  in 
1012,  that  with  Colombia  in  1922,  and  in  the 
same  year  the  Brazilian  frontier. 

PESTS,     INSECT.    See     FORESTRY;     HOBTI- 

CULTUBE. 

PETAIN,  HENRI  PHILIPPE  (1856-  ).  A 
French  army  officer,  educated  at  the  Ecole  de 
Guerre.  In  1914  he  headed  an  army  corps  in 
masterly  retreat  from  Charleroi  to  the  Marne, 
and  in  1916,  in  command  at  Verdun,  he  de- 
feated the  great  effort  of  the  Germans  to  cap- 
ture it.  He  became  commander-in-chief  of  the 
French  forces  on  the  western  front,  May  15, 
1916;  infused  new  life  and  spirit  in  his  men, 
maintained  close  relations  with  his  allies  in  the 
same  field,  and  struck  the  Germans  with  great 
energy  at  Verdun  in  August  and  at  Chemin  des 
Dames  in  October.  He  was  made  marshal  of 
France  at  the  end  of  the  war  and  also  became 
vice  president  of  the  Con  sell  Superieur  de  la 
Guerre.  See  WAR  IN  EUBOPE. 

PETRIE,  SIB  WILLIAM  MATTHEW  FLINDEBS 
(1853-         ).     An     English     Egyptologist     (see^ 
VOL.  XVIII)      He  continued  his  excavations  in' 
Egypt  till  1920.     Among  his  later  writings  are: 
Amulets     (1914);    Heliopolis     (1914);    Scarabs 
(1917);    Tools  and    Weapons    (1917);    Eastern 
Exploration    (1919);    Some  Sources   of  Human 
History     (1919);     Prehistoric    Egypt     (1920); 
Social    Life    in    Ancient    Egypt     (1923).     See 
ABCH^OLOGY. 

PETE-OLEUM.  In  the  ten-year  interval 
from  1914  to  1924  few  industries  had  experi- 
enced so  great  a  development  as  that  having  to 
do  with  the  production,  refining,  and  utiliza- 
tion of  petroleum.  In  1013  the  world's  total 
production  amounted  to  385,347,000  barrels  of 
42  United  States  gallons,  but  by  1923  this  had 
increased  to  1,010,995,000  barrels,  of  which  the 
United  States  produced  735,000,000,  or  73  per 
cent  of  the  total  output  of  the  world.  The  un- 
precedented demand  for  petroleum  was  due  in 
great  measure  to  the  widespread  use  of  the  in- 
ternal-combustion engine,  especially  as  em- 
ployed in  motor  vehicles.  Along  with  this  in- 
creased demand  had  come  improved  processes  in 
refining  as  well  as  the  exploitation  and  develop- 
ment of  new  fields.  Outside  of  the  United 
States,  Mexico  was  the  greatest  producer,  sup- 
plying, in  1923,  149,472,000  barrels,  though  in 
1021  it  had  achieved  a  record  of  203,521,000 
barrels.  From  1913  to  1923  Rumania  had 
dropped  from  13,554,000  barrels  to  10,930,000, 
and  Russia  from  62.834,000  to  38,107.000.  Per- 
sia  on  the  other  hand  had  increased  from  1,- 
857,000  to  27,300,000,  the  Dutch  East  Indies 


PETBOLEUM 


ioao 


PETBOLEUM 


from  11,172,000  to  16,000,000,  Peru  from  2,- 
133,000  to  6,375,000,  and  Argentina  from  130,- 
000  to  3,330,000  barrels 

At  the  end  of  1013  the  total  assets  of  the 
American  petroleum  industry  were  $1,130,718,- 
000.  At  the  close  of  1921  they  had  increased  to 
$6,383,632,000,  and  at  the  end  of  1923  the  total 
assets  were  estimated  in  excess  of  $9,000,000,- 
000.  In  the  10  years  from  1914  to  1924  the 
petroleum  industry  in  the  United  States  had 
attracted  new  capital  to  an  amount  between 
$2,500,000,000  and  $3,000,000,000  which  was 
used  in  the  opening  of  new  fields,  for  such  pur- 
poses as  drilling,  pipe  lines,  and  storage,  not  to 
mention  the  erection  and  equipment  of  numer- 
ous refineries. 

In  the  decade  under  review  one  of  the  most 
important  influences  on  the  American  petrole- 
um industry  was  the  great  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  automotive  vehicles  (See  MOTOR  VEHI- 
CLES.) On  Jan.  1,  1914,  there  were  in  opera- 
tion in  the  United  States  1,250,000  automobiles, 
which,  by  the  close  of  1923,  had  increased  to 
more  than  15,250,000,  or  a  gain  of  1100  per 
cent,  while  so  far  as  the  refineries  were  con- 
cerned the  increase  in  the  amount  of  crude  oil 
to  run  them  was  but  170  per  cent.  In  1913  the 
average  consumption  per  day  in  the  United 
States  averaged  approximately  573,000  barrels, 
as  compared  with  1,592,000  barrels  in  1923. 
The  improvement  in  technical  processes,  and  in 
particular  the  evolution  and  development  of 
the  cracking  processes,  brought  a  yield  of  12  5 
per  cent  of  naphtha  from  the  crude  oil  in  1913, 
up  to  nearly  31  per  cent  in  1923. 

Important  American  Oil  Fields.  The 
years  1914-24  saw  the  development  of  many 
important  fields  in  the  United  States,  especial- 
ly in  California,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas.  Pre- 
viously the  most  important  fields  under  produc- 
tion had  been  the  Sunset  Midway  in  California, 
which  was  developed  in  1900  arid  at  the  close 
of  1913  produced  140,000  barrels  daily;  Heald- 
ton,  in  Oklahoma,  which  came  in  early  in  1912 
and  v\as  producing  40,000  barrels;  and  the 
famous  Gushing  Pool  in  Oklahoma,  which  was 
producing  in  excess  of  180,000  barrels,  reaching 
its  maximum  in  1915  with  310,000  barrels.  The 
Salt  Creek  oil  field  in  Wyoming  had  been  opened 
up  in  1912,  when  it  produced  less  than  20,000 
barrels  daily.  Another  important  field  devel- 
oped in  this  period  was  the  Santa  Fe"  near  Los 
Angeles,  in  California.  It  established  a  record 
of  340,000  barrels  per  day.  Then  Powell,  Tex- 
as, brought  into  production  in  the  latter  part 
of  1921,  and  destined  to  be  the  world's  largest 
producing  field,  produced  a  maximum  of  315,* 
000  barrels  in  the  middle  of  1923,  but  this  de- 
clined in  a  few  weeks  to  145,000  barrels  In 
1915  both  Augusta  and  Eldorado,  Kan.,  were 
important  fields  which  came  into  production, 
and  in  1917  the  Burkbumett,  Texas,  oil  fields 
were  added  In  1917  came  the  Ranger  oil 
field,  also  in  Texas,  and  in  1918  and  1919  there 
followed  West  Columbia,  Hull,  and  Desdemona, 
all  in  Texas,  Hewitt,  in  Oklahoma;  and  Homer, 
in  Louisiana. 

The  famous  Huntington  Beach  field  in  Cali- 
fornia began  production  in  1919  and  by  1923 
had  increased  its  output  to  115,000  barrels  In 
1920  Burbank,  Ok  la.,  an  important  mid-conti- 
nental field,  was  brought  in.  Two  other  fields 
of  that  year  were  Eldorado,  Ark.,  and  Haynes- 
yille,  La.,  together  with  Long  Beach,  Cal ,  Mex- 
ia,  Texas,  and  Tonkawa,  Okla  Another  field 
developed  early  in  1922  was  Smackover  in  Ar- 


kansas. In  10  years  the  American  petroleum 
industry  had  developed  23  active  pools  of  ma- 
jor importance,  of  which  all  but  two  reached 
a  maximum  and  then  fell  back  to  a  position  of 
secondary  importance.  The  important  petrole- 
um fields  in  California  contributed  materially 
to  the  increasing  production  of  the  United 
States,  but  it  was  the  opinion  of  geologists 
that  the  maximum  production  in  California 
would  soon  be  reached,  as  at  the  end  of  1923 
all  the  fields  except  three  had  passed  their 
peak;  and  although  new  fields  might  be  dis- 
covered and  developed,  it  was  thought  that  the 
final  decline  would  be  rapid  when  it  came. 

Mexican  Production.  In  Mexico,  the  de- 
velopment of  oil  had  begun  only  since  1901, 
with  the  first  shipments  taking  place  about 
1904  In  1913  the  total  production  liad  reached 
25,696,000  barrels,  of  which  21,330,868  were  ex- 
ported. By  1921  it  amounted  to  193,398,000 
barrels,  from  which  it  had  declined  to  an  out- 
put of  about  150,000,000  barrels  in  1923  This 
extraordinary  decline  seemed  to  indicate  that 
the  production  of  several  of  the  producing  areas 
in  Mexico  was  at  an  end  and  that  another 
source  of  bunker  fuel  oil  must  be  looked  for. 

Persian  Oil  Fields.  An  even  more  rapid 
development  has  taken  place  in  Persia,  where 
petroleum  on  a  commercial  basis  was  not  pro- 
duced much  earlier  than  1913,  when  1,758,000 
barrels  were  produced.  By  1923  tins  output 
had  increased  to  approximately  27,300,000  bar- 
rels, and  there  were  in  operation  pipe  lines 
for  delivering  the  oil  to  Abadan,  at  the  head  of 
the  Persian  (hilf,  whence  tank  steamers  carried 
the  crude  oil  to  the,  refinery  of  the  Anglo-Per- 
sian Oil  Companv  at  Suez,  which  supplied  the 
market  of  the  Near  East  Crude  peti oleum 
was  also  loaded  on  tankers  for  shipment  to  Eu- 
rope, and  during  the  year  ending  July  31, 
1922,  a  total  of  69  tanker*  carried  607,248  tons 
of  crude  oil  in  bulk,  passing  northwaid  to  the 
Suez  Canal  and  bound  from  the  Persian  Gulf 
ports  for  Swansea  in  Wales,  where  the  Anglo- 
Persian  Oil  Company  had  constructed  and  com- 
pleted in  1922  a  refining  plant,  one  of  the  larg- 
est in  the  world  outside  of  the  United  States 
and  Mexico  With  this  plant  and  with  other 
refining  works  contemplated  in  England,  this 
company,  which  enjoyed  the  support  of  the 
British  government  would  soon,  it  \\aft  believed, 
be  in  a  position  to  take  care  of  the  demand  for 
petroleum  products  throughout  the  British 
Isles. 

The  wells  of  this  company  are  in  the  Ma  id  an - 
i-Naftun  district,  about  50  miles  northeast 
of  Ahrux  on  the  Karun  River,  and  in  1922  they 
produced  in  excess  of  50,000  tons  a  month.  In 
addition  to  these  fields,  which  lie  in  southeast- 
ern Persia,  there  are  important  other  fields  in 
northern  and  eastern  Persia  for  which  the  An- 
glo-Persian Company  in  1923  were  applicants 
for  concessions,  as  were  also  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  of  New  Jersey  and  the  Sinclair  Con- 
solidated Oil  Corporation.  The  Persian  gov- 
ernment objected  to  additional  grants  to  the 
Anglo-Persian  Company  on  the  ground  that 
further  influence  in  Persian  affairs  was  not 
altogether  wholesome,  and  accordingly  the  con- 
cessions at  the  end  of  1923  for  the  absolute 
control  and  development  of  oil  deposits  of 
four  of  the  northern  provinces  of  Persia  was 
awarded  to  the  Sinclair  Consolidated  Oil  Cor- 
poration. The  government  retained  one  of  the 
northern  provinces  for  its  own  purposes.  Nat- 
urally such  rich  oil  fields  attracted  the  large 


PBTEOLBXTH 

oil  corporations,  and  their  respective  govern- 
ments wore  active  in  their  behalf.  See  PERSIA. 

South  American  Petroleum.  In  South 
America  there  had  been  developments  in  sever- 
al of  the  states,  and  the  large  world  oil  com- 
panies were  looking  for  concessions  wherever 
conditions  were  promising.  In  Peru  the  pro- 
duction in  1923  was  estimated  at  5,508,985  bar- 
rels, an  increase  from  2,071,000  in  1913,  and 
oil  concessions  were  sought  in  the  departments 
of  Amazotias,  San  Martin,  Loreto,  and  Pinra. 
In  Colombia  a  law  of  Jan.  31,  1923,  made  more 
liberal  land-leasing  regulations,  and  numerous 
American  companies  were  seeking  concessions. 
After  Peru,  the  leading  South  American  source 
of  production  was  Veno/uola,  which  had  devel- 
oped rapidly  up  to  some  4,000,000  barrels,  and 
the  Argentine  Republic,  whore  out  of  an  esti- 
mated production  of  3,200,000  gallons,  the  gov- 
ernment reserve  at  Comodoro  I'hadavia,  which 
first  became  an  important  producer  in  1914 
with  275,131  barrels,  contributed  some  2,343,- 
000  in  1923  The  government  owned  and  oper- 
ated a  fleet  of  five  tankers  with  a  capacity  of 
more  than  27,000  tons  of  oil,  which  transported 
the  oil  from  the  port  of  Comodoro  Rivadayia, 
1000  miles  south  of  Buenos  Aires,  to  that  city, 
and  to  Ronario,  Sante  Fe",  Bahia  Blanca,  or 
other  cities  where  storage  facilities  are  main- 
tained. 

Transportation  of  Oil.  That  the  American 
oil  industry  is  highly  organized  is  particularly 
evident  in  connection  with  the  transportation. 
At  the  very  outset  there  were  required  pipe 
lines,  which  take  the  oil  from  the  wells  and 
curry  it  to  the  refineries  where  it  is  treated. 
From  a  total  mileage  of  a  little  less  than  40,- 
000  at  the  dote  of  1913,  the  American  pipe 
lines  had  increased  to  approximately  75,000 
miles  at  the  close  of  1923  This  figure  repre- 
sented all  the  pipe  lines  employed  by  gather- 
ing and  transporting  companies  engaged  in  the 
business  of  carrying  oil.  The  main  oil  pipes 
alone  aggregated  in  excess  of  34,000  miles. 
These  pipe  line  companies  must  either  build  in- 
to a  new  field  or  extend  their  existing  lines  to 
take  care  of  the  new  production.  In  1923 
about  2,000,000  barrels  of  crude  oil  were  gath- 
ered and  transported  for  producing  purposes 
every  24  hours,  if  moved  in  tank  cars,  this 
amount  would  have  required  at  least  10,000 
Hiich  carriers  on  sidings  adjacent  to  the  fields 
c\eiy  day  in  the  year.  Of  course  a  certain 
number  of  tank  cars  are  employed  to  move  the 
crude  oil  or  the  subsequent  products,  and  in 
1921  approximately  137,500  tank  cars  were  so 
employed  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  for 
this  purpose 

Marine  Transportation.  As  California  in- 
creased its  crude  oil  production,  it  developed 
storage  and  bunkering  facilities  at  Los  Angeles 
harbor.  It  was  found  that  oil  could  be  shipped 
from  Californian  ports  by  tank  vessels  through 
the  Panama  Canal  eastward  cheaper  than  the 
pipe  line  charges  from  the  mid-Continent  fields 
to  the  same  destination.  Likewise  it  could 
compete  with  oil  brought  to  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  the  United  States  from  Mexico,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  each  shipment  involved 
a  round  trip  of  approximately  10,000  miles. 
As  the  distance  was  so  much  greater,  more 
than  twice  the  tonnage  necessary  to  transport 
the  same  amount  of  oil  from  Mexico  to  the  At- 
lantic coast  refineries  must  be  employed  in  this 
traffic.  Nevertheless  in  1923  tank  steamers 


FETBOLETTBf 

made  a  total  of  1704  transits  through  the  Canal 
and  constituted  about  34  per  cent  of  the  total 
number  of  ships  passing  through  the  Canal 
during  the  year.  These  vessels  paid  an  aggre- 
gate of  nearly  $9,000,000  in  tolls,  or  39  per  cent 
of  the  total  annual  revenues.  Their  movement, 
both  ways,  aggregated  9,625,714  tons  of  cargo, 
38  per  cent  of  the  total  shipment  through  the 
Panama  Canal.  A  modern  tank  vessel  can  now 
be  loaded  at  the  rate  of  25,000  barrels  per  hour 
and  discharged  at  a  rate  of  10.000  barrels  per 
hour,  or  6  and  14  hours  respectively  for  a  tank- 
er of  140,000  barrels  capacity.  The  use  of 
these  tankeis  has  not  been  exclusively  to  trans- 
port oil  from  the  oil  fields  to  refineries  but  also 
for  the  use  of  oil-burning  ships,  winch  have  in- 
creased materially  in  'lumbers  and  capacity  in 
the  merchant  marine  not  to  mention  the  vari- 
ous navies.  In  191J,  out  of  a  total  world's 
merchant  tonnage  of  24,444,  23,779  burned  coal. 
In  1923,  out  of  29,240  vessels  24,380  burned 
coal  and  4860  burned  oil,  or  an  increase  in  oil- 
burning  tonnage  of  1030  per  cent  as  against  the 
two  per  cent  increase  in  coal-burning  tonnage 
It  was  estimated  that  the  fuel  consumed  by 
such  vessels  in  1913  was  less  than  3,000,000 
tons,  whereas  for  1923  it  was  over  23,000,000 
tons,  or  an  increase  of  710  per  cent,  while  the 
consumption  of  coal  for  steamship  bunkers  in- 
creased to  3  per  cent.  See  INTEBNAL-COMBUS- 
TION  ENGINES. 

Increase  in  American  Refining  Capacity. 
In  1913  the  total  consumption  of  crude  oil  in 
the  refineries  in  the  United  States  amounted  to 
573,000  barrels.  Ten  years  later  this  figure  had 
risen  to  1,587,000  barrels,  and  from  this  amount 
nearly  150,000,000  50-gallon  barrels  of  naphtha, 
or  nearly  31  per  cent  of  the  crude  oil  handled, 
were  obtained,  whereas  in  1913  a  volume  of 
about  22,000,000  50-galloii  barrels,  or  12  5  per 
cent  naphtha,  was  obtained  from  the  crude  oil 
distilled.  The  chief  reason  for  this  large  in- 
crease was  the  development  of  the  cracking  proc- 
ess, designed  to  secure  the  largest  possible 
amount  of  naphtha,  as  previous  to  1013  the 
crude  oil  treatment  was  mainly  with  the  object 
of  producing  illuminating  oil.  With  the  pro- 
duction of  naphtha  limited  to  the  natural  naph- 
tha content  of  the  crude  oil,  and  the  small  per- 
centage secured  through  cracking  or  decompo- 
sition of  the  heavier  applications  in  the  ordi- 
nary fractionated  still,  in  order  to  secure  a 
greater  output  of  gasoline  and  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  there  was  no  adequate  outlet  for  the 
production  of  the  other  products,  a  pressure 
still  was  developed  by  Dr.  W.  N.  Burton  of  the 
Standard  Oil  Company,  in  which  "cracking" 
could  be  carried  on  in  an  efficient  manner,  so 
that  in  1922  about  25  per  cent  of  the  total 
gasoline  production  of  the  United  States  was 
obtained  through  cracking  at  pressures  above 
that  of  the  atmosphere. 

In  1923  there  were  something  like  2000  pres- 
sure cracking  units  of  various  designs  in  opera- 
tion, with  an  estimated  production  capacity  of 
45,000,000  50-gallon  barrels  of  naphtha  a  year, 
about  twice  the  total  production  of  naphtha  in 
1913.  The  annual  production  of  naphtha  would 
be  divided  approximately  somewhat  as  follows: 
132,000,000  barrels  of  crude  oil  in  refinery  oper- 
ations, 22,000,000  barrels  recovered  from  natu- 
ral and  casinghead  gas,  and  40,000,000  barrels 
in  cracking  operations  at  or  above  atmospheric 
pressures  The  demand  for  gasoline  with  the 
increased  number  of  motor  vehicles,  tractors, 


PETBOLBTTM 


iota 


PETBOLEUM 


airplanes,  motor  boats,  etc.,  led  to  the  develop- 
ment of  various  means  to  provide  gasoline  in 
addition  to  those  mentioned.  In  the  first  place 
it  was  found  possible  to  remove  the  light  vola- 
tile naphtha  from  natural  gas  and  then  at  the 
crude  oil  wells  at  so-called  casinghead  plants, 
where  absorption  by  compression  methods  was 
used  to  save  the  light  naphtha,  and  finally  a 
combination  of  these  last  two  methods.  This 
work  was  developed  so  that  where  once  it  was 
hardly  possible  to  handle  the  volatile  naphtha 
on  account  of  evaporation  loss,  and  it  was  per- 
mitted to  go  back  into  the  gas  system  for  burn- 
ing as  fuel,  there  were  derived  in  1923  about 
22,000,000  42-gallon  barrels  by  these  methods. 
(See  NATURAL  GAS.)  Another  method  of  ex- 
tracting gasoline  was  to  treat  the  noncombus- 
tible  gases  in  the  refinery  operations,  where  the 
gas  had  been  previously  burned  as  fuel,  and 
then  the  development  of  cracking  methods 
where  pressures  up  to  350  pounds  or  more  were 
employed,  where,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  of  New  Jersey's  processes,  it  was 
found  possible  to  crack  the  whole  range  of  pe- 
troleum products  from  refining  distillate  to  the 
heavy  fuel  residues  of  the  crude  oil  itself. 

Oil  Production.  Reference  has  been  made 
to  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  gasoline  prod- 
ucts and  the  decline  in  the  amount  of  illumi- 
nating oil  This  is  also  shown  in  the  export  sta- 
tistics of  the  United  States,  where,  in  the  year 
1913,  there  was  a  total  of  40,751,416  50-gallon 
barrels  of  crude  oil  and  products  exported,  of 
which  23,388,825  barrels  were  illuminating  oil 
and  3,700,807  barrels  were  gasoline,  in  addition 
to  which  there  were  over  7,000,000  barrels  of 
gas  oil  and  fuel  oil  During  the  War,  when 
some  90,000,000  barrels  of  oil  were  used  in  the 
fighting  area,  of  which  at  least  95  per  cent 
was  American  oil,  the  export  figures  of  course 
were  abnormal,  but  up  to  the  year  1923  the  to- 
tal exports  had  reached  79,743,740  barrels,  an 
increase  of  90  per  cent  over  the  10  years  previ- 
ous. At  this  latter  point  the  exports  of  illum- 
inating oil  (kerosene)  were  about  17,000,000 
barrels,  or  but  three-fourths  of  what  they  were 
in  1913,  while  the  exports  of  gasoline,  naphtha, 
and  other  oil  products  amounted  to  nearly  17,- 
000,000  barrels,  or  a  350  per  cent  increase,  and 
the  exports  of  gas  oil  and  fuel  oil  amounted  to 
24,571,880  barrels,  or  a  242  per  cent  increase. 

Fuel  Oil.  By  1913  the  Mexican  crude  oil, 
the  production  of  which  in  that  year  amounted 
to  25,690,000  barrels,  not  only  became  availa- 
ble in  quantity  but  with  the  increased  output 
could  be  used  for  fuel  oil  for  steamship  bunk- 
ers. This  led  to  the  extensive  use  of  fuel  oil 
in  the  shipping  industry  of  the  world  and  also 
for  boiler  furnaces.  The  method  of  treating 
the  Mexican  oil  is  to  top  the  lighter  crude  oil 
for  naphtha,  retaining  perhaps  85  per  cent  of 
the  crude  for  fuel  oil,  while  in  the  case  of  the 
heavier  Mexican  crude  oil  it  has  been  topped 
merely  to  give  the  necessary  flash  test.  In 
1914  the  gas  and  fuel  oil  business  of  the  United 
States  amounted  to  74,081,000  50-gallon  barrels, 
while  in  1923  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Mines  recorded  its  business  as  having  increased 
to  241,483,834  barrels.  In  connection  with  the 
Mexican  crude  oil  it  was  possible  to  derive  a 
number  of  asphalt  products  used  for  roofing, 
street  paving,  and  other  purposes.  This  as- 
phalt business,  which  in  1914  was  465,000  tons, 
in  1923  had  increased  to  2,373,000  tons.  See 
ASPHALT. 


Public  Aspects  of  the  Industry  in  the 
United  States.  It  has  already  been  suggested 
that  the  great  demand  for  petroleum  and  pe- 
troleum products  which  developed  in  the  10 
years  following  1914  led  to  many  national  and 
international  political  developments.  It  was 
realized  that  the  supply  of  oil  was  variable  and 
that  many  sources  would  be  exhausted  in  com- 
paratively short  periods,  even  with  appropriate 
conservation  measures.  In  the  United  States 
in  particular,  the  rapid  exhaustion  of  the  oil 
lands  was  regarded  as  a  national  question.  On 
Sept.  27,  1909,  President  Taft,  in  response  to 
the  general  demand  for  conservation,  withdrew 
3,000,000  acres  of  public  lands  in  California 
and  Wyoming  from  "location"  under  the  Placer 
Mining  Law,  especially  to  meet  the  future 
needs  of  the  government,  of  which  quite  impor- 
tant was  the  matter  of  oil  fuel  for  naval  ves- 
sels. It  was  also  realized  that  fuel  oil  was  an 
important  asset  and  necessary  for  the  operation 
of  a  fleet  with  modern  engines.  To  conserve  an 
adequate  supply  for  the  future.  President  Taft 
on  Sept.  2,  1912,  created  Naval  Oil  Reserve  No. 
1,  at  Elk  Hills,  Cal ,  to  contain  38,969  acres, 
and  followed  it  on  December  3  of  the  same  year 
with  Reserve  No.  2,  near  Buena  Vista  Ilills, 
Cal.,  containing  29,341  acres  It  was  consid- 
ered desirable  that  further  national  oil  reserves 
should  be  established,  and  on  Apr.  30,  1915, 
President  Wilson  created  Reserve  No.  3,  neai 
Casper,  Wyo.,  containing  94S1  acres,  which 
then  and  afterward  was  popularly  known  as 
"Teapot  Dome."  In  the  shale  oil  regions  in 
Utah  Reserves  No.  4  and  No.  5  were  estab- 
lished. 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  War  the  admin- 
istration of  the  naval  oil  reserves  was  turned 
over  by  Secretary  of  the  Navy  Denby  to  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior  A  B.  Fall  in  spite  of  the 
protest  of  several  naval  officers.  From  this 
time  on,  the  oil  reserves  became  a  matter  of 
considerable  interest  and  figured  extensively  in 
political  developments  in  the  United  States 
This  was  due  principally  to  the  fact  that  Secre- 
tary Fall  leased  Naval  Reserve  No.  3  (Teapot 
Dome)  to  H.  F.  Sinclair,  the  head  of  the  Sin- 
clair Oil  Company,  who  turned  it  over  to  the 
Mammoth  Oil  Company  in  exchange  for  $106,- 
000,000  worth  of  stock.  This  was  early  in 
April,  1922,  and  in  April,  1923,  the  Doheny  in- 
terests included  under  the  direction  of  Edward 
L.  Doheny,  head  of  the  Mexican  Petroleum  Cor- 
poration, received  a  preferential  right  to  lease 
Naval  Reserve  No.  1  under  a  contract  to  per- 
form certain  work  for  the  United  States  Navy 
at  Pearl  Harbor,  in  the  Pacific,  where  a  naval 
base  was  located  and  where  oil  supplies  were 
considered  of  strategic  and  practical  impor- 
tance. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  year  1923  the  Senate 
Public  Lands  Committee  engaged  in  an  investi- 
gation of  the  entire  subject,  which  by  this  time 
had  developed  into  a  considerable  scandal,  in- 
volving former  Secretary  Fall,  who  had  retired 
from  the  cabinet  in  March,  1923.  A  subcom- 
mittee of  the  Senate  continued  the  investiga- 
tion, which  brought  out  considerable  sensation- 
al testimony  but  much  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  the  advisability  of  making  the  leases  in  view 
of  surrounding  circumstances.  This  committee 
submitted  a  report  which  criticized  the  leases 
and  the  part  played  by  several  officers  of  the 
government,  and  these  leases  were  canceled  and 
a  commission  appointed  to  investigate  the  en* 


F29TBOVA 


X033 


•PWTT,  ATnyfVp  WT  A 


tire  matter.    It  was  unfortunate  that  the  eg-      nida  of  Worth  America   (1913);   and  Marphol- 

sential  facts  were  obscured  in  the  political  as-      ogy  of  Invertebrate  Types  (1916). 

pect  of  the  situation,  and  by  the  middle  of  1924          PETZOLD,  JOSEPH  ( 1862*         ) .     A  German 


the  actual  merits  of  the  matter  had  not  been 
determined  outside  of  the  laxity  of  certain 
government  officials. 

During  the  War  there  was  a  great  demand 
for  petroleum  and  petroleum  products,  but  the 
post-war  peace  requirements  for  oil  were  con- 
siderably in  excess  of  the  war  demands  In 
1923  the  oil  wells  of  the  United  States  produced 
one-tenth  of  all  the  oil  hitherto  forthcoming  in 
the  country  up  to  1924,  and  in  that  year  it 
was  estimated  by  petroleum  geologists  that  the 
original  supply  of  the  United  States  was  more 
tlian  40  per  cent  exhausted. 

Bibliography.  The  frequent  reports  of  the 
United  States  fteologieal  Survey  and  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of'  Mines,  also  the  an- 
nual issues  of  The  Mineral  Industry,  afford 
considerable  information,  particularly  on  the 
statistics  of  the  petroleum  industry.  From 
time  to  time  the  American  Petroleum  Institute 
in  New  York  also  publishes  valuable  bulletins 
and  technical  papers  presented  at  its  annual 
meetings.  A  most  complete  and  useful  work  is 
Handbook  of  the  Petroleum  Industry,  2  vols., 
I)  T.  Day,  editor  (New  York,  1922).  Other 
lecent  volumes  of  value  are  V.  R.  Garfias,  Pe- 
troleum Kesourceit  of  the  World  (New  York, 
1923)  ;  L  C  Uren,  Petroleum  Production  En- 
gineering (New  York,  1924)  ;  J.  M  Macfar- 
lane,  Fishcft,  The  Source  of  Petroleum  (New 
\ork,  1923),  Dorsey  Ilager,  Practical  Oil  Geol- 
oqi/  (New  York,  1919);  id..  Oil  Field  Practice 
(New  York,  J021)  -  R.  H.  Johnson,  L.  G.  Hunt- 
ley,  and  H.  K  Sonmiers,  The  Business  of  Oil 
Production  (New  York,  1922);  J.  E.  Pogue, 
The  Keonowics  of  Petroleum  (New  York,  1921)  ; 
Victor  Zieglei .  Popular  Oil  Geology,  2d  ed., 
(New  ^ork,  1920);  United  States  'Geological 
Suivey,  World  Atlas  of  Commercial  Geology, 
Part  I,  Mifttnbutwn  of  Mineral  Production 
(Washington,  1921);  United  States  Bureau  of 
Standards,  National  Standard  Petroleum  Oil 
Tables,  Circular  No  /,5f  (Washington,  1924). 
See  MEXICO,  MESOPOTAMIA,  CHESTEB  CONCES- 
SION; SAKHALIN;  SHIPIWILDING,  Oil  Fuel; 
CiihMisTitY,  ORGANIC  ;  GKOLOGY. 

PETBOVA,  OMSA  (1880-  ).  An  actress 
born  in  Warsaw,  Poland,  and  educated  at  Paris, 
Brussels  and  London.  Slip  began  her  theatri- 
cal career  at  the  age  of  20  in  Shakespearean 
productions  and  later  appeared  in  plays  of  Ib- 
sen, Bernstein,  and  Strindberg.  After  making 
her  American  stage  dlbut  in  New  York  City  in 
1911,  she  gave  some  time  to  motion  pictures 
and  appeared  in  The  Daughter  of  Destiny;  The 
Orchid  Lady ;  Rrulges  Kurned^  and  More  Truth 
than  Poetry,  written  by  herself.  She  herself 
wrote  The  White  Peacock  and  The  Hurricane 
in  which  she  starred 

PETRTJNKEVITCH,  ALEXANDER  (1875- 
).  A  Russian-American  zoologist,  born 
at  Pliski  in  Russia,  and  educated  at  the 
University  of  Moscow  and  at  Freiburg.  He 
was  lecturer  in  zoology  at  Harvard  (1903-04); 
acting  professor  (1900)  at  the  University  of 
Indiana;  honorary  curator  of  arachnida  at  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History  (1909- 
11);  and  professor  of  /oology  (1918-  )  at 
Yale.  He  published-  Oedanken  uber  Verer- 
bung  (1903),  Free  Will  (1905);  Index  Cata- 
logue of  Rpiders  of  North  Central  and  South 
America-  (1911);  Terrestrial  Palaosoic  Arach- 
34 


university  professor  (see  VOL.  XVIII).  He 
contributed  numerous  articles  to  philosophic 
journals  on  the  physical  theory  of  Einstein  as 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  positive  relativ- 
ism. He  also  published  a  volume  on  Biolog- 
iache  Grundlagen  des  Ktrafenreohts  (1920). 

PHASE  RULE.     See  CHEMISTRY,  PHYSICAL, 

PHELPS,  ALBERT  CHARLES  (1873-  ) 
An  American  architect  and  educator,  born  at 
Lockport,  111.,  and  educated  at  the  University 
of  Illinois  and  in  Germany.  In  1899  he  was 
appointed  instructor  in  the  College  of  Architec- 
ture of  Cornell  University  and  was  successively 
assistant  professor,  professor,  and  World  War 
Memorial  Professor  of  architecture  (1920) 
there.  He  contributed  to  architectural  jour- 
nals and  lectured  at  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art. 

PHILADELPHIA.  The  third  city  of  the 
United  States.  The  population  rose  from  1,- 
549,008  in  1910  to  1,823,779  in  1920  and  to  1,- 
922,788  by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Cen- 
sus for  1923.  Much  was  done  between  1914 
and  IQ24  to  impiove  the  port.  In  1915  the  two 
Southwark  piers  were  completed  by  the  city  as 
the  first  units  of  a  scheme  to  give  the  city  a 
municipally  owned  \vater  front  of  more  than  a 
mile.  The  complete  development  of  the  plan 
involved  a  series  of  piers,  each  with  a  railroad 
track  down  the  centre  connecting  with  the  Ijelt 
lines  on  Delaware  Avenue,  giving  access  to  all 
the  industries  along  the  river.  It  was  expected 
to  cost  $24,000,000.  The  Delaware  River  was 
dredged  to  the  sea  to  a  depth  of  35  feet.  The 
Navy  Department  in  1916  began  a  concrete  dry- 
dock  10G4  by  212  feet,  capable  of  holding  any 
American  vessel.  During  the  War  the  ship- 
yards at  Hog  Island  received  orders  from  the 
Shipping  Board  for  120  vessels  of  7500  tons  and 
00  vessels  of  8800  tons  capacity.  Congress  ap- 
propriated $02,000,000  for  the  yards,  and  50 
shipways  were  laid  down  and  put  to  work 

The  municipal  government  was  reorganized 
in  1920.  A  small  council  of  21  members  re- 
placed the  old  bicameral  council  of  144,  the 
budget  system  was  adopted,  model  civil  service 
reforms  were  introduced,  including  provision 
for  a  civil  service  commission  of  three  persons, 
and  the  prohibition  of  any  political  activities 
by  firemen  or  policemen.  A  city  purchasing 
agent  and  a  city  architect  were  appointed,  and 
radical  changes  made  affecting  city  contracts. 

The  city -planning  commission  submitted  a 
zoning  plan  dividing  the  city  into  residential, 
commercial,  industrial  and  unrestricted  use 
districts,  five  height  districts,  and  five  area  dis- 
tricts. Eleven  miles  of  elevated  railroad  were 
built  during  the  ten  years,  from  the  Market 
Street  elevated  north  and  northeast,  roughly 
parallel  with  the  course  of  the  Delaware  River. 
It  was  made  to  be  as  noiseless  as  possfhle,  the 
steel  supports  being  partly  filled  with  concrete 
to  minimise  their  vibration,  and  the  rails  laid 
in  a  roadbed  of  broken  stone.  The  cars  also 
were  specially  constructed  for  silence.  In  1919 
a  $6,000,000  bond  issue  was  voted  for  a  new 
subway  system  which  was  to  run  north  and 
south  under  Broad  Street,  crossing  beneath 
the  older  subway  at  City  Hall.  Before  a  great, 
deal  of  work  had  been  done,  however,  the  in- 
creasing costs  caused  by  war-time  conditions 
forced  postponement  of  construction.  In  1923 


7004 


it  was  decided  to  take  up  the  work  once  more. 
Construction  was  to  begin  at  once  on  the  four 
track  subway  under  Broad  Street  from  Olney 
Avenue  to  Spruce  Street,  and  on  the  two  track 
subways  under  Hidge  Avenue,  Eighth  Street, 
Walnut  and  Chestnut  Streets,  and  the  elevated 
roadway  to  the  southwest  and  Darby.  The 
whole  work  was  estimated  to  cost  approx- 
imately $00,000,000. 

Work  was  begun  in  1921  on  a  suspension 
bridge  over  the  Delaware  River  from  Philadel- 
phia to  Camden  It  was  to  have  a  central 
span  1750  feet  long,  surpassing  all  previous 
suspension  bridges  by  150  feet,  and  was  to  be 
3536  feet  from  anchorage  to  anchorage,  and 
812G  feet  long  including  the  approaches.  For 
a  distance  of  800  feet  the  bridge  cleared  high 
water  by  135  feet.  The  total  cost  of  the  bridge, 
which  was  to  be  borne  by  the  two  States  of 
Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  and  by  the  two 
cities  of  Camden  and  Philadelphia,  was  es- 
timated at  $22,470,000;  and  the  cost  of  the 
real  estate  which  must  be  bought  was  $5,302,- 
000.  It  was  hoped  to  have  the  work  completed 
by  July  4,  1026,  when  the  city  planned  to 
celebrate  the  150th  anniversary  of  the  signing 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  A  bascule 
bridge  over  the  Schuylkill  was  built  by  the  city 
under  the  direction  of  the  Bureau  of  Surveys 
and  opened  in  1023.  See  RAPID  TRANSIT. 

PHILIPPINES.  The  largest  island  group 
of  the  Malay  archipelago,  a  possession  of  the 
United  States  since  1890.  The  population  of 
the  Philippines  increased  from  7,635,426  in 
1003  to  10,314,310  in  1018.  The  estimated 
population  in  1022  was  10,768,323.  The  pop- 
ulation per  square  mile  was  67  in  1003  and 
90  in  1018.  The  population  designated  as 
Christian  numbered  6,087,086  in  1003  and 
0,381,357  in  1018.  The  non-Christian  popula- 
tion, 647,740  and  032,053.  The  population  in 
1003  as  regards  sex  included  3,406,652  males 
and  3,401,034  females,  in  1018,  there  were 
5,177,568  males  and  5,136,742  females.  By 
races:  the  brown  race  numbered  6,014,880  in 
1003,  0,386,826  in  1018;  the  yellow  race  42,007 
in  1003,  50,H26  in  1018;  the  white  race  14,271 
in  1003,  12,300  in  1018;  the  Negro  race  1010  in 
1003,  7623  in  1018.  In  1003,  6,031,548  persons 
had  attained  Filipino  citizenship  and  in  1018 
this  number  ha'd  increased  to  0,428,291.  By  re- 
ligions, there  were  6,550,008  Roman  Catholics 
in  1003,  and  7,700,037  in  1018.  The  Protestants 
in  1918  numbered  124,575;  the  Mohammedans 
443,038;  Pagans,  508,506;  Buddhists,  24,263, 
and  all  others,  5454.  There  are  no  earlier  fig- 
ures for  these  last  classifications.  The  largest 
cities,  with  their  populations,  are  as  follows: 
Manila,  219,038  in  1003,  285,306  in  1018;  Cebu, 
31,070  in  1003,  65,502  in  1018;  Albay,  14,040 
in  1003,  52,756  in  1018;  Iloilo,  10,054  in  1003, 
40,114  in  1018;  Lepa,  37,034  in  1003,  46,577  in 
1018;  San  Carlos,  0074  in  1003,  42,453  in  1018. 
Other  cities  having  a  population  of  over  35,000 
in  1018  are  Batangas,  Argao,  Laoag,  Orznuc,  and 
Carcar. 

Mineral  Production.  The  islands  of  the 
Philippines  have  important  mineral  resources. 
Deposits  of  gold,  coal,  petroleum,  quicksilver, 
copper  and  platinum  exist,  especially  in  the  de- 
partment of  Mindanao  and  Sulu.  What  appar- 
ently was  one  of  the  largest  available  unex- 
ploited  iron  deposits  in  the  world  is  located  on 
the  Pacific  coast  in  the  Province  of  Surigao  and 
extends  from  tidewater  to  the  interior,  perhaps 


to  the  adjacent  province  of  Agusan.  In  the 
decade  1013-23,  the  Bureau  of  Science  did  valu- 
able work  in  the  examination  of  mineral  re- 
sources in  the  islands,  and  there  was  a  consid- 
erable development  in  mining  during  that  period. 
In  1015,  seven  companies  were  operating  mines; 
this  increased  in  1018  to  eleven;  it  fell,  in  1019 
to  two,  and  in  1020  to  three.  The  chief  activity 
during  this  period  was  in  the  examination  of  oil 
and  coal  fields.  In  1020,  American  drillers  be- 
gan  boring  for  oil  on  the  Bondoc  peninsula. 
The  production  of  gold  was  1,937,941  fine  grams 
in  1018;  1,070,651  in  1010;  1,920,753  in  1020; 
and  1,076,096  in  1921.  The  silver  production 
was  128,074  fine  grams  in  1018;  261,558  in  1919; 
307,343  in  1920;  and  814,621  in  1921.  These  are 
the  only  metallic  metals  of  importance  mined 
in  the  islands.  Of  the  non-metallic,  the  chief 
products  are  coal,  lime,  mineral  waters,  salt, 
sand  and  gravel,  and  stone.  The  coal  produc- 
tion in  1018  was  15,663  metric  tons;  in  1910, 
32,802;  in  1020,  58,088,  and  in  1021,  30,445.  The 
production  of  lime  in  1918  was  15,000  metric 
tons;  in  1010,  20,000;  in  1920,  3000;  and  in 
1021,  3500.  The  total  value  of  mineral  products 
in  1018  was  3,015,005  pesos;  in  1919,  4,622,241; 
in  1020,  5,126,711;  and  in  1921,  3,520,520. 

Agriculture.  Jn  the  decade  1913-23,  as  in 
the  previous  years  of  American  administra- 
tion, vigorous  and  unremitting  efforts  were  made 
to  encourage  and  extend  agriculture,  which  is 
the  principal  source  of  welfare  of  the  islands 
and  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people.  The  re- 
sults accomplished  were  nothing  short  of  remark- 
able. They  were  brought  about  by  improving 
communications  on  land  and  sea ;  lowering 
freight  rates;  furnishing  expert  professional  ad- 
vice; encouraging  the  building  up  of  agricultur- 
al schools;  urging  the  youths  of  the  country  to 
devote  themselves  to  agriculture;  by  continued 
efforts  to  eradicate  epidemic  diseases  among 
horses,  cattle  and  carabaos;  by  vigorous  cam- 
paigns against  locusts;  by  the  enactment  of 
health  legislation,  and  in  various  other  ways. 
During  the  decade  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture also  encouraged  the  raising  of  poultry  and 
the  breeding  of  hogs,  cattle  and  other  animals 
with  a  view  to  increasing  the  food  supply.  It 
encourages  the  breeding  of  carabaos,  cattle  and 
horses  for  work  purposes.  Under  the  supervi- 
sion of  the  Bureau  a  very  careful  study  was 
made,  with  a  view  to  prevention  and  control  of 
rinder  pest,  a  disease  which  every  year  carries 
oft  many  thousands  of  carabaos.  Kigoroug  regu- 
lations were  applied  against  the  importation  of 
cattle  from  countries  affected  with  rinder  pest 
and  other  cattle  diseases  and  a  rigid  quarantine 
was  constantly  maintained.  The  agricultural 
crops  are  often  affected  by  drought  and  other 
disadvantageous  conditions.  Following  fhe  suc- 
cessful rice  crop  of  1013,  the  crop  of  1914  wag 
damaged  by  a  great  drought,  which  resulted  in 
a  decrease  of  25  per  cent  in  the  production  The 
substitution  of  corn  as  a  food  product  made  con- 
siderable headway  during  the  decade.  The  crop 
for  1914  was  6,265,746  cabans,  an  increase  of  44 
per  cent  over  the  preceding  year.  The  produc- 
tion of  corn  was  300,799  metric  tons  in  1018; 
332,636  in  1010;  431,268  in  1920;  402,714  in 
1021 ;  and  375,362  in  1022.  The  most  important 
crop  in  the  islands  is  rice.  The  area  under  cul- 
tivation increased  from  1,244,037  hectares  in 
1014  to  1,661,430  hectares  in  1022.  The  pro- 
duction increased  from  077,682,050  kilos  in  1014 
to  1,124,000,000  kilos  in  1022.  The  value  of 


PHILIPPINES 


the  product  increased  from  57,261,760  pesos  in 
1914  to  139,935,080  pesos  in  1922.  Second  in 
point  of  value  of  the  product  is  sugar  cane.  The 
area  cultivated  increased  from  169,436  hectares 
in  1914  to  240,820  hectares  in  1922.  The  value 
of  the  sugar  cane  increased  from  28,631,545 
pesos  in  1914  to  59,948,250  pesos  in  1922. 
Third  in  importance  is  coconuts:  the  production 
increased  from  591,266,399  nuts  in  1914  to  1,- 
467,684,000  in  1922,  while  the  value  increased 
from  25,651,764  pesos  in  1921  to  55,267,680  in 
1922  The  production  of  abaca,  or  manila  hemp, 
which  is  an  important  industry,  decreased  from 
137,635,663  kilos,  valued  at  29,068,009  pesos  in 
1914  to  121,046,019,  valued  at  19,918,860,  in 
1922.  The  tobacco  industry  showed  a  decrease 
also;  in  1914,  there  were  produced  46,731,463 
kilos  valued  at  7,109,367  pesos,  and  in  1922, 
29,927,000  kilos  valued  at  6,019,870  pesos.  The 
production  of  coffee,  on  the  other  hand,  increased 
during  the  decade.  The  production  in  1914  was 
620,408  kilos  valued  at  302,771  pesos,  which 
increased  to  1,149,000  valued  at  822,800.  The 
production  of  cacao  increased  from  565,802 
kilos  in  1914  with  a  value  of  354,057  pesos,  to 
084,000  kilos  with  a  value  of  1,148,100  pesos  in 
1022  The  total  area  of  land  cultivated  under 
the  nine  principal  crops  in  1017  was  2,721,182 
hectares,  out  of  a  total  area  of  29,625,974 
hectares.  This  had  increased  in  1919  to  3,005,- 
322  hectares.  The  total  area  of  cultivated  farms 
increased  from  1,298,845  hectares  in  1903  to  2,- 
415,778  hectares  in  1918.  The  total  area  of 
farms,  including  cultivated  and  uncultivated, 
increased  from  2,B27,704  hectares  in  1903  to 
4,563,723  in  1918.  Tie  average  size  of  the  cul- 
tivated farms  decreased  from  159.3  hectares  in 
1903  to  123.6  in  1918. 

The  progress  of  the  live  stock  industry  in  the 
islands    is    indicated   by    the   statistics    in    the 


1025 


191.T 

1916 

1918 

1920 

Cattle    
Oarabaos     . 
Horses      and 
mules     . 
QoatR     ...    . 
?heop      .... 
loffs 

418,114 
1,047,164 

179,089 
529,180 
104,147 
2,086.736 

567,456 
1,228,836 

203,364 
661.859 
142,091 
2,734,803 

601,297 
1,338,082 

234,041 
751,077 
165,686 
2,894,403 

760,920 
1.464,285 

268,999 
821,661 
195,705 
3,309,183 

table.  It  may  be  noted  that  in  1916  the  cattle 
and  carahaos  killed  by  rinder  pest  numbered 
18,251,  in  1918,  15,747,  in  1920,  10,911  and  in 
1922,  34,300  In  spite  of  the  difficulties  en- 
countered, gratifying  progress  was  made  in  the 
production  of  crops  in  the  Philippines,  especial- 
ly in  the  last  three  years  of  the  decade.  In 
1920  there  was  a  production  far  in  advance 
of  any  previous  annual  period.  In  1917  the 
aggregate  value  of  six  leading  crops  was  241,- 
000,000  pesos;  in  1918  it  advanced  to  350,- 
000,000  pesos;  in  1919  to  458,000,000  pesos  and 
in  1920  to  087,000,000.  While  much  of  this 
increase  in  the  money  value  was  due  to 
prevailing  high  prices,  there  was  an  increase 
in  the  acreage  under  cultivation  and  in 
the  yield.  In  1920,  less  rice  was  imported  than 
in  the  previous  year  and  the  production  came 
nearest  to  meeting  the  demand  for  home  con- 
sumption C'orn  also  showed  an  increase  in 
acreage  arid  in  value.  The  veterinary  division 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Natural 
Resources  performs  valuable  services  by  inocu- 
lating cattle  against  rinder  pest  with  an  anti- 
rinder  pest  serum.  During  1920,  over  10,000 
animals  were  immunized  by  inoculation.  Sev- 


eral experiment  stations  are  maintained  in  the 
islands  as  well  as  breeding  stations  for  horses, 
cattle,  swine  and  poultry.  The  Plant  Industry 
Division  exercises  supervision  over  plant  and 
seed  selection,  tests  fertilizers  and  conducts  ex- 
ploration and  investigation  into  various  sub- 
jects connected  with  plant  industry.  In  1922, 
12  stations  and  17  projects  were  maintained. 

Manufactures.  While  the  manufacturing 
development  in  the  Philippines  has  not  kept 
pace  with  agricultural  and  commercial  develop- 
ment, there  has  been  considerable  progress,  as  is 
indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  number  of  es- 
tablishments increased  from  3259  in  1903  to 
8354  in  1918;  wage  earners  increased  in  number 
from  79,906  in  1903  to  143,465  in  191ff;  capital 
invested  increased  from  53,159,580  pesos  in  1903 
to  22,473,592  in  1918;  and  value  of  the  products 
increased  from  41,700,215  pesos  in  1903  to  356,- 
094,433  in  1918,  while  the  value  added  by  man- 
ufacture increased  from  16,650,763  pesos  in  1903 
to  195,217,279  in  1918.  The  manufacture  of 
sugar  is  the  most  important  industry.  Its  rapid 
development  may  be  shown  by  the  fact  that  the 
value  of  the  product  in  1903  was  6,603,006  pesos 
and  in  1918,  82,145,962  pesos.  Oil  works  rank 
second  in  value  of  product,  and  had  a  remarka- 
bly rapid  development,  increasing  from  a  value 
of  302,032  pesos  in  1903  to  59,722,483  in  191S. 
Rice  mills  increased  the  value  of  their  product 
from  1,010,965  pesos  in  1903  to  43,462,805  in 
1918  *  The  abaca  or  hemp-pressing  industry  is 
also  important;  the  value  of  the  products  in 
1918  were  44,844,566  pesos.  There  weie  no  com- 
parative figures  for  1903  as  this  industry  had 
not  then  developed.  The  product  of  cigar  and 
cigarette  factories  increased  from  8,740,516  pes- 
os in  1903  to  26,623,275  in  1918.  Other  impor- 
tant industries  are  lumber  mills,  rope  factories, 
tailor  shops,  boatbuilding,  lithography,  print- 
ing and  bookbinding.  The  manufacture  of  coco- 
nut oil  and  copra  is  of  great  increasing  impor- 
tance. In  1922,  there  were  produced  366,808,- 
888  kilos  of  copra  and  2,656,813  kilos  of  coco- 
nut oil. 

Transportation.  The  length  of  the  railway 
lines  in  the  islands  increased  in  the  island  of 
Luzon,  from  88360  kilometers  in  1913  to  1,- 
039.14  in  1922.  In  Cebu  and  Panay  the  mileage 
remained  stationary  at  212  kilometers  in  the 
two  periods.  The  total  passenger  and  freight 
revenue  in  the  lines  of  Luzon,  which  includes 
the  city  of  Manila,  increased  from  4,878,767 
pesos  in  1913  to  11,033,400  in  1922.  In  the 
city  of  Manila,  there  were  about  80  miles  of 
electric  railways  which  carried  over  36,000,000 
persons  annually.  The  number  of  automobiles 
in  the  islands  increased  greatly;  in  1922  there 
were  about  10,000,  and  nearly  3000  automobile 
trucks.  The  mileage  of  telephone  wire  increas- 
ed from  9123  kilometers  in  1918  to  10,360  in 
1922.  There  were,  in  1922,  about  36,000 
kilometers  of  telephone  wire. 

Education.  The  development  of  education 
in  the  islands  has  been  one  of  the  chief  concerns 
of  the  government  since  the  establishment  of 
American  rule,  and  the  efforts  have  been  ex- 
traordinarily successful.  From  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  1900,  a 
great  public  school  system  has  been  developed 
in  the  islands.  This  achievement  has  been 
made  possible  only  through  persistent  strug- 
gles against  adverse  conditions.  Buildings  and 
equipment  had  to  be  renewed  and  teachers  hid 
to  be  trained.  The  people  in  general  had  to  be 


PHILIPPINES 


1006 


educated  to  appreciate  the  value  of  the  public 
schools  and  their  interest  in  them  and  their 
readiness  to  support  them  ia  in  distinct  con- 
trast to  the  apathy  which  existed  at  the  time 
the  system  was  founded.  Their  change  of  atti- 
tude is  an  indication  of  an  intellectual  awaken- 
ing which  scarcely  finds  a  parallel  in  history. 
At  the  time  the  Bureau  was  established,  there 
were  over  1,000,000  children  of  school  age  in 
the  islands  and  it  was  the  aim  of  the  bureau 
to  bring  800,000  of  these  into  the  public  schools 
at  the  earliest  possible  date.  In  1913-14,  the 
annual  enrollment  for  the  school  year  was  621,- 
000.  This  had  increased  in  1921-22  to  1,077,- 
342.  The  average  monthly  enrollment  in  the 
latter  year  was  975,092,  and  the  average  daily 
attendance  was  909,947.  The  problem  of  teach- 
ers was  a  very  serious  one;  at  first  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  instructors  in  the  schools  were 
American,  but  the  training  of  Filipino  teachers 
at  the  Philippine  Normal  School,  the  Philippine 
School  of  Arts  and  Trades,  the  provincial 
secondary  schools,  the  intermediate  schools,  and 
the  University  of  the  Philippines  resulted  in  a 
large  proportion  of  well-trained  native  teachers. 
The  number  of  male  American  teachers  de- 
creased from  208  in  1917-18  to  134  in  1921-22, 
while  the  male  Filipino  teachers  increased  from 
8421  to  14,417.  The  number  of  female  Ameri- 
can teachers  increased  from  138  in  1917-18  to 
231  in  1921-22;  Filipino  female  teachers  in 
1917-18  numbered  4400  and  9253  in  192K22. 

Special  forms  of  education,  such  as  physical, 
agricultural  and  industrial  instruction  were 
successful  from  the  beginning.  In  1920,  there 
were  over  250  agricultural  schools;  15  of  these 
were  classed  as  agricultural  schools,  14  as  farm 
schools  and  222  as  settlement  farm  schools.  The 
famous  Central  Luzon  Agricultural  School  at 
Munoz  is  said  to  be  the  best  institution  of  its 
kind  in  the  Orient.  Improvement  in  the  quality 
and  quantity  of  the  industrial  work  done  in 
the  public  schools  was  steady.  In  1919-20,  the 
school  children  produced  industrial  articles 
worth  over  1,300,000  pesos.  Records  attained 
by  students  of  the  public  schools  of  the  Philip- 
pines in  the  carnival  interscholastic  games  and 
Far  Eastern  meets  show  conclusively  that  physi- 
cal education  also  was  receiving  the  closest  at- 
tention. Instruction  in  civics,  hygiene  and 
sanitation  is  given  in  the  first  six  grades  of  the 
public  schools.  The  spread  of  education  among 
the  non-Christian  tribes  has  been  a  difficult 
problem.  The  purpose  of  the  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion has  been  to  bring  these  people  to  the  same 
cultural  level  of  their  Christian  brethren  and 
at  the  same  time  to  strengthen  the  bond  of 
union  between  them  and  their  Christian  kins- 
men. To  bring  about  this  result,  a  large  num- 
ber of  Christian  Filipino  teachers  were  assigned 
during  the  decade  1913-23  to  these  provinces. 
In  1920,  there  were  1728  of  these  teachers. 
In  addition  to  the  public  schools  there  were 
many  private  schools  in  the  island.  These,  in 
1921-22,  numbered  525,  with  a  total  enrollment 
of  64,835,  over  double  the  enrollment  of  1913. 
The  total  expenditures  for  public  schools  in 
1922  was  16,382,348  pesos,  compared  with  6,- 
262,778  pesos  in  1913.  In  1921-22,  there  were 
in  the  islands  371  public  vocational  schools. 
Of  these  338  were  schools  of  agriculture;  23 
were  trade  schools  and  7  were  normal  schools. 
The  University  of  the  Philippines  at  Manila 
steadily  increased  in  influence  and  importance. 
It  is  composed  of  the  Colleges  of  Agriculture, 


Education,  Engineering,  Liberal  Alia,  Law, 
Medicine  and  Surgery,  Veterinary  Science, 
Junior  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  and  Schools  of 
Dentistry  and  Pharmacy.  Also  connected  with 
the  university  is  the  Conservatory  of  Music, 
School  of  Fine  Arts,  School  of  Forestry,  School 
of  Nursing,  and  University  High  School.  The 
total  attendance  in  1921-22  was  4063  com- 
pared with  an  enrollment  of  1398  in  1913. 

Finance.  Financial  conditions  in  the  islands 
suffered  in  the  decade  1913-23  from  the  dis- 
turbances created  in  general  by  the  War  and 
also  by  local  conditions.  The  Philippine  Na- 
tional Bank,  the  largest  financial  institution  in 
the  island  (see  Banking,  below),  suffered  dur- 
ing 1920  as  a  result  of  an  extension  of  its 
loans  for  the  development  of  the  industrial  and 
commercial  resources  of  the  islands.  This  had 
an  unfavorable  result  on  the  finances  of  the 
Territory.  The  general  progress  of  financial  ad- 
ministration during  the  decade  will  be  noted 
from  the  fact  that  the  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year 
1913  amounted  to  26,979,400.64  pesos  and  the 
expenditures  to  29,608,082.54  pesos.  In  1920,  the 
receipts  amounted  to  90,905,779.72  pesos  and  the 
expenditures  to  75,511,145.73  pesos.  There  was  a 
surplus  at  the  end  of  the  year  of  15,394,633.99 
pesos.  In  1922,  the  receipts  of  the  insular 
government  amounted  to  130,649,853  and  the 
expenditures  to  78,911,424,  leaving  a  surplus  of 
51,738,430  pesos.  The  bonded  indebtedness  of 
the  islands  in  1913  was  32,250,000  pesos,  and  in 
1922  was  149,420,000  pesos. 

Trade  and  Commerce.  The  development  of 
trade  and  commerce  in  the  islands  during  tlio 
decade  1913-23  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of 
figures  for  several  years  oil  the  decade.  The 
total  foreign  trade  in  1913  amounted  to  202,- 
171,484  pesos,  of  which  106,625,372  were  im- 
ports and  95,545,912  exports.  The  total  trade 
had  increased  by  1918  to  407,587,387  pesos,  of 
which  270,388,904  were  exports  and  197.198.42:1 
imports.  In  1920,  the  total  trade  exeeeded  000,- 
000,000  pesos,  but  owing  to  adverse  conditions 
in  the  two  years  following,  it  fell,  in  1922,  to 
351,561,885  pesos,  of  which  191,160,526  were 
exports  and  160,395,289  were  imports.  The 
total  trade  of  the  United  States  in  1922  amount- 
ed to  223,699,852  pesos,  compared  with  8(5,220,- 
558  in  1913.  The  exports  in  1922  to  the  United 
States  amounted  to  128,223,201  pesos  and  the 
imports  from  the  United  States  to  95,476,651 
pesos.  The  most  important  articles  exported 
from  the  islands  are  copra,  sugar,  hemp,  to- 
bacco and  oils.  The  leading  articles  imported 
are  cotton  and  its  manufactures,  agricultural 
implements,  iron  and  steel,  and  oils.  The 
domestic  commerce  in  1922  amounted  to  981,- 
782,066  pesos,  compared  with  661,640,304  pesos 
in  1914. 

Health  and  Sanitation.  Perhaps  the  great- 
est problem  faced  by  the  American  government 
in  trie  Philippines  was  the  spreading  of  ideas 
of  modern  sanitation  among  the  people.  For  the 
most  part  the  average  Filipino  is  born,  lives 
and  dies  without  medical  attendance  or  nursing. 
There  is  also  great  lack  of  hospitals  and  dis- 
pensaries. Although  great  progress  was  made 
in  sanitation  during  the  decade  1913-23,  es- 
pecially during  the  first  years  of  the  period, 
there  was  a  steady  increase  in  recent  years  in 
the  number  of  preventable  diseases,  especiallv 
typhoid,  malaria,  beri-beri,  and  tuberculosis. 
Epidemics  of  cholera  and  other  diseases  were 
frequent  The  death  rate  per  1000  in  the  is- 


PHILIPPINES 


1037 


PHILIPPINES 


lands  waa  16.817  in  1913;  18.563  in  1914;  35.467 
in  1918;  19.385  in  1921.  As  a  result  of  in- 
tensive general  vaccination,  smallpox  almost  en- 
tirely disappeared  from  the  islands.  Cholera, 
however,  continued  more  or  less  prevalent. 
There  was  an  outbreak  of  considerable  intensity 
in  1910.  Typhoid  fever  caused  many  deaths, 
and  systematic  anti-typhoid  vaccination  carried 
on  by  the  health  service  contributed  much  to 
the  gradual  diminution  of  this  disease.  An 
active  educational  campaign  was  carried  on 
through  the  decade  by  public  conferences,  lec- 
tures, administrations,  pamphlets  and  other 
measures.  Leprosy,  which  is  common  in  the  is- 
lands, was  greatly  reduced  by  the  administra- 
tion of  various  esters  of  chaulraoogra.  A  leper 
colony  is  maintained  at  Culion,  where  about 
500  persons  receive  this  treatment  annually. 
Much  excellent  work  was  done  by  missionary 
societies  during  the  decade  in  the  establishment 
of  hospitals  and  dispensaries  The  Rockefeller 
Foundation  also  contributed  money  and  person- 
nel with  excellent  results.  A  school  for  sani- 
tary inspectors  was  conducted,  which  included 
a  six  months'  intensive  training  course  for  the 
nurses 

Banking.  The  resources  of  the  banks  in  the 
Philippines  increased  from  63,745,929  pesos  in 
1913  to  431,405,077  in  1920.  In  1922,  they 
amounted  to  326,203,461  pesos.  The  Filipino 
National  Bank  was  established  in  1916  and  by 
law  was  made  the  depository  of  all  provincial 
and  municipal  governments  All  government 
funds  were  transferred  from  other  banks  to  this 
bank.  As  the  result  of  inefficient  management, 
the  bank  suffered  a  series  of  losses  in  1920 
which  reached  a  total  of  $22,500,000  The 
American  government,  becoming  alarmed  at  the 
situation,  secured  the  services  of  an  experienced 
banker  from  the  United  States  under  whose 
guidance  the  bank  was  placed  on  a  sounder 
footing  A  large  part  of  the  assets,  however, 
had  been  loaned  to  concerns  which  for  many 
years  will  be  unable  to  repay  them.  These 
were  chiefly  sugar  centrals  and  coconut-oil 
factories.  The  bank  also  established  branches 
and  agencies  throughout  the  islands  in  charge 
of  which  were  placed  untrained  Filipinos,  and 
these  branches,  without  exception,  were  mis- 
managed. These  losses  seriously  involved  the 
Philippine  government  and  its  credit  was 
severely  impaired  by  the  fact  that  it  was  not 
able  to  meet  its  obligations. 

Government.  The  insular  government  is 
divided  into  the  legislative,  executive  and  judi- 
cial branches.  At  the  head  of  the  executive 
branch,  since  the  passage  of  the  Organic  Act 
of  1916,  is  the  governor-general,  who  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  by  and  with  the  ad- 
vice and  consent  of  the  Senate.  He  is  assisted 


who  in  a  regularly  organized  province  is  an 
elected  official.  He,  together  with  the  other 
two  elected  members,  forms  the  provincial 
board  Which  constitutes  the  legislative  branch 
of  the  provincial  government.  In  some  of  the 
specially  organized  provinces,  the  provincial 
governors  are  elected  and  any  other  appointive 
officials  There  are  in  the  Philippines  890 
municipalities  The  executive  of  a  municipality 
is  called  a  municipal  president.  The  municipal 
council,  which  is  the  legislative  branch  of  the 
municipal  government,  consists  of  from  8  to  19 
councilors,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  muni- 
cipality. The  Legislature  is  made  up  of  the 
Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives.  Of 
the  24  senators  only  two  are  appointed  by  the 
governor-general.  All  the  others  are  elected  by 
popular  vote.  The  93  representatives  are  also 
elected,  with  the  exception  of  nine,  who  are 
appointed. 

Judiciary.  The  administration  of  justice 
is  entrusted  to  the  Supreme  Court,  in  the  courts 
of  first  instance,  the  municipal  court  of  the 
city  of  Manila,  and  the  courts  of  justices  of 
the  peace.  The  Supreme  Court  is  made  up  of 
nine  justices,  one  of  whom  is  chief  justice. 
Decisions  of  the  Supreme  Court  may  be  ap- 
pealed to  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in 
certain  cases. 

Political  Events.  The  decade  1913-23  in- 
cluded some  of  the  most  important  events  since 
the  American  occupation.  It  was  marked  by  the 
passage  by  Congress,  in  1916,  of  an  Organic 
Act  which  established  the  form  of  government 
for  the  islands.  From  1913  to  1916,  the  period 
was  marked  by  political  changes  which  had  a 
marked  influence  on  the  later  political  history 
of  the  Territory.  From  1907  to  1913,  under 
the  influence  of  the  Philippine  Commission, 
many  constructive  measures  were  passed  and 
special  emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  improve- 
ment of  education  and  the  construction  of  perma- 
nent improvements  From  1913  to  1916,  the 
restraining  influence  of  the  Commission  was 
withdrawn  by  the  appointment  of  a  majority 
of  Filipinos  in  that  body. 

In  September,  1913,  Francis  Burton  Harrison 
was  appointed  Governor-General  of  the  Islands 
of  the  Philippines,  succeeding  W.  Cameron 
Forbes.  In  conformity  with  his  previously  an- 
nounced policy,  President  Wilson  nominated  a 
maiority  of  the  Filipinos  as  members  of  the 
Commission.  Since  the  membership  of  the 
lower  house  of  the  Philippine  Assembly  was  al- 
ready composed  entirely  of  elected  Filipinos, 
this  "placed  the  majority  vote  of  the  Filipino 
legislation  in  the  hands  of  the  Filipino  people. 
The  Legislature  in  1914  passed  many  important 
measures,  especially  relating  to  finances.  Gover- 
nor Harriwon  carried  on  the  policies  of  the  Fed- 


in  the  performance  of  his  duties  by  the  depart-  eral  administration  by  appointment  of  an  increas- 
ment  secretaries.  All  these,  with  the  excep-  '"-  «»™^-  «*  wis«s««  i,«a/ifl  «f  «,«  «vrt«nfivo 
tion  of  the  secretary  of  public  instruction,  who 
is  also  vice  governor-general  and  is  appointed 
by  the  President,  were  Filipinos  in  1924. 
These  officers  are  appointed  by  the  governor- 
general.  The  other  officials  of  the  government, 
appointed  by  the  President,  are  the  auditor,  and 
the  deputy  auditor,  and  the  nine  justices 
of  the  Supreme  Court.  As  regards  provincial 
government,  the  Philippines  are  divided  into 
48  provinces,  36  of  which  are  known  as  regu- 
larly organized  provinces  and  the  remaining  12 
as  specially  organized  provinces.  The  chief  ex- 
ecutive of  a  province  is  the  provincial  governor, 


ing  number  of  Filipino  heads  of  the  executive 
branches  of  the  govern  men  t.  During  1914  there 
occurred  the  so-called  Ricarte  movement  A 
man  of  this  name,  from  a  refuge  in  Hongkong, 
attempted  to  create  an  uprising  among  the 
more  ignorant  classes  of  persons  in  Manila  and 
elsewhere  This  was  quelled  without  serious 
trouble.  In  1915,  the  greater  part  of  the  legis- 
lative sessions  was  devoted  to  consideration  of 
financial  reform  and  the  economic  development 
of  the  islands.  During  this  year  there  were 
practically  no  disturbances  requiring  the  at- 
tention of  the  constabulary  in  any  part  of 
the  islands.  The  year  1916  was  signalized  by 


MOTS 


1008 


PHILLIPS 


the  passage  in  Congress  of  a  new  Organic  Act 
which  was  approved  by  President  Wilson  on 
Aug.  29,  1916,  and  which  did  away  with  the 
Philippine  Commission  and  established  a  gover- 
nor-general as  the  executive  head.  It  estab- 
lished the  executive,  legislative  and  judiciary 
departments  as  described  in  the  paragraph 
Government  above. 

The  first  session  of  the  Philippine  Legislature 
created  by  the  bill  convened  in  Manila  on  Oct. 
16,  1916.  For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
the  islands,  the  non-Christian  tribes  were  repre- 
sented in  the  legislative  branch  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

Congress,  in  1917,  passed  no  measures  di- 
rectly affecting  the  Philippines.  The  Immigra- 
tion Act  passed  in  that  year  applied  to  the  is- 
lands but  only  until  superseded  by  an  act  of 
the  Philippine  Legislature  on  the  subject.  The 
first  election  for  senators  in  the  Philippines  was 
held  in  October,  1916,  and  at  the  meeting  of 
the  Legislature  on  October  16  of  that  year,  the 
Philippine  Commission  ceased  to  exist.  The 
session  of  the  Legislature  held  in  1917  creat- 
ed a  new  budget  system  which  was  approv- 
ed by  the  ProHident.  A  currency  act  pro- 
vided for  the  reduction  of  the  bullion  value  of 
Philippine  coins  when  circumstances  required, 
and  made  other  provisions  in  relation  to  the 
currency. 

The  year  1919  was  one  of  political  activity 
and  economic  disturbance  in  tbe  islands,  as  a 
result  of  conditions  brought  about  by  the  end 
of  the  War.  The  statements  of  the  Allied 
leaders  during  and  after  the  War  in  regard 
to  the  rights  and  liberties  of  small  nationalities 
had  been  widespread  in  the  Philippines  and  led 
to  a  demand  on  the  part  of  a  strong  political 
element  for  immediate  independence.  Imme- 
diately after  the  signing  of  the  Armistice,  the 
Filipino  Legislature  appointed  a  commission  to 
the  United  States  ostensibly  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  improved  economic  relations,  but 
before  its  departure  for  the  United  States  the 
commission  was  instructed  to  present  the  case 
for  immediate  independence.  The  agitation  for 
independence,  while  it  continued  in  1920,  was 
less  strenuously  advocated.  By  1920,  all  the 
branches  of  the  government,  except  the  Supreme 
Court,  had  been  Filipinized.  Following  the  elec- 
tion of  President  Harding  in  1921,  Governor-Gen- 
eral Harrison  resigned  and  was  succeeded  on  Oc- 
tober 15  of  that  year  by  General  Leonard  Wood, 
who,  with  W.  Cameron  Forbes,  formerly  governor- 
general,  had  been  appointed  as  a  special  com- 
missioner to  the  Philippines  to  examine  the 
political  and  economic  conditions.  The  Com- 
mission arrived  in  Manila  on  May  4,  1921,  and 
at  once  undertook  a  general  survey  into  the 
government  and  conditions  of  the  islands.  Fol- 
lowing General  Wood's  service  as  chairman  of 
the  Commission,  he  was  appointed,  in  October, 
1921,  governor-general  of  the  islands.  General 
Wood  and  Mr.  Forbes,  in  their  report  on  the 
work  of  the  Commission,  recommended  that  the 
present  general  status  of  the  Philippines  con- 
tinue until  the  people  have  had  time  to  absorb 
and  thoroughly  master  the  power  already  in 
their  hands.  They  recommended  also  that  the 
governor-general  have  authority  commensurate 
with  the  responsibilities  of  his  position.  The 
report  concluded  as  follows:  "We  recommend 
that  under  no  circumstances  should  the  Ameri- 
can government  permit  to  be  established  in 
the  Philippine  Islands  a  situation  which  will 


leave  the  United  States  in  a  position  of  re- 
sponsibility without  authority." 

At  the  very  outset  of  his  administration, 
Governor  Wood  found  himself  bitterly  opposed 
bv  the  aggressive  advocates  of  independence. 
Controversy  over  appointments  and  other  de- 
tails of  administration  in  1922  resulted  in  a 
demand  on  the  part  of  political  leaders  for  Gov- 
ernor Wood's  recall.  He  was,  however,  upheld 
in  all  his  acts  by  President  Harding.  The 
Legislature  of  1921  and  1922  provided  for  the 
issuance  of  bonds  in  the  amount  of  $5,000,000 
for  the  purpose  of  protecting  the  financial  in- 
terests of  the  government.  Two  parties,  the 
Collectivista  or  coalition  party,  headed  by 
Manuel  Quezon  and  Sefior  Osmena,  the  two 
most  powerful  politicians  in  the  islands,  and 
the  so-called  Democratic  party,  were  the  most 
important  political  organizations  in  the  islands. 
The  Collect! vistas  carried  on,  from  1921  to 
1924,  an  aggressive  campaign  for  independence 
and  against  the  administration  of  General 
Wood.  The  Democratic  party  took  the  more 
moderate  position.  While  it  stood  for  inde- 
pendence, it  assailed  the  leaders  of  the  other 
party  as  grossly  corrupt  and  charged  them  with 
misapplication  of  funds.  In  February,  1923,  the 
Legislature  chose  Isauro  Gabaldon  and  Pedro 
Guevara  resident  commissioners  in  Washington. 
The  Collect! vistas  refused  to  cooperate  with 
Governor-General  Wood  in  the  work  of  the  legis- 
lation. The  Philippine  Independence  Commis- 
sion, in  November,  1923,  appointed  Manuel 
Roxas  speaker  of  the  Insular  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, commissioner  to  visit  Washington 
and  explain  the  Filipino  side  in  the  contro- 
versies with  the  governor-general.  A  resolution 
was  introduced  in  Congress,  in  December,  for  an 
investigation  of  the  administration  of  General 
Wood  in  the  Philippines.  The  resolution  failed 
of  passage.  The  Filipino  Independence  Com- 
mission, in  January,  1924,  presented  to  Con- 
gress a  memorial  denouncing  the  administration 
of  General  WTood  and  asking  for  the  immediate 
independence  of  the  islands.  In  March,  1924, 
Sefior  Roxas  presented  tbe  arguments  for  in- 
dependence to  President  Coolidge,  who  replied  in 
a  letter  reviewing  the  Philippine  situation  and 
declaring  that  "Although  they  have  made  won- 
derful advances  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century, 
the  Filipino  people  are  by  no  means  equipped, 
either  in  wealth  or  experience,  to  undertake 
the  heavy  burden  which  would  be  imposed  upon 
them  with  political  independence.  Their  posi- 
tion in  the  world  is  such  that  without  American 
protection  there  would  be  the  unrestricted 
temptation  to  maintain  a  costly  diplomatic 
service  and  an  ineffective  but  costly  military 
and  naval  service."  He  said  also  "The  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  has  full  confidence  in 
the  ability,  good  intentions,  fairness  and  sin- 
cerity of  the  present  Governor-General.  It  is 
convinced  that  he  has  intended  to  act,  and  has 
acted  within  the  scope  of  his  proper  and  consti- 
tutional authority."  The  Insular  Affairs  Com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Representatives,  in 
March,  1924,  voted  the  report  granting  inde- 
pendence to  the  islands.  This  was  afterwards 
modified  to  provide  for  such  independence  in 
25  years.  No  action  was  taken  on  this  resolu- 
tion prior  to  the  adjournment  of  Congress  in 
June,  1924. 

PHILLIPS,  CHARLES  (1880-  ).  An 
American  poet  and  playwright,  born  at  New 
Richmond,  Wis.,  and  educated  there  and  in 


PHILLIPS 


1029 


PHILOLOGY 


(Columbia),  and  John  Williams  White    (Har- 
vard). 

Professor  (iilderslecve,  whose  death  occurred 


Toronto.  He  had  much  experience  as  an  edi-  (Johns  Hopkins),  James  Rignall  Wheeler 
tor,  and  during  the  War  served  overseas.  "'«!«—•*:->  ---*  *_,...  «««-•  «^«x_  ,TT._ 
Among  his  host  books  are:  Back  Home — An 

Old-Fashioned  Poem  (5th  ed.,  1913)  ;  The  Divine  

Friend,  a  poetic  drama  produced  by  Margaret  on  Jan.  9,  1924,  was  for  40  years  editor  of  the 
Anglin  in  1015;  Tarcisius,  a  drama  (1917);  A  American  Journal  of  Philology.  In  the  Year 
**  '  ~"  '"'  ""10V  '  «--•--•  *--  «-»  Book  for  1921,  p.  553,  reference  was  made  to  the 

fact  that  vol.  xl,  No.  4,  of  that  journal  ap- 
peared on  Oct.  3,  1921,  the  ninetieth  anni- 
versary of  the  birth  of  Professor  Cildersleeve, 


Buccaneer  of  Christ  (1918);  A  Saint  for  Sol- 
diers (1918)  ;  The  New  Poland  (London,  1923)  ; 
The  Teachers9  Year  (1924). 

PHILLIPS,       WILLIAM       (1878-         ).    An 


American  diplomat,  born  at  Beverley,  Mass.,  and  that  the  whole  volume  was  dedicated  to 
and  educated  at  Johns  Hopkins  University  and  him.  The  number  mentioned  contains  an  "In- 
the  Harvard  Law  School  He  was  private  sec-  dex  Scoliodroniicus,"  of  13  pages,  which  lists 
rotary  to  the  AmbasHador  to  Great  Britain  from  Professor  Gildersleeve's  extrasyntactical  contri- 
1903  to  1905  and  served  in  various  capacities  butions  to  the  American  Journal  of  Philology, 
in  the  State  Department  until  1908.  He  wag  and  supplements  the  "Indiculua  Syntacticus," 
appointed  chief  of  the  division  of  Far  Eastern  published  in  the  same  periodical  (vol.  xxxvi, 
affairs  and  then  became  First  Secretary  of  the  1^17),  a  bibliography  of  Professor  Gilder- 
American  Embassy  in  London.  He  served  again  sleeve's  long  array  of  very  valuable  notes,  pub- 
in  the  State  Department  and  from  1917  to  1920  lislied  in  the  American  Journal  of  Philology,  in 
was  Assistant  Secretary  of  State.  From  the  the  sphere  of  syntax. 

latter    year    to    1922    he    was    minister    to    the  One  of  the  most  interesting  developments  dur- 

Xctherlancls  and  was  appointed  Under-Secretary  ing    the    decade    was    to    be    seen    in    the    ef- 

of   State   in    1922.     In    1924   he   was   appointed  forts    made,    especially    in    England,    America, 


Minister  to  Belgium. 

PHILOLOGY,  CLASSICAL.     The  10  years  dat 


and  Germany,  to  bring  a  knowledge  of  the  con- 
tents   of    the    classical    authors,    and    of    their 


ing  from  Aug.  1,  1914,  were  trying  years  for  value,  to  a  wider  array  of  readers.  Of  prime 
one  who  sought  to  survey  the  wide  field  of  importance  here  ia  the'Loeb  Classical  Library, 
classical  philology.  The  War  in  Europe,  1914-  whose  aim  is  to  present  all  the  more  important 


18,  interrupted  the  publication  of  periodicals 
and  books,  especially  the  former  Even  in  1924, 
conditions  in  the  book  trade  abroad  were  still 
unbalanced.  It  was  hard  to  find  out  what  was 
iK'ing  published  abroad,  and  still  harder  to  ob- 
tain copies  of  books. 


classical  authors,  Greek  and  Latin,  with  the 
ancient  text  on  one  page  and  an  English  trans- 
lation on  the  opposite  page.  For  general  ob- 
servations on  the  Library  see  The  Classical 
Weekly  (vol.  v,  pp.  126-127;  vol.  vi,  pp  82-80, 
127);  for  detailed  discussions  (by  C._  Knapp) 


Inevitably,    therefore,    in    the    present   article  of  various  volumes  of  the  Library  see  The  Class- 

the    major   emphasis    is    laid    on    the    work    of  ical  Weekly   (vol.  vii,  p.   192;  vol.  xii,  pp.  49- 

American  classical  scholars.     Further,  it  ia  pos-  CA   **  co   "c  oa '    — '-'-    —    lje   1Jif    lpn  1"' 

sible  only  to  discuss  certain  marked  movements 


50,  57-58,  65-60;  vol   xiii,  pp.  145-147,  153-154, 
161-162,  169-170;  vol.  xv,  pp.  187-190,  197-199; 


and  tendencies,  and  to  name  a  few  of  the  more      vol.    xvi,   pp.    185-186,    193-195;    vol.    xvii,   pp. 


important  booka.  The  books  named  will  be,  for 
the  T7)ost  part,  selections  from  the  extensive  lists 
given  in  the  Xeic  International  Year  Books 
1914-23. 

In   The  yation    (New   York),   May   11,    1911, 
Prof.  Paul  Sborey,  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 


169-170,  177-178,  185-186. 

Another  important  movement  in  this  field  is 
represented  by  the  aeriea  of  volumes  entitled  Our 
Debt  to  Greece  and  Rome,  published  under  the 
general  editorship  of  Prof.  G.  D.  Hadzaits,  of 
the  Univeraity  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Prof.  D.  M. 


in  a  paper  entitled  "American  Scholarship"  (re-      Robinson,    of    The    Johns    Hopkins    Univeraity. 
printed  in  The  Classical  Weekly,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  226-      -       -       -  •  -  ... 

230),  supplied  adequate  proof  that  American 
classical  scholarship  need  not  fear  comparison 
with  the  classical  scholarship  of  Germany,  or 
England.  At  the  semicentennial  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philological  Association,  in  December,  1919, 
Professor  Shorey  returned  to  the  subject,  in  a 
paper  entitled  "Fifty  Years  of  Classical  Studies 
in  America."  At  the  same  meeting,  Prof.  F.  G. 
Moore,  of  Columbia  Univeraity,  traced  the  his- 
tory of  the  American  Philological  Aasoeiation, 
and  Prof.  M.  Bloomfield,  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  considered  "Fifty  Years  of  Com- 
parative Philology  in  America."  For  these  three 
papers  see  Transactions  of  the  American  Philo- 
logical Association  (vol.  1,  pp.  5-83). 

In  the  decade,  American  classical  acholarship 


For  the  plan  and  the  scope  of  the  series,  see  the 
"New  International  year  Books  for  1922  and 
1923. 

In  Germany,  the  series  of  volumes  whose  pur- 
poae  ia  to  popularize  the  classics  ia  entitled  Das 
Erie  der  Alten.  More  pronouncedly  scholarly, 
but  atill  of  interest  to  the  general  reader,  are 
such  works  as  Einleitung  in  die  Altertumswis- 
srnschaft,  under  the  general  editorship  of  A. 
Gercke  and  E  Norden;  Die  Hcllcnische  Kultur, 
and  Die  Hellenistische-Romischc  Kultur,  both 
edited  by  F.  Baumgarten,  F.  Poland,  and  R. 
Wagner  and  Die  Oricchische  und  Lateinische 
Literatur  und  Sprache. 

A  very  important  work  in  classical  philology 
in  the  decade  was  the  establishment  of  two  new 
series  of  classical  texts.  Germany  had  long 


suffered  grievous  lossea  through   the  deaths  of      had    an    authoritative    series    of    texts    of    the 
the   following   scholars    (the   name  of   the   uni-      classical    authors,    both    Greek    and    Latin — the 
versity  with  which  the  scholar  was  connected  at      famous   Teubner   Series.     By    1924,   the   Oxford 
•---••  •  •        .       .v.        University    Press    had,    in    the    course    of    30 

years,  in  the  Oxford  Classical  Text  Series, 
presented  a  fair  array  of  texts  of  authors.  Greek 
and  Latin,  edited  by  competent  scholars,  in 
most  cases  English.  During  the  War,  Messrs. 
Parayia  and  Company,  Italian  publishers,  began 
a  series  entitled  Corpus  Scriptorum  Classicorum 


the  zenith  of  his  career  is  given  in  parenthe- 
sis) :  Frank  Frost  Abbott  (Princeton),  Charles 
E.  Bennett  (Cornell),  John  M.  Burnam  (Cin- 
cinnati), Basil  Lanneau  Gilderaleeve  (Johns 
Hopkins),  Thomas  D.  Goodell  (Yale),  Tracy 
Peck  (Yale),  Bernadotte  Perrin  (Yale),  Sam- 
uel Ball  Platner  (Western  Reserve),  Moses 


S.  Slaughter  (Wisconsin),  Kirby  Flower  Smith      Paravianum  (see  The  Classical  Weekly,  vol.  xi, 


PHILOLOGY 


1030 


PHILOLOGY 


p.  200,  xv,  135-130;  Year  Book  for  1918,  p. 
403).  The  Corpus  Paraiianum  was  to  show  the 
manuscript  text,  with  emendation  only  where 
the  manuscript  tradition  gives  no  sense;  other- 
wise, conjectural  alterations  proposed  or  ac- 
cepted in  other  editions  were  not  even  to  be 
mentioned. 

About  1917  or  1918,  French  scholars  began 
the  publication  of  a  series  of  texts  of  authors, 
Greek  and  Latin,  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Association  Guillaume  Bude1,  which  derives  its 
name  from  Guillaume  Bude*,  the  great  humanist 
of  the  French  Renaissance,  the  founder  of  the 
College  de  France.  In  each  instance,  the  text, 
witli  a  brief  critical  apparatus,  and  a  transla- 
tion, in  French,  wore  to  be  given.  There  were 
published  editions  (with  translations)  of  parts 
of  Plato,  JEschylus,  Sophocles,  Pindar,  Aris- 
totle, Aristophanes,  Cicero,  Seneca,  Tacitus,  as 
well  as  complete  editions  of  Lucretius,  Persius, 
Juvenal,  Catullus,  and  Petronius.  Under  the 
head  of  literary  and  historical  studies,  the  As- 
sociation published  also  a  Uistoire  de  la  Lit- 
terature  Latine  Chrttirnne,  by  P.  De  Labriolle, 
and  of  Seneque  Prosateur,  El tides  Litteraires 
et  Grammatieales  stir  la  Prose  de  Keneque  le 
Philosophe.  M  A.  Bourgery. 

In  Germany  certain  monumental  works  had 
long  been  under  way,  before  1914,  whose  aim 
was  to  make  accessible  what  was  known  (or 
conjectured)  in  various  fields  of  classical  philol- 
ogy. The  most  ambitious  efforts  of  this  sort 
were  the  Handbuch  der  Classischen  Alter- 
tumswissenschaft,  and  the  classical  encyclo- 
paedia known  by  the  abbreviation  "Pauly-Wis- 
sowa  " 

The  Handbuch  was  begun  under  the  editor- 
ship of  I  wan  von  AJUller.  After  1922,  a  thor- 
ough revision,  under  the  direction  of  W.  Otto, 
in  progress  In  the  50  years  that  had  elapsed 
from  the  time  the  publication  of  the  Hand- 
buch was  begun,  the  horizon  of  the  classical 
scholar  had  been  greatly  widened,  particularly 
through  the  discoveries  connected  with  the  so- 
called  Minoan  civilization.  This  extension  of 
knowledge  took  scholars  back  several  millenia  of 
the  point  at  which,  five  or  six  decades  previous- 
ly, classical  chili/ation  was  supposed  to  begin. 
Scholars  had  gained,  also,  a  far  better  under- 
standing of  the  relation  of  the  historic  classical 
civil i/ation  to  the  civilization  that  preceded  it, 
in  the  Mediterranean  Basin,  on  the  European 
side,  in  Kgypt,  and  in  Asia.  Hence,  in  the  re- 
vision of  the  Handbuch  new  topics  were  being 
included,  such  as  "Grundriss  der  Politischen 
Geschichte  des  Alten  Orients,"  and  "Kultur- 
geschichte  des  Alten  Orients,"  to  each  of  which 
a  volume  was  to  be  devoted.  The  title  of  the 
Handbuch,  in  view  of  this  wider  range  of  its 
subjects,  was  altered  to  Handbuch  der  Alter- 
tumsuissensehaft. 

Pauly's  Real-Encyclopadie  der  Klassichen 
Altcrtumswissensrhaft  was  begun  as  long  ago 
as  1830.  A  revision  was  undertaken,  in  1890, 
by  G.  Wissowa;  the  first  part  of  this  appeared 
in  1894.  The  work,  in  1924,  was  under  the  di- 
rection of  W.  Kroll  and  W.  Witte.  Between 
1913  and  1924,  four  enormous  volumes,  carry- 
ing the  first  part  of  the  encyclopaedia  forward 
from  "Helikon"  to  "Kynegoi,"  were  published. 
To  facilitate  the  progress  of  the  work,  what 
was  called  a  "Zweite  Reihe"  was  begun  in  1920. 
Two  volumes  of  this,  covering  the  articles  "Ra" 
to  "Sila,"  had  been  issued  (1920,  1921).  In 
1918  appeared  also  Supplementband  III,  dealing 


with  "Aachen"  to  "Ad  luglandem";  Supple- 
mentband  IV  was  issued  in  1924. 

Another  great  German  undertaking,  Ausfilhr- 
lichee  Lexikon  der  Qriechischen  und  Romischen 
Mythologie,  begun  by  W.  H.  Roscher,  with  the 
cooperation  of  many  scholars,  was  virtually 
complete.  The  great  Thesaurus  Linguae  Lai- 
inae,  the  most  comprehensive  and  authoritative 
of  all  Latin  lexicons,  made  some  progress  dur- 
ing the  decade.  In  France,  the  Great  Diction- 
itaire  des  Antiquitfs  Orecques  et  Romaines,  by 
Daremberg  and  Saglio,  was  completed  during 
the  decade. 

A  significant  movement  in  the  United  States 
was  the  attention  paid  to  the  classical  element 
in  English  literature.  Important  studies  here 
were  The  Relation  of  Latin  and  English  as  Liv- 
ing Languages  in  England  During  the  Age  of 
Milton,  W.  P.  Myers  T  The  Influence  of  Horace 
on  the  Chief  English  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  Mary  R.  Thayer;  Horace  in  the  Eng- 
lish Literature  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
Caroline  Goad;  Verqil  and  the  English  Poets, 
Elizabeth  Nitcbie;  The  Classical  Mythology  in 
Milton's  English  Poems,  C.  G.  Osgood ;  Class- 
ical Mythology  in  Shakespeare,  R.  K.  Root ; 
Ovid  and  the  Renascence  in  8 pain,  R  Scbevill 
(1913)  ;  The  Traditions  of  European  Literature 
from  Homer  to  Dante,  Barrett  Wendell.  For 
discussions  of  these  works,  see  The  Classical 
Weekly  (vol.  xii,  pp.  171-173,  177-179,  18.5-188; 
vol.  xiv,  pp.  25-29;  vol.  xvi,  pp  13-16). 

During  the  10  years,  increasing  attention  was 
paid  to  the  papyri  discovered  from  time  to 
time,  especially  in  Egypt.  These  were  studied 
in  part  for  the  light  'thev  throw  on  works  of 
classical  writers  already  knoun,  by  giving  re- 
censions of  the  ancient  text  hundreds  of  years 
older,  in  some  instances,  than  the  earliest  manu- 
scripts. They  were  examined  also  for  additions 
to  the  store  of  classical  texts.  Illustrations  of 
the  profits  of  such  study  are  to  be  seen,  for 
example,  in  the  volumes  of  Oxyrhynchus  Papyri, 
edited  by  the  English  scholars,  Messrs.  Grcn- 
fell  and  Hunt  (see,  for  instance,  The  Classical 
Weekly,  vol.  xiv,  pp.  14-16;  The  Classical  Re- 
view, vol.  xxxiv,  pp.  67,  179;  The  South  Atlatir 
tic  Quarterly,  April,  1014),  and  in  such  a  book 
as  A'ew?  Chapters  in  the  History  of  Greek  Lit- 
erature, Recent  Discoveries  in  Greek  Poetry  and 
Prose  in  the  Fourth  and  Follounnq  Centuries 
B.C,  by  J.  U.  Powell  and  E.  A.  Barber  (1921). 
A  striking  illustration  of  the  value  of  the  pa- 
pyri in  yet  a  third  field,  the  study  of  Greek  life 
and  Roman  life,  is  afforded  by*  an  important 
volume,  "A  Large  Estate  in  Egypt  in  the  Third 
Century  B.C.,  A  Study  in  Economic  History," 
by  M  Rostovtzeflf,  published  as  University  of 
Wisconsin  Studies  in  the  Social  Sciences  and 
History,  ATo.  6  (1922).  The  author  undertook 
to  assemble  into  a  complete  picture  the  350 
papyri,  or  more,  that  give  the  correspondence  of 
a  Carian  Greek  named  Zenon,  manager  of  a 
great  estate  of  land,  originally  unimproved, 
which  Ptolemy  II  (Philadelphus)  turned  over 
to  his  Treasurer  of  Finance,  a  Greek  named 
Apollonius.  For  a  review  of  this  book  by  Prof. 
W.  L.  Wester  man  n,  of  Columbia  University, 
see  The  Classical  Weekly,  vol.  xvi,  pp.  110- 
112. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  decade,  through  ef- 
forts organized  by  Prof.  F,  W.  Kelsey,  of  the 
University  of  Michigan,  various  American  uni- 
versities had  come  into  possession  of  papyrus 
documents.  These  were  being  studied  by  va- 


PHILOLOGY 


1031 


PHILOLOGY 


rious  scholars.  In  the  Transactions  of  the 
American  Philological  Association,  vol.  liii 
(1022),  Prof.  J.  G.  Winter,  of  the  University 
of  Michigan,  discussed  "Some  Literary  Papyri 
in  the  University  of  Michigan  Collection." 
Prof.  C.  Bonner,  of  the  same  university,  dis- 
cussed "A  Papyrus  of  Dioscurides  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan  Collection."  This  gives 
part  of  a  work  entitled  De  Alateria  Medica,  by 
Dioscurides  of  Anazarba.  At  the  meeting  of 
the  American  Philological  Association  at  which 
these  two  papers  were  read,  Prof.  A.  G.  Laird, 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  presented  a  pa- 
per on  "The  Wisconsin  Papyri,"  and  Prof.  A.  E. 
K.  Boak,  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  dis- 
cussed "The  Record  Office  of  Tebtunis  and  Cer- 
sesuchon  Grog."  The  last  named  paper  dealt 
with  a  register  of  contracts  for  a  period  of  four 
months,  Apr.  28  to  Aug.  28,  42  A.D. 

Just  before  the  beginning  of  the  decade  under 
review,  Prof.  B.  W.  Bacon,  of  Yale  University, 
writing  in  The  Classical  Weekly  (vol.  vi,  pp. 
213-214),  declared  that  "Until  very  recently 
no  manuscripts  of  first-rate  critical  importance 
had  come  into  American  hands."  Later,  how- 
ever, classical  manuscripts  of  importance  found 
a  resting  place  in  the  Morgan  Library  in  New 
York  City.  One  of  these,  a  fragment  of  a 
manuscript  of  Pliny's  Letters,  was  decidedly  in 
evidence  in  1924.  It  had  been  bought  by"  the 
late  J.  Pierpont  Morgan  in  1010.  Dr.  E.  A. 
Lowe,  a  leading  authority  on  classical  palaeog- 
raphy, and  Prof.  E.  K.  Rand,  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, published  the  fragment,  in  1922,  in  a 
sumptuouH  monograph,  well  illustrated  by 
plates,  entitled  A  Rixth-Century  Fragment  of 
the  Letters  of  Pliny  the  Younger,  A  titudy  of 
Six  Leaves  of  the  Uncial  Manuscript  Preserved 
in  the  Pierpont  Morgan  Library  in  AVu?  York. 
Dr.  Lowe  believes  that  the  fragment  is  a  gen- 
uine relic  of  antiquity,  and  that  it  was  written 
in  Italy,  about  500.  Professor  Rand  believes 
that  it  is  a  part  of  a  codex  used  by  Aldus  Man- 
utius,  in  the  preparation  of  his  printed  edition 
of  Pliny's  Letters.  This  codex,  the  Codex 
Parisinus,  is  now  lost.  In  his  views  of  the 
fragment,  and  of  Aldus's  edition  of  Pliny,  Pro- 
fessor Rand  is  in  sharp  collision  with  Prof. 
K.  T.  Merrill,  of  the  University  of  Chicago, 
who,  in  1922,  published  a  critical  edition  of  the 
text  of  Pliny's  Letters.  For  reviews  of  the 
monograph  by  Messrs.  Lowe  and  Rand  see  The 
Classical  Journal,  vol.  xviii.  pp  381-382; 
I'hilologisrhe  Wochenschrift,  vol.  xliii,  pp  509- 
511;  American  Journal  of  Philology,  vol.  xlv, 
pp.  88-90;  and  The  Classical  Itcrictr,  vol. 
xxxvii,  pp.  139-140.  Professor  Merrill,  in  a 
paper  entitled  "The  Morgan  Fragment  of  Pliny's 
Letters/'  in  Classical  Philology  *  vol  \\iii,  pp 
97-119,  takes  issue  with  the  views  of  Professor 
Rand.  Professor  Rand  began  an  elaborate  re- 
ply, in  a  paper  entitled  "A  New  Approach  to 
the  Text  of  Pliny's  Letters,  Article  1,"  published 
in  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  Philology,  vol. 
xxxiv,  pp.  79-121  (1923). 

On  Dec.  19,  1906,  Mr.  Charles  L.  Freer,  of 
Detroit,  Mich.,  bought,  of  an  Arab  dealer  in 
Gizeh,  near  Cairo,  four  Biblical  manuscripts. 
These  were  carefully  studied  by  Prof.  IT.  A. 
Sanders,  of  the  University  of  Michigan.  The 
results  appear  in  the  following  volumes:  Old 
Testament  Manuscripts  in  the  Freer  Collection, 
Part  I,  The  Washington  Manuscript  of  Deuter- 
onomy and  Joshua;  The  New  Testament  Manu- 
scripts in  the  Freer  Collection,  Part  I,  The 


Washington  Manuscript  of  the  Four  Gospels; 
The  Old  Testament  Manuscripts  in  the  Freer 
Collection,  Part  II,  The  Washington  Manuscript 
of  the  Psalms.  These  volumes,  published  in 
1910,  1912,  and  1917,  form  parts  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan  Studies,  Humanistic  Series. 
For  the  importance  of  the  manuscripts  see  The 
Classical  Weekly,  vol.  vi,  pp.  214. 

In  the  field  of  paleography  we  must  mention 
E.  A.  Lowe,  The  Benewntan  Script,  A  History 
of  the  tiouth  Italian  Minuscule  (1914),  a  book 
which  C.  U.  Clark,  in  a  review  in  American 
Journal  of  Philology  (vol.  xxxv,  pp.  340-343), 
described  as  "the  most  important  recent  palaeo- 
graphic  investigation  in  any  language."  A  book 
on  a  kindred  subject  which  falls  within  the 
decade  is  H.  B.  Van  Hoesen,  Roman  Cursive 
Writing  (1915). 

In  the  remainder  of  this  article,  it  will  be 
possible  only  to  name  a  few  of  the  more  im- 
portant contributions  made  by  American  class- 
ical scholars  in  Greek  and  Latin  literature, 
Greek  and  Roman  history,  Greek  and  Roman 
life,  linguistics,  and  grammar. 

The  late  Prof.  John  Williams  White,  of  Har- 
vard University,  undertook  to  make  a  collation 
of  all  Aristophanic  manuscripts.  One  outcome 
of  this  study  was  a  volume,  of  nearly  400  pages, 
The  Ncholia  on  the  Aves  of  Aristophanes,  With 
an  Introduction  on  the  Origin,  Development, 
Transmission,  and  Extant  Sources  of  the  Old 
(ireck  Commentary  on  his  Comedies  (1914). 
For  an  elaborate  re\iew  of  this  book,  by  G.  E 
Howes,  see  The  Classical  Weekly,  vol.  x,  pp.  90- 
95.  As  a  preliminary  to  that  volume,  Profes- 
sor White  had  published  The  Verse  of  (ireek 
Comedy  (1912),  reviewed  by  M.  W.  Humphreys 
(The  Classical  Weekly,  vol.  ix,  pp.  141-144). 
Professor  White  died  in  1917.  In  Harvard 
Studies  in  Classical  Philology,  vols.  xxix,  xxx 
(1918,  J919)  appeared  two 'articles,  "Collation 
of  the  Manuscripts  of  Aristophanes'  Aves"  and 
"Collation  of  the  Manuscripts  of  Aristophanes' 
VesjHr,"  by  J.  W.  White  and  E  Cary 

At  least  three  American  scholars  won  dis- 
tinction during  the  decade  by  their  articles  on 
Homer — (J  M.  Boiling,  of  Ohio  State  Univer- 
sity, S.  E  Bassett.  of  the  Unhersity  of  Ver- 
mont, and  »7.  A.  Scott,  of  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity. Professor  Scott  published  also  a  volume, 
The  I* tut y  of  Homer  (1921).  On  general  prog- 
ress Li  Homeric  studies  see  A>K  International 
)ear  Hook  for  1!)21.  p  .V>8. 

Mr.  Paul  Elmer  More,  formeily  literary  ed- 
itor of  The  X  at  ion  (Xe\\  York),  published 
three  \olunies  on  Plato  Platotiism  (1917), 
The  KcliqioH  of  Plato  (1921),  and  Hellenistic 
Philosophies  (1023) 

Works  more  geneiul  in  character  are  Athe- 
nian Tragedy,  A  »S7i/<7;/  in  Popular  Art,  by  T.  13. 
(loodcll,  (1920)  :  and  The  Creek  Theatre  and 
Its  Drama,  by  R  C  Flickinger  (in  two  editions, 
1911).  IU22).'  Professor  Flickinger's  book  is  of 
prime  importance  in  its  field;  for  a  notice  of 
it  see  The  Classical  Weekly,  vol.  xvii,  p.  197. 

Important  was  an  annotated  edition,  the 
first  published  in  the  United  States,  of  Cicero, 
De  Divinatione,  by  A.  S.  Pease,  published  in 
the  University  of  Illinois  Studies  in  Language 
and  Literature,  vols.  vi,  viii  (1920,  1923). 
Two  biographies  of  Cicero  by  classical  schol- 
ars appeared:  Cicero  of  Arpinum,  A  Political 
and  Literary  Biography,  Being  a  Contribution 
to  the  History  of  Ancient  Civilization  and  a 
Guide  to  the  Study  of  Cicero's  Writings,  £.  G. 


FHXLOLOOY 


1032 


PHILOLOGY 


Sitter  (1914);  Cicero,  A  Biography,  T.  Peters- 
son   (1010). 

Of  great  service  to  the  student  of  Horace  is 
A  Concordance  to  the  Works  of  Horace,  L. 
Cooper  (1016).  Prof.  G.  C.  Flake  in  a  volume 
entitled  Lucilius  and  Horace,  A  Study  in  the 
Classical  Theory  of  Imitation  (1920),  examined 
again  the  whole  question  of  the  relation  of 
Horace  to  Lucilius,  his  predecessor  in  satire. 
Prof.  W.  A.  Merrill  published  many  studies  on 
Lucretius,  dealing  with  his  versification,  imita- 
tions of  his  expressions  by  Vergil  and  other 
poets,  etc.  In  1918  he  issued  an  edition  of  the 
text  of  Lucretius,  complete  (see  New  Inter- 
national Year  Book  for  1918,  p.  492).  Prof. 
Kirby  Flower  Smith,  of  The  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, edited,  with  introduction  and  notes,  the 
Elegies  of  Tibullus. 

To  Vergil,  scholars  of  all  countries  were  giv- 
ing much  attention.  In  America,  two  biog- 
raphies of  Vergil  appeared:  Vergil,  A  Biog- 
raphy, by  Tenney  Frank,  of  The  Johns  Hop- 
kins University,  and  Virgil's  Biographia  Lit- 
tcraria,  by  Norman  W.  De  Witt,  University  of 
Toronto  (1923).  Both  authors  assume  that  the 
poems  of  the  so-called  Appendix  Vergiliana 
were  all — or  practically  all — written  by  Vergil 
himself,  in  his  youth,  and  that  we  may,  there- 
fore, confidently  rely  on  them  for  important 
information  concerning  Vergil's  earlier  years. 
Both  books  abound  with  interesting  and  stim- 
ulating suggestions  on  individual  points,  but 
as  wholes  they  are  to  be  used  only  with  great 
caution,  especially  since  there  was  nothing  like 
agreement,  during  the  decade,  among  scholars 
concerning  the  authorship  of  the  pieces  in  the 
Appendix  Vergiliana.  At  the  close  of  the  last 
century  few  scholars  believed  in  their  Vergilian 
authorship.  F.  Skutsch,  however,  in  his  Aus 
Virgils  Fruhzeit  (1001,  1906),  set  the  pendulum 
swinging,  for  a  while,  in  the  opposite  direction. 
The  tendency  to  accept  one  or  more  of  the  poems 
in  the  Appendix  as  Vergilian,  as  work  of  Ver- 
gil's youth,  is  seen  in  the  following  articles,  or 
books:  Miss  E.  S.  Jackson,  "The  Authorship 
of  the  Culex"  The  Classical  Quarterly,  vol.  v, 
pp.  163-174;  Th.  Birt,  Jugendverse  und  Heimat- 
poesie  Vergils,  Erklorung  des  Catalcpton  (1910: 
for  reviews,  by  N.  W.  De  Witt  and  H.  W.  Pres- 
cott,  see  American  Journal  of  Philology,  vol. 
xxxii,  pp.  448-458,  Classical  Philology,  vol.  v, 
pp.  381-382);  J.  W.  Mackail,  "Virgil  and  Vir- 
gilianism,  A  Study  of  the  Minor  Poems  Attrib- 
uted to  Virgil,"  The  Classical  Review,  vol 
xxii,  pp.  65-73;  W.  G.  D.  Butcher,  "The  Caesura 
in  Virgil  and  its  Bearing  on  the  Authenticity 
of  the  Pseudo-Virgil  iana,"  The  Classical  Quar- 
terly, vol.  viii,  pp.  123-131;  R.  S.  Conway,  The 
Youth  of  Vergil  (11)15)  ;  J.  S.  Phillimore,  "The 
Text  of  the  Culex,"  Classical  Philology,  vol. 
v,  pp.  418-439;  T.  Frank,  "Vergil's  Apprentice- 
ship," Classical  Philology,  vol.  xv,  pp.  23-38, 
103-119,  230-244;  E.  K.  Rand,  "Young  Virgil's 
Poetry,"  Harvard  Studies  in  Classical  Philology, 
vol.  xxx,  pp  103-185  (1919);  A.  R.  Bellinger, 
"Catullus  and  the  Cm*,"  Transactions  of  the 
American  Philological  Association,  vol.  lih,  pp. 
73-82  (1923). 

But,  latterly,  the  views  of  those  who  would 
accept  the  pieces  in  the  Appendix  as  Vergilian 
was  sharply  challenged.  Especially  suggestive 
here  was  the  work  of  R.  S.  Radford :  "The 
Juvenile  Works  of  Ovid  and  the  Spondaic  Pe- 
riod of  his  Art,"  Transactions  of  the  American 
Philological  Association,  vol.  li,  pp.  146-171 


(1920);  "The  Priapeia  and  the  Vergilian  Ap- 
pendix/' Transaction*  of  the  American  Philo- 
logical Association,  vol.  lii,  pp.  148-177  (1921) ; 
"Tibullus  and  Ovid,"  American  Journal  of  Phi- 
lology, vol.  xliv,  pp.  1-26,  230-259,  293-318 
(1923).  Professor  Radford  believes  that  the 
whole  Vergilian  Appendix  ia  the  youthful  work 
of  Ovid,  "composed  by  him  in  the  period  extend- 
ing from  27  to  8  uc."  In  the  Transactions  of 
the  American  Philological  Association,  vol.  liii, 
pp.  5-34  (1923),  Prof.  H,  R.  Fairelough,  of 
Stanford  University,  in  a  paper  entitled  "The 
Poems  of  the  Appendix  Vergiliana,"  after 
study  of  the  vocabulary  of  the  poems  in  the 
Appendix,  maintained  that  "probably  not  a 
single  one  of  these  poems  has  been  correctly 
assigned  to  Vergil." 

More  general  works  in  the  field  of  Latin  lit- 
erature are  E.  G.  Sihler,  From  Augustus  to 
Augustine,  Essays  and  Studies  Dealing  with 
the  Contact  and  Conflict  of  Classic  Paganism 
and  Christianity  (1923),  and  E  T.  Merrill,  Es- 
says in  Early  Christian  History  (1924). 

In  the  field  of  Greek  history  we  may  note, 
first,  G.  W.  Botsford  and  E.  G.  Sihler,  Hellenic 
Civilization  (see  New  International  Year 
Book  for  1915,  p.  497).  C.  W.  Blegen  wrote 
Korakou,  A  Prehistoric  Settlement  "Near  Corinth 
(1921),  published  by  the  American  School  of 
Classical  Studies  at  Athens.  The  civilization  un- 
earthed by  excavations  at  Korakou,  a  hillock  3 
kilometers  west  of  the  site  of  ancient  Corinth,  is 
of  the  type  known  as  "Helladic,"  a  term  (see 
under  ARCHEOLOGY)  devised  to  distinguish  the 
prehistoric  civilization  of  the  Greek  mainland 
from  the  prehistoric  civilization  found  in  the 
Cyclades  Islands  ("Cycladic")  and  in  Crete 
("Minoan").  Mr.  Blegen 's  book  deals  with  re- 
mains dating  from  2500  to  1100  B.C.  Impor- 
tant, too,  is  M.  Rostovtzeff,  Iranians  and  Greeks 
in  South  Russia  (1022). 

Works  on  Roman  history  are  the  following: 
A.  E.  R  Boak,  A  History  of  Rome  to  565  A.D. 
(1921);  T.  Frank,  Roman  Imperialism  (1914), 
An  Economic  History  of  Rome  to  the  End  of 
the  Republic  (1920),  and  A  History  of  Rome 
(1923);  T.  S.  Jerome,  Aspects  of  the  Study  of 
Roman  History  (1923)  ;  G.  Showerman,  Eternal 
Rome,  The  City  and  Its  People  From  the  Ear- 
liest Times  to  the  Present  Day  (1924). 

In  the  field  of  Greek  and  Roman  life  we  can 
mention  only  W.  S.  Fox,  The  Mythology  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  (1916);  W.  C.  Greene,  The 
Achievement  of  O recce  (1923);  W.  W.  Hyde, 
Olympic  Victor  Monuments  and  Greek  Athletic 
Art  (1921),  reviewed  by  G.  H  Chase,  The 
Classical  Journal,  vol.  xix,  pp.  119-120,  and 
D.  M.  Robinson,  The  Classical  Weekly,  vol.  xvii, 
pp.  59-02;  C.  H.  Moore,  The  Religious  Thought 
of  the  Greeks  (1916),  and  Pagan  Ideas  of  Im- 
mortality During  the  Early  Roman  Empire 
(11)18);  E.  Tavenner,  Studies  in  Magic  From 
Latin  Literature  (1916);  L.  Van  Hook,  Greek 
Life  and  Thought  (1923). 

In  the  field  of  Greek  grammar,  we  name  two 
important  books,  by  H.  W.  Smyth,  of  Harvard 
University:  A  Greek  Grammar  for  Schools  and 
Colleges  (1916),  and  A  Greek  Grammar  for  Col- 
leges (1920).  The  latter  book  is  worthy  of  a 
place  beside  the  Greek  Grammar  of  W.  W. 
Goodwin,  long  the  favorite  Greek  grammar 
of  Greek  scholars  and  teachers  in  the  United 
States  and  in  England.  Of  prime  authority  in 
its  field  is  A.  T.  Robertson,  A  Grammar  of  the 
Greek  New  Testament  in  the  Light  of  His  tor* 


PHILOLOGY 


1033 


PHILOLOGY 


ical  Research  (1914 — there  is  a  second,  revised 
edition). 

In  the  field  of  Latin  grammar  quite  the  most 
impressive  achievement  in  America  between 
1000  and  1924  was  the  work  of  Prof.  C.  £. 
Bennett,  The  Syntax  of  Early  Latin:  Volume  I, 
The  Verb  (1010),  Volume  II,  The  Cases  (1914). 
This  work  completely  supersedes  all  previous 
discussions  of  the  syntax  of  early  Latin.  For 
reviews,  by  C.  Knapp,  see  American  Journal  of 
Philology,  vol.  xxxii,  pp.  333-343;  vol.  xxxv,  pp. 
208-293. 

In  linguistics  three  American  scholars  are 
doing  excellent  work — L.  Bloom  field,  R.  G.  Kent, 
and  E.  H.  Sturtevant.  The  work  of  Professor 
Kent  is  to  be  found  in  the  periodicals,  especially 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Philolog~ 
ical  Association.  Professor  Bloorafield  pub- 
lished also  a  book.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Language  (1914).  Professor  Sturtevant  is- 
sued two  books:  Linguistic  Change  (1917),  and 
The  Pronunciation  of  Greek  and  Latin,  The 
Sounds  and  Accents  (1920). 

In  lexicography,  foremost  was  the  monument- 
al Lexicon  I'lautinum,  by  Prof.  G.  Lodge,  of 
Columbia  University,  which  had  been  in  course 
of  publication  since  1901.  Nine  parts,  totaling 
864  large  pages,  and  carrying  the  Lexicon  into 
/<«,  had  been  issued.  Prof.  M.  N.  Wetmore,  of 
Williams  College,  published  two  important 
works,  Index  Verborum  Vergilianus  (1911)  and 
Index  Verborum  CatullianHft  (1912);  for  re- 
views see  The  ClasKical  Weekly,  vol.  vi,  pp. 
101-103,  109-111,  124.  Professors  W.  A.  Old- 
father,  A.  S.  Pease,  and  II.  V.  Canter,  of  the 
University  of  Illinois,  published  "Index  Ver- 
borum  Quae  in  Senecae  Fabulis  Necnon  in  Oc- 
tnvia  Praetexta  Keperiuntur,"  in  ljniversity  of 
Illinois  Studies  in  Language  and  Literature, 
vol.  iv  (1918).  Professors  A.  A.  Howard  and 
C.  N.  Jackson,  of  Harvard  University,  published 
Index  Verborum  (T.  Suetoni  Tranquilli  fitilique 
Proprictatum  Xonnullarum  (1922). 

PHILOLOGY,  Monrnx.  In  making  this 
brief  sketch  of  the  progress  of  philology  during 
the  10  years  1914-1924,  it  behooves  us  to  stress 
first  of  all  the  salient  tendencies  characterized 
by  the  vast  volume  of  production  in  this  ever- 
growing field  of  research.  Thereafter  the  most 
important  languages  as  viewed  from  the  van- 
tage point  of  intensity  and  originality  of  in- 
vestigation— will  claim  our  attention.  To  at- 
tempt to  go  further  into  detail  is  well-nigh  im- 
possible considering  the  space  limitations. 
There  shall  even  be  no  endeavor  to  list  all  the 
chief  contributions  made  during  this  period, 
for  such  a  classification  would  perforce  be  ten- 
tathe  and  subject  to  the  criticism  of  divergent 
opinion.  The  most  carefully  developed  criteria 
often  fail  to  lie  conclusive.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  that  the  selection  be  limited  to  such 
works  an  indicate  the  directions  in  which  in- 
vestigations are  being  carried  on. 

The  War,  which  interrupted  the  period  to 
which  we  are  to  devote  our  attention,  nad,  from 
the  philological  point  of  view,  two  important 
consequences.  On  the  one  hand,  it  served  to 
check,  though  not  entirely,  the  outworn  methods 
of  investigation  which  had  attained  the  zenith 
of  their  effectiveness  before  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century;  while  on  the  other,  it  made 
obvious  to  students  of  philology  the  vast  pos- 
sibilities that  lay  within  their  reach. 

Already  in  191*4  it  was  noted  in  the  pages  of 
the  yew  International  Year  Book  that  the 


study  of  philology  was  undergoing  a  process  of 
transformation.  The  self-styled  sBack  to  Na- 
ture" school  founded  in  the  early  nineties  by 
German  scholars  under  the  leadership  of  Schu- 
chardt,  a  profound  though  not  very  original 
scholar,  believed  they  could  arrive  at  general 
laws,  applicable  to  all  possible  cases,  by  means 
of  the  study  of  dialects.  Their  preferred  method, 
so  aptly  designated  Sprachmischung,  or  the  mu- 
tual penetration  of  dialects,  failed  to  satisfy 
expectations,  because  of  the  numerous  historical 
factors  and  variable  accessory  circumstances 
which  must  always  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  new  French  school,  with  the  equally  pro- 
found and  more  brilliant  Meillet  at  its  head, 
hastened  to  reject  entirely  the  esoteric  philology 
which  isolates  linguistic  facts  from  all  contact 
with  life,  and  began  to  interpret  linguistics  by 
the  social  movements  of  civilization — in  a  word, 
to  seek  in  the  development  of  languages  the 
result  of  political  and  social  actions.  While 
the  War  retarded  development  of  research  along 
these  lines  by  diverting  the  attention  of  the 
disciples  of  the  French  scholar  into  channels  of 
a  military  nature,  it  served,  however,  to  prove 
the  truth  of  his  contentions. 

The  year  1915  was  most  discouraging  for 
philologists.  Because  of  its  appalling  losses  it 
was  feared  by  some  that  the  movement  initiated 
by  Meillet  was  destined  to  undergo  entire  ar- 
restment  of  development.  Notwithstanding  the 
gloomy  outlook,  it  was  generally  felt  that, 
though  retarded  for  the  time  being,  the  revolu- 
tion— for  such  it  has  proved  to  be — would  take 
place. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  year  1915,  there  ap- 
peared the  two-volume  epitome  entitled  La  Sci- 
ence Franc.a\Be,  the  genesis  of  which  was  due  to 
the  initiative  of  the  founders  of  the  libiary  of 
French  thought  at  the  International  Exposition 
at  San  Francisco,  in  the  second  volume  is  to 
be  found  the  very  suggestive  survey  of  linguis- 
tics (La  JAnguistiqur)  by  Antoine  Meillet.  Ac- 
cording to  tliis  philologist,  French  scholars,  al- 
though they  entered  this  field  of  research  long 
after  the  ground  had  been  broken  by  the  Ger- 
mans, reali/ed  at  once  its  possibilities.  Not- 
withstanding that  there  have  l)een  numerous 
German  schools  of  philology,  there  has  never 
been  a  French  school  for  the  mere  reason  that 
savant  ft  of  that  nationality  have  always  drawn 
their  conclusions  from  data,  and  have  refrained 
from  accepting  any  theory  that  was  not  entirely 
in  harmony  with  facts.  *At  the  outset,  French 
philologists  sought  to  approach  the  subject 
from  every  angle  in  order  to  bring  all  possible 
light  to  bear  upon  it.  It  is  this  above  all  which 
has  led  to  the  introduction  of  new  fields  of  in- 
vestigation, such  as  semantics,  dialectology, 
phonetics  and  kindred  subjects.  The  outcome 
of  these  methods  was  not  only  the  monumental 
A  tlas  Linguistique  de  la  France  of  Gillieron  and 
Edmont,  of  which,  according  to  the  eminent 
critic  Gaston  Paris,  French  scholarship  may 
well  be  proud,  the  Rtmantique  of  Bre"al,  in  which 
are  laid  the  foundations  of  the  science  of  the 
development  of  meanings  of  words,  and  the  Di«- 
ttimilation  Consonantique  of  Grammont,  a  work 
so  original  that  we  have  not  yet  grasped  its  full 
significance;  but  also  the  Hintoire  de  la  Langue 
Franqaise  of  Brunot  which,  says  M.  Jeanroy, 
has  no  equivalent  in  any  other  country,  the 
great  impulse  given  to  experimental  phonetics 
by  the  researches  of  Abbe"  Rousselot  and  others, 
the  development  along  characteristic  lines  of 


PHILOLOGY 


1034 


PHILOLOGY 


the  school  of  Celtic  philology,  and  finally,  the 
rehabilitation  of  the  spoken  language  made  by 
Meillet  himself  in  his  suggestive  contributions 
to  the  study  of  Armenian,  Slavic  and  Greek. 
It  is  thus  not  so  much  by  des  recherchcs  de 
detail  (which,  however,  have  their  importance), 
as  by  the  introduction  de  vues  neuves  et  de  di- 
rections originates  that  comparative  philology 
has  received  new  vigor  from  French  thought. 

Following  the  lead  of  Meillet,  one  of  the  ed- 
itors of  the  monumental  Atlas  Linguistique  de 
la  France,  J.  Gillieron,  published  at  Neuveville, 
Switzerland,  a  series  of  lectures  entitled  La 
Fatllite  de  V Etymologic  Phonetique  in  which 
he  opened  the  attack  from  a  new  quarter.  As 
the  title  indicates,  the  learned  author  admits 
the  inadequacy  of  the  methods  in  vogue,  not- 
withstanding the  yeoman  service  they  may 
have  rendered  in  the  past,  to  cope  with  present- 
day  problems.  The  mere  fact  that  such  a  ques- 
tion is  posed  frankly  and  fearlessly  by  scholars 
of  the  rank  of  Gillieron  shows  that  philologists 
are  alive  to  the  new  demands  made  upon  them. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  year  1921 
was  the  great  revival  of  interest  in  the  study  of 
language  and  its  attendant  problems.  It  seems 
that  many  Europeans  have  sought  solace  from 
the  disillusionments  of  war  in  the  inspiration 
furnished  by  President  Wilson's  cherished  theory 
of  self-determination  according  to  linguistic 
and  racial  unity.  This  has  been  a  most  vital 
and  stirring  problem  with  all  of  these  peoples 
more  or  less  from  almost  time  immemorial. 

Encouraged  no  doubt  by  this  general  tenden- 
cy, M.  Meillet  returned  to  the  investigation  of 
fundamental  problems  of  comparative  linguis- 
tics. In  a  volume  of  essays  entitled  Linguis- 
tique Historique  et  Linguistique  Oenerale,  pub- 
lished in  1021,  this  scholar  laid  definitively  the 
basic  principles  for  the  reconstitution  of  the 
methodology  of  this  subject.  In  his  opinion, 
all  languages  show  common  tendencies,  deter- 
mined, on  the  one  hand,  by  the  structure  of  the 
vocal  organs  and  the  limited  number  of  pho- 
netic possibilities  that  they  offer,  and,  on  the 
other,  by  the  laws  of  general  psychology.  These 
tendencies  are  obvious  in  such  universal  changes 
as  the  weakening  of  intervocalic  consonants, 
vowel -break  ing,  or  in  the  normalization  of  para- 
digms through  the  principle  of  analogy.  "Le 
ehangement  linguistique,"  says  M.  Meillet,  "est 
lie*  ft  des  faits  de  civilisation  et  a  l'£tat  des  so- 
rie'te's  qui  emploient  les  langues  consid^rees." 
In  so  far  as  it  is  a  means  of  communication  be- 
tween the  members  of  a  same  clan  or  of  a  same 
nation,  language  tends  either  to  become  infinite- 
ly differentiated  or  to  fuse  its  divergent  dia- 
lects into  a  common  speech,  according  to  the  in- 
clination to  division  or  unification  of  the  groups 
or  peoples  that  speak  it  The  progress  of  lan- 
guage is  inseparably  bound  up  with  the  prog- 
ress of  society. 

It  is  thus  in  extending  our  grasp  of  the  great 
problem  of  linguistics  that  we  are  approaching 
more  closely  an  understanding  of  the  race  as 
well  as  the  individual.  However  imperfect 
language  may  be  as  an  expression  of  our 
thought,  it  is  nevertheless  the  sole  means  in 
our  possession.  It  serves  therefore  in  its  lim- 
ited way  to  reveal  our  mental  attitude.  As 
stated  above,  M.  Meillet  is  thus  leading  phi- 
lology from  the  arid  domain  of  phonetic  formu- 
las into  the  very  fertile,  though  most  intricate, 
field  of  human  life.  Henceforth  the  term  phi- 
lology will  signify  much  more  than  a  mere 


juggling  with  forms:  it  is  rather,  to  use  the 
words  of  H.  C.  Wyld  in  his  address  on  English 
Philology  in  English  Universities  (Oxford, 
1921)  "the  study  of  human  speech  modified, 
altered,  enriched  at  every  stage  by  influences 
both  literary  and  historical." 

If  we  now  turn  to  a  more  specific  aspect  of 
linguistics,  i.e.  grammar,  we  find  that  the  same 
conditions  obtain.  In  1914,  we  noted  that  in 
regard  to  grammar  there  was  a  reaction  against 
the  study  of  the  history  of  languages  in  favor 
of  the  general  principles  of  the  theory  of  lan- 
guage. O.  Jesper sen's  Modern  English  Gram- 
mar on  Historical  Principles  (Heidelberg,  1914) 
represents  to  a  certain  extent  an  effort  to  re- 
vive the  teaching  of  grammar  which,  it  may 
be  said,  had  only  slightly  shown  the  effects  of 
the  progress  of  linguistics  during  the  course  of 
the  century  just  passed. 

It  was  while  making  efforts  to  broaden  and 
improve  their  methods  in  accordance  with  mod- 
ern scientific  research  that  scholars  became 
aware  that,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
philosophy,  theology  and  medicine,  the  study 
of  language  was  hemmed  in  and  impeded  on 
all  sides  by  tradition  and  intolerance.  From 
the  more  or  less  remote  past  we  have  inherited 
a  rigid  methodology  applicable  to  dead  syn- 
thetic languages  but  totally  inadequate  to  solve 
the  problem  of  the  living  analytic  tongues  and 
their  relationship  with  a  dynamic  life  teeming 
with  new  ideas.  But.  as  historv  should  teach 
us,  there  is  no  compromise  with  intolerance  and 
tradition ;  and  just  as  science  was  obliged  to 
engage  in  open  warfare  with  theology,  so  mod- 
ern philology  is  entering  the  lists  against  its 
most  redoubted  and  firmly  entrenched  opponent, 
which  is  our  antiquated,  though  universally 
accepted,  conception  of  grammar  and  its  laws. 

Consequently,  La  Penste  et  la  Lanyue  (Paris, 
1922),  the  stimulating  volume  by  Ferdinand 
Brunot,  the  distinguished  dean  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  is  in  many  respects  an  epoch- 
making  work.  Bearing  as  a  sub-title  Mtithode, 
principes  et  plan  d'unc  thtoric  nouiclle  du  Jan- 
gage  apphqut  au  fran^ais,  this  manifesto  by  an 
author  widely  known  for  his  monumental  his- 
tory of  the  French  language  mentioned  above, 
purports  to  be  a  "methodical  statement  of  facts 
derived  from  thought  and  interpreted  and 
classified  in  its  relation  to  language,  and  of 
the  means  of  expression  corresponding  to 
them."  After  showing  how  every  innovation  in 
linguistic  methodology  has  sooner  or  later  been 
thwarted  by  a  mediaeval  heritage  of  gram- 
matical concepts  and  nomenclature — even  com- 
parative philology  was  obliged  to  surrender 
many  of  its  revolutionary  doctrines  when  con- 
fronted by  a  glowering  and  tyrannical  tra- 
dition— M.  Brunot  observes  that,  thanks  to  the 
efforts  of  our  "grammatical  commissioners  of 
police,"  the  teaching  of  language  to-day — like 
theology — is  "a  drudgery,  the  pet  aversion  of 
both  pupils  and  teachers."  Not  even  does 
orthographical  reform  escape  the  inquisition. 
And  he  passes  in  review  many  gross  blunders 
that  the  high  priests  of  grammar  dole  out  to 
the  young  as  established  facts,  such  as  a  tense 
which  they  interpret  as  a  mood,  a  future- 
perfect  which  has  been  disguised  as  a  condition- 
al, theories  built  upon  misconstructions,  etc. 
He  adds,  therefore,  that  it  is  high  time  to  pre- 
pare a  Manual  of  Wrong  Rules  as  a  pedagogical 
breviary  which  should  protect  the  young 
against  the  "fundamentalism"  of  misguided 


PHILOLOGY 


dogmatists.  And  therefore  the  object  of  M. 
Brunot's  work  is  "the  practical  study  of  gram- 
mar with  a  view  to  enable  the  student  to  under- 
stand and  express  everything." 

As  a  consequence  of  the  rapid  development  of 
the  cinematograph,  the  aeroplane  and  the  radio- 
phone, which  are  rendering  geographical  bound- 
ary an  anachronism  and  are  ameliorating  inter- 
national communication  and,  therefore,  inter- 
national good  will,  more  widespread  attention 


1035 


PHILOLOGY 


in  the  seventeenth  century,  all  efforts  to  create 
a  substitute  have  been  decried  as  the  work  of 
impractical  idealists.  But  that  these  dreamers 
are  now  being  taken  seriously  is  obvious  from 
an  editorial  in  the  Kew  York  World  of  Dec. 
26,  1923,  which  affirms  the  necessity  of  a 
"radio  language."  In  the  spring  of  1923  a 
movement  to  revive  Esperanto  as  an  internation- 
al language  Was  begun  by  a  committee  headed 
by  Mrs.  Dave  Morris  of  New  York ;  and  their 


is  rightly  being  devoted  to  comparative  Dhilol-  efforts  are  already  bearing  fruit,  for  many  of 
«mr  TiiAii»ii  ««i«  o  n*n4uiir  ni,i  i+a  intiiionn*  our  educational  institutions,  notably  Columbia 

University,  have  now  included  Esperanto  in 
their  curricula  of  studies.  See  INTERNATIONAL 
LANGUAGE. 

Bibliography.  For  further  information  see 
the  series  of  articles  entitled  "Philology, 
Modern,"  appearing  in  the  Ntw  International 
Yfar  Book  from  1010  on.  Inspired,  no  doubt, 
by  the  example  set  by  the  ^eiv  International 
>  ear  Book,  a  number  of  British  scholars  began 
to  issue  in  1920  a  Year  Book  of  Modern  Lan- 
guages which  contains  extensive  data. 

General.  F.  de  Saussure,  Cours  de  Linguis- 
tique  Gcntralr,  edited  by  Bally  and  Sgchehaye 
(Paris,  1916-23)  ;  C.  S.  R.  Collm,  BiUwnrapht- 
cal  (Juide  1o  ticmatolofjy  (Lund,  11)15)  ;  A. 
Werner,  The  Language-Families  of  Africa 
(London,  1917);  H.  Schuchardt,  tiprachvcr- 
wandtschaft  (Berlin,  1917)  ;  L.  Dominian,  Fron- 
tiers of  Language  and  Nationality  in  Europe 
(New  York,  1918)  ;  A.  Meillet,  Lrs  Langucs  dan* 
VEurope  Xouvcllc  (Paris,  1918)  ;  A.  Aarnc, 
T  crgleichende  Rat  self  orschungcn  (Helsingfors, 
1918)  ;  H.  Miller,  Die  scrnitischvorindogcr- 
manischen  Laryngalcn  Konsonantcn  (Copen- 
hagen, 1917)  ;  Abbe"  P.  T.  Mainage,  Les  Religions 
de  la  Prchistoire  (Paris,  1920);  H  Schuchardt, 
Sprachursprung  (Berlin,  Pt.  11,  1920);  J.  de 
Morgan,  L'Humamtc  Prthistorique  (Paris, 
1921)  ;  J.  Marouzeau,  La  Linguist  ique  ou  Science 
du  Langage  (ib.)  ;  E.  Sapir,  Language  (New 
Ycrk,  1921);  O.  Jespersen,  Language,  Its  Ma- 
ture, Development  and  Origin  (London,  1922)  ; 
J.  Vendryes,  Le  Langage  (Paris,  1922);  A. 
Dauzat,  La  Geographic  Linguistique  (ib.,  1922)  ; 
W.  M.  Thomas,  Language  in  the  Making  (New 
York,  1923 )  ;  E.  W.  Hopkins,  Origin  and  Evo- 
lution of  Religion  (New  Haven,  1923). 

Indo-European.  Works  on  the  language  of 
the  primitive  Indo-European s  are  devoted  mainly 
to  phonology  and  morphology.  Among  the  more 
important  are:  H.  Hirt,  Fragcn  des  Vokalis- 
mus  und  der  Stammbildung  im  Indogcrmamschcn 
(Strasbourg,  1914);  K.  Brugmann  and  11.  Del- 
brlick,  Grundriss  der  t>ergleiclicndt'n  (Srammatik 
der  Indogermanisclien  Spraclien  (2d  ed.,  1910, 
Strasbourg)  ;  O.  Schrader,  Reallexihon  der  Indo- 
germanischen  Altertumskunde  (2d  ed  ,  ib.,  1917- 
)  ;  H.  Gtintert,  Indogermainsche  Ablaiit- 
problcme  (ib.,  1910);  W.  Streitberg,  Erfor- 
schung  der  Indogermanishchen  Sptachen  (Stras- 
bourg, 191 G)  ;  S.  Feist,  Indogennanen  und  Ger- 
mancn  (2d  ed.,  Halle,  1919);  ('.  Bartholomae, 
Zur  Etymologic  und  Wortbildung  der  Indo- 
germanischen  Sprachcti  (Heidelberg,  1919)  ;  II. 
Hirt,  Indogermanische  Grammattk  (Pt.  II, 
Heidelberg,  1921)  ;  H.  H  Bender,  The  Home  of 
the  Indo-Europeans  (Princeton,  1922)  ;  A  Meil- 
let,  Les  Originea  Indo-Europe'ennes  dea  Metres 
Grecs  (Paris,  1923). 

Indo-lranian.  Contributions  to  this  field 
were  less  numerous.  They  consist  principally 
of  translations  and  grammatical  and  syntactical 
studies  of  texts.  Somewhat  out  of  the  ordinary 


ogy.  Though  only  a  century  old,  its  influence 
in  the  cause  of  international  understanding  has 
Ircen  far-reaching.  In  past  ages  each  country 
had  the  utmost  contempt  for  foreigners  unable 
to  speak  its  tongue.  To  the  ancient  Hindus 
they  were  mlecchas  (Prakrit  vnilicchu^  Pfili 
mnakkhu,  barbarian),  'incomprehensibles';  to 
the  Jews,  gojim,  infidels';  to  the  Arabs  ad- 
scharn,  'babblers';  to  the  Turks  giaours  (Turk- 
ish ;airr,  gawur  <  Persian,  gaur,  'infidel/  an- 
other form  of  r/aftr,  'infidels,'  'Gueber'),  Unbe- 
lievers,' 'miscreants';  to  the  Greeks  barbaro- 
phonoi  or  barbaroi,  'stammerers,'  and  later  'un- 
cultured' or  'barbarians '  Even  to-day  the 
French  cJiarabia  'gibberish*  (Spanish  alg-arabiat 
the  'Arabic  language'),  or  baragouin,  'jargon* 
(Breton  bara,  'biead,'  and  gouin  'wine,'  offered 
to  the  Fiench  invaders  of  Brittany),  or  the 
Mexican  grim/o  (Spanish  gricgo,  'Greek'),  ap- 
plied especially  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  United 
States,  or  the  North  American  wap  (Spanish 
guapo,  'handsome'),  or  dago  (Spanish-Portu- 
guese Diego,  'James,'  a  term  of  address)  have 
all  now  assumed  a  pejorative  connotation  and 
betoken  the  same  spirit  of  contempt  for  the 
foreigner  But  vhen  comparative  philology  be- 
gan to  reveal  that  the  so-called  Indo-European 
languages  \\ere  olT&hoots  of  the  same  parent 
stock,  the  alien  tongue  was  no  longer  despised  as 
the  product  of  an  inferior  mind  The  finest  com- 
pliments ever  paid  to  a  somewhat  abstruse  sub- 
ject of  research  were  the  numerous  efforts  dur- 
ing the  War  to  explain  acts  of  aggression  as 
a  moral  obligation  to  preserve  continuity  or 
relationship  of  speech. 

Some  one  has  suggested  that  the  present 
period  of  the  world's  history  will  be  designated 
in  future  times  as  the  "dictionary  epoch."  In 
fact,  never  has  such  interest  been  shown  in 
living  foreign  tongues.  The  vast  number  of  dic- 
tionaries or  vocabularies — of  which  a  few  titles 
have  been  noted  in  the  pages  of  the  A>MJ  Inter- 
national 3  ear  Book  in  the  10  years  furnishes 
a  striking  testimony  to  the  desire  of  most  na- 
tions to  avoid  cultural  or  commercial  isolation. 
Likewise,  the  study  of  phonetics,  which  during 
the  first  half  of  its  40  years  of  history  passed 
almost  unnoticed,  is  now,  as  noted  above,  arous- 
ing widespread  interest,  especially  because  of 
the  assistance  it  affords  in  pronouncing  accurate- 
ly a  foreign  tongue.  In  response  to  this  great 
demand  on  the  part  of  our  public,  several  of  our 
largest  educational  institutions  are  offering 
courses  in  this  subject  as  well  as  opportunities 
for  research  And  it  may  be  added  that  the  10 
distinguished  foreign  scholars,  representing 
France,  Spain  and  Italy,  who  lectured  or  taught 
in  Columbia  University  in  the  summer  of  1923. 
stressed  the  culture,  civilization  and  language 
of  their  respective  countries.  A  final  indica- 
tion of  the  awakening  of  the  spirit  of  inter- 
national fraternization  may  be  gathered  from  the 
almost  universal  recognition  of  the  need  of 
a  universal  tongue.  Since  the  decline  of  Latin 


PHILOLOGY 


2036 


PHXLOJLOGY 


are:  Jouveau-Dubreuil,  Archdologie  du  8ud  de 
llnde  (2  vola.,  Paris,  1014);  Oauthiot,  Essai 
de  Orammaire  Soodienne  (Groupe  Jranique) 
(ib.) ;  A.  V.  W.  Jackson,  Catalogue  of  Persian 
M88.  Presented  to  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art  by  A.  8.  Cochran  (New  York,  1914)  ;  C.  Bar- 
tholomae,  Zur  Kcnntnis  der  Mitteliranischen 
Mundarten  (Heidelberg,  1017);  H.  Oldenberg, 
Zur  Gcschichte  der  Altindisrhen  Prosa  (Ber- 
lin, 1017)  ;  and  Sir  G.  A.  Grierson,  Linguistic 
Suney  of  India  (vol.  x,  Calcutta,  1921)  con- 
taining specimens  of  languages  of  the  Iranian 
family. 

Slavic.  Among  the  numerous  contributions, 
we  may  note  Berneker,  Slaiisches  Etymolo- 
gisches Worlerbuch  (vol.  i,  A-L,  Heidelberg, 
1008-13);  Vondrak,  Altkirchenslaiische  Gram- 
matik  <2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1014);  J.  Herzer,  Bbh- 
misch-dcutsches  Worterbuch  (Prague);  R  J. 
Kerner,  Slavic  Europe  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1018), 
a  bibliography;  H.  H.  Bender,  Lithuanian  Ety- 
mological Index  (Princeton,  1922)  ;  L.  Ni£derle\ 
Manuel  de  VAntiquitt  Slave  (vol.  i,  Paris,  1023). 
Other  studies  include  Slovenian,  Ruthenian- 
Ukrainian,  Russian,  Czech  (see  Year  Book,  1010, 
1018,  1019;  Baltic  (1015,  p.  400;  1020,  p.  537; 
1022,  p.  563);  Serbo-Croatian  (1018,  p.  405; 
1015,  p.  400);  Serbian  (1016,  p.  537);  Polish 
(1018,  p.  405,  1016,  p.  537);  Ukrainian  (1017, 
p.  537;  1018,  p.  405);  Lithuanian  (1018,  p. 
405;  1020,  p.  537;  1022,  p.  563);  Old  Prussian 
(1018);  Bulgarian  (1010). 

Celtic.  Studies  in  Irish,  Manx,  Scotch, 
Welsh,  Cornish  and  Breton  as  well  as  Gaulish 
and  Pro-Celtic  have  appeared  more  or  less 
every  year.  Among  the  more  important  are: 
C.  Jullian,  Hisloire  de  la  Gaule  (4th  vol.,  Paris, 
1014)  ;  G.  Dottin,  Manuel  pour  Servir  d  I'Etude 
de  VAntiquitt  Critique  (Paris,  1015);  John 
Strachan  and  J.  G.  O'KeefiVs  edition  of  the 
Tain  B6  Cualnge  (Dublin,  1016)  ;  Catalogue  of 
the  Bradshaw  Collection  of  Irish  Books  in  the 
University  Library  of  Cambridge,  3  vols.  (1016)  ; 
K.  Meyer,  Zur  Keltischen  Wortkunde  (Berlin, 
1017-10);  E.  Cartailhac,  Dictionnaire  Archt- 
ologique  de  la  flaule  (vol.  ii,  Paris,  1919)  ;  G. 
Dottin,  La  Langue  Gauloise  (ib.,  1920); 
J.  Loth,  Remarques  et  Additions  d  la  Gram- 
maire  Galloise  Historique  et  Comparfe  de 
John  Morris  Jones  (Paris,  1020)  ;  E.  Le  Blant, 
Inscriptions  Chreticnncs  de  la  Gaule  (2  vols., 
Paris,  1023)  ;  J.  D.  Bruce,  The  Evolution  of 
Arthurian  Romance  from  the  Beginnings  Down 
to  the  Year  1300  (Baltimore,  1023). 

Germanics.  Contributions  to  the  Germanic 
languages  are  so  numerous  that  it  would  be  vain 
to  list  even  the  more  important.  The  reader 
is  referred  therefore  to  various  editions  of  the 
New  International  Year  Book.  Under  the 
same  general  heading  will  also  be  found  works  in 
Frisian,  Gothic,  etc.  Among  these  contribu- 
tions are:  J.  Hoops,  Reallexikon  der  Ger- 
manischen  Altertumskunde  (Berlin,  1015-10)  ; 
Grimm's  Deutsches  Worterbuch  (Leipzig) ;  H. 
Fischer,  Schwabisches  Worterbvch  (Tubingen); 
Jellinghavs-Forstemann,  AJtdeutsches  Namen- 
buch  ( Bonn )  ;  the  Schwcizerisches  Idiotikon, 
Worterbuch  der  Rchiceizer-deutschen  Sprache 
(Frauenfeld)  ;  J.  Zupitza,  Einfuhrung  in  das 
Ktudium  des  Mittlrhochdeutschen  (Chemnitz, 
1010) ;  J.  Srhatz,  Altbairische  Grammatik  (Got- 
tingen,  101."));  A.  Meillet,  Caractfres  Gfnfrauj> 
des  Langues  Germaniqttes  (Paris,  1017) ;  B.  Del- 
brttck,  Germanisohe  tiyntaw  (Leipzig,  1016-10); 
H.  Paul,  Deutsche  Grammatik  (2  vols.,  Halle, 


1916*17) ;  B.  Sievers,  Metrische  Studien  (Leip- 
zig, 1910);  S.  Feist,  Etymologisches  Wdrter- 
buoh  der  Gotischen  Sprache  (Halle,  1920)  ;  H. 
Hirt,  Geschichte  der  Deutschen  Sprache  (Mu- 
nich, 1919)  j  H.  Paul,  Deutsche  Grammatik 
(vols.  iii,  v,  Halle,  1920) ;  F.  Kluge,  Deutsche 
Sprachgeschichte  (Leipzig,  1921);  F.  A.  Wood, 
Verner*s  Law  in  Gothic  (Chicago,  1922);  E. 
Steinmayer  and  E.  Sievers,  Die  Althochdeutsche 
Glossen  (vol  v,  Berlin,  1922);  O.  Behaghel, 
Deutsche  Syntax  (Heidelberg,  1923);  and  A. 
Pin  loch  e,  Etymologisches  Worterbuch  der  Deut- 
schen Sprache  (Paris,  1923). 

Scandinavian.  This  group  of  indefatigable 
scholars  made  valuable  contributions  to  Old 
Norse,  Icelandic,  Swedish,  Danish,  Norwegian, 
etc ,  such  as  the  Swedish  Academy's  Ordbok 
Ofver  Svenska  Sprakct  (Lund)  ;  Egilsson  and 
Jftnsson,  Lexicon  Poeticum  Antiquae  Linquae 
Septcntrionalis:  Ordbog  over  dct  Nordisk- 
islandske  Skjaldesprog  ( Copenhagen )  ;  A.  Torp, 
Nynorsk  Etymologisk  Ordbok  (Christiania)  ; 
Noreen,  Vart  Sprak  (Lund)  ;  Klara  Stroebe, 
Nordischc  Volksmarchen,  edited  by  F.  von  der 
Leyen  and  P.  Zaunert  (2  vols.,  Jena,  1015)  ; 
W.  A.  Craigie,  The  Icelandic  Sagas  (New  York, 
1015);  Diplomatarium  Islandicum  (1310-1544) 
(Reykjavik,  1016);  A.  Kock,  Svensk  Ljudhia- 
toria  (vol.  iv,  Lund,  1020)  ;  O.  Oestergren,  A~w«- 
vensk  Ordbok  (Stockholm)  ;  E.  TIellquist,  Svensk 
Etymologisk  Ordbok  (Pt  I,  Lund,  1020);  H. 
Hermannson,  Bibliography  of  the  Eddas  (Ithaca, 
1020)  ;  V.  Dahlerup,  Det  Danske  Sprogs  His- 
toric (Copenhagen,  1021);  J.  Jakobscn,  Ety- 
mologisk  Ordbok  orcr  dct  'Norrone  Sprog  pa> 
Shetland  (4  vols.,  Copenhagen,  1008-21);  V. 
Dahlerup,  Ordbog  over  dct  Danske  Sprog  (vol. 
iii,  Copenhagen,  1922);  E.  Sievers,  Die  Edda 
Licder  (Leipzig,  1923). 

English.  As  no  selected  list  of  works  could 
do  justice  to  such  an  extensive  collection,  we 
will  limit  our  attention  to  Dr.  Murray's  Areu? 
English  Dictionary  (Oxford)  ;  H.  Harrison, 
Surnames  of  the  United  Kingdom  (London); 
Crabbe's  English  Synonyms  (Anniversary  edi- 
tion, New  York,  1017);  H.  L.  Mencken,  The 
American  Language  (New  York,  1010)  ;  P.  G. 
Thomas,  Introduction  to  the  History  of  the 
English  language  (London,  1920)  ;  R.  W  Cham- 
bers, Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Beowulf  (ib., 
1920)  ;  H.  C.  Wyld,  History  of  Modern  Collo- 
quial English  (ib.,  1020)  ;  K.  Luick,  Historischc 
Grammatik  der  englischen  Sprache  (Leipzig); 
E.  Weekley,  Etymological  Dictionary  of  Modern 
English  (London,  1021);  T.  N.  Toller,  Anglo- 
Saxon  Dictionary  (Oxford,  1922);  R.  Huchon, 
Histoire  de  la  langue  anglaise  (Paris,  1023). 

Romance.  The  continued  activity  of  scholars 
in  this  domain  bes]>eaks  the  immense  wealth  of 
material  at  the  disposal  of  the  philologist.  In- 
cessant publication  of  new  texts  has  had  as  a 
consequence  reorganization  of  material  and  re- 
vision of  methods.  As  examples  may  be  cited 
Meyer-Ltibke's  Komanisches  Etymologisches  Wor- 
terbuch (Heidelberg)  ;  Beclier's  celebrated  Le- 
gendes  tpiques  (Paris,  2d  ed.,  1022)  of  which 
the  first  edition  was  completed  in  1013.  Other 
works  are  G.  Nicholson,  Recherches  Etymolo- 
giques  Romanes  (Paris,  1921);  E.  Bourciez, 
EMme-nts  de  Linguistique  Romane  (ib.  1923); 
G.  Millardet,  Linguistique  et  Dialectologie  Ro- 
manes (ib.,  1923). 

French.  K.  Nyrop,  Orammaire  Historique  de 
la  Langue  Francaite  (3d  ed.,  Copenhagen) ; 
A.  Tobler,  Altfranzdsisohes  Worterbuch,  edited 


PHILOSOPHY 


1037 


PHILOSOPHY 


by  E.  Lommatzflch  (Berlin) ;  A.  Haase,  Kyn- 
tawe  Franchise  du  Dix-aeptitone  SMcle  (trans, 
by  M.  Obert,  Parig,  1916);  F.  Brunot, 
Hietoire  de  la  Langue  Franchise  des  Ori- 
gines  d  WOO  (vol.  v,  Paris,  1917);  K.  Vos- 
slor,  Franzosische  Philologie  (Gotha,  1919)  ;  L. 
Gauchet  and  J.  Jeanjaquet,  Glossaire  de*  Patois 
dc  la  8ui88C  Rom  an  e  (vol.  ii,  1920);  J.  Gillig- 
ron,  Etude  de  Geographic  Linguistique  and  sup- 
plement to  vol.  i  of  the  Alias  Linguiatique  de  la 
France  (Paris,  1921);  A.  Longnon,  Lcs  JVoma 
de  Lie ux  de  la  France  (Paris,  1920-22);  G 
Eruger,  Franzcsieche  Stynonymik  (Dresden, 
1922);  P.  Barbicr,  English  Influence  in  the 
French  Vocabulary  (New  York,  1922)  ;  W.  von 
Wartburg,  Franzosischcs  Etymologisches  Wor- 
terbuch  (Bonn,  1922);  J.  Vising,  Anglo-Nor- 
man Language  and  Literature  (Oxford,  1923); 
P.  De'sormaux,  Bibliographic  MSthodique  des 
Porters  de  tfaroic  (Paris,  1923). 

Italian  Diatechology  and  lexicography  have 
hold  the  attention  of  Italian  scholars.  Among 
these  works  are  G.  Bertoni,  Italia  Dialettale 
(Milan,  1910);  E  Monaci,  Ktvdi  Romanzi 
(Koine,  1917);  V.  Restori,  Dal  Latino  Plebec 
till'  Italiano  Illustre  (Mantua,  1923);  L.  Spit- 
/er,  Italievischc  L'mgangsprache  (Bonn,  1922); 
and  G.  Saccfl,  La  Lingua  Italiana  e  la  sua 
Evolvzione  (Catania,  1923). 

Spanish.  The  numerous  dialects  spoken  over 
the  \ast  territory  once  forming  the  colonial  pos- 
sessions of  Spain  a  fiord  an  inexhaustible  sub- 
ject for  the  philologist.  Among  the  contribu- 
tions are  the  14th  edition  of  the  Diccionario 
de  /a  Lengua  Castcllana,  by  the  Spanish  Royal 
Academy  (Madrid,  1914)  ;  Diccionario  Gallego- 
rantcllana  by  the  Royal  Galician  Academy 
(Corufla)  ;  A.  Castro  and  F.  de  Onis,  Fucros 
Lconrscs  (Madrid,  1916)  ;  Spanish  Royal  Acad- 
emy's Gramatica  dc  la  Lcngua  Castcllana  (new 
edition,  Madrid,  1917)  ;  M.  A.  Roman,  Diccion- 
«rio  de  VliiletnxmoH  y  dc  Otras  Locucioncs 
Viciosas  (3th  \ol  ,  Santiago  de  Chile,  1916-18)  ; 
R.  Foulche'-I>pllx>hc  and  L  Barreau  Dihigo, 
Manuel  dc  rilispanisant  (vol.  i,  New  York, 
1920)  ;  A.  Zauner,  Altspanischcs  Elementar- 
buch  (Heidelberg,  1921);  and  R.  MenSndez 
Pidal,  Documcntos  Linguisticos  de  Espana  (Ma- 
drid, 1923). 

Dictionaries,  etc  As  we  have  noted  hereto- 
fore, because  of  the  numerous  languages  in- 
volved in  the  War,  public  attention  became 
focused  on  language  study.  However,  to  meet 
the  immediate  emergency  a  vast  number  of  dic- 
tionaries, language  manuals,  and  phrase  books 
were  published  containing  \ocabularies  not  only 
of  the  numerous  sciences  drafted  into  the  War, 
but  also  for  commercial  intercourse  and  even 
social  amenities.  During  the  War  an  attempt 
was  made  by  the  writer  to  supply  a  fairly  com- 
plete list  of  such  manuals  and  dictionaries. 
Space  limitations  make  it  impossible  of  repeti- 
tion here  The  reader  is  therefore  referred  to 
the  following  editions  of  the  A>w  Inter- 
national Year  Book:  1915,  p.  502;  1916, 
pp.  537-540;  1917,  pp.  536-537;  1918,  pp. 
494-497;  1919,  p  522;  1920,  p.  539,  etc. 
Likewise  for  the  interest  developed  in  the  courses 
conducted  in  many  American  universities  and 


of  the  scientists  to  find  a  way  of  passing  from 
one  supposedly  discreet  science  to  another.  The 
attempt  to  bridge  the  gulf  between  mathematics 
and  physics  issued  in  the  theory  of  relativity; 
similarly  the  attempted  transition  from  physics 
to  chemistry  resulted  in  the  statement  of  the 
problem  of  the  structure  of  the  atom  and  the 
quantum  theory  as  a  tentative  answer.  Less 
was  done  to  articulate  biology  with  its  fore- 
running sciences  because  the  questions  in  that 
region  are  still  manifold,  but  the  controversy 
over  vitalism  and  mechanism  and  the  investiga- 
tion of  colloidal  substances  is  significant.  Psy- 
chology, at  least  in  the  English -speaking  world, 
was  in  great  danger  of  being  subsumed  under 
the  other  sciences  such  as  physics,  biology  and 
physiology,  rather  than  being  recognized  as 
sufficiently  independent  to  warrant  the  assign- 
ment of  a  special  place  and  function  in  the 
scientific  field.  However,  if  we  recognize  the 
psychologist's  hope  of  differentiating  psychology 
proper,  social  psychology  and  the  psychology  of 
society  and  sociology,  we  could  make  a  fairly 
complete  picture  of  the  intellectual  market  place 
of  1924 — a  picture  which  would  gratify  a  fol- 
lower of  Comte  at  any  rate. 

However,  this  tendency  to  integrate  the  sci- 
ences did  not  exactly  follow  the  lines  of  develop- 
ment laid  down  by  Comte.  Neo-positivism  ac- 
counted for  scientific  thought  in  terms  of  mathe- 
matical correlation.  Its  chief  spokesman  re- 
duced scientific  hypothesis  to  the  level  of  mathe- 
inatical  equation;  the  entity  hypothesis  was 
excluded  as  far  as  possible;  the  terms  in  these 
equations  were  merely  convenient  expressions 
substituted  for  observations  and  thus  made 
amenable  to  mathematical  treatment.  This  in- 
tellectual asceticism  was  justified  by  the  facility 
it  contributed  to  the  scientific  treatment  of  ex- 
perience. It  also  enabled  the  scientist  to  ap- 
peal to  mathematical  presuppositions  instead  of 
outworn  metaphysics  when  he  was  hard  pressed 
to  give  some  further  account  of  his  theories. 

This  need  for  interpretation,  especially  with 
regard  to  scientific  formulas  uhich  involve  non- 
Euclidean  geometry,  led  to  the  further  develop- 
ment of  postulate  theory  and  mathematical 
logic.  So  when,  in  1919,  it  appeared  that  at 
least  one  of  Einstein's  predictions,  which  were 
based  largely  on  non-Euclidean  geometry  and 
rather  unconventional  postulates,  had  been  veri- 
fied, greater  importance  was  attached  to  the 
work  of  Peano,  Frege,  Cantor,  Dedekind,  White- 
head  and  Russell  in  mathematical  theory. 
Here  was  observational  evidence  not  only  for 
Einstein's  theory  of  relativity,  but  a  naTve 
philosophical  mind  was  tempted  to  conclude  that 
the  mathematical  presuppositions  were  also  veri- 
fied. Some  not  so  well  trained  in  mathematical 
theory  were  tempted  to  claim  verification  for 
their  own  special  brand  of  metaphysics  on  the 
same  ground.  The  discovery  of  the  displace- 
ment of  Mercury  at  perihelion  was  like  Thales* 
discovery  of  the  marvelous  uses  of  the  waters 
of  the  Nile  and  the  subsequent  founding  of  the 
Ionian  school  of  nature  philosophies:  water, 
fluid,  ice,  steam,  mathematics,  non-Euclidean 
geometry,  postulates,  mathematical  logic.  We 
now  had  a  scientific  method  in  philosophy. 

The  more  cautiously  minded  mathematicians 


colleges  for   prospective  officers  enrolled  in   the 

Students'  Army   Training   Corps,   see   the   New  and  scientists  disowned  any  such  extrapolation, 

International  Year  Book  for  1918  (pp.  495-496).  and  rejoiced  over  the  great  advantages  afforded 

PHILOSOPHY.     The  developments  of  great-  by  the  theory  of  relativity  for  scientific  method, 

est    philosophical    significance    in    the    field    of  The  more  philosophically  minded  saw  the  prob- 

natural  science  were  incidental  to  the  attempt  lem  of  rendering  such  an  enormous  system  in- 


PHILOSOPHY 


1038 


PHILOSOPHY 


telHgible  not  so  much  for  science  as  for  human 
culture.  Whitehead  resolved  to  recast  the 
fundamentals  of  physics  to  fit  in  with  the  new 
theory,  and  for  this  found  his  method  of  exten- 
sional  abstraction  most  convenient.  Gassirer, 
a  neo-Kantian,  took  the  op|x>rtunity  to  show 
how  the  Platonic  element  in  the  Kantian  a  priori 
had  in  it  the  capacity  to  assimilate  the  new 
mathematical  physics  and  thus  discharge  the 
obligation  to  be  intelligible,  which  science  had 
neglected  to  fulfill.  Brunschvicg  found  it  pos- 
sible to  go  still  further  and  link  up  the  Spino- 
zistic  tradition  of  intellectual  intuition  or  judg- 
ment with  the  equally  Spinozistic  "world  of 
numbers"  presented  by  Einstein.  Out  of  this 
approach  there  results  an  onward  march  of  man, 
the  author  of  science. 

Running  along  beside  these  theories  of  rela- 
tivity, which  are  concerned  mainly  with  the  ap- 
plication of  mathematics  to  astronomical  phys- 
ics, were  the  investigations  of  the  structure  of 
the  atom,  which  use  other  and  apparently  diver- 
gent mathematical  hypotheses.  Here  again  the 
naive  mind  found  a  springboard  for  metaphysics, 
and  the  cautious  critical  mind  contented  itself 
with  mathematical  correlations.  The  philosoph- 
ical significance  seems  to  lie  in  the  field  of  epi- 
stemology  rather  than  in  logical  theory  as  in 
the  case  of  relativity.  Philosophers  of  physics 
like  Broad  attempted  to  include  and  articulate 
the  psychology  of  perception  processes  with 
physical  action,  while  G.  E.  Moore  supplied  a 
Platonic  metaphysics  to  support  it. 

The  other  natural  sciences  present  problems 
like  these,  though  less  clearly  formulated.  The 
best  scientific  mind  uses  imagination  and  mathe- 
matics, the  best  philosophical  mind  criticizes 
and  sets  the  results  in  consistent  order,  and  this 
is  fortunate  for  science.  But  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  this  is  science,  with  philosophy 
as  handmaiden.  The  scientist  discovers  and 
classifies,  calling  for  philosophical  criticism 
only  to  render  his  material  intelligible,  when 
no  further  progress  can  be  made  without  such 
insight  Insight  or  wisdom  performing  this 
function  is  intellect  domesticated  or  enslaved; 
mathematics  and  logistics  take  the  place  of 
logic;  ethics,  aesthetics,  and  metaphysics  are 
ignored.  Yet  one  sees  in  this  commandeering 
of  the  philosophic  insight  and  intuition  the 
start  of  a  return  to  the  greater  tradition  in 
philosophy.  The  reference  of  scientific  findings 
to  an  intellectually  grasped  or  constructed  sys- 
tem is  not  a  new  trick.  One  remembers  that 
Plato  found  a  function  for  hypothesis  in  his 
ascent  to  the  ideas.  Also,  one  must  not  forget 
that  the  modern  procedure  is  not  accidentally 
Platonic.  The  earlier  Russell  did  not  despise 
Platonism,  and  the  latest  Santayana  embraces 
it  with  true  irsthetic  enthusiasm.  What  mat- 
ters it  that  system  or  essence  is  substituted  for 
the  idea?  Cassirer  is  not  frightened  by  the 
dialectic  Nemesis  that  follows. 

The  rivals  to  this  positivistic  naturalism  are 
the  modern  humanists.  One  would  like  here  to 
review  the  so-called  realistic  and  psychological 
novel  and  compare  it  with  the  Greek  tragedy  as 
the  objectification  of  opinions  on  fundamentally 
philosophical  themes.  Or,  on  another  level  one 
might  sift  hehavioristic  and  Freudian  psychol- 
ogy for  nuggets  of  wisdom,  but  here  again  we 
find  the  professional  philosopher  buying  and 
using  the  novelist's  and  scientist's  knowledge. 
The  rationale  of  his  doctrines  is  the  biologist's 
or  the  sociologist's  dogmas.  The  most  obvious 


illustration  of  this  is  the  pragmatic  tradition 
in  America.  James,  Freud,  and  Watson  have 
sold  their  functional  psychologies  to  both  the 
professionals  and  the  guildsmen  of  humanistic 
sciences.  Their  psychologies  are  ultimately 
physiological,  biological,  or  sociological,  and  the 
philosophizing  which  one  finds  is  the  reference 
of  this  or  that  particular  fact  to  one  of  these 
systems.  Humanism  means  then  that  man  the 
organism,  man  the  psyche,  man  the  citizen  of 
a  commonwealth  is  the  measure  of  all  things. 
Glands,  unit  characteristics,  instincts,  condi- 
tioned responses,  complexes,  survival  value, 
adaptation,  social  expediency  are  terms  to  con- 
jure with.  They  are  the  inner  fates  and 
Nemesis  of  our  human  existence  Yet  the  rel- 
ativism of  these  concepts  is  admitted  in  the 
writings  of  Dewey,  Pound  and  McDougall. 
Man's  creative  intelligence  measures,  and 
moves  on. 

In  France,  Durkheim  and  LrVy-Bruhl  and  in 
England  Westermarck  and  Hobhouse  set  up  the 
science  of  anthropology  as  a  system  of  reference. 
/Esthetics,  logic,  ethics,  all  have  a  genesis  and 
raison  d'etre  in  man's  social  experience.  At  ores, 
taboos,  and  ritual  supply  the  necessity  of  man's 
life  and  knowledge.  But  there  was  a  more 
sophisticated  European  tradition  which  had  not 
only  appropriated  but  assimilated  the  concepts 
of  biology  and  anthropology.  It  not  only  avoid- 
ed but  condemned  what  it  called  psycliolo^ism. 
It  reduced  scientific  classification  and  subordina- 
tion to  the  level  of  arbitrarily  specialized  cate- 
gories, and  asserted  the  superiority  and  finality 
of  the  intuitive  comprehension  of  experience. 
It  drew  upon  Spinoza,  Kant,  and  Hegel.  It 
placed  the  a?sthetic  at  the  foundation  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  ethical  at  the  top  and  demanded 
the  integration  of  this  or  that  bit  of  knowledge 
in  the  light  of  the  immediately  given  whole. 
However,  that  it  paid  for  its  sophistication  is 
evident  from  the  difficulties  it  encountered. 
More  often  than  not  an  attempt  was  made  to 
characterize  its  ultimates  in  terms  of  its  most 
hated  scientific  discreetness.  .Bergson  never  es- 
caped the  biologism  of  his  6lan  vital;  Crocr 
fell  into  the  Hegelian  fiasco  of  identifying  Hpiiit 
with  human  history;  Brunschvicg  fell  short  of 
Spinozistic  substance  and  was  content  with  the 
onward  march  of  man  through  his  flux  of  ex- 
perience. Humanism  had  its  usual  limitations. 
Santayana's  Realm  of  Spirit  illumines,  enchants, 
and  dies  away. 

These  were  the  market  place  brands  of  philoso- 
phy in  the  year  1924.  They  were  already  the 
history  of  the  last  decade,  but  the  discussion 
of  the  market  place  continued.  What  would 
come  of  it?  It  would  be  dangerous  to  prophesy, 
but  history  is  not  complete  until  an  inventory 
of  possibilities  is  taken.  For  that  purpose,  we 
may  return  to  our  analogy.  If  that  is  legiti- 
mate, we  may  look  forward  to  a  philosophical 
renaissance  in  the  near  future.  First,  tlie 
Platonism  of  the  so-called  realists  remained;  it 
is  the  sine  qua  non  of  all  genuine  philosophy 
Second,  the  mental  ism  of  the  so-called  ideal  ists 
had  come  to  stay.  Further,  the  two  could  not 
be  mixed.  Santayana's  Scepticism  and  Animal 
Faith  and  the  crudities  of  his  behavioristie 
synthesis  is  evidence  enough  of  that.  The  task 
facing  all  critical  and  honest  philosophers  in 
the  year  1924  was  to  give  some  account  of  in- 
duction or  the  reference  of  the  given  to  a  sys- 
tem, and  it  was  not  to  be  solved  by  animal  faith 
or  divination.  Messrs.  Russell  and  Whitehead 


PHOENIX  GROUP 


1039 


PHYSICS 


used  a  'suggestive  device  in  the  Principia  Mathe- 
matica  to  solve  the  problem  of  mathematical  in- 
duction. The  number  system,  as  we  know,  al- 
lows this  extrapolation  that  means  so  much  in 
ull  mathematics,  but  no  one  could  say  how 
or  why.  The  authors  faced  the  problem,  ad- 
mitted defeat;  and  assumed  mathematical  in- 
duction and  proceeded  to  define  the  number 
system  in  such  a  way  as  to  insure  the  validity 
of  the  inductive  process.  The  idealists  used  to 
employ  this  device,  and  built  up  systems  on 
which  one  could  find  perspective  and  order  for 
the  human  life  of  their  day.  These  perspectives 
and  insights  are  inadequate  for  our  world;  to 
return  to  them  or  even  to  Aristotle  and  Aquinas 
is  impossible,  but  with  a  Kant  or  a  Socrates  the 
sophistries  and  subterfuges  of  our  popular  phi- 
losophies would  be  uncovered  and  a  way  made 
for  the  courage  and  insight  of  a  genius  who 
could  then  make  the  spiritual  affirmation  and 
illumine  the  whole  so  that  all  could  see  and  be 
wise. 

Bibliography.  Samuel  Alexander,  Space 
Time  and  Deity  (2  vols.,  1020)  ;  Proceedings  of 
Aristotelian  Society,  sup.  vol.  iii:  Relativity, 
Loaio  and  Mysticism  (1923);  A.  J.  Balfour, 
Theism  and  Thought  (1023);  Henri  Bergson, 
Mind  Eneroy  (l'.)20),  Durce  et  RimultaneiU 
(1922);  Bernard  Bosanquet,  The  Meeting  of 
Extremes  in  Contemporary  Philosophy  (1922); 
I1.  D.  Broad,  Scientific  Thought  (1923);  l-e*on 
Hrunschvifg,  L' Experience  Hnmainc  et  la  Causa- 
lite  Physique  (1!)L!'2),  Npinoza  et  aes  Contempo- 
rains  ( 1923 )  :  H.  Wildon  Carr,  A  Theory  of 
Monads  (1922);  Krnwt  Casairer,  Substance  and 
Function,  and  Kelatirity  (1923);  Benedetto 
Crooo,  Histon/,  Its  Theory  and  Practice  (1921)  ; 
John  Dewey,  Hitman  Nature  and  Conduct  ( 1922)  ; 
Emile  Puikheim,  The  Elementary  Forms  of  the 
Religious  Life  (1916);  S  A.  Eddington,  Space, 
Time  and  (iraritation  (1921):  Giovanni  Gen- 
tile, The  Theory  of  Mind  an  Pure  Act  (1922)  ; 
Viscount  Haldane,  The  U^ign  of  Relativity 
(1922);  L.  T.  Hobhouse,  Social  Development 
(1924);  John  Laird,  A  Study  in  Realism 
(1917);  Lucien  Ldvy-Bruhl,  Primitive  Mental- 
ity (1923);  C.  Lloyd  Morgan,  Emergent  Evolu- 
tion (1923);  G  .  E.  Mooie,  Philosophical  Stud- 
ies (1922);  J.  H.  Muirhead,  Contemporary 
British  Philosophy  (1924);  A.  D.  Ritchie,  Sci- 
entific Method  (1923);  L.  Rougier,  La  Philos- 
ophic (icometriquc  de  Henri  Poincartf  (1920); 
Bertram!  Russell,  Introduction  to  Mathematical 
Philosophy  (1919);  George  Santayana,  Rcepti- 
cism  and  Animal  Faith  (1923);  The  Unknow- 
able (1923);  Socielas  Spinozana,  Chronicon 
Spinosanum,  i,  ii,  iii  (1921-24)  ;  E.  W.  Wester- 
marck,  The  Origin  and  Development  of  Moral 
Ideas  (1917);  Alfred  N.  Whitehead,  The  Prin- 
ciple of  Relativity  (1922),  The  Concept  of 
Mature  (1920),  Natural  Knoicledac  (1919). 
See  INSTINCT;  PSYCHOLOGY;  ESTHETICS;  CON- 
SCIOUSNESS AND  THE  UNCONSCIOUS. 

PHCENIX  GROUP.  See  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
ISLANDS. 

PHONETICS.  See  PHILOLOGY,  MODEBN;  and 
PHILOLOGY,  CLASSICAL. 

PHOSPHATE  BOCK.  The  abundant  sup- 
plies of  phosphate  found  in  the  United  States 
offset  the  utter  deficiency  of  nitrates  and  pot- 
ash. These  three  materials  are  essential  fer- 
tilizing substances  for  agriculture  and  where 
not  available  must  be  imported.  In  1920,  the 
world's  production  of  phosphate  rock  was  es- 
timated at  6,725,215  long  tons,  of  which  the 


United  States  produced  4,170,056  long  tons. 
This,  of  course,  was  a  record  production,  there 
being  subsequently  a  marked  decline.  The 
phosphate  deposits  of  Florida  furnish  from  75 
to  85  per  cent  of  the  annual  American  output, 
and  are  followed  by  Tennessee  and  Ken- 
tucky. The  two  main  types  of  phosphate  rock 
are  hard  rock  and  pebble.  The  Florida  deposits 
are  mainly  land-pebble  rock,  while  the  Tennes- 
see deposits  are  of  various  types.  In  the  west- 
ern United  States,  phosphate  rock  has  been  dis- 
covered chiefly  in  Idaho,  Wyoming  and  Utah, 
where  they  occur  near  the  base  of  the  Carbon- 
iferous. In  1924,  the  United  States  had  two 
extensive  phosphate  reserves,  one  in  Florida 
and  one  in  the  Western  States,  and  there  was 
no  anxiety  regarding  future  needs  In  fact, 
high-grade  superphosphate  had  been  produced 
by  a  copper-mining  company  from  material 
mined  in  one  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  States. 

In  1020,  over  a  million  tons  of  raw  phosphate 
rock  were  exported,  valued  at  over  $11,000,000, 
in  addition  to  over  80,000  tons  of  superphos- 
phate valued  at  $3,000,000.  Nearly  all  of  these 
deposits  went  to  Europe,  chiefly  "to  Germany, 
Spain,  Holland  and  Belgium,  as  the  United 
States  was  the  world's  largest  producer,  fol- 
lowed by  Tunis  and  Algiers.  In  1913,  the  sales 
of  phosphate  rock  in  the  United  States  were  in 
excess  of  3,000,000  long  tons,  but  it  declined 
during  the  War  until  1015  when  there  were  be- 
low 2000  tons  with  a  further  temporary  decline 
in  1010.  They  then  rose  to  over  4,000^000  tons 
in  1020,  which  was  the  banner  year  for  the 
American  industry.  The  quantity  *of  phosphate 
rock  sold  in  the  United  States  in  1022  was 
2,417,883  long  tons,  valued  at  $10,482,846,  as 
compared  with  2,0(54,025  long  tons,  valued  at 
$12,270,070  in  1021.  Of  all  the  phosphate  rock 
sold  in  the  United  States  in  1022,  85  per  cent 
was  sold  by  Florida,  whose  sales  amounted  to 
2,058,503  long  tons  valued  at  $8,347.522.  Ten- 
nessee was  the  next  largest  producing  State, 
with  a  sale  of  353,300  long  tons  valued  at  $2,- 
107,382  (including  a  small  quantity  of  brown 
rock  from  Kentucky).  Idaho  was  the  only  west- 
ern State  that  produced  phosphate  rock  in  1922. 

PHOSPHATES.     See  FERTITIZERS. 

PHOSPHORUS.     See   CHEMISTRY. 

PHOTOGRAPHY,  AERIAL.  See  AERONAU- 
TICS. 

PHOTOPEBJODISM.     See  BOTANY. 

PHOTOSYNTHESIS.  See  BOTANY;  CHEM- 
ISTRY, ORGANIC;  PHYSICS. 

PHYSICAL  CHEMISTRY.  See  CHEMIS- 
TRY, PHYSICAL;  BIOCHEMISTRY. 

PHYSICS.  The  discovery  of  X-rays,  radium, 
the  electron,  and  the  constructive  theories  of 
the  quantum,  relativity,  and  the  nuclear  atom 
inaugurated  an  unprecedented  advance  in  phys- 
ical science  during  the  first  quarter  of  the 
twentieth  century.  Any  attempt  prior  to  this 
epoch  to  substitute  for  Newton's  laws  and 
Euclidian  geometry  laws  of  superior  rigor  would 
have  been  deemed  heresy.  The  quantum  of 
Planck  and  the  relativity  equations  of  Einstein 
have  won  their  way  steadily  to  a  commanding 
position,  the  one  by  the  beauty  with  which  it 
fits  observed  phenomena,  the  other  by  the  ac- 
curacy with  which  it  predicts  quantitatively 
phenomena  contrary  to  those  of  classical  me- 
chanics. The  one  began  as  an  empirical  neces- 
sity, the  other  as  a  logical  necessity:  both  have 
been  astonishingly  successful  in  their  agree- 
ment with  the  observed  facts  of  nature. 


PHYSICS 


1040 


PHYSIOS 


New  theories,  new  tools  of  research,  extended 
facilities,  have  stimulated  the  imagination  and 
the  creative  activities  of  physicists  so  that 
cosmic  theory  is  now  applied  to  the  motions  and 
energies  within  the  atom  as  well  as  to  the 
sweep  of  the  entire  stellar  system  in  the  vast 
or  hits  which  the  stars  are  now  presumed  to 
describe  in  space  The  unit  of  energy  is  found, 
the  atomicity  of  action  discovered,  and  the 
whole  numbered  orbits,  and  whole  number  re- 
lations of  atomic  energies  and  spectra  are  work- 
ing parts  of  the  crucial  attack  on  the  problem 
of  atomic  structure 

An  astonishing  increase  in  the  kind  of  fa- 
cilities available  for  physical  research  has 
taken  place,  and  an  equally  amazing  increase 
has  taken  place  in  the  magnitude  of  such  fa- 
cilities. Physics  is  now  cosmic  in  scope.  It 
takes  the  crucibles  of  the  sky  as  experimental 
laboratories.  The  stars  and  planets  are  dy- 
namic systems,  graphic  points  on  the  chart  of 
the  sky  whose  coordinates  measure  millions  of 
light  years  and  whose  time  scale  is  equally  vast. 
This  gives  the  physicist  observational  access  to 
dynamic  systems  a  hundred  billion  times  the 
size  of  our  own  sun,  and  some  of  them  four  or 
five  times  hotter.  It  reveals  systems  moving 
through  space  a  hundred  times  faster  than  the 
sun,  and  in  all  stages  of  stellar  evolution. 

The  merging  of  astronomy  and  physics  has 
created  a  new  order  for  the  physicist,  has  with- 
in a  few  years  increased  his  perceptible  uni- 
verse to  millions  of  times  its  former  size.  At 
the  other  end  of  the  scale,  the  facilities  of  the 
physicist  have  grown  in  number  and  power. 
The  atom  gives  him  a  glimpse  of  forces  of  the 
order  of  a  million  times  those  of  the  highest 
explosive  created  by  man.  For  example,  when 
the  radium  atom  explodes  it  is  on  such  a  scale 
that  if  the  earth  exploded  with  relatively  the 
same  proportionate  violence,  it  would  drive  off 
a  mass  equal  in  size  to  the  United  States,  leave 
a  crater  a  thousand  miles  deep,  and  never  re- 
turn for  its  speed  would  be  12,000  miles  per 
second  The  physicist  is  to-day  in  the  presence 
of  forces  hitherto  undreamed  of. 

The  production  of  two  million  volts,  the  max- 
imum at  this  writing,  foreshadows  the  attain- 
ment, perhaps  surpassing,  of  the  voltages  of 
natural  lightning.  Model  villages  are  now  being 
experimentally  struck  by  artificial  lightning 
under  measured  control,  in  order  to  develop 
efficient  protection  from  lightning. 

Again  electron  tubes  have  been  developed 
with  1000-kilowatt  output,  using  1800  amperes 
at  12  volts  and  a  filament  thick  as  a  lead  pen- 
cil. Electron  tubes  are  reaching  such  propor- 
tions that  world -wide  telephony  seems  a  cer- 
tainty in  the  near  future,  and  the  physicist  is 
at  the  same  time  being  given  facilities  of  which 
he  had  not  conceived  the  possibility  Again, 
X-ray  apparatus  has  been  developed  in  recent 
years  to  a  point  where  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  voltage  may  be  used,  permitting  the  body  to 
be  photographed  in  a  fraction  of  a  second  where 
a  half  hour  was  formerly  required.  X-ray  mo- 
tion pictures  are  technically  accessible  to  the 
physicist.  The  interior  mechanism  of  machines 
has  been  photographed,  the  inner  structure  of 
natural  stones,  pearls,  and  even  of  metals  is 
easily  studied  by  this  new-found  radiation. 

Another  and  really  sensational  tool  of  the 
physicist  is  the  alpba  particle,  or  the  ejected 
helium  nucleus  from  the  radium  atom.  Easily 
the  most  powerful  projectile  known  to  science, 


it  became  in  the  hands  of  Rutherford  a  means 
of  disrupting  the  nuclei  of  the  lighter  atoms, 
thus  achieving  the  first  controlled  transmuta- 
tion of  the  elements. 

Another  facility  recently  developed  into  a 
powerful  research  facility  'for  the  physicist  is 
the  positive  ray  spectrogranh  Thompson,  Gold- 
schmidt,  Dempster,  and  Aston  have  perfected 
means  of  projecting  and  deflecting  the  positive 
and  negative  parts  of  the  atom  after  disrup- 
tion so  that  they  leave  traces  on  the  photograph- 
ic plate  at  distances  which  may  be  translated 
directly  into  mass  indications  This  has  per- 
mitted the  discovery  not  only  of  masses  of  dif- 
ferent elements,  but  the  different  masses  of  the 
isotopes  of  any  given  element.  Neon  atoms 
of  masses  20  and  22,  in  number  00  per  rent 
and  10  per  cent  respectively,  have  thus  been  de- 
tected. 

The  quite  astonishing  verification  of  Front's 
hypothesis  of  a  common  building  material  with 
whole  numbered  multiples  of  this  constituting 
the  atoms  of  the  elements,  has  thus  been 
achieved  since  1015,  based  upon  the  thoughts 
of  prior  writers  who  have  frequently  suggested 
that  the  usual  atomic  weights  are  not  fraction- 
al, but  average  weights  of  variant  atoms. 
Atoms  of  the  same  element  varying  in  mass  are 
isotopes  having  the  same  behavior.  Atoms  of 
different  elements  may  have  the  same  weight 
and  different  behavior — for  example,  lead  and 
bismuth  derived  from  thorium  (disintegration) 
have  atomic  weight  208  but  display  the  char- 
acteristic behavior  peculiar  to  each  element  not- 
withstanding. Positive  ray  analysis  permits 
the  discovery  quite  unexpectedly  of  undiHSo- 
ciated  groups  of  atoms.  The  method  is  now 
available  as  a  most  powerful  tool  for  the  phys- 
icist. 

Devices  have  been  developing  for  measuring 
the  X-ray  patterns  as  reflected  by  the  space 
lattices  of  crystals,  and  thus  disclosing  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  atoms  in  a  crystal.  The  sig- 
nificance of  crystal  lattice  study  as  practiced 
to-day  is  that  the  fundamental  fine  structure  of 
crystals  is  now  possible.  The  ordinary  amor- 
phous or  mixed  solid  has  been  likened  to  an  or- 
chestra at  practice,  each  player  playing  the 
same  tune,  but  at  different  points  in  the  piece, 
but  that  in  crystals  the  atoms,  like  the  players, 
are  all  playing  the  same  tune  at  the  same  place 
in  the  piece,  so  that  at  once  the  melody  is  ap- 
parent. Something  like  this  is  the  view  of  the 
crystal  gazer  of  to-day  who  is  allocating  the 
ions  and  atoms,  and  even  the  electrons  to  their 
proper  places  in  the  space  lattice  Astonishing 
results  have  already  been  attained. 

The  crystal  lattice  appears  now  as  dependent 
upon  the  number  of  outer  electrons,  the  form 
being  the  same  for  any  given  column  of  the  pe- 
riodic table.  Such  lattice  is  geometrically  de- 
monstrable as  the  natural  position.  For  example, 
the  alkali  atoms  have  body-centered  cubic  struc- 
ture, since  the  outer  electron  and  the  remainder 
of  the  atom  form  two  parts  which  being  respec- 
tively negative  and  positive  arrange  themselves 
in  space  alternately  in  the  elements  of  a  body- 
centred  cube.  Likewise  the  column  two  atoms, 
with  two  outer  electrons  in  each  atom  form  a 
hexagonal  space  lattice,  the  electrons  at  the 
angles  of  a  hexagonal  prism  and  the  ion  at  the 
centre  of  the  prism.  Crystal  structure  thus 
becomes  the  same  periodic  function  of  the  atom- 
ic number  as  the  other  properties  of  the  el- 
ements. Hull  expects  that  this  method  will 


PHYSICS 


1041 


PHYSICS 


yet  reveal  the  position  of  the  binding  electrons 
in  the  crystal  lattice  directly. 

As  a  result  of  the  determination  of  the  intra- 
crystal  orientation  of  the  atoms,  the  crystal 
forms  arrived  at  give  simple  and  natural  ex- 
planations of  certain  physical  properties  of 
these  substances.  For  example,  aluminium  and 
other  face-centred  cubic  arrangement  of  atoms 
(an  atom  at  each  angle  and  at  each  face-centre) 
are  soft  and  ductile.  The  reason  is  simple 
There  exist  four  planes  in  such  cubes  in  which 
the  atoms  are  so  closely  packed  that  one  plane 
slips  easily  over  the  one  below  without  elevat- 
ing it,  hence  with  minimum  change  in  the  at- 
tractive distances  between  the  atoms  Less 
ductile  are  the  body-centred  cubic  metals  (an 
atom  at  each  angle  and  one  at  the  cube  centre) 
since  they  are  more  fully  interlocked  and  the 
interatomic  attractive  distance  must  change 
during  gliding.  This  group  includes  such  met- 
als as  iron  and  tungsten. 

The  hardness  of  the  diamond  is  quite  natural- 
ly attributable  to  the  tetrahedral  arrangement 
in  which  gliding  is  impossible  since  the  atoms 
in  this  type  are  interlocked  in  the  most  stable 
manner.  Shore  has  found  that  the  diamond 
under  good  conditions  can  support  a  load  of 
two  million  pounds  per  square  inch.  Hull 
states  that  simple  cubic  salts  such  as  lithium 
fluoride  and  sodium  chloride  do  not  permit 
gliding  since  the  atoms  are  bound  electrostati- 
cally, each  ion  being  surrounded  by  six  opposite 
charges. 

Belativity.  The  year  1015  was  notable  for 
the  publication  of  Einstein's  (q.v.)  short  but 
epoch-making  paper  on  his  generalized  theory 
of  relativity.  This,  with  his  paper  published 
in  1005  on  *tlie  special  theory  of  relativity,  has 
wrought  the  moat  profound  advance  in  physics 
since  Newton  The  finitude  of  the  material 
universe,  the  derived  non-objectivity  of  time  and 
space,  the  meaninglessness  of  absolute  motion, 
the  effect  of  gravitational  fields  on  light  and 
other  radiant  energy,  the  equivalence  of  mass 
and  energy,  the  acceptance  of  time  as  a  fourth 
coordinate,  the  introduction  of  the  relativity 
effect  of  the  finite  velocity  of  light  into  physical 
equations,  and  the  establishment  of  purely  rela- 
tivity equations — all  these  were  so  new  to  the 
physicist  who  had  not  followed  the  course  of 
philosophical  or  mathematical  theoiy  that  skep- 
ticism, even  ridicule,  greeted  the  new  theory  set 
forth  by  Einstein. 

To  demonstrate  his  theory,  Einstein  selected 
three  necessary  results  of  the  theory  which 
might  be  tested  by  observation,  each  of  them 
contrary  to  the  classical  laws  of  mechanics  and 
inexplicable  under  classic  physics.  He  even 
predicted  these  results  quantitatively  by  the 
simple  use  of  his  relativity  equations  unmodi- 
fied by  special  assumptions.  The  three  predic- 
tions have  now  been  confined  by  observations  of 
unquestioned  precision.  The  agreement  is  bet- 
ter than  1  per  cent.  Classic  physics  was  shown 
to  have  failed  in  crucial  tests.  Einstein's  view 
that  time  and  space  are  abstract  derivatives  of 
reality  and  in  themselves  unable  to  control  or 
influence  anything  is  certain  to  have  a  profound 
effect  in  recasting  physics.  At  the  same  time, 
space  and  time  are  made  joint  coordinates  of 
the  four-dimensional  continuum  for  the  graphic 
plotting  of  an  event. 

Testing  the  Belativity  Theory.  The  first 
test  of  the  relativity  theory  was  the  mathemat- 
ical determination  by  relativity  equations  of 


the  full  value  of  the  rotational  precessional  of 
the  perihelion  of  the  planet  Mercury.  The  ro- 
tation is  in  the  direction  of  motion  of  the  plan- 
et and  was  inexplicable  according  to  Newton's 
laws  by  an  amount  equal  to  43  seconds  of  arc 
per  century.  The  Newtonian  failure  was  nota- 
ble, small  as  it  was.  Using  relativity  equations 
without  special  assumptions,  Einstein  computed 
the  true  rate  of  rotation  of  the  perihelion  of 
Mercury  to  within  one  second  of  arc  per  cen- 
tury. His  success  was  aston itching  and  fur- 
nished the  first  confirmation  of  his  theory. 

The  relativity  effect  on  the  apse  of  Venus  is 
too  small  to  observe  since  the  orbital  eccentric- 
ity is  too  small.  The  relativity  effect  of  like 
character  has  been  observed  for  the  planet  Mars 
but  observational  confirmation  of  the  exact 
amount  must  await  fuller  data.  In  the  case  of 
Mercury,  Einstein  amended  the  inverse  square 
law  by  changing  the  square  or  "second- 
power"  of  the  distance  to  read  the  "2  00000010 
power"  of  the  distance.  Slight  as  it  is,  it  af- 
fords confirmation  of  the  theory  which  is  des- 
tined to  play  a  reorganizing  part  in  physical 
theory.  For  example,  the  fine  structure  of*  spec- 
trum lines  involves  the  change  of  mass  resulting 
from  relativity  effects  on  the  elliptical  orbits 
of  the  electrons  by  which  the  perihelion  increase 
in  mass  with  increased  speed  alters  the  fre- 
quency of  the  electron  revolution  about  the  nu- 
cleus. In  other  words,  relativity  has,  perhaps, 
one  of  its  strongest  confirmations  in  the  struc- 
ture of  each  spectrum  line,  since  the  fine  struc- 
ture is  a  graphic  portrayal  of  the  actual  effects 
of  relativity. 

A  second  triumph  even  more  spectacular  was 
the  confirmation  of  Einstein's  prediction  that 
gravity  affects  light  and  that  starlight  passing 
the  sun's  disk  at  gracing  incidence  would  be  de- 
flected on  his  theory  by  an  amount  twice  the 
value  to  be  looked  for  from  classical  theory. 
Maxwell  long  before  had  shown  that  light  waves 
should  exert  pressure.  Yea  is  later  experiment 
confirmed  the  prediction  The  doctrine  of  con- 
servation of  momentum  implied  that  light  car- 
ries moving  mass.  The  wave  front  having  mo- 
mentum and  exerting  a  pressure  is  in  a  sense 
"temporary  matter"  which  might  be  affected  by 
gravity. 

This  was  put  to  the  test  at  the  eclipse  expe- 
dition of  May,  1010.  It  was  only  at  a  total 
eclipse  that  the  stars  could  be  photographed  to 
test  the  theory  by  recording  their  apparent  po- 
sition. If  the  photographic  images  near  the 
eclipsed  sun  during  totality  showed  displace- 
ment equal  to  that  predicted  by  Einstein — 
double  that  called  for  by  classical  mechanics — 
it  would  be  strong  evidence  for  the  relativity 
theory.  But  if  the  amount  was  one-half  that 
predicted  by  Einstein,  then  Newtonian  laws 
might  account  for  the  displacement. 

Decisive  success  came  on  May  29,  1919,  when 
at  Principe  light  from  near-by  stars  was  found 
deflected  by  the  sun  almost  equal  to  that  pre- 
dicted. At  8obral  the  deflection  found  was 
slightly  in  excess.  Campbell  in  1922  in  the 
most  'careful  eclipse  observations  yet  made 
found  his  observations  as  finally  adjusted  gave 
1.75'  and  agreed  within  about  a  half  of  one 
per  cent  with  the  Einstein  prediction.  The 
mass  of  Jupiter  is  great  enough  to  produce  a 
perceptible  deflection  and  an  occuitation  of  a 
star  by  this  planet  may  yet  be  a  favored  method 
of  studying  this  phenomena.  Einstein  had  said 
that  a  hundred  experiments  might  support  his 


PHYSICS 


1042 


PHYSICS 


theory  but  that  one  adverse  result  would  des- 
troy it. 

The  third  prediction  to  be  verified  was  that 
in  the  gravitational  field  of  the  sun  light  waves 
would  be  lengthened — for  example,  about  0.008 
Angstrom  unit  for  blue  light  of  wave  length 
4000  A.  Grebe  and  Bachem,  however,  in  1920 
reported  that  they  had  detected  a  lengthening 
equal  to  the  recession  of  the  light  source  0.56 
kilometer  per  second  as  compared  with  Kin- 
stein's  prediction  that  it  would  equal  a  reces- 
sion of  O.G34  kilometer  per  second.  An  atom  in 
the  sun  was  thus  shown  to  vibrato  at  a  slower 
rate  than  a  similar  atom  on  the  earth.  St. 
John,  at  Mt.  Wilson  Observatory,  reported  to 
the  National  Academy,  at  its  1024  session  at 
Washington,  that  he  found  confirmation  of  this 
predicted  effect  in  an  elaborate  series  of  meas- 
urements of  the  shift  of  spectrum  lines. 

The  abstract  mathematics  used  to  enunciate 
Einstein's  theory  were  such  that  few  physicists 
could  follow  the  reasoning.  The  verification, 
however,  of  three  predictions  contrary  to  classic 
mechanics  could  be  comprehended  by  all  but 
could  be  ignored  by  none. 

In  the  words  of  Planck,  Einstein's  theory 
"surpasses  in  boldness  everything  previously 
suggested  in  speculative  philosophy  and  even  in 
the  philosophical  theories  of  knowledge,"  and 
that  "the  revolution  introduced  into  the  phys- 
ical conceptions  of  the  world  is  only  to  be  com- 
pared in  extent  and  depth  with  that  brought 
about  by  the  introduction  of  the  Copernican 
system  of  the  universe." 

Trend  of  Modern  Physics.  Modern  physics 
has  l)een  the  sphere  of  so  many  and  such  fun- 
damental series  of  discoveries  that  there  was 
pressing  need  for  a  complete  restatement  in 
terms  of  fundamental  elements.  Slowly  through 
the  centuries,  the  consequences  of  these  elements 
have  become  simpler  as  identities  were  found. 
Parallel  to  this  the  consequences  of  the  interac- 
tion of  theflp  elements  have  become  more  com- 
plex. Man's  control  of  these  elements  has  be- 
come so  great  that  to-day  he  can  take  the  elec- 
tron from  an  atom  and  study  the  light  produced 
when  another  electron  takes*  its  place.  This  ex- 
ample is  a  type  and  a  forecast. 

The  trend* of  physics  is  steadily  toward  the 
complete  control  of  tne  ultimate  elements  of 
matter  and  of  energy,  the  ultimate  units  with 
which  physics  has  to*  deal.  To  restate  the  fun- 
damentals of  physics  does  not  mean  that  we 
have  completely  mastered  either  the  elements 
or  the  principles  governing  their  interaction. 
A  true  restatement  merely  implies  a  more 
fundamental  basis.  The  superstructure  is  yet 
to  be  built. 

The  success  of  the  new  physics  based  on  the 
fundamental  units  of  matter  and  energy  fore- 
shadows greater  triumphs  to  come.  The  crucial 
fact  is  the  identity  of  matter  and  energy  from 
which  follows  the  identity  of  the  electron  and 
the  unit  electric  charge,  so  that  matter  and 
energy,  the  basis  of  action,  have  one  and  the 
same  essence.  The  electron  thus  becomes  the 
focus  of  the  vast  movement  in  science  and  philos- 
ophy, a  twofold  movement  of  human  thought 
seeking  the  ultimate  unit  of  matter  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  ultimate  unit  of  energy  on  the 
other.  The  two  paths  led  to  the  same  ultimate 
unit — the  electron  pair. 

Exactly  as  matter  has  been  unified  and  the 
elements  ranged  in  an  evolutional  sequence  con- 
secutive and  alike  in  essence,  BO  radiation  from 


dec-trie  waves  (gamma)  2x10-*°  cm.  to  thoao 
of  radio  wave  lengths  has  been  unified  into  a  con- 
tinuous spectrum  of  55  octaves.  Fluorescence, 
which  is  frequency  transformation  of  light  waves, 
seems  destined  to  give  the  menus  of  transforming 
any  frequency  of  electric  waves  from  the  shortest 
gamma  to  the  longest  to  any  other  desired  fre- 
quency. This  is  the  analogue  of  the  transmuta- 
tion of  the  elements.  Tt  is  true  that  neither  is 
fully  at  hand,  but  with  the  fast  perfecting 
knowledge  of  the  laws  and  mechanism  of  radia- 
tion, it  seems  fair  to  expect  great  progress  to- 
ward the  protection  of  any  element  from  any 
other  and  of  any  electric  waves  to  others  of  any 
desired  frequency. 

The  knowledge  of  critical  frequencies  and 
critical  voltages  is  rapidly  becoming  more  def- 
inite. This  will  give  the  physicist  and  the 
chemist  the  means  of  initiating*  and  controlling 
chemical  reactions  otherwise  impossible  of  hu- 
man control  The  duplication  of  the  chlor- 
ophyllian  reaction  by  means  of  ultraviolet  ra- 
diation is  a  significant  experiment  forecasting 
great  achievements.  That  sugar  can  be  made 
directly  by  photosynthesis  from  moisture  and 
carbon  and  ultraviolet  radiation  seems  incred- 
ible, yet  this  is  credibly  reported  by  Berthellot. 
In  fact,  Perrin  and  others  suggested  that  all 
chemical  action  is  by  means  of  radiation,  and 
that  without  the  proper  radiation,  a  chemical 
reaction  is  impossible. 

Atomic  Structure  and  Theories.  That  ac- 
tion should  be  found  atomic  was  quite  unsus- 
pected and  is  still  inexplicable;  that  the  least 
common  multiple  or  cosmic  unit  of  action  should 
be  measured  to  within  one  part  in  six  thousand 
and  take  a  dominant  place  in  the  computation 
of  atomic  structure  and  spectra  as  well  as  in 
other  branches  of  physics  brings  us  to  the  point 
where  we  are  almost  ready  to  say  that  we  have 
reached  at  least  the  ultimate  units  of  matter 
and  energy  and  action  in  the  broadest  sense 
Expressed  in  energy  units  based  on  the  second, 
gram,  and  second,  the  numerical  value  of 
Planck's  universal  constant  of  action  in 
0.555  x  10-27  er£  seconds. 

Recent  physics  has  witnessed  the  "electrifica- 
tion" of  the  atoms,  and  such  properties  as  ten- 
sile strength  and  resistance  to  compression, 
which  have  been  called  "mechanical"  must  be 
regarded  as  electrical.  Tensile  strength  is  the 
attraction  between  ions,  resistance  to  compres- 
sion is  the  repulsion  of  like  charges  or  like  poles 
of  magnets.  The  structure  of  the  atom  now  dis- 
closed gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  mechanism 
and  mode  of  operation  of  the  "properties  of 
materials.'1 

Now  that  energy  is  known  to  have  momentum 
and  inertia,  we  are  free  to  revive  the  energetik 
of  Ostwald,  and  with  Le  Bon  and  Einstein  con- 
ceive nature  as  a  phenomenon  rather  than  a 
thing  and  to  regard  atoms  as  systems  of  energy 
rather  than  dead  inert  matter  swept  by  chance 
forces  into  fortuitous  concourse  called  material 
systems.  Nor  is  this  new  energetik  a  mere  idea, 
we  can  measure  the  increase  in  mass  with  ve- 
locity, witness  the  transformation  of  energy  into 
mass  and  mass  into  energy,  and  can  compute 
the  energy  equivalent  of  mass  of  any  element. 
If  mass  is  all  energy,  then  a  gram  of  any  kind 
of  matter  has  as  its  energy  equivalent  90,000,- 
000,000  ergs  of  energy,  that  is  the  mass  multi- 
plied by  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  light. 

Radiation  and  Pressure.  That  the  mass 
of  radiation  which  causes  its  pressure  it  not  a 


PHYSICS 


Z043 


PHYSIOS 


mere  abstraction  of  academic  interest  only,  is 
seen  in  the  theory  of  giant  stars  and  the  power- 
ful role  which  radiation  pressure  plays  in  the 
architecture  of  stellar  evolution  and  especially 
in  limiting  the  growth  of  mass  to  approximate- 
ly 1035  crams,  the  mass  at  which  radiation 
pressure  begins  to  far  exceed  the  inward  pull  of 
gravitation.  Practically  all  the  stars  are  be- 
tween 103»  and  1084  grams,  where  ether  pres- 
sure of  the  soft  X-rays  just  begins  to  dominate 
the  situation.  Knowing  the  mass,  it  becomes 
possible  to  compute  the  highest  temperature 
through  which  an  old  star  has  passed,  and  know- 
ing its  size  also,  it  becomes  possible  to  tell  what 
stage  of  its  evolution  it  has  reached. 

In  the  days  of  Laplace  gravitation  was  as- 
sumed as  the  only  building  force  of  the  cosmos. 
Hia  famous  nebular  hypothesis  received  over- 
whelming support  by  the  discovery  during  the 
past  50  years  of  the  spiral  nebulas  numbering 
perhaps  millions  About  the  middle  of  the  past 
century  the  pressure  of  light  was  postulated 
from  theory,  and  later  confirmed.  In  the  heart 
of  a  star  the  pressure  of  light  is  now  known  to 
sustain  most  of  the  vast  weight  of  the  star's 
mass. 

During  the  eclipse  of  1922  it  was  found  that 
the  sun's  atmosphere  was  being  driven  away 
from  the  sun  with  a  speed  that  increased  stead- 
ily. Such  an  increase  could  only  be  due  to  an 
accelerating  force  constantly  at  work.  This  force 
was  promptly  recognized  as  light  pressure.  The 
same  effect  was  observed  when  Halley's  comet 
was  seen  to  disrupt,  a  small  portion  of  the  head 
breaking  off.  The  lower  momentum  and  small- 
er size  of  the  detached  particles  caused  them 
to  be  driven  away  from  the  sun  relatively  to  the 
head  of  the  comet.  Gravitation  and  the  pres- 
sure of  radiation  are  now  recognized  as  jointly 
determining  the  architecture  of  stars  and  stellar 
systems. 

Nothing  in  the  history  of  science  compares 
with  the  sensational  attack  upon  the  problem 
of  the  structure  of  the  atom  and  the  amazing 
results  which  have  been  obtained  during  the 
past  few  years.  They  open  up  a  new  universe, 
infinitely  '  small,  within  the  atom — yet  coex- 
tensive with  the  great  universe  alxmt  us.  Men- 
dele'cv,  Shenstone,  and  others  had  imagined  an 
infra-cosmos  in  which  atoms  were  planets  and 
molecules  were  stellar  Hysteina.  The  atom  is, 
in  fact,  now  known  to  be  a  solar  system,  the 
smallest  constituent  of  which  is  perhaps  a  tril- 
lion times  the  volume  of  the  entire  atom.  The 
hydrogen  atom,  the  simplest  of  all,  was  quite 
naturally  the  first  studied,  and  as  suggested  by 
Prout  it  turns  out  to  be  the  unit  of  which  all 
later  atoms  are  built.  This  atom  is  one  ul- 
timate unit  of  positive  electricity  around  which 
circles  one  unit  of  negative,  electricity.  As 
early  as  1881,  Stoney  and  Helmholtz  had  inde- 
pendently suggested  that  electricity  was  atomic 
in  structure,  Stoney  had  already  named  the 
atoms  electrons. 

Development  of  Atomic  Theory.  Hundreds 
of  notable  names  suggest  themselves  as  playing 
parts  in  the  steady  stream  of  atomic  knowledge 
which  formed  the  atomic  theory  as  it  appears 
in  1924.  Faraday  discovered  the  law  of  elec- 
trolysis, Berzelius  had  developed  his  electro- 
chemical theory,  and  Arrhenius  the  theory  of 
electrolytic  dissociation.  Then  came  Lenard, 
,T.  J.  Thomson,  Crookes,  and  others  concerned 
in  disclosing  the  electron  itself  as  a  discrete 
entity.  Curie  brought  radium  to  light  from 


which  electrons  and  helium  nuclei  were  ejected 
and  gave  a  dynamic  example  to  the  physicist  of 
of  disintegrating  atoms.  Soddy  advanced  the 
thought,  foreshadowed  by  Crookes,  that  the 
atoms  might  vary  in  weight  even  for  the  same 
element  and  examples  were  afforded  in  radioac- 
tive transformations.  Variant  weight  atoms  of 
the  same  element  were  called  isotopes.  Thom- 
son and  Aston  perfected  the  means  of  studying 
them  and  the  latter  provided  proof  that  the 
atoms,  except  hydrogen,  had  integral  atomic 
weights. 

At  this  juncture  Planck's  quantum  theory  be- 
came in  1900  an  essential  factor  in  the  field  of 
radiation.  Balmer,  Rydberg,  and  Kits  had  giv- 
en an  equation  for  computing  the  spectral  lines 
of  the  Balmer  scries.  The  outstanding  question 
remained:  why  were  special  favored  frequencies 
alone  possible,  say,  in  the  Balmer  series  of 
hydrogen?  On  classical  assumptions  and  elec- 
trodynamic  theory  no  explanation  was  forth- 
coming. 

Planck  found  complete  agreement  on  the  as- 
sumption that  the  energy  of  the  vibrating  elec- 
trons could  not  change  continuously  but  always 
in  whole  numbers  of  what  he  called  "energy- 
quanta."  Thus  Planck's  constant  took  its  place 
as  the  factor  which  multiplied  by  the  frequency 
gave  the  energy  quantum.  This  latter  relation 
was  pointed  out  by  Einstein  who  based  upon  it 
his  theory  of  the  photoelectric  effect.  Not  yet, 
however,  was  it  possible  to  reconcile  interfer- 
ence phenomena  with  the  theory  of  quanta,  and 
it  is  just  such  phenomena  that  reveal  the  mean- 
ing of  the  frequency  thus  computed.  Bjerrum's 
prediction,  verified  by  Eva  von  Bahr,  that  rise 
in  temperature  would  cause  spectrum  lines  to 
split  up  into  discrete  components  became  a  vivid 
proof  of  the  reality  of  the  quantum. 

Then  came  Rutherford's  development  of  Ran- 
kine's  suggestion  and  Nagaoka's  theory  that 
the  nucleus  of  the  atom  would  be  found  to  be 
positive,  since  the  electrons  were  negative.  We 
can  fairly  attribute  the  establishment  of  this 
fact  to  Rutherford  in  the  year  1911. 

Bohr's  Theory.  Two  years  later,  in  1913,  a 
young  physicist  at  Copenhagen,  Niels  Bohr,  at- 
tempted the  final  step  of  postulating  certain 
conditions  which  might  account  for  the  stability 
of  atomic  structure  and  the  properties  of  radia- 
tion from  the  atoms  in  accordance  with  the  ob- 
served relations.  The  essence  of  this  is  that 
certain  favored  orbits  alone  could  exist  and  that 
these  bore  such  relation  to  each  other  that  the 
radii  are  proportional  to  whole  numbers.  For 
simplicity  suppose  these  represented  by  circles. 
The  favored  series  within  which  alone  stability 
existed  were  circles  having  radii  I2,  22,  32  .  .  . 
n2.  An  electron  might  jump  only  by  whole 
nunilier  intervals.  No  radiation  takes  place 
while  an  electron  is  moving  in  one  of  these  or- 
bits. If  an  electron  jumps  from  one  of  these 
to  another,  the  Difference  in  energy  is  equal  to 
Planck's  constant  times  the  frequency. 

Bohr's  two  postulates  gave  a  basis  for  the 
stability  of  the  atom,  and  for  the  discrete  fre- 
quencies which  we  call  spectral  lines.  A  sec- 
ond step  assumed  that  these  discrete  orbits 
were  radial  quanta  and  that  there  existed  also 
ellipses  of  azimuthal  quanta,  both  of  which  to- 
gether determined  the  size  and  shape  of  the  or- 
bit of  the  electron. 

Bohr  borrowed  from  astronomy  the  concepts 
of  orbits.  He  showed  that  for  hydrogen  the 
spectral  aeries  (Balmer,  for  example)  could  be 


PHYSICS 


1044 


PHYSIOS 


computed  from  theory  assuming  Coulomb's  law 
and  the  discrete  stable  orbits  ( nonradiating) . 
For  example,  the  hydrogen  alpha  line  of  the 
Balmer  series  of  hydrogen  represents  a  release 
of  energy  equal  to  the  difference  between  the 
energies  of  the  3d  orbit  and  the  2d  orbit  having 
equivalent  radii  respectively  32  and  22,  or  ellip- 
ses of  similar  energy  content. 

The  characteristic  of  the  Balmer  series  is  that 
the  orbit  of  arrival  is  No.  2,  the  orbits  of  de- 
parture being  respectively  3,  4,  5,  0,  ...  n  .  .  . 
theoretically  on  to  infinity  Naturally  the  elec- 
tron fall  from  infinity  to  orbit  No.  2  would  give 
the  maximum  energy  release — just  equal  to  the 
ionization  potential.  The  latter  is  the  voltage 
required  to  give  electron  speeds  sufficient  to 
drive  an  electron  from  an  atom  permanently. 
The  ionization  potential  becomes  one  of  the 
great  basic  constants  affecting  not  only  spec- 
troscopic  theory  but  all  chemical  reactions  as 
well.  If  the  ionization  potential  is  divided  by 
the  Planck's  constant  ( 6.555  x  10-27  ergs)  the 
result  is  the  frequency  of  the  shortest  wave 
emitted  by  the  atom  in  the  Balmer  series.  Such 
very  simply  was  Bohr's  theory.  It  has  had 
many  brilliant  confirmations,  notably  the  work 
of  Sommerfeld  in  accounting  for  the  fine  struc- 
ture of  the  spectral  lines,  in  1916. 

In  1914,  Lyman  discovered  the  series  in  which 
the  orbit  of  arrival  was  Orbit  No.  1.  Paschen 
had  long  before  found  the  spectral  series  for 
which  the  Orbit  No.  3  was  the  orbit  of  arrival. 
In  1922,  Brackett  observed  several  lines  of  the 
series  terminating  in  the  fourth  orbit  The 
simplicity  of  the  theory  may  be  stated  thus: 
all  emitted  or  absorbed  radiation  is  produced 
by  change  of  orbit.  For  hydrogen  the  difference 
of  the  inverse  squares  of  the  orbit  numbers 
gives  the  ratio  of  their  frequencies.  A  falling 
electron  emits,  a  departing  one  absorbs  energy. 
The  mathematical  treatment  of  the  hydrogen 
orbits  is  now  relatively  simple.  Such  treat- 
ment of  the  helium  orttits  is  still  impossible, 
except  for  special  cases  of  assumed  structure. 
The  problem  of  three  bodies  (hitherto  insoluble) 
now  assumes  great  importance  in  the  further 
study  of  the  atom  and  its  spectra. 

At  this  writing  (1924)  the  outstanding 
achievement  in  this  field  is  the  closing  of  the 
gap  in  the  entire  electric  wave  spectrum  by 
E.  L.  Nichols.  Thus  the  shortest  gamma  ray 
and  the  longest  used  in  radio  are  united  into 
a  single  series  constituting  the  electric  wave 
spectrum  and  comprising  the  gamma  rays,  X 
rays,  heat,  light,  and  radio — all  separately 
named  as  their  unity  had  not  been  proved  until 
recent  years.  To-day  the  unity  of  the  electric 
waves  from  2  x  1<H°  cm.  to  the  maximum  radio 
waves  is  as  complete  as  the  periodic  system 
with  the  difference  that  while  the  properties  of 
all  the  elements  are  known,  five  are  still  miss- 
ing from  the  series  of  92  believed  to  be  possible 
under  observed  conditions. 

Spectra.  The  spectra,  then,  become  a  means 
of  studying  the  energy  and  structure  of  the 
atom.  The  emission  spectra  are  of  various 
kinds  which  it  is  not  tne  purpose  here  to  dis- 
cuss except  to  say  that  the  eccentricities  of  the 
elliptical  orbits  appear  to  give  rise  to  the  so- 
called  principal,  diffuse,  sharp,  and  fundamental 
series  m  conjunction  with  the  Lyman,  Balmer, 
Paschen,  and  Brackett  series  referred  to  above. 

The  complexity  of  the  later  elements  of  the 
periodic  system  gives  rise  to  corresponding  com- 
plexity in  their  spectra.  A  method  of  approach 


has  been  devised  by  the  determination  of  spec- 
tral terms  on  the  theory  now  established  that 
each  spectral  line  represents  the  difference  of 
two  spectral  terms  in  accordance  with  the  qu.an- 
tum  theory  and  the  Einstein  relation  E  -  hv, 
whence  E-E'  =  hv'.  The  work  of  Catalan, 
Meggers,  Walters,  Eiess,  and  others  carries  the 
analysis  of  the  spectral  frequency  relations  into 
the  most  difficult  elements  of  the  periodic  sys- 
tem, even  including  the  most  complex  spectrum, 
that  of  iron.  The  similarity  to  the  hydrogen 
spectrum  is  shown  in  that  the  terms  in 
each  series  may  be  given  by  the  expression 
JT/(n-a)2,  K  being  the  same*  constant  used  in 
the  case  of  hydrogen,  n  the  term  number,  and  a, 
a  special  constant  for  each  series. 

Bohr  then  regards  the  above  relationship  as 
ground  for  viewing  spectra  as  "the  last  step  of 
a  process  whereby  the  neutral  atom  is  built  up 
by  the  capture  and  binding  of  electrons  to  the 
nucleus,  one  by  one."  Spark  spectra  are  now 
known  to  be  due  to  ionized  atoms  and  represent 
the  last  step  but  one  in  the  formation  of  the 
neutral  atom  by  the  successive  capture  and 
binding  of  electrons,  the  usual  arc  spectra  rep- 
resenting the  last  step.  We  have  thus  the  basis 
of  studying  the  evolution  of  the  periodic  system 
of  the  elements — a  field  which  at  this  writing 
is  one  of  intense  interest  and  activity. 

The  impact  of  electrons  at  controlled  speeds 
has  become  a  means  of  throwing  light  on  the 
energy  required  to  change  the  state  of  energy 
of  the  atom  and  experimentally  checking  up 
the  magnitude  of  the  spectral  terms.  Frank, 
Foote,  Mohler,  and  others  have  done  notable 
work  in  this  direction,  as  related  in  Foote  and 
Mohler's  brilliant  work  The  Origin  of  Spectra 

In  1914,  Stark  discovered  a  remarkable  split- 
ting up  of  the  hydrogen  lines  when  subjected  to 
an  electric  field.  Two  years  later  Schwarzschild 
and  Epstein  both  succeeded  in  accounting  for 
this  effect,  and  in  1917  Sommerfeld  and  Debyc 
worked  out  the  explanation  and  details  of  the 
Zeeman  effect  on  the  basis  of  Bohr's  theorv  of 
atomic  orbits.  In  1922,  Stern  and  GerWh 
split  a  stream  of  atomic  silver  into  two  parts, 
showing  that  the  single  outer  electron  in  its  ro- 
tation makes  each  atom  an  electromagnet,  and 
when  passing  a  sharp-edged  magnet  rebelled 
like  or  attracted  unlike  polarities,  making  two 
streaks  as  graphic  demonstrations  of  the  Bohr 
theory. 

These  three  astonishing  confirmatory  achieve- 
ments combined  with  that  of  Sommerfeld  ac- 
count for  the  fine  structure  of  spectral  lines 
on  the  basis  of  the  relativity  effects  in  the  ellip- 
tical orbits  of  departure  and  arrival.  The  com- 
puted and  observed  Stark  effects  on  the  hydro- 
gen gamma  line  (for  example)  are  in  striking 
accord  both  as  to  position  of  the  components  and 
their  relative  intensities,  both  of  which  facts  arc 
confirmatory  of  Bohr's  theory  of  interorbital 
transitions  of  electrons.  Kramer  has  given  the 
details  from  the  standpoint  of  the  Bohr  theory. 

Bohr  himself,  on  tne  basis  of  spectra  and 
other  considerations,  has  published  a  summary 
of  the  electronic  distributions  on  each  atom  of 
the  periodic  system.  J.  J.  Thomson  (in  1904) 
had  suggested  that  the  electrons  are  arranged 
in  groups  concentrically,  each  new  group  rep- 
resenting a  new  period  of  the  periodic  system. 
Kossel  (1910)  developed  the  idea,  and  G.  N. 
Lewis  and  I.  Langmuir,  basing  their  speculation 
on  the  possible  cubic  outer  grouping  of  Column 
VIII  atoms  of  the  inert  gas  group,  postulated 


WHS 


PHYSICS 


statical  equilibria  of  the  tetrahedral  atoms  of 
Column  IV  with  the  electrons  at  the  corners  of 
the  tetrahedron. 

Valency  on  this  view  became  the  number  lack- 
ing to  complete  the  cubic  configuration.  The 
general  applications  and  extensions  of  this  view 
are  now  available  in  some  of  the  general  texts 
and  will  not  be  recited  here.  The  situation  in 
1024  was  remarkable.  The  curve  showing  the 
relation  of  square  roots  of  the  spectral  terms 
has  been  studied  intensively  by  Siggbahn,  who 
continued  the  fundamental  researches  of  Mose- 
ley.  The  astonishing  linearity  of  the  X-radia- 
tion  of  the  K  and  L  orders  enabled  the  predic- 
tion of  the  existence  of  Atom  No.  72,  and  its 
subsequent  discovery  in  zirconium,  titanium 
ores,  and  later  its  isolation  in  quantity.  This 
new  element  was  named  by  its  discoverers 
"Hafnium'1  after  the  anrient  name  for  Copen- 
hagen "Copenhafn."  The  workers  in  the  atomic 
field  are  many,  and  the  detailed  works  are 
found  in  every  physical  journal,  for  the  subject 
in  1024  had  become  the  outstanding  problem 
of  science,  full  of  promise  for  discoveries  of  the 
most  important  and  probably  epochmaking 
kinds. 

Whittaker  pointed  out  a  possible  model  of  the 
atom  capable  of  un  reversed  action  upon  a  mov- 
ing electron  passing  towards  and  through  an 
atom  and  which  demands  all  exchanges  between 
the  kinetic  energy  of  electrons  and  radiant  en- 
ergy to  conform  to  the  Planck  quantum  equa- 
tions. The  electrons  in  each  atom  comprise  two 
groups  or  magnetic  systems,  the  inner  has  mo- 
ment and  may  turn  in  an  applied  field,  the 
outer  fixed  relatively  to  neighboring  atoms 
takes  its  proper  place  in  the  space-lattice  of 
the  crystal.  As  an  example,  Ewing  made  a 
model  'with  eight  fixed  magnets  pointing  along 
the-  diagonals  of  a  cube,  their  centres  being  at 
the  corners  of  the  cube.  An  approaching  elec- 
tron may  bo  turned  back  (inelastic  collision) 
since  a  rotating  magnet  takes  up  its  force  and 
causes  it  to  recede  giving  back  the  energy  as 
the  rotating  magnet  is  again  brought  to  rest. 
If  moving  with  sufficient  speed  or  energy  the 
electron  will  move  clear  through  the  atom  but 
its  energy  is  transferred  to  the  excess  over  the 
critical  amount,  i.e.  the  quantum.  The  iron 
atom  may  thus  be  assumed  as  having  2  A'  elec- 
trons surrounded  by  three  concentric  parallel 
cubes,  an  electron  at  all  corners  of  three 
cubes,  making  20  electrons  in  all  corresponding 
to  atomic  number  26. 

Industry  begins  to  recognize  the  utility  of 
fundamental  physics.  A  striking  example  is 
the  recent  progress  in  the  study  of  the  metals 
by  means  of  the  new  atomic  theory  and  X-ray 
analysis.  These  have  revealed  that  the  crystal 
of  a  metal  consists  of  atoms  arranged  as  reg- 
ularly as  the  spacing  on  a  checkerboard.  For 
the  more  complex  sizes  and  shapes  of  atoms  the 
forces  naturally  cause  characteristic  space- 
lattices.  If  this  lattice  is  made  up,  as  in  an 
alloy,  the  solute  atom  causes  some  distortion. 
Koscnheim  has  advanced  the  theory  of  "the  sub- 
stitution of  the  solute  atoms  for  an  equal  num- 
ber of  the  solvent  atoms  in  a  solid-solution  lat- 
tice." The  fertility  of  this  conception  can  only 
be  suggested,  but  its  basis  in  fundamental  phys- 
ics gives  promise  of  a  new  study  of  the  struc- 
ture of  alloys  which  hitherto  has  almost  resisted 
attack. 


that 


.  .      . 

One  outstanding  aspect  of  the  new  physics  IH 
at    "properties"    are    becoming    based    upon 


"ultimate"  units— electrons,  the  electric  field, 
Planck's  constant,  definite  radiation  frequencies, 
critical  potentials,  the  velocity  of  light.  Upon 
the  basis  of  these,  physics  has  begun  the  syn- 
thesis of  physical  forms  which  we  call  material 
bodies.  With  great  rapidity  the  space-lattice 
is  being  determined  by  observation  with  X-rays, 
and  in  turn  being  computed  from  the  constants 
of  the  electronic  charge.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  this  method  of  approach  has  given  the 
new  physics  as  nearly  a  fundamental  or  ulti- 
mate basis  as  we  could  without  present  knowl- 
edge conceive.  The  conviction  is  deep  and  in- 
sistent that  physical  science  is  fast  converging 
upon  the  complete  control  of  matter  and  energy 
which  will  give  the  physical  basis  for  a  new  so- 
cial order. 

Harkins  gives  a  periodic  system  of  the  el- 
ements based  on  the  H  and  He  atoms  as  units 
in  building  up  the  positive  nuclei.  Elements  of 
even  atomic  number  (carbon,  oxygen,  neon, 
magnesium,  silicon,  sulphur,  argon,  calcium, 
scandium,  chromium,  iron )  all  have  atomic 
weights  divisible  by  4  (the  atomic  weight  of 
helium)  The  positive  nucleus  of  helium  is  the 
most  stable  next  to  tlie  hydrogen  nucleus,  hence 
is  well  fitted  as  a  stable  building  unit  for  more 
complex  atoms.  Almost  direct  dynamic  con- 
firmation that  helium  is  such  a  building  unit 
is  found  at  the  other  end  of  the  periodic  table 
in  uranium  (atomic  numlier  92)  which  disinte- 
grates by  losing  one  alpha  particle. 

Radium  and  its  successors  also  progressively 
disintegrate  by  ejecting  helium  atoms,  reducing 
from  time  to  time  the  atomic  weight  by  4  with 
each  ejection.  So  much  for  elements  of  even 
atomic  numbers.  Elements  of  odd  atomic  num- 
bers, according  to  Harkins,  are  probably  com- 
pounds of  helium  and  hydrogen,  computable  by 
a  simple  formula.  The  even -numbered  elements 
are,  however,  naturally  more  stable,  as  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  10*  elements  of  even  atomic 
number  make  up  over  07  per  cent  of  the  mete- 
orites and  that  the  atoms  of  the  even -numbered 
(helium)  series  are  127  times  more  abundant  in 
the  iron  meteorites  than  the  atoms  of  the  odd- 
numbered  (helium-hydrogen)  series. 

An  event  of  truly  stragetic  importance  in 
physics  was  Rutherford's  success  in  breaking 
down  the  positive  nucleus  of  the  lighter  atoms. 
Using  the  alpha  particle  (helium)  from  radium 
(\  Rutherford  had  a  projectile  with  a  velocity 
of  10,000  kilometers  per  second;  20,000  times 
that  of  a  rifle  bullet.  He  had  available  in  a 
single  particle  a  stress-producing  energy  of  5 
kilograms  of  weight  at  the  closest  approach  to 
the  nuclei  encountered.  The  momentum  at  the 
high  velocities  is  such  that  a  gram  of  helium 
at  such  velocity  would  have  a  striking  energy 
equal  to  that  oTf  a  300-ton  projectile  at  a  veloc- 
ity of  a  kilometer  a  second. 

*With  this  projectile  he  bombarded  hydrogen 
atoms,  and  in  a  relatively  few  of  the  total  en- 
counters between  the  alpha  paiticle  and  the 
hydrogen  atom,  a  head-on  collision  occurred, 
in  which  the  momentum  of  the  former  was 
transferred  to  the  latter,  giving  it  a  range  four 
times  that  of  the  alpha  particle.  This  was 

?uite  in  accordance  with  theory.  Unexpected- 
y,  however,  ho  found  that  in  pure  nitrogen  the 
particle  produced  ranges  as  long  as  those  pro- 
duced in  pure  hydrogen.  As  the  nitrogen  atom 
has  several  times  the  weight  of  the  helium  atom, 
by  control  experiments  he  eliminated  all  ex- 
planations except  that  the  nucleus  of  the  ni- 


PHYSICS 


1046 


trogen  atom  Had  been  broken  up  by  the  swift 
alpha  particle  and  a  hydrogen  nucleus  detached 
from  the  nitrogen  nucleus.  The  latter  presum- 
ably consists  of  three  helium  and  two  hydrogen 
atoms  (making  the  total  atomic  weight  14, 
that  of  nitrogen). 

The  long  range  atoms  were  detected  by  ab- 
sorbing screens  of  metal  which  stopped  the  al- 
pha particles  but  permitted  the  higher  speed 
hydrogen  atoms  to  pass  to  the  scintillating 
screen.  In  any  case,  a  new  method  of  research 
has  met  with  success  and  for  the  first  time  the 
positive  nucleus  has  by  intent  and  under  con- 
trol broken  up.  Other  light  atoms  have  yielded 
to  similar  bombardment. 

Soddy  has  published  a  series  of  interesting 
papers  summarizing  the  transmutation  in  radio- 
active changes,  the  disintegration  of  radioac- 
tive material,  ultimate  products,  radiations, 
average  life,  branch  series,  chemically  non- 
separable  elements.  He  concludes  that  radio- 
active changes  are  quite  distinct  from  the  usual 
chemical  changes. 

Chemical  reactions  are  accelerated  by  rise  in 
temperature,  being  doubled  in  rate  for  each  10 
degrees  rise.  The  reaction  would  thus  be  10,- 
000,000,000  times  faster  for  each  elevation  of 
300  degrees  But  the  radium  disintegration 
remains  absolutely  unaffected  by  such  change. 
Heat,  light,  magnetic  field,  high  concentration, 
or  extreme  dilution  produce  no  effect  on  the  rate 
of  radioactive  disintegration  The  particle  is 
ejected  with  prodigious  speed,  20,000  kilometers 
per  second,  from  the  radioactive  atom.  This  is 
the  helium  nucleus  (mass  4)  but  niton,  the  re- 
sulting product,  recoils  with  a  velocity  of  sev- 
eral hundred  kilometers  per  second.  The  alpha 
particle  passes  100,000  aluminium  atoms  before 
it  is  stopped.  The  initial  energy  of  such  a 
projectile  is  more  than  100,000,000  times  great- 
er than  that  of  a  molecule  in  ordinary  thermal 
agitation.  Individual  energy  of  a  particle  is 
10-6  erg. 

It  is  characteristic  that  unsuspected  indica- 
tors of  phenomena  are  found  in  this  interchange 
of  scientific  thought  Estimates  of  the  age  of 
the  earth  are  based  upon  the  atomic  lead  and 
its  percentage  in  uranium  ores.  Knowing  the 
rate  per  year  at  which  the  lead  is  accumulating 
from  the  final  stage  in  the  disintegration  of 
uranium  atoms,  the  age  of  the  ore  is  readily 
computed.  The  figures  check  with  good  con- 
cordance with  the  age  of  the  earth  (forming 
of  the  ocean  beds)  as  estimated  by  six  other 
methods.  Apart  from  its  unique  interest,  the 
method  is  capable  of  effective  use  in  geological 
theory. 

Astronomy  and  Physics.  Astronomy  in  turn 
has  gained  as  well  as  given  in  its  contact  with 
physics.  Belot  holds  that  of  the  forces  which 
dominate  attraction  in  the  architecture  of  the 
universe,  gravitation  blends  all  into  one  mass. 
The  dispersive  forces  prevent  agglomeration, 
such  as  molecular  attraction,  gas  pressure,  ra- 
diation pressure,  electrical  and  electromagnetic 
forces.  Crystalline  growth  operates  against 
gravity  as  do  many  other  forces  of  growth,  but 
attraction  does  not  produce  the  primitive  dis- 
persive impulse.  Attraction  ensures  stability 
but  the  architecture  is  the  resultant  of  all  the 
incident  forces. 

A  large-scale  example  of  light  pressure  ob- 
served by  Bell  is  shown  in  Saturn's  rings. 
These  rings  are  thin  strata  of  bodies  of  meteoric 
size,  surrounded  and  permeated  by  dust  invis- 


ible except  through  deep  layers.  This  dust  is 
wind  driven  by  gravitational  waves  and  the 
pressure  of  radiation  which  moves  the  particles 
back  and  forth  through  the  sunlit  side  to  be 
seen  below  when  light  filters  through.  The  ac- 
celeration due  to  solar  radiation  is,  for  particles 
of  micron  size,  nearly  350  kilometers  a  day, 
a  demonstration  of  Maxwell's  theorem  on  a 
colossal  scale.  According  to  modern  physics 
the  mass  of  all  stars  rests  upon  radiation  pres- 
sure. For  example,  95  per  cent  of  the  mass  of 
sun  is  supported  by  the  radiation  pressure  of 
the  intense  X-rays  generated  in  the  heart  of 
the  sun  under  gigantic  gravitational  pressures. 
See  ASTBONOMY. 

Solar  Physics.  Solar  physics  is  the  object 
of  particular  study  among  other  things,  on  ac- 
count of  the  correlation  which  Abbott  and  others 
are  establishing  between  solar  variations  and 
terrestrial  meteorological  phenomena.  Angen- 
heister  finds  the  sun  hotter  at  sunspot  maxima. 
These  show  strong  vertical  movements,  cooler 
layers  sinking,  hot  masses  rising,  increasing  the 
radiation.  Jupiter  and  Encke's  comet  varies  in 
brightness  with  the  sunspot  cycle,  the  maxima 
coinciding.  Evidently  factors  other  than  tem- 
perature at  spot  maxima  cause  the  striking  11- 
year  cycle  in  tree  ring  growth.  Mean  air  tem- 
peratures are  at  least  one-half  degree  lower  at 
spot  maxima.  The  influx  of  cool  air  from 
higher  latitudes  is  greatest  at  spot  maxima,  as 
shown  by  the  records  of  the  winds  at  Samoa. 
Trade  winds  at  that  point  appear  to  be  10  per 
cent  more  frequent.  The  frequency  of  cirrus 
clouds  also  parallels  the  spot  cycle.  The  air  at 
spot  maxima  absorbs  0.05  calorie  per  square 
centimeter  less  per  minute  and  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  earth  drops  a  fraction  of  a  de- 
gree. Abbott,  Fowle,  and  Aldrich  give  1.94 
calories  per  square  centimeter  per  minute  as 
the  solar  constant,  based  on  20  years'  observa- 
tions. 

The  work  of  Douglas  and  others  in  correlat- 
ing the  variation  in  growth  of  the  annual  rings 
in  trees  with  the  sunspot  cycle  has  been  an  out- 
standing achievement  of  recent  science.  So 
well  advanced  is  this  correlation  that  the  par- 
ticular years  in  which  a  tree  was  planted  and 
cut  down  can  often  be  deciphered  from  the  char- 
acteristic pattern  of  the  curves  of  ring  growth 
sequence.  Petrified  forests  may  yet  disclose 
prehistoric  weather  cycles  and  tell  much  re- 
garding solar  radiation  in  geologic  times.  The 
subject  is  fascinating.  Every  lumber  camp  be- 
comes a  potential  solar  and  terrestrial  weather 
observatory,  and  every  tree  has  its  tale  to  tell 
of  the  sequence  of  weather  changes  through 
which  it  grew.  Douglas  describes  observations 
of  cloud  formations  taken  from  an  airplane  in- 
cluding record  of  temperature  within  the  cloud 
and  the  surrounding  air  and  the  dimensions  of 
the  cloud  formation.  A  new  field  is  now  open 
for  airplane  work  in  collecting  data  with  suit- 
able autographic  instruments. 

Jeffreys  accepts  the  tidal  theory  of  the  origin 
of  the  solar  system,  showing  that  mere  condensa- 
tion could  not  produce  the  system.  His  results 
agree  well  with  the  age  of  the  earth  as  deter- 
mined by  its  radioactive  constituents.  He  also 
shows  that  no  satellite  less  than  1000  kilometers 
could  have  been  gaseous  since  the  mass  could 
not  hold  itself  together  in  gaseous  form.  He 
assumes  that  the  asteroids  were  formed  from  a 
primitive  planet  broken  up  by  the  tidal  action 
of  Jupiter. 


PHYSICS 


1047 


Michel  son  has  obtained  the  first  measure  of 
the  diameter  of  a  star — alpha  Orionis — the 
bright  red  star  Betelgeuse  of  magnitude  0.7  in 
the  constellation  of  Orion  The  result  is  star- 
tling, for  it  gives  a  diameter  300  times  that  of 
the  sun,  or  a  volume  27,000,000  greater.  He 
later  found  that  alpha  Scorpionis — Antares — 
had  a  diameter  500  times  that  of  the  sun  or  a 
volume  125,000,000  times  greater.  The  prin- 
ciple is  to  admit  the  starlight  by  two  parallel 
slits  in  the  field  of  the  telescope.  The  diffrac- 
tion pattern  formed  depends  upon  the  dis- 
tance apart  of  the  slits.  For  each  size  of  star 
disc  there  is  a  definite  distance  apart  for  the 
discs  at  which  the  diffraction  pattern  disap- 
pears owing  to  the  optical  interference  effect 
in  the  waves  forming  the  two  sets  of  diffraction 
fringes.  By  adjusting  the  slits  until  this  occurs 
and  measuring  the  distance  apart,  the  angular 
diameter  of  the  star  disc  is  computed  by  simply 
multiplying  the  wave  length  used  by  1.22  and 
dividing  the  distance  apart  of  the  slits. 

A  striking  application  of  Bohr's  theory  comes 
from  astronomy.  Plaskett  found  in  Class  0 
stars  spectral  lines  of  ordinary  hydrogen  and  of 
helium  atoms  which  have  'lost  an  electron. 
These  nuclei  have  only  one  satellite  each.  Bohr 
has  computed  the  orbits  and  the  positions  of 
the  spectral  lines.  The  heavier  helium  nucleus 
changes  the  orbital  frequency  by  the  computed 
amount.  From  the  separation  of  tho  lines  the 
electrons  and  nuclei  reveal  their  relative  masses. 
Plaskett  has  found  a  star  (22,000°  C.)  so  hot 
that  helium  atoms  are  all  ioni/ed. 

"Tmisible  sunspots"  were  studied  by  Hale 
and  Kllerman.  Beginning  with  the  theory  that 
the  normal  type  is  the  "twin  bipolar,"  970  spots 
showed  the  percentage  of  bipolar  spots  to  be  01 
per  cent.  In  seeking  companions  for  single 
spots  local  magnetic  fields  were  discovered  near 
the  spots.  The  first  such  field  discovered  had 
the  polarity  and  position  usual  for  the  follow- 
ing component  of  a  regular  bipolar  pair.  In 
several  cases,  invisible  fields  gave  rise  to  spots, 
and  in  cases  where  spots  had  disappeared  traces 
of  magnetic  fields  were  still  detected.  If  the 
vortexes  of  a  bipolar  group  penetrate  deep 
enough  they  must  certainly  unite  to  form  a  half 
ring. 

Light  Studies.  Ives  revives  interest  in  the 
firefly,  stating  that  if  the  light  of  the  firefly 
were  spread  over  the  entire  visible  spectrum 
it  would  still  excel  many  times  the  efficiency 
of  any  artificial  light  source.  It  will  be  re- 
called* that  Coblentz  found  the  luminous  equiv- 
alent of  radiant  energy  as  about  50  candles 
per  watt.  Colorimetry*  for  which  physicists 
like  Priest  and  others  are  laying  basic  principles, 
is  fast  taking  a  high  place  as  an  exact  science. 

Harvey  has  completed  the  first  big  step  to- 
ward the  production  of  artificial  light  from  or- 
ganic material.  He  obtained  a  candle  power 
from  30  square  inches  of  luminous  solution  of 
luciferine.  Dubois  and  Harvey  have  extracted 
"luciferose  and  luciferine"  two  substances  sup- 
posed to  be  the  cause  of  animal  light.  Luci- 
ferine emits  no  light  on  agitation,  but  luciferose 
bursts  into  a  momentary  brilliancy  if  shaken. 
When  mixed  the  two  substances  emit  continuous 
light,  apparently  requiring  oxygen  or  moisture. 

Acoustics.  Applied  acoustics  had  great  op- 
portunities in  the  War.  It  was  active  notably 
in  the  production,  transmission,  and  reproduc- 
tion of  sound,  exemplified  notably  in  the  use  of 
acoustical  devices  for  detecting  enemy  planes, 


locating  enemy  batteries,  and  discovering  sap- 
pers at  work  underground.  Huge  parabolas 
used  as  reflectors  with  sensitive  sound  receivers 
detected  planes  approaching  Paris  30  miles 
away.  Apparatus  was  promptly  devised  to 
locate  enemy  batteries  with  high  precision. 
Sensitive  geophones  effectively  disclosed  enemy 
mining,  and  sound  ranging  was  developed  to  a 
point  where  the  length  of  the  type  of  gun  had 
to  be  taken  into  account  so  accurate  was  the 
location  of  enemy  batteries  by  sound-wave  tri- 
angulation.  Battle  firing  permitted  the  study 
of  sectors  of  sound,  and  speeds  of  concussive 
sounds  were  measured  as  high  as  three  kilome- 
ters per  second  and  pressures  as  great  as  300 
atmospheres.  The  gradient  was  so  steep  that 
30  meters  from  the  sound  source  the  speed 
dropped  to  400  meters  and  the  pressure  to  two 
or  three  atmospheres. 

Radio-Communication.  The  faintness  of 
radiotelephone  sounds  even  at  moderate  dis- 
tances led  to  the  development  of  amplifying  elec- 
tron tubes.  The  uses  of  electron  tubes  are 
unique  in  the  annals  of  invention  and  are  in  a 
state  of  rapid  development  at  this  moment. 
Their  design  and  construction  command  exact- 
ing theoretical  and  experimental  physics.  l»e- 
search  engineers  have  developed  the  amplifier 
which  can  magnify  sounds  trillions  of  times, 
in  fact,  to  the  point  where  their  volume  can- 
not be  endured  and  where  structural  materials 
would  collapse  if  the  sound  were  continued. 
The  microphone  is  now  supersensitized  and  con- 
nected to  an  amplifier  permits  the  human  heart 
beat  to  be  heard  across  the  ocean. 

Radio-communication  has  awakened  research 
and  invention  the  world  over  both  by  experts 
and  amateurs.  The  Armstrong  regenerative  cir- 
cuit is  an  example  of  amateur  work  of  notable 
importance.  Applied  physics  will  be  the  factor 
in  eliminating  strays,  static,  distortions,  and 
this  result  combined  with  the  perfecting  of 
amplifying  tubes  will  bring  a  new  era  in  radio- 
telephony. 

Jewett  reported  that  it  was  possible  to  trans- 
mit and  amplify  by  radio  without  distortion. 
There  remained  "the  perfecting  of  the  reproduc- 
tion of  sounds  at  the  receiving  end  without  dis- 
tortion. 

The  application  to  the  inaudible  sounds  of  the 
insect  world,  too  faint  or  of  too  high  a  fre- 
quency to  be  normally  heard,  opens  up  dramatic 
possibility  of  vastly  extending  aural  perception 
much  as  the  microscope  and  telescope  and 
camera  have  extended  our  vision  to  the  infini- 
tesimal, the  infinitely  remote,  and  to  the  vast 
gamut  of  radiations  which  are  too  long  or  too 
short  to  be  directly  seen  by  the  eye. 

The  study  of  "sound  spectra"  of  musical  in- 
struments awakened  an  interest  which  should 
soon  be  fiuitful  in  practical  application.  This 
analysis  gives  the  respective  wave  lengths  and 
relative  intensities  of  the  simple  sounds  com- 
ponent of  any  musical  note  revealing  quanti- 
tatively the  causes  of  the  characteristic  quality 
of  the  'sounds  of  musical  instruments. 

Physics  in  1924  had  before  it  the  task  of 
studying  the  entire  range  of  molar  vibration 
frequencies  and  amplitudes.  Such  a  study 
would  unify  molar  waves  in  a  manner  similar 
to  the  just  completed  unification  of  electric 
waves.  Ellerinan's  "hydrogen  bombs"  discovered 
in  the  solar  spectrum  give  evidence  of  pro- 
digious explosions  in  the  sun.  Volcanoes  and 
earthquakes  also  give  rise  to  vibrations  which 


1048 


rsiCB 


shake  the  entire  globe.  From  such  vibrations 
to  those  too  fine  to  be  yet  perceptible  is  a  vir- 
gin field  for  acoustical  research  and  experiment. 

Rhythm  and  Resonance.  Already  at  Mu- 
nich the  technical  physicist  is  studying  vibra- 
tions in  connection  with  mechanism  with  a  view 
to  enhanced  efficiency  in  the  transmission  and 
use  of  mechanical  power.  The  possibilities  of 
utilizing  resonance  are  just  beginning  to  be 
adumbrated.  Every  object,  every  cavity  has  its 
natural  period  or  resonance  wave  form.  Such 
form  may  be  complex.  In  other  cases  the  note 
may  be  simple.  An  archway,  tradition  tells  us, 
may  collapse  under  the  continued  playing  of 
the  keynote  of  the  arch  on  an  instrument  like 
the  violin.  The  rhythm  of  a  regiment  will  vi- 
brate a  bridge  to  the  breaking  point  The  auto- 
mobile at  different  speeds  shows  resonance  at 
various  points  each  characteristic  of  a  given 
speed.  So,  too,  vibrations  are  being  applied  for 
physical  ailments. 

As  yet  the  entire  field,  from  earthquakes  to 
the  as  yet  imperceptible  oscillations  of  the  in- 
sect world,  are  in  an  empirical,  even  legendary 
state.  With  the  supermicrophone  and  amplifier 
the  study  of  the  sound  spectrum  of  a  given  ob- 
ject or  cavity  set  in  vibration  or  resonance  be- 
comes possible.  Anv  characteristic  tone  is  thus 
reproducible  by  giving  the  harmonics  their 
proper  relative  intensity.  The  field  is  thus 
wide  open  for  the  creation  of  a  harmonic  syn- 
thesizer capable  of  producing  sounds  of  any  pos- 
sible tone  quality  or  frequency. 

Reproduction  of  Sound.  Physical  research 
has  almost  perfected  the  phonograph  to  the 
point  where  the  distinction  between  the  original 
rendering  and  the  reproduction  from  the  shellac 
disc  is  difficult.  Astounding  developments  in 
this  field  have  resulted  from  the  application  of 
acoustical  physics,  theoretical  and  experimental, 
to  radio.  The  reproduction  by  means  of  a  crys- 
tal is  perfect  but  faint.  The  reproduction  with- 
out the  crystal  still  shows  distortion  and  alone 
remains  the  incomplete  link  to  the  world-wide 
transmission  of  any  sound,  and  its  amplification 
without  distortion  to  any  volume.  The  field  of 
acouBtics  has  been  furnished  by  physicists  with 
precision  tone  producers,  that  is  the  production 
of  clear  monotone  notes  of  a  predetermined 
frequency. 

Music.  Seashore  has  measured  the  expres- 
sion of  emotion  in  music.  He  gives  the  types 
of  variants  from  the  cold  non-emotional  and 
mechanical  production  of  tones  to  the  highly 
artistic  emotion  on  the  basis  of  pitch,  intensity, 
duration,  and  ex  tensity,  as  they  are  combined 
in  timbre,  rhythm,  consonance,  and  volume. 
The  analysis  is  a  bchavioristic  study  of  musical 
expression  and  should  throw  light  on  the  basic 
laws  of  emotional  expression. 

Apparatus  for  Navigation.  Acoustics  has 
taken  on  new  activities  in  such  fields  as  sub- 
marine signaling.  Eckhardt  has  devised  a 
combination  of  submarine  sound  signals  which 
are  made  to  actuate  a  radio  relay  at  several 
points  on  the  shore.  The  radio  relay  signal 
reaches  the  ship  almost  instantly,  the  elapsed 
time  giving  the  distance  from  each  shore  sta- 
tion. The  relays  give  the  exact  location.  The 
United  States  Navy  by  the  use  of  echo  detected 
by  radio  permits  the  sounding  and  the  plotting 
of  the  ocean  depths  and  the  mapping  of  its  pro- 
files and  contours.  The  "phonodeik"  designed  by 
Miller  has  opened  up  the  subject  of  sound  spec- 
trum and  given  it  a  quantitative  basis. 


Modern  Physical  Science.  The  merging  of 
the  fields  of  astronomy,  chemistry,  and  physics 
resulting  from  the  invasion  of  physical  laws, 
research  methods,  and  the  instruments  of  the 
physicist  has  been  momentous  for  all  three 
sciences.  The  extension  of  mathematical  formu- 
las into  new  fields  is  characteristic  of  present- 
day  physics.  Highly  specialized  formulas  are 
found  to  hold  good  in  fields  foreign  to  those 
in  which  they  were  developed.  Frank  shows 
that  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  guiding 
aircraft  in  minimum  time  with  any  arbitrary 
wind  distribution  involves  an  identical  case  to 
that  of  the  passage  of  light  rays  through  moving 
media.  An  example  of  the  latter  is  the  motion 
of  the  earth  through  the  ether  in  which  the 
ether  wind  relative  to  the  earth  is  determinate 
by  vector  analysis.  Aeronautics  (q.v.)  and 
aviation  physics  emerge  as  subjects  of  perma- 
nent interest,  and  meteorology  (q.v.)  has  be- 
come of  most  practical  concern  in  aviation  so 
that  wind  speeds  and  directions  at  various  levels 
are  part  of  daily  forecasts.  The  merging  of 
hydrodynamics  and  aerodynamics  is  to  be  noted 
as  a  striking  gain  of  recent  work  on  hydroplanes 
and  flying  boats. 

Physical  Instruments.  The  new  English 
Journal  of  Scientific  Instruments  is  issued  by 
the  Institute  of  Physics  in  cooperation  with  the 
National  Physical  Lalx>ratory.  Science  is  rec- 
ognizing the 'basic  importance  of  instrument  de- 
sign and  construction.  Instruments  make  pos- 
sible discoveries  which  could  otherwise  never 
he  made.  They  accelerate,  sometimes  hundreds 
of  times,  the  rate  of  gathering  precise  data. 
We  may  soon  expect  some  physicist  to  do  science 
the  great  service  of  writing  a  stimulating  ac- 
count of  the  place  of  the  instrument  in  physios. 
This  would  doubtless  inspire  scientists  and  in- 
strument makers  alike  in  the  production  of  now 
types  of  apparatus  for  experimental  use.  The 
Journal  of  the  Optical  Society  of  America  has 
established  an  instrument  section  and  added 
to  its  name  the  words  "Scientific  Instrument  Re- 
view." Hitherto  Instrumentenkunde  has  held 
the  field  unrivaled.  America,  now  in  the  in- 
strument field  in  full  earnest,  will  surely  take 
a  high  place  in  developing  not  merely  new 
technical,  but  new  scientific  instruments  as  well, 
designed  and  built  upon  the  most  advanced  sci- 
entific data  and  theory. 

Precision  Measurements.  The  use  of  inter- 
ferometry  in  the  production  and  testing  of  high 
precision  shop  gauges  is  an  example  in  point, 
and  on  the  horizon  looms  the  "ultra-micrometer" 
of  Wheddington  and  its  improvement  in  America 
so  that  it  will  indicate  lengths  as  slight  as 
one  billionth  of  an  inch.  Coblentz  has  greatly 
improved  the  sensitiveness  of  his  star-heat  ap- 
paratus which  he  expects  will  respond  to  the 
heat  of  a  candle  at  a  distance  of  500  miles. 

Extensometers  of  the  most  varied  types  and 
of  high  sensitivity  have  been  developed.  These 
are  being  applied  to  researches  on  materials  and 
structures  and  the  stress  strain  relations  under 
loads.  In  optics  the  newer  types  of  prisms 
are  being  applied  to  new  uses,  for  example,  the 
solid  right  angle  prism,  whose  opposite  face  is 
an  equilateral  triangle,  has  interesting  optical 
properties  used  in  the  War.  The  pentaprism 
and  others  are  being  applied  in  range  finders 
while  lenses,  optical  fiats,  and  parallels  are  be- 
ing developed  in  great  variety  for  physical  in- 
struments. 

Instrument  making  has  at  last  arrived  in 


PHYSIOS .  X049  PHYSICS 

America,  and  American  ingenuity  is  already  in      similitude.    At  the  other  extreme  of  wind-tunnel 

physics  is  the  giant  wind  tunnel  at  Issy,  the 


evidence  in  the  later  catalogues.  Examples 
may  be  found  in  almost  every  branch  of  physics 
and  applications  in  almost  every  branch  of  in- 
dustry. In  fact,  the  present  tendency  toward 


fan  of  which  is  20  feet  in  diameter.  The  tunnel 
measures  110  feet  in  length.  The  laws  of 
aerodynamics  have  thus  received  accessions  of  an 


"  _          _          '  •  "  • ..-•»«.   --U..V     v>iun    »tvtr»Yv.v*    ai  I;CTBB*I/II  o   »»i    a  11 

the  completely   measured   control   of  industrial      astonishing    character,    an    important    example 

DrnpPflttPa  ia  fllmnat  witfiniif  a   narnllol        'TamrMii-a.         luiimv     o-n      A  •<»*>*.:,.,...     ;_,i      j. i      «  •    v          •„__ 


processes  is  almost  without  a  parallel.  Tempera 
ture  and  heat  controls  are  now  established  in 
scores  of  industries.  In  many  cases  high  tem- 
]>eratures  are  maintained  automatically  at  pre- 
determined values.  The  combustion  of  fuel  is 
now  automatically  regulated  in  modern  steam 
plants  by  means  of  apparatus  which  continuous- 
ly and  automatically  corrects  the  admixture  of 
air  so  that  the  CO  content  in  the  flue  gases  is 
kept  at  an  optimum  percentage. 

These  are  examples  of  the  instruments  of  the 
physicist  becoming  the  tools  of  industry.  Ap- 
plied science  is  rapidly  transferring  the  methods 
and  principles  and  apparatus  of  the  physicist 
into  control  instruments  for  the  measured 
guidance  of  each  part  of  the  industrial  process. 
In  electricity  the  advance  from  the  laboratory 
to  practical  uses  has  been  rapid  and  steadily 
increasing.  Klcctrical  devices  in  endless  variety 
arc  being  developed  for  regulating  the  produc- 
tion, distribution,  and  utilization  of  heat,  light, 
and  power.  Light  buoys  are  being  electrically 
equipped  with  selenium  cells  so  that  when  the 
sky  reaches  a  prescribed  minimum  brightness 
the  buoy  is  lit  automatically.  Automatic  heat 
control  and  humidity  control  are  being  extended 
to  almost  all  kinds  of  manufacturing  operations. 
The  indoor  atmosphere  of  schools  and  theatres 
is  being  conditioned  by  devices  first  used  in  the 
conduct  of  physical  research. 

Airplane  engines  are  tested  in  altitude  cham- 
Inars  where  the  conditions  of  high  altitudes  are 
duplicated.  Testing  laboratories  are  equipped 
with  standard  rooms  having  prescribed  humidity 
and  temperature  so  that  the  results  may  I* 
comparable  and  standard.  The  vacuum  tube 
has  developed  into  a  powerful  engineering  tool 
capable  of  sending  messages  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  In  short,  the  variety  of  scientific  de- 
vices developed  by  the  physicist  and  transplanted 
to  the  industries  is  too  great  to  enumerate 
The  scientific  journals  and  the  latest  instru- 
ment catalogues  must  be  consulted  for  details 
which  cannot  be  touched  in  this  general  survey. 

A  new  era  in  astronomical  research  begins 
with  the  completion  of  the  100-inch  reflecting 
telescope  of  the  Mt.  Wilson  Solar  Observatory. 
This  wonderful  instrument  is  uniquely  adapted 
for  work  in  the  fields  of  faint  nebula,  spectra 
of  faint  stars,  structure  of  stellar  clusters,  and 
the  variation  of  faint  new  stars.  The  focal 
length,  42  feet,  has  a  maximum  error  of  0.14  mm., 
or  about  one  part  in  90,000.  The  enlargement 
of  the  perceptible  universe  and  the  vast  fields 
of  research  thus  opened  up  by  this  100-inch 
telescope  make  the  event  an  epoch-making  one. 

Aeronautics  Besearch.  A  most  important 
and  interesting  development  of  applied  physics 
in  connection  with  lift,  drift,  and  resistance  of 
airfoils,  is  the  midget  wind  tunnel  consisting 
of  a  completely  enclosed  cylindrical  tank  with 
hemispherical  ends.  In  this  airtight  tank,  the 
air  is  drawn  through  an  inner  cylinder,  re- 
turning outside  the  inner  cylinder.  By  main- 
taining a  pressure  within  the  tunnel  at  20  at- 
mospheres, small-sized  models  give  directly  the 
results  of  a  full-siEei  plane  without  scale  cor- 
rections. This  ingenious  research  shows  the 
value  of  mathematical  physics  and  the  theory  of 


being  an  American  wind  tunnel  which  gives 
air-speeds  of  1000  miles  an  hour.  In  the  latter 
the  experts  of  the  United  States  Bureau  o* 
Standards  have  studied  the  relative  motion  of 
the  air  and  projectile  with  the  projectile  at 
rest. 

As  hydrodynamics  and  aerodynamics  have 
merged  in  the  hydroplane  and  the  flying  boat, 
so  the  internal-combustion  motor  may  be  fairly 
regarded  as  a  large-calibre  machine  'gun  shoot- 
ing the  piston  with  a  momentum  which  is 
promptlv  translated  into  traverse  of  aircraft. 
The  problem  of  the  helicopter  is  in  like  manner 
becoming  assimilated  to  the  circling  of  a  plane 
with  excellent  prospects  of  yielding  to  ingenuity 
and  careful  application  of  physical  principles. 

Energetics.  The  importance  of  "available 
energy"  is  stressed  by  Lotka  in  a  study  of  the 
energetics  of  evolution.  He  refers  to  Boltz- 
mann's  principle  that  the  fundamental  objective 
contention  in  the  life  struggle  in  the  evolution  of 
the  organic  world  is  available  energy.  The  ad- 
vantage in  the  struggle  goes  to  those  whose  en- 
ergy-capturing devices  are  most  efficient  in  di- 
recting available  energy  into  channels  favorable 
to  the  preservation  of  the  species.  Intra-atomic 
energy,  which  is  now  well  measured,  and  vast, 
is  accepted  by  physics  as  a  fact  of  profound 
significance  for  future  experiment.  Sober  phys- 
icists discuss  the  possibility  of  its  release 
for  use  by  man. 

The  feeling  seems  to  be  growing  that  the  re- 
action by  which  four  hydrogen  atoms  detonate 
into  one'holium  atom  may  be  caused  to  proceed, 
and  once  started  might  be  made  continuous, 
much  as  the  combustion  of  coal  in  a  furnace. 
The  weight  of  four  graraatoms  of  hydrogen  ex- 
ceeds that  of  helium  by  three  centigrams,  cor- 
responding according  to  the  Einstein  formula,  to 
the  liberation  of  7xl012  calories.  Harkins  re- 
marks that  "the  energy  produced  in  this  way 
would  be  of  great  importance  if  the  reaction 
could  be  made  to  proceed,  since  one  pound  of 
hydrogen  would  give,  if  converted  into  helium, 
as  much  hoat  as  10,000  tons  of  coal."  It  is 
wise  to  face  the  possibility  of  success  in  this 
direction.  Certainly  with  the  concept  of  critical 
frequencies  in  photochemical  reactions,  the  prob- 
lem assumes  the  aspect  rather  of  inciting  exo- 
thermic combination  of  hydrogen  molecules  or 
atoms. 

Foote,  who  has  done  so  much  valuable  work 
on  disrupting  potentials,  has  discussed  in  a 
semi-popular  lecture  the  subject  of  the  alchemist. 
He  pictures  the  success  of  the  atomist  transmut- 
ing the  elements,  pointing  out  that  the  produc- 
tion of  gold  from  mercury  on  a  commercial 
scale  would  cause  an  overturn  of  our  entire 
monetary  system.  To  tho  scientist,  however, 
this  is  less  important  than  the  control  of  atomic 
structure  in  general.  It  is  not  easy  to  exag- 
gerate the  possible  results  of  the  discovery  of 
the  technique  of  nuclear  formation  and  the  ad- 
dition or  subtraction  of  electrons  at  will.  It 
clearly  presages  the  possibility  of  creating  forms 
of  matter  and  energy  having  any  desired  prop- 
erties. 

Wignall  and  Knox  have  written  Atoms,  a 
novel  dealing  with  the  release  of  subatomic  en- 


PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHEMX8TBY 


1050 


PICK-MANGIAGALLI 


ergy,  a  straw  showing  the  direction  of  current 
thought  The  fact  that  subatomic  releases  of 
energy,  for  example,  are  actually  observable  in 
the  phenomena  of  radioactive  atoms  and  perhaps 
in  the  helium-hydrogen  reactions  of  variable 
stars,  kindles  the  scientific  imagination.  Young 
experimenters,  who  to-morrow  will  hold  the  field, 
have  already  grasped  the  possibilities  and  we 
may  confidently  expect  a  recrudescence  of  the 
zeal  of  the  alchemist  which  made  modern  chem- 
istry. 

Physics  was  so  productive  in  the  10-year 
period  under  review  that  only  a  few  of  the  more 
important  researches  can  even  be  named.  It 
could  be  spoken  of  as  almost  the  golden  age  of 
the  physicist  with  the  super  forces  and  mechan- 
isms at  his  command.  The  immediate  future 
presages  discoveries  of  the  most  far-reaching 
consequences.  Fortunate  is  that  physicist  who 
sees  with  high  and  far  vision  the  inspiriting 
view  of  the  recreation  of  the  world  by  the  sci- 
ences touching  the  single  cosmic  essence  which 
we  call  energy,  the  tangible  aspect  of  which 
we  call  matter. 

The  literature  on  the  new  physics  is  growing 
so  rapidly  that  any  list  would  be  out  of  date 
before  reaching  the  reader.  For  the  latest 
books  in  this  prolific  field  the  reader  may  con- 
sult the  current  numbers  of  Science,  Mature, 
and  Science  Progress.  See  CHEMISTRY;  CHEM- 
ISTBY,  PHYSICAL. 

PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY.     See  Bio- 

CHEMISTRY;    FOOD    AND    NUTRITION. 

PIAVE  RIVER.  See  WAR  IN  EUBOPE, 
Italian  Front. 

PICARDY,  BATTLES  IN.  See  WAB  IN  EU- 
ROPE, "Western  Front. 

PICCIRILLI,  ATTILIO  (1868-  ).  An 
Italian  sculptor  (see  VOL.  XVIII).  He  de- 
signed the  war  memorial  for  the  city  of  Al- 
bany, 1923.  He  was  a \\arclcd  a  gold  medal  at 
the  Panama-Pacific  Exposition  in  1015,  and  the 
Widener  Gold  Medal,  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts,  1017.  His  brother  Furio 
(see  VOL.  XVIII)  in  1920  executed  the  en- 
tire sculptural  decoration  of  the  Parliament 
House  at  Winnipeg,  Canada,  including  a  su- 
perb seated  statue  of  Pierre  Gautier  de  la  Va- 
renne 

PICKETING.  In  1014,  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States  passed  the  Clayton  Act  which, 
among  other  things,  provided  that  no  restraining 
order  may  lie  granted  by  any  Federal  court  or 
judge  to  .prohibit  labor,  singly  or  in  concert,  from 
peacefully  persuading  others  to  work  or  to  stop 
work  or  "from  attending  any  place  where  they 
may  lawfully  be.  Labor  regarded  this  as  the 
opening  of  a  new  era  in  which  the  right  of 
peaceful  picketing  would  become  generally  rec- 
ognized and  accepted. 

Prior  to  1914,  there  were  laws  in  only  two 
States — Alabama  and  Colorado — making  picket- 
ing a  misdemeanor.  Beginning  with  1915, 
however,  several  States  took  vigorous  action. 
Washington  enacted  a  law  making  picketing  a 
misdemeanor.  Texas  followed  with  a  sweeping 
Act  which  provided  that  any  one  who  in  con- 
versation or  otherwise  with  a  person  engaged 
in  transport  and  commerce,  or  with  any  member 
of  his  family,  at  work  or  at  home,  attempts  to 
cause  him  to  desist  from  work  through  fear  of 
violence  is  deemed  guilty  of  intimidation.  A 
Nebraska  law  made  practically  any  form  of 
picketing  unlawful,  including  persistent  com- 
munication with  a  man's  family.  Hawaii  also 


enacted  a  strict  law  against  picketing.  Utah, 
in  1923,  passed  a  law  against  use  of  force, 
threats,  intimidation  or  violence  but  an  earlier 
law  of  1917,  limiting  injunctions,  forbids  any  in- 
junction from  interfering  with  peaceful  persua- 
sion. Wisconsin,  in  1923,  lilieralized  a  law 
against  picketing,  which  involved  initimida- 
tion,  by  specifically  allowing  peaceful  persuasion 
to  be  carried  on  outside  the  working  premises 
during  the  strike  or  lockout. 

Meanwhile,  picketing  cases  found  their  way 
frequently  into  the  courts.  In  some  States  all 
picketing  was  condemned,  as  in  Oregon  and 
Washington  decisions  of  1917.  In  other  States, 
the  right  of  peaceful  picketing  was  held  to  bo 
lawful,  as  in  Arizona,  Indiana,  Minnesota  and 
Montana  decisions  of  1916  and  1917  However, 
not  only  in  directly  deciding  against  picketing 
but  also  in  indirectly  limiting  its  practice 
through  definition,  the  courts  have  as  a  general 
thing  "gone  against  labor/' 

In  1922,  the  United  States  Supreme  Court, 
in  American  Steel  Foundry  v.  Tii-City  Central 
Trades  Council,  upheld  the  provisions  of  the 
Clayton  Act  permitting  peaceful  persuasion  but 
attempted  to  draw  the  line  between  legal  and 
illegal  acts  in  a  way  that  would  considerably 
limit  picketing. 

The  most  sweeping  blow  that  was  struck  at 
picketing  during  the  decade  was  the  injunction 
secured  in  1922,  and  made  permanent  in  192,'J 
by  the  Federal  court  in  Chicago,  against  the 
Railway  Shop  Crafts  strike.  The  Attorney 
General  brought  this  action  on  behalf  of  the 
United  States  on  the  ground  of  piotecting  the 
United  States  mails  and  interstate  commerce. 
Although  the  Clayton  Act  authorizes  peaceful 
persuasion,  nevertheless  this  injunction,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  customary  prohibition  of  violence, 
intimidation  and  unlawful  picketing,  restrains 
peaceful  picketing  and  persuasion,  argument  and 
entreaties,  newspaper  interviews  and  the  use  of 
union  funds  "in  aid  of  or  to  promote  or  en- 
courage the  doing  of  any  of  the  matters  or 
things  hereinbefore  restrained  and  enjoined." 
The  terms  of  this  injunction  against  picketing, 
however,  drew  vigorous  criticisms  in  •  decisions 
of  other  Federal  courts  in  cases  arising  out  of 
the  railway  shopmen's  strike,  particularly  in 
Montana  and  North  Dakota,  where  the  full  right 
of  peaceful  persuasion  was  reaffirmed. 

PICKFOBD,  MABY  (Mas.  DOUGLAS  FAIR- 
BANKS) (1893-  ).  An  American  actress, 
born  in  Toronto.  She  made  her  stage  de*but  at 
the  age  of  five  and  her  first  marked  moving- 
picture  success  in  Hearts  Adrift.  She  returned 
to  the  stage  in  A  Good  Little  Devil  and  then  de- 
voted herself  to  the  screen.  Among  her  suc- 
cesses are  Teas  of  the  Storm  Country,  Cinderella, 
F&nclion-Cricket,  Madame  Butterfly,  The  Bish- 
op's Carriage,  and  Rosita.  Shortly  before  the 
War  and  for  the  succeeding  years  she  has  been 
one  of  the  most  popular  screen  actresses  in  the 
United  States. 

PICK-MANGIAGALLI,  RICCAHDO  (1882- 
).  An  Italian  composer,  born  at  Strako- 
witz,  Bohemia.  He  was  trained  at  the  Milan  Con- 
servatory under  Appiani  (piano)  and  Ferroni 
(composition).  His  earliest  works  were  written 
under  the  influence  of  Wagner  and  Strauss,  es- 
pecially in  regard  to  the  handling  of  the  or- 
chestra. Later  the  influence  of  the  French  im- 
pressionists makes  itself  felt.  His  most  im- 
portant works  are  the  ballets,  II  Salice  d'Oro 
(Milan,  1014),  11  Carillon  Magico  (ib.,  1018; 


PICBIC  ACID  EXPLOSIVES 


1051 


PISTOLS 


New  York,  1920),  Mahit  (ib.,  1923),  and  #u- 
mitra;  a  symphonic  poem,  Sortilegi;  Nortturno  e 
Rondo  Fantastico  and  two  preludes,  for  orches- 
tra; a  string  quartet;  and  several  pieces  for 
piano.  An  opera,  Bad  e  Botte,  was  completed 
in  1920  but  was  not  yet  produced  in  1924. 

PICBIC  ACID  EXPLOSIVES.  Sec  EX- 
PLOSIVES 

PIEBCE,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON  (1872-  ). 
An  American  physicist,  born  at  Webberville,  Tex- 
as, and  educated  at  the  University  of  Texas,  Har- 
vard and  Leipzig.  In  1903  he  Ijecame  instructor 
in  physics  at  Harvard  and  in  1917  full  professor 
of  physics  and  director  of  the  Cruft  Laboratory. 
During  the  War  he  conducted  experiments  at  the 
Naval  Experimental  Station  at  New  London, 
Conn.  Among  his  more  important  researches 
were  those  connected  with  his  experiments  in 
resonance  in  wireless  telegraph  circuits  and 
crystal  rectifiers  for  electric  currents  and  elec- 
tric oscillations.  In  addition  to  many  papers 
contributed  to  various  scientific  publications  he 
ia  author  of  The  Principles  of  Wireless  Telegra- 
phy (1910)  and  JKlectric  Oscillations  and  Elec- 
tric Waves  (1919). 

PIGMENTS.     Sec  LFAD. 

PIKE,  FRANK  HENRY  (1876-  ).  An 
American  physiologist,  born  at  Aurora,  111.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Indiana  and 
at  the  University  of  Chicago.  He  was  instruc- 
tor in  physiology  (1907-11)  at  the  University  of 
Chicago  and  assistant  professor  of  physiology 
(1911-16)  and  associate  professor  (1916-  ) 
at  Columbia  University.  Professor  Pike  pub- 
lished numerous  articles  on  general  physiology, 
on  the  eyes  of  Cuban  cave  shrimps,  and  on 
heredity. 

PILES.     See  FOUNDATIONS. 

PILOT  CABLE.    See   NAVIGATION. 

PILSUDSKI,  JOSEPH  ( ?-  ).  A  Polish 
general  and  admin istra tor,  born  in  Lithuania, 
and  educated  at  Kharkov  University  He  be- 
came a  socialist,  and  in  1885,  because  of  a  false 
accusation  of  complicity  in  an  attempt  to  as- 
sassinate Alexander  II J,  he  was  banished.  In 
1893  he  returned  to  Poland  and  helped  to  found 
the  Polish  Society  party.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  War,  Pilsudski  secretly  formed  the  "Polish 
military  organization"  which  was  used  in  the 
struggle  to  free  Poland  from  Russia  and  the 
Central  Powers.  In  1916  he  resigned  from  the 
Polish  army  because  of  trouble  with  the  Aus- 
trian commanders  and  was  later  arrested  by  the 
Germans  and  imprisoned  at  Magdeburg.  When 
he  returned  to  Poland  in  1918,  IIP  found  the 
government  very  weak,  and  on  November  14 
the  Council  of  Regency  abdicated.  Pilsudski, 
backed  by  his  array,  then  held  supreme  power. 
During  1919,  the  year  in  which  Paderewski  be- 
came prime  minister,  Pilsudski  was  engaged  in 
wars  with  the  Ukrainians,  the  Czecho-Slovaks, 
and  the  Bolsheviks.  The  last,  although  they 
came  within  12  miles  of  Warsaw,  retreated  in 
disorder  in  the  face  of  a  violent  counterofien- 
sive  led  by  Pilsudski  In  1919  he  was  elected 
to  the  office  of  president,  which  he  held  till 
December,  1922.  See  POLAND,  History. 

PILTDOWN  MAN.  See  MAN,  PREHISTORIC 
RACES  OF. 

PINCHOT,  GIFFORD  ( 1865-  ) .  An  Amer- 
ican forester  and  public  official  (see  VOL. 
XVIII).  In  1920  he  was  appointed  Commis- 
ioner  of  Forestry  of  Pennsylvania.  He  was 
nominated  for  governor  in  May,  1922,  bjr  the 
Progressive  wing  of  the  Republican  party  in  the 


State  and  was  elected  in  the  following  Novem- 
ber. He  was  inaugurated  as  governor  in  1923. 
During  the  threatened  anthracite  coal  miners' 
strike  in  1923,  Governor  Pinchot  drew  up  a 
plan  of  settlement  which  was  accepted  both  by 
miners  and  employers  During  the  .early  part 
of  1923  ^he  took  an  aggressive  stand  in  regard 
to  prohibition  enforcement  and  severely  criti- 
cized President  Coolidgc-  and  the  administra- 
tion for  alleged  laxity  in  the  enforcement  of  the 
law.  Later  in  that  >ear  he  undertook  to  bring 
about  an  investigation  of  the  prohibition  en- 
forcement bureau  of  the  Treasury  Department 
through  a  Senatorial  committee  which  was  en- 
gaged in  investigating  other  activities  of  that 
Department  He  was  defeated  as  delegate  to 
the  Republican  National  Convention  in  May. 
1924. 

PINE  BLISTER.  RUST.  See  PLANTS,  DIS- 
EASES OF. 

PINE  SHOOT  MOTH.  See  ENTOMOLOGY, 
ECONOMIC. 

PINK  BOLLWORM.  See  ENTOMOLOGY, 
ECONOMIC. 

PINTNER,  RUDOLF  (1884-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican psychologist,  born  at  Lytham,  England, 
and  educated  at  the  Edinburgh  University  and 
the  University  of  Leipzig.  In  1912  he  removed 
to  the  United  States  and  was  for  several  years 
on  the  faculty  of  the  Ohio  State  University. 
In  1921  he  was  professor  of  education  at  Teach- 
ers' College,  Columbia  University.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  books  on  psychology,  includ- 
ing The  Picture  Completion  Test  (1917)  and  A 
Mental  Huriey  (1918).  He  also  translated  sev- 
eral books  on  psychology 

PIRANDELLO,  LUICI  (1867-  ).  An 
Italian  author,  born  in  Girgenti,  well-known  in 
the  United  States  as  a  playwright.  His  8ix 
Characters  in  Search  of  an  Author,  played  in 
New  York  in  1922,  provoked  much  warm  com- 
ment. In  this  play  he  uses  the  most  terrible 
of  human  emotions  as  his  material  and  at  the 
same  time  reveals  a'sthetic  theories  concerning 
the  material  of  art  He  turns  to  life  for  his 
first  inspiration,  struggles  in  his  works  with 
the  problem  of  personality,  and  strives  to  find 
the  borderline  between  reality  and  fiction.  His 
Flonani's  Wife  was  played  at  the  Greenwich 
Village  Theatre  in  1923  He  is  also  the  author 
of  novels,  among  them  The  Late  Mattia  Pascal. 

PIRQUET,  FRJ-JHERR  CLEMENS,  BARON  VON 
(1874-  ).  An  Austrian  podiatrist  (see 
VOL.  VX1II).  During  the  War,  von  Pir- 
quet  devised  a  new  notation  for  nutrition, 
intended  to  improve  on  the  calory.  The  unit  is 
termed  the  nem,  representing  a  cubic  centimeter 
of  mother's  milk.  He  published  System  dcr 
Ernahrung  in  1917,  with  an  addendum  in  1920, 
devoted  to  this  idea.  In  1922  appeared  in  Eng- 
lish An  Outline  of  the  Pirquet  System  of  Nutri- 
tion. 

FIBRIE,  WILLIAM  JAMES,  first  BARON 
(1847-1924).  An  Irish  shipbuilder  (sec  VOL. 
XVIII).  During  the  War  he  was  of  valuable 
service  to  the  British  government  as  commer- 
cial adviser  to  Lord  Derby,  and  in  March,  1918, 
he  was  appointed  Controller  General  of  Mer- 
chant Shipping.  When  the  North  of  Ireland  was 
separated  from  the  new  Irish  Free  State,  he 
was  one  of  the  first  senators  elected  to  the 
Parliament  at  Belfast  (1922)  T-ord  Pirrie  was 
created  a  viscount  in  1921  and  died  suddenly  on 
May  7,  1924,  on  MB  way  to  New  York  City, 

PISTOLS.    See  SMALL  Aims. 


1053 


PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY 


PITCHBLENDE.    See  RADIUM. 

PITHECANTHROPUS  ERECTTTS.  See 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 

PITT,  PEBCY  (1870-  ).  An  English  con- 
ductor and  oonif>oser,  born  in  London.  He 
studied  under  Reinecke  and  Jadassohn  at  the 
Leipzig  Conservatory  (1886-88)  and  under 
Rheinberger  at  the  Akademie  der  Tonkunst  in 
Munich.  In  1896  he  wag  appointed  organist 
at  Queen's  Hall ;  in  1002,  coach  at  Covent  Gar- 
den; in  1006,  assistant  conductor;  and  after 
Messager's  resignation  (1007),  principal  con- 
ductor, a  post  which  he  filled  until  1014.  In 
1020  he  became  principal  conductor  of  the 
British  National  Opera  Company.  His  works 
include  a  symphony;  Le  Sang  des  Crepuscules, 
symphonic  poem;  Anactoria,  a  symphonic  poem 
for  viola  and  orchestra;  Ralladr,  for  violin  and 
orchestra;  an  overture,  The  Taming  of  the 
Shrew;  English  Rhapsody,  Oriental  Rhapsody, 
F6tes  (Mantes,  Cinderella,  Dance  Rhythms,  Cor- 
onation March,  for  orchestra;  incidental  music 
to  Phillips'  Paolo  and  Francesco,  Austin's  Flod- 
den  Field,  and  Shakespeare's  Richard  II ;  Hohen- 
linden,  ballad  for  male  chorus  and  orchestra: 
Nivertiny  the  Savon,  cantata;  flaAwrn,  ballet- 
pantomime;  and  chamber  music,  piano  pieces 
and  songs. 

PITTMAN  ACT.     See  SILVFR. 

PITTSBTJBOH.  A  city  of  Pennsylvania. 
The  population  increased  from  533,005  "in  1010 
to  504,207  in  1020,  to  623.015  by  the  estimate 
of  the  Bureau  of  the  ('ensua  for  1024.  The 
population  of  the  metropolitan  district  of  which 
Pittsburgh  is  the  centre  was  1,207,504  in  1024. 
The  area  of  the  city  was  increased  by  the  an- 
nexation of  Spring  Garden  in  1020  and  Chartiers 
in  1021.  In  1010  the  city  voted  $21,006,000 
for  municipal  improvements,  as  follows:  high- 
ways, including  the  Boulevard  of  the  Allies  over- 
looking the  Monongahela  River,  $0,570,000; 
subway,  $6,000,000;  parks  and  recreation 
grounds,  $1,815,000;  waterworks,  $1,401,000; 
sewerage  systems,  $1,341,000;  public  health, 
safety,  and  charities,  $1,110,000;  highway 
bridges,  $750,000.  In  1010,  a  new  bridge  across 
the  Allegheny  River  was  designed  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  War  Department  and  was 
completed  in  1023.  It  comprised  three  steel 
arch-truss  spans,  220  feet,  437  feet  and  220  feet 
respectively  in  length.  After  investigation  of 
the  rapid  transit  conditions  in  Pittsburgh,  the 
city  transit  commissioner  in  his  report  of  1017 
recommended  two  projects.  The  first  was  to 
connect  the  South  Side  district  with  the  East 
End,  chiefly  by  elevated  tracks,  a  distance  of 
7.28  miles,  at  an  estimated  cost  of  about  $7,000,- 
000;  the  second  to  connect  the  North  Side  with 
the  East  End,  mostly  by  subway  and  tunnel  at 
a  cost  of  about  $11,000,000.  A  twin  tunnel, 
known  as  the  Liberty  Tunnels,  5700  feet  long, 
extending  under  Mt.  Washington  and  connect- 
ing the  South  Hills  district  with  the  business 
section  of  the  city,  was  completed  in  1023  at  a 
cost  of  nearly  $5,000,000.  A  zoning  ordinance 
was  passed  in  1023.  A  bill  passed  by  the  State 
Legislature  in  1023  authorized  the  appointment 
of  a  commission  to  study  the  creation  of  a 
metropolitan  district  in  Allegheny  County. 
The  Schenley  high  school,  accommodating  2000 
pupils,  was  completed  in  1016  at  a  cost  of  $1,- 
500,000.  Other  large  high  school  buildings 
recently  completed  were  Langley  high  school, 
South  Hills  high  school  and  Westinghouse  high 
school.  Peabody  high  school  was  greatly  en- 


larged. The  Carnegie  Library  grew  from  418,- 
608  volumes  in  1014  to  536,075  volumes  in  1024. 
A  business-district  branch  was  opened  in  the 
City-County  Building  in  1024  to  accommodate 
the  business  section  of  the  city.  Pittsburgh 
manufactures  annually  products  worth  $2,500,- 
000,000.  Bank  clearings  rose  from  less  than 
$3,000,000,000  in  1014  to  $8,212,708,000  in 
1023. 

PITTSBTJBGH,  UNIVEBSITY  OF.  An  institu- 
tion at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  founded  in  1787.  With 
the  exception  of  the  war  years,  the  university 
increased  its  enrollment  with  great  rapidity 
between  1014  and  1022-23;  from  2830  in  the 
former  year  to  7786  in  the  latter.  The  faculty 
was  increased  during  the  same  period  from  320 
to  585  members,  and  the  library  from  20,000  to 
85,000  volumes.  The  income  of  the  university 
also  increased  from  $452,055  in  1014  to  $l,437r 
333  in  1022-23.  Alumni  Hall  was  built  through 
gifts  of  the  alumni  in  1020.  John  Gabbert 
Bowman,  LL.D.,  succeeded  Samuel  Black  Mc- 
Corinick,  D.I).,  LL.l).,  as  chancellor  in  1021. 

PITTS  XI  (AciiiLLK  RATTI),  POPE  (1857- 
).  He  UHH  horn  in  DOMO,  Italy,  and  studied 
at  the  diocesan  seminaries  and  at  the  Lombard 
College  of  Rome,  where  he  obtained  a  doctor's 
degree  in  theosophy,  theology,  and  common  law. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  1*H70.  From  1882  to 
188S  he  wah  professor  of  dogmatic  theology  and 
sacred  eloquence  in  the  seminary  of  his  diocese, 
lie  afterward  joined  the  staff  of  the  Ambrosian 
Library,  of  winch  be  became  head  in  1007. 
Four  years  later  he  was  appointed  assistant 
prefect  of  the  Vatican  Library  and  prefect  in 
1013.  He  was  sent  to  Poland  as  Apostolic  Visi- 
tor in  1018  and  in  the  following  year  became 
Papal  Xuncio.  He  was  created  Archbishop  of 
Lepanto  in  1010  and  was  transferred  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Milan  as  Cardinal  Archbishop 
in  1021.  Following  the  death  of  Benedict  XV, 
he  was  elected  by  the  College  of  Cardinals  as  his 
successor  and  WHH  crowned  on  Feb.  12,  1022. 

PIZZETTI,  IUIEBRANDO  (1880-  ).  An 
Italian  composer,  l»orn  at  Parma,  Italy.  After 
receiving  his  first  instruction  from  his  father  he 
entered  the  Parma  Conservatory  in  1805  and 
graduated  with  honors  in  1001.  In  1000-18  he 
taught  composition  at  the  Institute  Musicalc 
in  Florence,  when  he  succeeded  Tacchinardi  as 
director.  In  1924  he  was  called  to  succeed  Gal- 
lignani  as  director  of  the  Milan  Conservatory 
He  wrote  the  operas,  (jiulietta  e  Romeo,  Le  Cid, 
and  Dcbora  e  Jacle  (Milan,  1022)  ;  incidental 
music  to  Sophocles's  Kdipo  R4  and  d'Annunzio's 
La  ATai?e,  Fedra,  and  La  Pisanella;  a  Requiem 
in  memory  of  King  Humbert;  Poema  Emiliano; 
Overturn  per  una  Farsa  Tragica;  Rinfonia  del 
Fuoco;  Lamento  for  tenor  and  orchestra;  a 
violin  sonata,  a  'cello  sonata,  and  a  string  quar- 
tet; and  piano  pieces  and  songs.  He  also  wrote 
many  essays  for  various  periodicals,  a  biography 
of  Bellini  (1016),  and  Intermezzi  Critlchi 
(1021). 

PLAGUE.  See  BUBONIC  PLAGUE;  INFLU- 
ENZA. 

PLANCK,  MAX  (1858-  ).  A  German 
physicist  (see  VOL.  XVIII).  He  received  the 
Nobel  Prize  for  physics  in  1010.  His  later  pub- 
lications include  Vorlesungen  fiber  Thermodyna- 
mik  (1021)  and  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Theorie 
der  Warmestrahlung  (1021). 

PLANETS.    See  ASTRONOMY. 

PLANT  BREEDING.    See  BOTANY. 

PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY.    See  BOTANY. 


PLANT  QUARANTINE 


1053 


PLANTS 


PLANT  QUARANTINE.     See  ENTOMOLOGY, 

ECONOMIC. 

PLANTS,  DISEASES  OF.  An  annual  plant 
disease  survey  of  the  United  States  was  in- 
itiated in  1917.  This  survey  was  authorized  by 
Congress  and  was  carried  on  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  coopera- 
tion with  agricultural  colleges,  experiment  sta- 
tions, and  various  specialists  in  plant  diseases, 
and  it  brought  to  light  many  new  diseases,  as 
well  as  old  parasites  on  new  hosts.  There 
was  also  much  study  of  the  causes  of  diseases 
of  plants  and  of  means  for  their  control. 
Among  the  diseases  of  great  economic  impor- 
tance reported  in  the  United  States  were  citrus 
canker  (Bacterium  citri) ,  potato  black  wart 
(Chrynophlyctis  endobiotica ) ,  white  pine  blister 
rust  (I'eridermium  ntrobi) ,  take-all  of  wheat 
(Ophiobolus  praminift),  and  flag  smut  of  wheat 
(Vrocyntifi  tritici),  all  of  which  were  introduced 
from  other  countries.  Tlio  losses  attributed  to 
plant  diseases  in  the  United  States  were  very 
great.  According  to  estimates  made  by  the 
Plant  Disease  Survey  the  losses  of  a  few  of  the 
leading  crops  in  1922  were:  wheat,  72.100,000 
bushels;  barley,  «>,0r>4,000  bushels;  oats,  68,8rtO,- 
000  bushels,  corn,  173700,000  bushels;  apples, 
40,010,000  bushels:  penches,  10.ri47.000  bushels; 
and  cotton,  910.080  bales 

The  chestnut  blight  due  to  Endothia  para- 
sitica,  which  made  its  appearance  in  the  vicinity 
of  New  York  City  about  1904,  was  probably  in- 
troduced from  Asia  It  spread  with  great 
lapidity,  and  at  the  end  of  1923  practically  all 
the  native  chestnut  trees  in  New  England,  east- 
ern New  Yoik,  New  Jersey.  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland  had  l>een  destroyed,  and  the  disease 
was  spreading  toward  the  South  and  West 
Sporadic  outbreaks  of  the  fungus  were  re- 
ported from  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina  and 
South  Carolina.  Occasional  trees  escaped  where 
the  fungus  was  prevalent,  and  this  led  to  the 
hope  of  establishing  varieties  resistant  to  the 
blight. 

Citrus  canker  caused  by  Bacterium  ritri  was 
discovered  in  Florida  and  other  Gulf  States  in 
1916.  This  disease  was  believed  to  have  been 
introduced  from  Japan,  where  it  does  compara- 
tively little  damage  except  to  navel  oranges. 
In  the  Gulf  States  it  soon  became  very  destruc- 
tive, especially  to  oranges  and  grapefruit.  Con- 
gress appropriated  more  than  $1,700,000  for 
studies  of  this  disease  and  means  for  its  control 
This  sum  was  supplemented  by  State  and  other 
contributions,  and  the  work  on  control  was  car- 
ried on  cooperatively  with  the  States  where  the 
disease  occurred.  Florida  was  most  severely  af- 
fected and  many  thousands  of  trees  were  burned. 
As  a  result  citrus  canker  appeared  to  have  been 
eradicated  from  the  State,  for  no  new  infesta- 
tions were  reported  in  1923.  The  same  disease 
was  reported  in  South  Africa,  where  similar 
methods  of  control  were  applied  with  gratifying 
success. 

The  Plant  Disease  Survey  found  the  black 
wart  disease  of  potatoes  caused  by  rhrysophli/c- 
tie  endobiotica  in  Pennsylvania  in  1917.  Later 
it  was  discovered  in  a  few  localities  in  Mary- 
land and  West  Virginia.  This  disease  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  brought  from  Europe,  where 
it  is  considered  a  serious  trouble.  All  the  lo- 
calities where  it  was  found  in  the  United  States 
are  mining  communities  which  are  not  impor- 
tant producing  centres.  Strict  quarantines 
were  established  about  them,  and  by  the  grow- 


ing of  immune  varieties  of  potatoes  it  was  hoped 
that  the  disease  might  be  stamped  out. 

The  white  pine  blister  rust  continued  to  be  a 
subject  of  much  concern  not  only  to  plant  pa- 
thologists  but  to  important  industries  dependent 
on  the  white  pine  and  related  species  for  tim- 
ber. The  fungus,  Peridermium  alrobi,  which 
causes  this  disease,  has  a  complex  life  cycle. 
It  spends  different  phases  of  its  existence  on  the 
white  pine  and  on  currants  and  gooseberries. 
This  parasite,  pro',,? My  introduced  from  Europe 
on  white  pine  seedlings,  was  first  reported  in 
the  United  States  about  1906.  All  the  five- 
needle  pines  and  most  species  of  currants  and 
gooseberries  are  subject  to  attack.  The  blister 
rust  occurs  quite  generally  throughout  parts  of 
New  England  and  southern  Ontario,  and  in  parts 
of  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  with  scattered  in- 
fections on  either  white  pines  or  currants  in 
New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Michigan.  It  was 
reported  in  Washington  and  British  Columbia 
in  1922. 

The  fungus  cannot  infect  pine  trees  from 
other  pines  but  must  pass  through  its  alternate 
hosts,  wild  or  cultivated  species  of  Riles  Ad- 
vantage has  been  taken  of  this  fact  and  control 
measures  are  based  on  the  destruction  of  all 
species  of  Rtbes  occurring  in  the  vicinity  of 
white  pines,  and  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
United  States  about  one-third  of  the  white  pine 
area  has  been  cleared  of  currants  and  goose- 
berries at  a  cost  of  only  about  $.30  an  acre. 
This  method  of  control  appears  entirely  prac- 
ticable, and  the  cost  is  insignificant  as  compared 
with  the  value  of  the  white  pine  timber  of  the 
country. 

Another  disease  of  great  agricultural  impor- 
tance, in  the  control  of  which  some  progress  has 
l)een  made,  is  the  stem  rust  of  wheat  due  to 
J'uccima  yraminis.  The  relation  of  this  fungus 
to  the  common  barberry  has  long  been  known, 
and  in  some  European  countries  attempts  have 
been  made  to  control  the  rust  on  wheat  by  the 
destruction  of  barberries  in  the  vicinity.  About 
1918  an  active  campaign  was  begun  in  the 
United  States  for  the  destruction  of  all  common 
barberry  bushes  in  a  numl>er  of  the  leading 
wheat-producing  States.  Since  then  Congress 
appropriated  nearly  $2,000,000  toward  the  ex- 
pense of  eradicating  barberries  in  13  of  the 
North  Central  States,  the  work  being  carried  on 
cooperatively  with  State  officers.  The  bushes 
were  grubbed  out  of  the  ground  or  destroyed  by 
the  application  of  coarse  salt  or  a  radiates  about 
them.  In  this  way  many  millions  of  barberry 
bushes  were  destroyed  in  the  hope  that  by  the 
removal  of  one  of  the  alternate  hosts,  epidemics 
of  rust  infection  would  be  avoided.  Whether 
this  will  be  successful  is  problematical,  for  re- 
cently spores  of  the  form  capable  of  infecting 
wheat  were  caught  in  spore  traps  exposed  on 
airplanes  at  7000  feet  elevation,  indicating  the 
possibility  of  infection  from  regions  where  the 
uredospores  retain  viability  throughout  the  win- 
ter. In  connection  with  studies  of  the  wheat 
rust  problem,  varieties  of  wheat  have  been 
found  that  are  immune  to  the  stem  rust,  and 
reliance  on  them  seems  to  offer  a  means  of 
control. 

The  so-called  virus  or  mosaic  diseases  of 
plants  took  on  importance,  not  only  on  account 
of  their  wide  distribution  and  destructive  effect 
but  through  the  various  hypotheses  presented 
regarding  their  origin.  These  diseases  are  char- 
acterized by  a  certain  dwarfing  of  the  plants, 


PLANTS 


1054 


PLATINUM 


abnormal  coloring  and  blotching  of  the  foliage, 
and  in  some  cases  marked  changes  in  the  form 
and  texture  of  the  leaves.  A  considerable  num- 
ber of  imjK>rtant  crop  plants  are  subject  to  at- 
tacks of  this  character,  among  them  sugar  beets, 
sugar  cane,  maize,  tobacco,  tomatoes,  potatoes, 
beans,  etc.  In  the  case  of  the  potato  the  dis- 
ease manifests  itself  in  a  number  of  ways  that 
have  given  rise  to  special  names,  such  as  mo- 
saic, leaf  roll,  crinkle,  streak,  spindling  sprout, 
etc.,  all  of  which  are  probably  manifestations 
of  a  single  disease.  They  are  also  called  de- 
generation diseases  from  their  effect  on  sub- 
sequent generations  of  infected  plants.  On 
some  plants  there  is  a  distinct  yellowing  of  the 
foliage,  as  in  the  peach,  or  a  mottling  as  in 
the  leaves  of  sugar  cane,  corn,  tobacco,  beans, 
cucurbits,  etc.  In  the  sugar  beet  the  disease 
causes  a  curling  and  mottling  of  the  leaves 
which  produces  a  condition  known  as  curly  top. 
The  cause,  or  causes,  of  mosaic  diseases  were 
not  definitely  determined.  By  some  investiga- 
tors they  were  called  virus  diseases,  since  the 
causal  agent  readily  passes  through  a  porcelain 
filter  and  sound  plants  may  be  infected  by  the 
introduction  of  the  filtrate  into  their  tissues. 
Others  considered  them  to  be  due  to  organisms 
so  minute  as  to  escape  detection  by  the  best 
microscopes.  Still  others  claimed  they  were 
due  to  protozoan  parasites,  and  a  number  of 
investigators,  following  Lafont,  who  was  the 
first  to  find  protozoa  in  living  plants,  reported 
the  presence  of  flagellates  and  similar  bodies 
in  diseased  tissues,  and  causal  relations  were 
attributed  to  them. 

Nelson  reported  in  1922  the  discovery  of 
protozoa-like  bodies  in  plants  affected  with  mo- 
saic diseases.  The  accuracy  of  the  determina- 
tion was  questioned,  but  in  1023  McKmney  and 
his  coworkers  reported  the  occurrence  of  in- 
tracellular  bodies  in  wheat  plants  affected  with 
mosaic  which  are  claimed  to  be  stages  in  the 
life  of  some  organism.  Iwanowski  reported 
such  bodies  in  1903  but  did  not  associate  them 
with  mosaic,  and  Palm  in  1922  considered  them 
as  possible  causes  of  tobacco  mosaic.  In  1924 
Kunkel  added  further  evidence  to  their  probable 
causal  relations.  He  considered  that  at  certain 
stages  they  may  pass  through  a  filter.  So  far 
as  was  known,  there  had  been  no  disease  success- 
fully produced  with  cultures  of  these  organisms, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  that  reported  by 
McWhorter,  who  claimed  to  have  produced  the 
Figi  disease  of  sugar  cane  by  the  introduction 
of  cultures  of  amoeba. 

The  means  by  which  mosaic  diseases  are 
transmitted  from  plant  to  plant  are  quite 
varied.  Perhaps  the  most  are  distributed  by 
insects,  mostly  aphids,  which  act  as  mechanical 
carriers  of  the  infection,  but  in  the  case  of 
curly  top  of  sugar  beets  the  infective  material 
must  remain  for  a  definite  period  in  the  body 
of  a  leaf  hopper,  Eutettia  tenella.  Some  of 
these  diseases  are  not  limited  to  a  single  host 
plant  but  pass  readily  to  unrelated  species.  A 
numl)er  are  known  to  winter  over  on  perennial 
weeds  and  infect  crops  the  next  season.  Some 
are  carried  from  crop  to  crop  in  the  seed,  while 
in  the  potato  some  forms  of  mosaic  are  un- 
doubtedly carried  in  the  tubers  used  for  plant- 
ing. Avoiding  the  use  of  infected  material  for 
planting,  the  growing  of  resistant  varieties,  of 
which  there  are  many,  and  combating  the  insects 
that  act  as  carriers  are  the  most  hopeful  meth- 
ods of  controlling  mosaic  diseases  of  plants. 


The  number  of  diseases  of  plants  caused  by 
bacteria  greatly  increased  between  1914  and  1924. 
There  were  probably  fifty  species  of  bacteria 
known  to  cause  such  diseases,  and  as  some  of 
them  are  capable  of  infecting  a  large  range  of 
plants,  the  total  number  of  affected  species  is 
considerable. 

Bibliography.  Among  the  important  books 
descriptive  of  plant  diseases  and  their  control 
were:  W.  F.  Bewley,  Diseases  of  Greenhouse 
Plants  (London,  1923);  E.  J.  Butler,  Fungi 
and  Diseases  in  Plants  (Calcutta,  1918)  ;  F.  J. 
Chittenden,  The  Garden  Doctor:  Plants  in 
Health  and  Disease  (New  York,  1920);  G.  De- 
lacroix, Maladies  des  Mantes  ritltivfes  (Paris, 
1910)  ;  P.  Graebner,  Lehrbnch  der  Wichtpara- 
sitaren  Pflanzenkrankheiten  (Berlin,  1920); 
J.  W.  Harshberger.  Textbook  of  Mycology  and 
Plant  Pathology  (Philadelphia,  1917);  L.  Man- 
gin,  Parasites  Vfge'taux  des  Plantes  Cultive'ea 
(Paris,  1921);  G.  Massee,  Diseases  of  Culti- 
vated Plants  and  Trees  (London,  1915)  ;  W. 
Nowell,  Diseases  of  Crop  Plants  in  the  Lesser 
Antilles  (London,  1923);  W.  H.  Rankin,  Man- 
ual of  Tree  Diseases  (New  York,  1918)  ;  E.  F. 
Smith,  Introduction  to  Bacterial  Diseases  of 
Plants  (Philadelphia.  1920);  F.  L.  Stevens  and 
J.  G.  Hall,  Diseases  of  Economic  Plants  (New 
York,  1921);  J.  J.  Taul>enhaus,  Diseases  of 
Truck  Crops  and  Their  Control  (New  York, 
1918)  ;  ,T.  J.  Taiihenhaus,  Diseases  of  Green- 
house Crops  and  Their  Control  (New  York, 
1920)  ;  N.  Vavilov,  Immnnitet  Rastenii  k.  In- 
fektionnym  Zabolievanniam  (Moscow,  1919)  ; 
and  H.  Welten,  Pflanzenkrankheiten  (Leipzig, 
1919). 

PLATINUM.  Inasmuch  as  Russia  was  the 
chief  source  of  the  world's  supply  of  platinum 
previous  to  the  War,  it  was  inevitable  that  in 
the  10  years  between  1914  and  1924  many 
changes  should  develop  in  the  mining  and  refin- 
ing of  this  essential  metal,  which  already  had 
become  more  valuable  than  gold,  as  well 'as  in 
its  marketing.  In  1912,  the  world's  produc- 
tion of  platinum  was  estimated  at  313,529 
ounces,  of  which  amount  300,000  ounces  was 
credited  to  Russia.  At  this  time  Colombia, 
which  was  destined  to  become  an  important 
source  of  production  during  the  decade,  pro- 
duced 12,000  ounces,  while  between  700  and  800 
ounces  of  crude  platinum  were  produced  in  New 
South  Wales  and  Tasmania  and  in  the  United 
States  respectively.  In  the  period  between  1914 
and  1924,  there  was  an  increased  demand  for 
platinum  in  jewelry,  and  during  the  War  for 
use  in  the  chemical  industries.  As  early  as 
1914,  an  embargo  was  placed  on  platinum  in 
Russia,  and  from  that  time  the  production  de- 
clined, dropping  from  241,200  ounces  in  1914 
to  50,000  ounces  in  1917,  and  to  probably  about 
25,000  ounces  in  1918.  The  effect  of  this  shrink- 
age was  to  reduce  the  world's  production  in 
1918  to  62,283  ounces,  which  probably  marked 
the  lowest  ebb  in  the  production  of  this  valuable 
mineral. 

With  the  decline  in  production  in  Russia 
there  was  an  increase  in  the  output  from  Colom- 
bia, which  by  1917  had  increased  to  about  30,- 
000  ounces,  and  by  1923  was  estimated  at  40,- 
000  ounces.  In  the  United  States,  where  crude 
platinum  was  obtained  from  California  and 
Oregon,  with  small  amounts  from  Alaska,  721 
ounces  were  produced  in  1912  and  this  by  1923 
had  increased  to  1008  ounces,  though  in  the 
following  year  there  was  a  decline  to  609  ounces, 


PLATINUM 

of  which  Alaska  produced  7,  California  578  and 
Oregon   24  ounces. 

Inasmuch  as  it  was  so  essential  as  a  war 
material,  the  United  States  in  1018  comman- 
deered all  available  crude  and  refined  platinum 
at  a  maximum  price  of  $105  an  ounce.  This 
metal  was  very  necessary  for  the  various  chem- 
ical industries  that  were  active  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  explosives  and  other  war  munitions, 
and  the  government  was  able  to  accumulate 
adequate  supplies.  On  Dec.  1,  1018,  when  the 
market  was  set  free,  and  early  in  1919,  the 
government  stocks  were  released.  From  that 
time  on  platinum  underwent  a  series  of  violent 
fluctuations,  being  quoted  at  the  end  of  1910  at 
from  $150  to  $155  an  ounce,  while  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  it  reached  a  maximum  monthly 
price  of  $154.23.  In  1920,  the  price  declined, 


PLAYGROUND 

average  prices  from  1914  to  1923  are  summa- 
rized in  the  table  following: 


AVERAGE  MONTHLY  I 
NEW  YORK 
Year                   Price 
1914  ft  4*  IA 

'RICES  OP 
:  MARKET- 
Year 
1919 
1920      . 
1921  
192° 

PLATINUM, 

Price 
.  .    $114.61 
.  .      110.90  b 
75  033  • 
07  fit  a 

1915  

47  13 

1916  

83  40 

1917  

.  .  .  .      102.82 

1918..      . 

.      105  95 

1923 

.      116  537 

•Prom   Engineering   and    Mwnrj  Journal. 
•  Maximum   monthly    average  $154  23. 
9  Minimum    monthly    average   $70  227 

In  the  United  States,  the  considerable  con- 
sumption of  platinum  has  to  l>e  met  by  exten- 
sive imports,  though  some  is  obtained  from  the 
refining  of  gold,  copper  and  nickel  ores  (see 
accompanying  tables). 


NEW  PLATINUM  METALS   RECOVERED  BY    REFINERS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  IN  TROY  OUNCES 


Yeur 

Platinum 

Palladium 

Jridmm 

Obimridium 

Others 

Total 

1919  

40,220 

3,807 

401 

402 

27rJ 

4r>  109 

1920                .... 

30,015 

4,309 

418 

409 

393 

41  541 

1921    . 

.     ..       51,791 

2,686 

286 

581 

1,026 

.r>6  370 

1922 

54,142 

1,943 

210 

1,301 

122 

57  718 

1923 

.       .       46,780 

1,934 

280 

787 

l(i 

49,797 

SECONDARY   PIATINUM  MET\LS   RECOVERED    IN  THE   VNITED   STATES.   IN   TROY  OUNCES 


Year 


Platinum 


Palladium 


Indium 


Others 


Total 


1^19 

54  5-|5 

3  4G7 

o  ">Q4 

1420 

...       ...   51,255 

3,100 

3,355 

57  710 

19J1 

39,131 

4,887 

1.776 

22i) 

46  02'1 

1<)'J2 
19J.I 

40,002 
.  .         .    39,152 

4,193 
6,246 

1,937 
2,01il 

490 
453 

46,088 
47.872 

IMPORTS  OF  PLATINUM  AND  PLATINUM  METALS  INTO  THE   UNITED   STATES 

1922  19-J3 


Metal 

Tro}' 
ounces 

Value 

Trov 
ounces 

Vuluu 

Platinum     or    <  rude    platinum    and    unmanu- 
factured   products,    ingots,   sheets,    wire,    etc. 
Platinum,    manufactuied    products,    vases,    re- 
torts,   etc. 
Indium       ....                       ... 
Osinirulium           ... 
Osmium              .            ...         .         ... 
Palladium          .                                             ... 

94.939 

•45 
1,899 
2,165 
1,012 
9,754 
111 
100 

$7,790,898 

6  11,464 
21)8,507 
242,037 
81,231 
537.684 
16,227 
4,839 

86,417 

103 
1,011 
1,171 
1,462 
14,57ft 
805 
487 

$8,92:1,037 

4,769 
276,539 
150,074 
117.144 
857,071 
8ft,569 
21  492 

Ruthenium    .  . 

Total 


110, OJ5 


106,637 


0  Incomplete  Includes  18  ounces  in  vases,  retorts,  etc.,  valued  ut  $2813,  and  27  ounces  in  othei  piodiuts 
not  specified,  valued  at  $1916. 

»  Includes  articles  to  the  value  of  $6735  (quantity  not  gi>en)  imported  under  duty  in  1922  prior  to  Septem- 
ber 22. 


PLATINUM   METALS    CONSUMED    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    AS    REPORTED    BY    REFINERS,    1923, 

BY  INDUSTRIES,   IN  TROY  OUNCES 


Per- 

centaga 

Industry 

Platinum 

Iridium 

Palladium 

Others 

Total 

of  total 

Chemical 
Electrical    
Dontal 
Jewelry         
Miscellaneous       

8.637 
18,596 
.       .      16.28ft 
.       .    105,699 
.  .    .         3,156 

190 
1.675 
153 
3,073 
1,403 

485 
3,666 
10,116 
14,948 
986 

266 

"l90 
1,256 

9.578 
23,937 
20,557 
123.910 
6,801 

5 
13 
14 
65 
3 

Total 

152,376 

6,494 

30,201 

1,712 

190,783 

100 

and  in  the  following  year  a  minimum  monthly 
average  of  $70.227  WHS  recorded,  from  which 
there  was  a  recovery  so  that  in  the  year  1923 
the  average  for  the  year  was  $110.537.  The 
35 


PLATONISM.     See 
PLATOON      SCHOOL      ORGANIZATION. 
See  KDTTCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
PLAYGROUND  AND  RECREATION  AS- 


PLOWING 


1056 


POXNCABfi 


SOCIATION  OF  AMERICA.  An  organization 
founded  in  Washington,  D.  C.  in  1906.  Its  work 
for  the  development  and  improvement  of  play- 
grounds and  neighborhood  recreation  schools 
continued  actively  during  the  decade  1014-24 
Through  the  employment  department  of  the  As- 
sociation, many  officials  have  been  enabled  to 
select  workers  of  training  and  experience. 
During  the  War,  the  Association  sent  commu- 
nity organizers  into  each  of  the  cities  near  the 
training  camps  to  organize  social  and  recre- 
ational life  for  the  benefit  of  the  soldiers  in  their 
free  time.  This  was  known  as  the  War  Camp 
Community  Service,  and  over  400  community 
organizers  were  at  work  in  it.  Aa  a  result  of 
these  activities  men  in  the  service  were  given 
home  hospitality,  community  singing,  athletic 
activities,  and  automobile  rides.  Entertain- 
ment was  provided  through  soldiers'  and  sailors' 
clubs  in  practically  all  the  cities  of  the  country. 
During  1919  the  Association  sent  field  workers 
to  the  communities  desiring  their  services,  to 
help  plan  the  work  and  to  secure  municipal  ap- 
propriations. There  was  also  inaugurated  in 
that  year  the  National  Physical  Education 
Service  to  assist  States  in  securing  adequate 
compulsory  physical  education  laws  and  to  work 
for  these*  laws.  This  work  continued  during 
1920,  and  as  a  result  legislation  anil  appro- 
priations were  seemed  in  many  States  and  cities 
tor  recreational  pui  poses  Special  effort  was 
made  in  1921  for  the  passage  of  a  Federal  phys- 
ical education  bill  A  continuation  service,  es- 
tablished in  1021  and  continued  in  1922  and 
1923,  proved  itself  of  value  by  giving  help  and 
advice  on  recreation  problems  to  many  cities 
already  having  recreational  systems.  The  ninth 
recreation  congress  was  held  in  1922  and  was 
attended  by  over  COO  delegates.  The  Commu- 
nity Service  department  assisted  local  commu- 
nity sen  ice  committees  in  several  cities  in 
training  representative  groups  of  citizens  who, 
in  a  volunteer  committee  or  association,  helped 
to  build  up  neighborliness  and  community 
spirit.  During  1923  the  association  aided  ap- 
proximately 200  communities  by  conducting 
summer  playgrounds  and  municipal  year-round 
systems  through  the  service  of  its  continuation 
field  secretaries.  It  gave  further  service  by 
helping  to  secure,  in  five  States,  home-rule  bills 
giving  cities  power  to  establish  year-round  rec- 
reation systems.  Many  pamphlets,  hanclliooks, 
and  bulletins  were  issued  Over  500  delegates 
attended  the  Tenth  Recreation  Congre&s  held 
in  Springfield,  111.  The  1924  recreation  con- 
gress had  its  meeting  October  10-21  at  Atlantic 
City,  N  J  The  association  publishes  a 
monthly  magazine  entitled  The  Playground. 
As  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  the  organization, 
**2  States  bad  physical  education  laws  in 
1923  The  president  in  that  year  was  Joseph 
Lee. 

PLOWING.    See  FARM  TRACTOR. 

PLUMEB  OF  MESSINES  (  HERBERT  CHARLES 
ONSLOW  PLUMKR),  first  BARON,  (1857-  ). 
A  British  soldier.  He  entered  the  army  in  1876 
and  served  in  the  Sudan  and  South  Africa, 
where  be  commanded  a  corps  of  mounted  rifles. 
He  took  part  in  the  South  African  War  from 
1899  to  1902  and  in  the  latter  year  was  promoted 
to  be  major-general  He  l>ccame  lieutenant-gen- 
eral in  1908  and  hold  various  important  com- 
mands in  1914.  In  1915  he  was  made  command- 
er of  the  5th  Army  Corps  in  France  and  from 
1015  to  1917  was  commander  of  the  2d  Army. 


He  was  promoted  to  general  in  1916.  From 
November,  1917,  to  March,  1918,  he  commanded 
the  Italian  Expeditionary  Force,  returning  in 
the  latter  year  to  France  to  resume  command 
of  the  2d  Army,  which  he  held  until  the  close 
of  the  War.  After  commanding  the  Army  of 
the  Rhone,  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Malta 
in  1910.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  was  pro- 
moted to  field  marshal.  He  received  many  dec- 
orations from  foreign  governments 

PLTTNTKETT,  SIB  HORACE  CURZON  (1854- 
).  An  Irish  statesman  (see  VOL.  XVIII). 
During  the  agitation  in  Ireland  following  the 
rebellion  of  1916,  he  iabored  diligently  to  bring 
about  an  understanding  with  the  British  gov- 
ernment. In  1917-18  he  was  chairman  of  the 
Irish  Convention.  In  1923  he  visited  the  United 
States  in  the  interests  of  the  Irish  Free  State, 
and  during  his  absence,  his  home  was  burned 
by  an  Irish  republican  mob.  He  wrote  A  Better 
Way:  An  Appeal  to  Ulster  not  to  Desert  Ire- 
land (1914),  and  Rome  Tendencies  of  Modern 
Medicine  (1918). 

PNEUMONIA.  The  pandemic  of  influen/a 
and  pneumonia  and  the  prevalence  of  measles 
among  the  recruits  in  the  United  States  Army 
with  the  high  incidence  of  hronchopnoumonia 
as  a  sequel,  brought  borne  to  the  public  the 
ravages  which  these  secondary  pneumonias  may 
inflict  upon  the  world  Much  of  the  death  rate 
of  bulx>nic  plague  is  due  to  primary  and  sec- 
ondary pneumonia  and  the  latter  in  the  prin- 
cipal agency  of  destruction  in  whooping  cough. 
Aside  from  this  group  of  diseases  broncho- 
pneumonia  is  chiefly  a  malady  of  the  very 
young  and  very  old.  On  account  of  the  second- 
ary and  complicating  natuic  of  this  type  of 
pneumonia,  it  is  impossible  to  direct  any  special 
preventive  measures  against  it  and  owing  to 
the  great  volatility  of  the  infectious  principle 
in  influenza,  whooping  cough  nnd  measles,  it  is 
impossible  to  prevent  their  spread. 

Ordinary  seasonal  pneumonia,  \\hich  attacks 
the  young  and  middle  aged  an  well  as  the  old, 
has  been  studied  intensively  in  the  Rockefeller 
Institute  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  fatal 
outcome  is  due  largely  to  a  specially  deadly 
strain  of  the  pneumococcus,  while  othcV  strains 
have  a  considerably  lower  mortality  or  are  more 
amenable  to  treatment. 

In  May,  1924,  Dr  L.  D.  Felton,  working  in  a 
Harvard  University  laboratory  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Com- 
pany, announced  the  discovciy  of  a  serum, 
which  had  been  freely  tested  in  various  types 
of  pneumonia  with  an  apparent  reduction  of 
mortality  of  from  25  to  50  per  cent  of  those 
treated  Unlike  various  similar  announcements 
made  from  time  to  time,  tins  one  bad  the  in- 
dorsement of  several  conservative  pathologists 
and  health  officers.  It  is  of  special  significance 
because  such  a  serum  can  be  applied  in  any 
pneumonia  without  awaiting  a  bacteriological 
diagnosis  See  also  INFLTLNZA 

FOINCAB£,  RAYMOND  (1860-  ).  A 
president  of  Franco  (see  VOL.  XVTII).  In 
August,  1914,  at  the  out  In  oak  of  the  War, 
President  Poincare",  by  a  great  speech  appealing 
to  the  patriotism  of  the  French  lawmakers, 
brought  about  the  formation  of  a  political 
union  aacrfe  which  maintained  the  Vivian i  cab- 
inet in  power  for  several  years,  until  accumula- 
tion of  the  country's  misfortunes  and  discon- 
tent with  the  prosecution  of  the  War  overeet  it, 
and  Viviani  gave  place  to  Briand.  Poincare* 


POIKDEXTBB 


1057 


POLAJTD 


at  all  times  urged  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
war,  and  after  the  Armistice  he  insisted  that 
there  should  be  no  relaxation  of  the  terras  of 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  for  Germany,  To  in- 
sure payment  of  reparations  he  caused  the  oc- 
cupation by  French  troops  of  Germany's  most 
important  industrial  area,  the  Ruhr.  In  1920 
his  term  of  office  as  president  expired,  and  in 
1922  he  was  asked,  by  President  Millerand  to 
form  a  cabinet.  He  held  the  post  of  premier 
until  1924,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Herriot. 

POINDEXTEB,  MILKS  (1868-  ).  An 
American  legislator  and  diplomat  (see  VOL. 
XVIII).  He  served  in  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate from  Washington  from  1011  to  1923  but 
was  defeated  for  reelection  in  1922.  In  1923 
President  Harding  appointed  him  Ambassador 
to  Peru. 

POLAND.  A  European  republic  erected  by 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  in  1019.  Poland  has 
an  area  of  149,140  square  miles,  the  principal 
sections  being  Congress  Poland  (formerly  Rus- 
sian Poland),  Posen,  Pomerania,  Calicia,' Upper 
Silesia  and  Vilna,  and  a  population  estimated 
at  29,845,714  in  1923,  of  which  65  per  cent  was 
engaged  in  agriculture,  14  per  cent  in  mining, 
and  the  balance  either  in  trade  or  other  pur- 
suits. As  for  religion,  the  population  was  pre- 
ponderantly Roman  Catholic,  other  religions 
being  the  Greek  Catholic,  Jewish,  Russian  Or- 
thodox, and  Protestant.  Tbe  Polish  language 
was  spoken  universally.  The  principal  towns, 
with  their  population,  are:  Warsaw,  931,000; 
Lodz,  452,000;  Lemberg,  219,000;  Crakow,  182,- 
000;  Poznan,  170,000;  and  Vilna,  160,000. 
There  were  in  19iM  six  universities  and  two  na- 
tional polytechnics!  institutes  in  Poland,  the 
principal  universities  being  located  in  Warsaw, 
Crakow,  Lemberg  (Lwow),  and  Posen.  The 
polytechnical  institutes  were  located  in  Lemberg 
and  Warsaw.  After  the  War,  Poland  had  about 
10,000  public  schools  with  an  enrollment  of 
about  2,000,000  students.  In  addition,  the  edu- 
cational system  included  623  high  schools. 
There  were  also  two  academies  of  fine  arts  in 
Warsaw  and  Crakow. 

Agriculture.  Out  of  a  total  of  42,000,000 
acres  of  arable  land,  37,791,000  acres  were  under 
cultivation  in  1923.  The  principal  crops,  based 
on  a  five-year  pre-war  average  from  1909  to 
1913,  and  'for  1922  and  1923,  are  shown  in  the 
following  table,  with  figures  in  thousands. 


7,894,586;  sheep,  2,178,216;  hogs,  5,170,612.  The 
rate  of  increase  after  1921  was  believed  to  be  ab- 
normally high,  due  to  very  cheap  fodder  and 
the  reluctance  of  farmers  to  sell  for  deprecia- 
ting currency.  About  25  per  cent  of  Polish  ter- 
ritory was  covered  by  forests,  or  approximately 
25,000,000  acres.  The  biggest  and  finest  forests 
were  in  the  eastern  part  of  Poland.  There  was 
also  the  famous  Bialowiez  reservation,  which 
covers  about  600,000  acres.  The  government 
itself  owned  several  million  acres  of  forest 
lands,  with  an  approximate  value  of  one-half 
billion  dollars,  which  was  more  than  the  com- 
bined internal  and  external  debt.  There  were 
also  large  forests  in  the  Carpathian  mountains, 
in  some  districts  covering  more, than  half  of 
the  total  area.  The  principal  varieties  of  trees 
found  were  oak.  ash,  pine,  spruce,  and  pitch 
pine  There  were  3000  sawmills  engaged  in  the 
lumber  industry  in  1914,  and  in  1923  this  num- 
ber had  declined  to  1243,  with  a  capacity  of 
6,500,000  cubic  meters  annually. 

Mining.  Through  the  acquisition  of  Upper 
Silesia  in  1922,  Poland  became  the  possessor  of 
one  of  the  richest  mining  sections  of  Europe  and 
from  an  importer  of  coal  became  an  exporter. 
The  estimated  reserve  was  put  at  63,000,000,000 
metric  tons.  Coal  production  for  1923  was  36,- 
097,997  metric  tons,  and  exports  were  12,912,- 
792  metric  tons.  Of  iron  ore,  there  was  an  es- 
timated rcser\e  of  300,000,000  tons  of  27  to 
32  per  cent  ore,  located  principally  in  Silesia. 
There  were  also  large  areas  of  zinc  and  lead  in 
Polish  Silesia,  the  country  ranking  sixth  in  the 
world  production  of  these  minerals.  The  prin- 
cipal salt  mines  were  located  in  Galicia  and  the 
reserves  of  this  commodity  were  considered  in- 
exhaustible. 

Industry.  The  section  of  Poland  formerly 
belonging  to  Russia  was  one  of  the  principal 
manufacturing  sections  of  that  empire.  The 
principal  industries  in  approximate  order  were: 
textile,  heavy  iron  and  steel,  petroleum  re- 
fining, zinc,  lumber,  machinery,  chemicals,  sugar, 
glass,  cement,  leather,  alcohol,  paper,  and  starch. 
The  city  of  Lodz  was  the  centre  of  the  textile 
industry,  with  an  estimated  annual  capacity  at 
normal  operation  of  80,347  tons  of  cotton  yarn, 
82,000  tons  of  wool  yarn,  78,740  tons  of  cotton 
fabric,  and  27,300  tons  of  wool  fabrics.  The 
metallurgical  industry  production  for  1923  was: 
blast  furnaces,  288,00*0  metric  tons;  steel  works, 


Sowings 
Area  in  hectares 
1909-13               1922               1923 

Crops 
Metric  tons 

1909-13               1922 

1923 

1923 
Per  cent 
of 
pre-war 

average 

average 

area 

crop 

Wheat    

.    1,353 
.    5,087 

1,046 
4,578 
5,623 
1,147 
2.404 
2,234 
109 

1,017 
4,665 
5,662 
1,199 
2,515 
2.279 
136 

1,704 
?,749 
7,433 
1.517 
2,051 
25,300 
4,828 

1,160 
5,066 
6,226 
1,304 
2.548 
33,754 
2.671 

1,354 
5,962 
7,346 
1,655 
3,622 
26,494 
2,577 

80 
93 
89 
99 
92 
95 
76 

80 
104 
98 
109 
121 
105 
54 

Bread  grains 
Barley        .    . 
Oats         .... 
Potatoes 
Sugar  beets  . 

.    6,440 
1,265 
2,7-49 
2,644 
178 

Poland  was  self-sufficient  in  major  food  prod- 
ucts, and  exported  considerable  quantities  of 
grain,  potatoes,  sugar,  alcohol,  and  eggs.  There 
were  many  large  land  holdings  in  the  country, 
but  these  were  gradually  being  broken  up  into 
small  farms  through  the  agrarian  reform  move- 
ment, and  through  force  of  necessity,  brought 
about  by  high  taxation.  The  live  stock  census 
for  1921  showed:  horses,  3,201,166;  cattle, 


1,043,000  metric  tone;  rolling  mills,  732,000 
metric  tons  Poland  was  one  of  the  principal 
petroleum-producing  countries  of  Europe,  the 
oil-bearing  land  being  located  in  the  province  of 
(Galicia.  The  industry  fell  off  considerably  aft- 
er the  War,  refinery  for  1923  being  603,190 
tons.  Total  petroleum  production  for  1923  was 
737,000  metric  tons,  as  compared  with  1,114,- 
000  tons  in  1914.  Reserves  of  petroleum  were 


POLAND 


Z058 


POLAND 


estimated  at  200,000,000  tons,  there  being  1000 
wells  producing  in  1923. 

Communication.  Poland  possessed  a  very 
well-developed  railway  system,  but  due  to  the 
depreciation  of  the  currency  after  the  War, 
railway  tariffs,  not  having  been  adjusted  as  ex- 
change fell,  were  not  maintained  at  their  old 
standards.  Nearly  all  lines  are  state-owned 
and  operated.  Total  of  standard  trackage  in 
Poland,  16,053  kilometers:  locomotives,  4593; 
passenger  cars,  11,733;  freight  cars,  129,722. 
The  railroads  were  operated  at  a  deficit  during 
1919-24,  and  for  1923  constituted  the  largest 
single  item  contributing  to  the  total  govern- 
ment deficits.  Railroad  tariffs  were,  later,  put 
on  a  gold  basis  and  their  budget  separated  from 
the  general  government  budget  so  that  the  coun- 
try regarded  improvements  as  imminent.  Po- 
land had  practically  no  merchant  marine  and 
was  dependent  for  port  facilities  upon  the  Free 
City  of  Danzig,  on  the  Vistula.  The  vessel 
tonnage  entering  Danzig  in  1922  was  1,414,000; 
cleared,  1,437,000.  One-half  of  the  total  area 
of  Poland  is  located  in  the  drainage  basin  of 
the  Vistula  River,  which  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant waterways  in  Europe  Rising  in  the 
Carpathian  mountains,  in  the  extreme  south  of 
Poland,  this  river  flows  through  the  great  Po- 
lish plain  and  enters  into  the  Baltic  Sea.  Ap- 
proximately 650  miles  in  length,  the  Vistula 
drains  over  75.000  square  miles  of  territory. 
With  but  two  exceptions,  the  larger  cities  of 
Poland  were  situated  on  the  Vistula  River  and 
its  tributaries.  River  transportation,  however, 
fell  off  considerablv  after  1919.  The  water- 
power  resources  of  Poland  were  very  great.  It 
was  estimated  that  1,000,000  horse  power  could 
be  developed.  Sixty  per  cent  of  this  was  in  the 
province  of  Galicia.  In  1922,  Poland  had  44,- 
406  kilometers  of  telegraph  line,  and  160,744 
kilometers  of  wire,  and  34,000,000  messages 
were  sent  during  the  year.  In  1922,  there  were 
1363  telephone  centrals,  58,103  kilometers  of 
line,  and  364,654  kilometers  of  wire. 

Finance.  Conditions  of  currency  inflation, 
which  prevailed  in  Poland  from  the  date  of  the 
Armistice,  reached  their  climax  in  1923,  leading 
at  the  close  of  the  year  to  basic  fiscal  reforms, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  the  placing 
on  a  gold  equivalent  basis  of  payments  to  the 
government  of  taxes  and  other  public  charges 
In  addition,  a  new  bank  of  issue  was  created, 
to  be  independent  of  the  government,  but  in 
which  the  government  was  to  be  a  minority 


as  circumstances  would  permit.  The  fate  of 
exchange  of  the  old  Polish  mark  for  the  new 
currency  was  fixed  at  1,800,000  marks  for  one 
zloty.  The  old  Polish  mark  ceased  to  be  legal 
tender  on  July  1,  1924,  and  was  to  be  invalid 
for  exchange  for  new  currency  after  May  31, 
1926.  Currency  depreciation,  which  first  rose 
from  government  deficits,  was  accelerated  by 
the  loss  of  public  confidence,  causing  the  Polish 
mark  to  depreciate  to  9,350,000  to  the  dollar  in 
February,  1924,  at  which  point  the  financial  re- 
forms already  outlined  caused  it  to  become, 
practically  stabilized.  The  national  indebted- 
ness of  Poland  on  Dec.  31,  1923,  was:  internal 
debt,  interest  bearing,  182,932,800,000  marks 
and  16,400,000  zloty,  plus  the  non-interest  bear- 
ing debt  to  State  Loan  Bank  which,  on  Feb.  1, 
1924,  was  291,700.000,000,000,  equivalent  to  162,- 
000,000  zloty  at  the  rate  of  1,800,000  marks  to 
the  zloty.  The  per  capita  internal  debt  was 
really  68  cents,  and  was  said  to  be  lowest  in 
Europe.  The  foreign  indebtedness  of  Poland 
consisted  of  the  following  loans:  United 
States,  $184,434,339  (principally  for  famine  re- 
lief) ;  Holland,  14,218,687  florins;  Sweden,  935- 
805  cronen;  Norway.  16,497,417  cronon ;  Great 
Britain,  £4,530,818;  Switzerland,  17,600  francs; 
Denmark,  359,849  cronen;  France,  912,455,222 
francs;  Italy,  75,000,000  lire.  These  figures 
were  as  of  Jan.  1,  1923  After  that  date  there 
was  a  large  military  loan  from  France. 

Commerce.  Statistics  on  Polish  foreign 
trade,  prior  to  1922.  were  not  available  and, 
even  though  they  were,  would  not  form  a  cor- 
rect basis  of  comparison  for  data  from  that 
date  on,  due  to  the  acquisition  of  Upper  Silesia 
in  that  year,  with  its  pronounced  effect  on  the 
foreign  trade  of  the  country.  The  outstanding 
feature  of  the  Polish  foreign  trade  of  1928  was 
a  32  per  cent  increase  in  the  value  of  imports 
and  an  83  per  cent  increase  in  the  value  of  ex- 
ports, and  the  favorable  balance  of  trade  for 
the  latter  year,  as  compared  with  the  adverse 
balance  in  1922.  By  far  the  most  important 
country  in  Polish  foreign  trade  wa«i  Germany 
which,  in  1923,  furnished  43  per  cent  of  total 
imports  (1922,  37  per  cent)  and  took  60  per 
cent  ( 1922,  49  per  cent)  of  exports.  The  United 
States  was  also  an  important  factor  in  Polish 
import  trade,  due  to  cotton  shipments,  which  in 
1923  totaled  43,344  tons  out  of  a  total  of  57,- 
568  tons,  valued  at  $30,000,000.  The  following 
table  shows  the  value  of  Polish  foreign  trade  for 
1922  and  1923  by  principal  divisions. 


POLISH  FOREIGW  TRADE 


Value  —  1000   gold    francs 
1922                               1923 
Imports     Exports     Imports       E 
Live  stock       .           784         2,475           1,736 
Manufactures     367,096     341,413       515,990      41 
Raw  materials   327,431     155,900      366,651      4 
Foodstuffs    .        318,504        88,333       157.410       1 
Semi  manufac 
tares    30  586       66,923         74,634      2 

xportH 

1,520 
32  670 
21,608 
07,526 

32,186 
76 

Miscellaneous             183             107                53 

Quantity — metric  tons 

1922  1928 

Imports            Exports  Imports  Exports 

•4,192        -181,322  "9,800  •  213,063 

339,661             694,288  385,558  722,254 

3,488,993         7,016.027  2,386,772  14,947,717 

230,350            387,356  246,209  425,976 


25,168 
39,279 


1,006,018 
5,659 


175,621 


1,502,242 


Totals     ..    841,584     655,1511,116,4741,195,586 
Thousands  of 

dollars...    $163,005  $126,444     $215.479    $230,748 


4,123,451         9,109,348         3,194,160         17,648,189 


•  head. 

stockholder.  The  new  currency  was  to  be  gold 
backed  and  the  unit  was  to  be  the  zloty,  the 
dollar  equivalent  being  $0.193.  On  Mar.  20, 
1924,  the  number  of  Polish  paper  marks  in  cir- 
culation was  522,000,000,000.  This  was  being 
replaced  by  the  new  zloty  currency  as  rapidly 


Defense.  Poland  employed  universal  military 
service  for  all  male  adults.  Active  service  in 
the  army  was  for  two  years,  which  was  to  be 
followed  by  periods  of  service  in  the  reserve 
forces  of  the  country.  There  were  nine  mil- 
itary districts  with  headquarters  at  Warsaw, 


POLAND 


1059 


POLAND 


Lublin,  Kielce,  Grodno,  Poaen,  Pomerze,  Crakow, 
Lemberg,  and  Lodz.  The  1924  army,  on  a  peace- 
strength  basis,  numbered  275,000  men.  There 
were  30  divisions  of  infantry  and  10  brigades 
of  cavalry.  The  war-time  strength  of  the  army 
was  put  at  over  one  million.  The  naval  forces 
of  Poland  were  very  small,  consisting  of  six 
small  cruisers  and  gunboats,  five  monitors,  and 
a  number  of  smaller  vessels  which  were  used 
for  police  and  customs  service. 

History.  From  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  after  the  ill-starred  Polish  Revolutions, 
Russia  applied  herself  sedulously  to  the  task 
of  breaking  the  spirit  of  Polish  nationalism. 
The  policy  of  Russification  not  only  implied  in- 
sistence upon  the  use  of  the  Russian  language 
as  well  as  movements  against  the  Catholic 
Church,  but,  more  insidiously,  by  the  encourage- 
ment given  the  peasants  and  the  Jews,  it  aimed 
at  a  division  of  sentiment  in  Poland  itself. 
The  peasants  were  emancipated  in  1864  and 
were  given  a  share  of  political  power  by  the 
creation  of  the  local  communes.  This  strategy 
might  have  succeeded  if  Poland  had  remained 
an  agricultural  country;  but  the  coming  of  the 
industrial  revolution  to  the  Russian  provinces 
gave  impetus  to  the  growth  among  the  new 
piolotariat  of  a  socialism  strongly  tinged  with 
nationalism.  In  the  Russian  Duma,  after  1005, 
this  socialist  opinion  was  strongly  expressed, 
and  though,  in  the  next  decade,  the  appearance 
of  an  anti-German  propaganda  split  its  forces, 
it  continued  down  to  the  War  to  exert  a  power- 
ful influence  By  1014,  of  course,  Russian  or 
( 'on^resH  Poland  was  not  singletninded  in  its 
put  poses  Many  Poles  gravitated  to  Austria, 
some  toward  Germany,  and  some  toward  Russia, 
\\hile  a  large  number  still  clung  to  their  na- 
tionalistic aspirations.  In  Galicia,  i.e.  Austrian 
Poland,  the  pioblem  was  a  different  one  The 
\ustrian  government,  always  more  lenient  than 
its  not  them  neighbor,  sought  to  gain  the  ad- 
herence of  the  Poles  by  a  policy  of  studied  kind- 
ness Poles  acquit ed  a  large  representation  in 
the  Austrian  Reicbsrat,  were  permitted  the  use 
of  tlieir  tongue  in  the  schools  and  law  courts, 
and  were  placed  in  control  of  the  administra- 
tion of  Cracow  and  Leml>erg  universities.  As 
land  and  local  administration,  as  \\ell  as  higher 
education  in  Galicia  were  largely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Poles,  the  latter  became  the  oppressors  of 
the  , Jewish  and  Ruthenian  (or  Ukrainian)  mi- 
notities,  by  whom  they  were  most  cordially  dis- 
liked. After  181H),  the  Austrian  government, 
pursuing  its  time-honored  strategy  of  "divide 
and  rule,"  gave  more  or  less  co\ert  encourage- 
ment to  Ruthenian  nationalist  agitation,  \\it\i 
the  result  that  no  inconsiderable  number  of 
Galician  Poles  became  Russophiles  because 
of  their  hostility  to  Ruthenian  nationalism, 
while  others,  conscious  of  their  favored  position 
in  Galicia,  remained  pro-Austrian.  In  Prus- 
sian Poland  a  different  development  had  created 
other  sympathies,  By  1870,  the  Poles  here  had 
entrenched  themselves  so  firmly  economically 
that  a  move  on  them  virtually  meant  the  up- 
rooting of  the  life  of  the  whole  country.  Many 
of  the  Poles  in  Poseu  and  West  Prussia,  unlike 
their  kinsmen  in  Russian  Poland  and  Galicia, 
were  the  successful  members  of  the  middle 
class,  and  aided  by  money  and  power  had  cre- 
ated a  strong  nationalistic  sentiment.  Begin- 
ning with  1872,  Bismarck's  campaign  of  Ger- 
man ization  moved  on  two  wings.  By  the  pro- 
gramme known  as  the  Kulturkampf  he  sought 


to  suppress  Polish  culture  through  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Catholic  Church  and  the  elimination 
of  the  Polish  language,  and  by  economic 
methods,  i.e  the  settlement  of  German  colonists 
in  Poland  and  the  purchase  of  Polish  land,  he 
aimed  at  breaking  down  the  Polish  supremacy. 
Neither  move  succeeded.  The  Poles  thrived  in 
spite  of  official  animosity  and  through  the 
agencies  of  cooperative  societies  and  political 
and  social  clubs  maintained  their  economic  pre- 
ponderance as  well  as  their  nationalistic  un- 
ity. Thus  the  German  Poles  were  almost  com- 
pletely mobilized  for  political  independence  by 
1914 

There  was  thus,  when  the  War  broke  out,  no 
common  sentiment  to  hold  the  loyalty  of  all 
the  Poles  One  group  gravitated  toward  Rus- 
sia in  the  hope  that  autonomy  might  be  granted 
under  the  Russian  crown ,  another,  under  M. 
Pilsudski,  looked  to  Austro-German  aid  for  the 
erection  of  a  republican  Poland  that  could  serve 
as  a  buffer  state  against  the  Russian  advance. 
A  Polish  legion  was  formed  and  it  was  offered 
to  Austria  But  the  Austrian  suspicions  of 
Pilsudski's  republican-socialistic  pretensions,  to- 
gether with  the  continual  fighting  in  Galicia, 
forestalled  a  definite  pronouncement  of  policy. 
However,  in  November,  1916,  realizing  that 
such  a  state  would  serve  mightily  tlieir  pur- 
poses on  the  Eastern  front,  the  Central  Powers 
combined  to  recognize  the  independence  of  Rus- 
sian Poland.  Galician  Poland  was  merely  given 
autonomy.  Poland,  in  the  ensuing  years,  was 
under  German  domination.  Tlie  governot -gen- 
eral was  German  while  the  ruling  council  was 
selected  by  both  governments.  The  council,  for 
a  time,  in  1917,  gave  sui  prising  manifestations 
of  an  independent  spirit,  but  it  was  soon  over- 
awed by  Germany.  Under  German  occupation 
all  opposition  was  ciushed.  The  Austrian 
Poles,  who  demanded  a  real  Polish  state,  were 
suppressed;  Pilsudski,  always  a  dissident  force, 
was  attested  and  the  Polish  legion  was  used 
merely  as  an  auxiliary  of  the  German  army. 
Now  that  Russia  was  no  longer  a  menace,  Polish 
hopes  could  lie  conveniently  disregarded.  The 
Poles  were  lefused  admittance  to  the  discussions 
at  Brest-Li to\sk  and  were  compelled  to  see  the 
disputed  distiict  of  Kliolm  turned  over  to  the 
new  Ukrainian  Republic.  Not  until  the  close 
of  the  War  did  the  hope  of  an  independent  Po- 
land definitely  materialize.  Tn  October,  1918, 
a  National  Polish  Diet  met,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  Austrian  Poles  quit  the  Reichsrat  to 
assemble  at  Crakow.  In  November,  Pilsudski 
was  released  by  the  German  revolutionists  and 
appeared  in  Poland  to  aid  in  the  work  of  resto- 
ration. Meanwhile  a  Polish  army,  recruited  in 
the  United  States  and  other  countries,  and  rec- 
ognized as  a  national  unit  by  the  Allies,  had 
been  fighting  on  the  western  front,  while  the 
Polish  National  Council,  stationed  at  Paris,  kept 
the  Polish  aspirations  before  the  French,  British 
and  Italian  leaders. 

From  Nov.  14,  1918  on,  Pilsudski  was  invested 
with  the  full  powers  of  a  dictator.  His  known 
radical  sentiments  for  a  time  threatened  to  dis- 
rupt Polish  unity,  and  bad  it  not  been  for  his 
political  astuteness  the  problem  of  creating  a 
Polish  state  might  have  been  well-nigh  insuper- 
able. But  the  conservatives  were  won  over  by 
the  appointment  to  the  premiership  of  M. 
Paderewski,  the  pianist,  who  stood  high  in  the 
favor  of  the  Allies  as  a  result  of  his  work  with 
the  Polish  National  Council.  A  Constituent 


POLAND 


1060 


POLAND 


Assembly  was  next  provided  for  and  this  body 
met  at  Warsaw  on  Feb.  9,  1910.  Something  of 
the  divergent  loyalties  in  the  new  nation  may 
be  gauged  from  the  political  grouping.  There 
were,  here,  01  National  Democrats,  51  Polish 
Peasants,  10  Peasants*  Union,  14  Socialists, 
7  Workmen's  Union,  8  Jewish  party,  6  United 
Polish  Peasants,  2  German  Colonists.  A  Con- 
servative bloc  supported  the  Paderewski  govern- 
ment. The  problems  before  the  administration 
were  complex  enough  to  try  the  strongest  minds. 
The  marking  out  of  the  frontiers  in  accordance 
with  the  Peace  of  Versailles  and  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  Polish  nationalistic  aspirations 
led  to  a  whole  series  of  minor  struggles  in 
which,  at  one  time  or  another,  Poland  saw  her- 
self engaged  with  almost  all  her  neighbors; 
while  the  erection  of  a  constitution,  the  eco- 
nomic rehabilitation  of  the  country,  the  problem 
of  racial  minorities,  in  particular  the  Jewish 
Question,  all  brought  in  their  wake  domestic 
difficulties  of  the  most  serious  import.  These 
matters  must  all  be  considered  in  some 
detail. 

The  peace  treaties,  as  brought  back  to  Poland 
in  1010  by  M.  Paderewski,  made  the  following 
provisions:  on  the  west  and  north  the  boundary 
followed  fairly  closely  the  ethnographic  fron- 
tiers; the  greater  part  of  Posen  and  part  of 
West  Prussia  were  granted  to  Poland,  while  the 
disposition  of  Masuria  and  Upper  Silesia  was 
made  to  depend  upon  plebiscites.  Danzig  (q.v. ) 
was  made  a  Free  City,  though  the  "corridor" 
and  the  administration'of  the  Vistula  River  were 
to  be  turned  over  to  the  Poles  In  the  south, 
by  a  supplementary  treaty  signed  on  Aug.  10, 
1020,  Poland  received  West  Galicia,  with  a 
slightly  readjusted  southern  frontier.  Eastern 
(Ruthenian)  Galicia  was  to  be  provisionally 
assigned  to  Poland  for  a  term  of  years.  On  the 
east  no  definite  frontier  was  established  by  the 
treaties,  owing  to  uncertainty  regarding  Russia's 
future  status;  but  the  Peace  Conference  merely 
recommended  a  tentative  minimal  eastern  bound- 
ary, based  largely  on  linguistic  statistics,  leav- 
ing details  to  be  settled  by  Russia  and  Poland 
subsequently.  Furthermore,  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence required  Poland  to  sign  a  minority  treaty, 
June  28,  1010,  which  provided  for  religious 
freedom;  equal  civil  and  political  rights  for  all 
inhabitants  regardless  of  race,  language,  or  re- 
ligion; and  freedom  of  transit  on  Polish  water- 
ways and  railways  for  Allied  Powers.  The  num- 
ber of  hostilities  in  connection  with  the  peace 
settlement  was  really  astounding.  With  Czecho- 
slovakia a  dispute  arose  over  the  disposition 
of  the  border  districts  of  Teschen  (q.v  ),  Zips, 
and  Orava,  and  some  fighting  actually  took 
place  in  January-February,  1010.  The  first, 
Teschen,  occupied  a  peculiar  importance,  having 
rich  coal  and  iron  deposits  as  well  as  an  im- 
portant railway  running  through  the  heart  of 
the  district.  In  the  west,  the  population  was 
Czech,  in  the  east,  Polish  The  wrangling 
dragged  on  over  a  year  until  finally,  by  the 
intervention  of  the  Council  of  Ambassadors  in 
the  middle  of  1020,  an  agreement  was  reached 
whereby  most  of  the  coal  mines  and  the  railway 
were  given  to  Czecho-Slovakia,  while  the  city 
of  Teschen  was  left  in  Polish  territory.  By  the 
same  decision  the  other  two  districts  were  simi- 
larly divided,  the  greater  proportion  of  each 
going  to  Czecho-Slovakia  With  the  Ruthen- 
ians  in  Galicia,  war  broke  out,  too,  in  1010. 
The  conflict  was  waged  intermittently,  attacks 


being  sporadic  and  on  defenseless  populations  as 
a  rule.  The  Jews  of  Lemberg,  in  particular, 
suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  Poles.  Not  until 
April,  1020,  did  hostilities  cease.  By  the  agree- 
ment reached  Poland  gained  de  facto  possession 
of  East  Galicia.  It  was  the  war  with  Russia, 
however,  that  occupied  most  of  Polish  atten- 
tion and  diverted  consideration  from  the  more 
pressing  domestic  problems.  Egged  on  by  the 
French,  but  as  much  motivated  by  her  own  na- 
tionalist ambitions,  Poland,  early  in  1020,  after 
some  fighting  in  the  previous  year,  launched  a 
large-scale  offensive  against  Russia.  Her  aim 
was  to  establish  the  frontier  of  1772,  and  hav- 
ing gained  the  Ukraine  as  an  ally,  the  moment 
was  deemed  propitious  for  the  realization  of  the 
Polish  hopes.  Allied  preoccupation  elsewhere, 
and  the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  French  to  use 
Poland  in  a  "sanitary  cordon"  against  Bolshe- 
vism, gave  spur  to  the  adventure  The  Poles 
pressed  forward  for  more  than  300  miles,  took 
Kiev  in  May,  1020,  and  threw  their  line  south 
into  the  northwestern  Ukraine.  A  Russian 
count eroffensive,  however,  soon  swept  the  Poles 
hack  to  Warsaw's  gates  (August,  1020).  Only 
the  severity  of  the  terms  proposed  by  the  Rus- 
sians prevented  the  closing  of  the  war  with  a 
Russian  victory.  Confronted  by  a  desperate 
situation,  Poland  turned  at  bay  and,  aided  by 
French  leadership  and  Allied  'munitions,  once 
more  resumed  the  attack.  The  Russians  had 
pressed  too  far  beyond  the  lines  of  their  com- 
munications. By  the  end  of  Anpust  the  Rus- 
sians were  in  retreat  and  General  Pilsudski  had 
reached  the  line  held  by  the  Germans  in  1018 
on  the  eve  of  Brest-Lifovsk.  In  the  Peace  of 
Riga,  which  followed  on  Oct.  12,  1020,  the  terms 
exacted  by  the  Poles  were  surprisingly  favorable. 
The  eastern  boundary  was  fixed  far 'beyond  the 
line  recommended  by  the  Peace  Conference  in 
1010  and  contained  the  cities  of  Pinsk,  Kovel 
and  Rovno;  an  indemnity  was  to  be  paid  Po- 
land; the  Galician  line  was  recognized;  Lith- 
uania was  to  be  cut  off  from  Russia,  by  a  nar- 
row arm  of  Polish  territory  extending  north 
as  far  as  Latvia.  The  treaty  brought  to  a  head 
another  difficulty  in  which  Poland  was  involved. 
During  1020  there  had  been  some  fighting  be- 
tween Poles  and  Lithuanians  over  the  disposi- 
tion of  Vilna  and  the  Suwalki  region  southwest 
of  Vilna.  The  evacuation  of  Vilna  by  the  Bol- 
sheviks during  the  course  of  their  retreat  east 
in  August,  and  the  terms  of  the  Riga  treaty,  in- 
tensified the  struggle  with  the  result  that  on 
October  0  General  Zeligowski  appeared  in  the 
city  with  an  irregular  military  force,  and, 
though  unauthorized  by  the  Polish  government, 
drove  out  the  Lithuanians  and  claimed  the  sec- 
tion for  Poland  Settlement  by  means  of  a 
plebiscite  under  League  supervision  was  pro- 
posed, then  abandoned,  by  the  League;  but, 
thanks  in  part  to  pressure  from  the  League, 
Zeligowski  withdrew  from  Vilna  and  elections 
for  a  local  Diet  were  held  in  the  disputed  dis- 
trict in  January,  1022.  The  Diet  immediately 
voted  for  union  with  Poland,  in  February,  where- 
upon the  Polish  parliament  resolved  (March  24) 
to  annex  Vilna,  and  the  formal  incorporation  of 
the  district  into  Poland  occurred  on  April  18. 
Once  more,  as  in  so  many  other  cases,  the 
Allied  Council  of  Ambassadors  acquiesced  in  a 
fait  accompli,  and  in  March,  1923,  fixed  the 
northeastern  frontiers  of  Poland  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  include  Vilna,  despite  vehement  Lith- 
uanian protests.  Thereafter,  however,  Poland 


POLAND 


1 06 1 


POLAND 


and  Lithuania  continued  to  quarrel  over  the 
division  of  a  "neutral  zone"  which  had  been 
established  between  the  two  countries  (See 
LITHUANIA.)  Danzig,  too,  was  the  seat  of 
trouble.  Not  content  with  the  treaty  provisions 
made  for  the  Free  City,  Poland  continued  to 
agitato  for  a  greater  Polish  control  nnd  in 
November,  1920,  Paderewski,  before  the  League 
Council,  sought  the  right  to  police  the  city  with 
Polish  military.  This  demand  was  occasioned 
by  the  unfriendly  attitude  toward  Polos  in  Dan- 
zig but  moro  particularly  bv  tho  fact  that  muni- 
tions for  Poland,  during  the  Russian  war,  had 
been  hold  up  by  the  port  authorities  Not  un- 
til Oct.  25,  1921,  did  Poland  con  sent  to  sign 
an  agreement  with  Danzig  and  accept  the  Al- 
lied terms.  (See  DANZIG.)  Much  more  serious 
was  the  conflict  with  Germany  over  the  division 
of  Upper  Silesia  (q.v.),  described  in  another 
place. 

It  is  thus  evident  how  stormy  was  the  early 
career  of  Poland.  Tho  consideration  of  the  now 
constitution  necessarily  languished  and  it  was 
not  until  Mar.  17,  1021,  that  tho  document  was 
finally  completed.  Tt  provided  for  a  bicameral 
parliament  (Seym),  a  responsible  ministry,  and 
a  president  elected  for  seven  years  by  the  par- 
liament. Roman  Catholicism'  was  made  the 
state  religion  though  nil  other  faiths  wore  given 
freedom  of  worship  Labor  was  officially  recog- 
ni/od.  State  insurance  against  unemployment, 
illness  and  accidents  was  promised.  A  section 
modeled  after  the  Gorman  constitution  pro- 
vided for  the  erection  of  local  economic  organ- 
izations, to  centre  eventually  in  the  Supreme 
Economic  Chamber  of  the  republic  The  con- 
duct of  foreign  affairs  and  the  increasing  econom- 
ic instability  were  responsible  for  the  frequent 
political  crises.  Padorowski  fell  from  power 
Doc.  7,  1010,  and  1020  saw  two  different  cab- 
inets. Radical  disorders  in  Warsaw  and  Ga- 
licia  and  the  continual  turbulence  of  the  Social- 
ist and  Workmen's  members  in  the  Assembly 
added  to  the  general  uneasiness.  In  1021,  tho 
war  ministry  of  MM  Witos,  Grabski,  Skulski, 
and  Daszynski  resigned  and  was  succeeded  by 
a  government  headed  by  M.  Ponikowski,  which, 
in  1022,  underwent  a  reconstruction.  However, 
the  now  ministry  lasted  only  four  months,  for 
in  Juno,  1022,  'it  was  overthrown,  and  after 
considerable  wrangling  between  the  Diet  and  the 
President,  a  now  ministry  was  headed  by  M. 
Nowak  During  this  period  there  had  boon  no 
legislation  of  any  constructive  character.  It 
was  not  until  November,  1022,  that  elections 
were  held  for  members  of  the  national  diet.  In 
the  following  month  both  houses  assembled  for 
the  election.  The  domestic  uncertainty  was 
heightened  by  the  complexion  of  tho  national 
diet.  The  National  parties  of  the  right  and  the 
left  had,  in  the  election,  succeeded  in  gaining 
an  equal  number  of  seats,  177  each,  so  that  the 
balance  of  power  was  thrown  to  the  minority 
parties,  e.g.  the  Jewish,  Ukrainian,  German,  and 
Russian,  who  controlled,  in  all,  some  90  votes. 
These  parties  united  with  the  left  and  forced  the 
election  of  M  Gabryel  Narutowicz  as  the  first 
president  of  the  republic  to  succeed  the  pro- 
visional president,  General  Pilsudski.  M.  Naru- 
towicz, a  brief  48  hours  after  he  assumed  office, 
was  assassinated  (December  16)  by  a  demented 
painter  Demonstrations  against  the  racial  mi- 
norities, ana  the  Jews  in  particular,  indicated 
the  popular  excitement  in  the  week  preceding  the 
assassination.  On  Dec.  20,  1923,  M.  Wojciechow- 


ski  was  selected  to  become  the  new  president. 

The  racial  problem,  that  of  the  Jew  above 
all,  was  a  serious  one.  Though  Poland,  in  com- 
mon with  other  Succession  States,  had  signed  a 
minorities  treaty  with  the  Allies,  and  in  par- 
ticular had  guaranteed  the  Jews  educational 
and  religious  liberties,  the  inability  or  refusal  of 
the  government,  especially  during  1018-20,  to 
defend  the  Jews  from  attack  aroused  much 
apprehension.  Charged  with  being  German 
sympathizers  and  fraternizing  with  the  Bolshe- 
viks, but  above  all.  held  in  contempt  because 
of  their  want  of  Polish  patriotism  and  their 
adherence  to  trade,  the  Jews  wore  singled  out 
for  a  course  of  vilification  whose  fury  was 
quite  incomprehensible  to  western  Europeans  and 
Americans.  By  a  vigorous  social,  economic, 
and  educational  boycott  all  things  Jewish  were 
declared  taboo.  Jewish  officials  were  dismissed, 
shops  blacklisted,  and  professional  men,  i  e 
teachers,  doctors,  and  lawyers,  dropped  from  the 
universities,  army  and  administrative  posts 
The  Polos  charged  that  the  Jews  consistently 
refused  to  conform  their  customs  and  life  to 
those  of  the  Polos  about  them :  that  the  Zionist 
movement  fostered  a  growing  separatism.  The 
Jews  contended  that  political  representation  in 
proportion  to  their  numbers  was  denied  them, 
for  although  they  formed  about  one-seventh 
of  the  population  "they  had  only  11  members  in 
a  national  assembly  of  300.  'Again,  the  per- 
petual discriminations  in  education,  politics, 
and  the  professions  prevented  the  Jew  from  ris- 
ing above  the  potty  mercantile  class  and  taking 
up  those  other  pursuits  whore  ho  might  come 
in  contact  with  the  general  cultural  ideas  of  the 
west  The  unhealthy  state  of  mind  of  the  Pole 
toward  the  "aliens—though  the  Jew  had  lived 
in  Poland  for  almost  1000  years — fostered  by  a 
war-weariness  engendered  by  tho  conditions*  of 
the  preceding  five  years,  led  to  serious  excesses 
during  1018-20,  which  did  not  cease  completely 
oven  by  1024.  Sir  Stuart  Samuel,,  on  a  mis- 
sion to  the  country,  ascertained  that  at  least 
348  Jews  had  lost 'their  lives  as  the  result  of 
rioting  and  tho  depredations  of  the  soldiery. 
Other  outrages  were  innumerable.  Mr.  Morgen- 
thau,  heading  an  American  mission,  reported 
similarly. 

Internal  affairs  in  the  midst  of  such  a  tu- 
multuous political  and  economic  scene  could 
hardly  be  expected  to  \rn\\  ind  themselves  in  a 
purposeful  or  orderly  fashion  The  country  was 
four-fifths  agrarian,  settled  by  an  uneducated 
and  unskilled  peasantry  working  on  lands  of 
which  40  per  cent  were  owned  by  18,000  pro- 
prietors. To  create  a  class  of  small  landowners 
(for  which,  already,  there  was  an  ambitious 
programme  formulated  in  1021),  to  teach  them 
the  modern  technique,  and  then  to  provide  them 
with  opportunities  for  reaching  their  markets 
by  the  development  of  means  of  communication, 
were  the  insistent  problems  which  a  depleted 
treasury  and  a  continually  falling  currency 
could  do  nothing  to  alleviate.  The  cost  of  liv- 
ing steadily  mounted  to  the  accompaniment  of 
tho  inevitable  strikes  and  lockouts.  In  July, 
1023,  about  70,000  textile  workers  were  out  in 
Lodz  alone;  90  per  cent  of  the  men  in  the 
engineering  trades  of  Warsaw  were  idle  at  the 
same  time;  there  were  building  strikes  in  Posen 
and  Lublin  and  labor  disturbances  in  almost  all 
the  industrial  centres.  Cabinets  continued  to 
follow  each  other  in  rapid  succession.  During 
1023,  M.  Witos,  of  the  Peasant  party,  headed  a 


POLAND 


1062 


POLAB  BE8EABCH 


government  for  a  time  but  before  the  end  of 
the  year  he  had  suffered  defeat  and  surrendered 
his  place  to  M.  Grabski.  The  drift  was  steadily 
toward  the  Right  and  the  large  landowners 
daily  gained  power,  as  it  became  evident  in 
1J)24  that  the  real  problem  before  Poland  was 
fiscal  reform  and  a  balanced  budget  rather  than 
the  more  controversial  and  possibly  more  evanes- 
cent hope  of  an  agrarian  policy. 

In  the  field  of  foreign  relations.  Poland  in- 
dicated a  desire  to  come  to  an  amicable  under- 
standing with  moat  of  her  neighbors.  On  Mar. 
3,  1921,  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Bucharest  pro- 
viding for  an  offensive-defensive  Polish-Ruman- 
ian alliance  and  conversations  for  the  further 
Strengthening  of  this  union  were  carried  on  in 
June,  1923.  As  a  result  of  the  settlement  of  the 
Upper  Silesia  question  (q.v.)  measures  were 
taken  in  1921  for  the  restoration  of  friendly 
relations  with  Germany.  On  Nov.  7,  1921,  a 
treaty  with  Czecho-Slovakia  \\as  signed  at 
Prague  by  which  each  nation  guaranteed  the 
other  a  benevolent  neutrality  in  the  case  of  at- 
tack as  well  as  the  recognition  of  each  other's 
rights  in  Slovakia  and  Galicia.  For  the  develop- 
ment of  trade  and  transport  with  Russia  com- 
missions were  appointed,  while  the  export  of 
agricultural  implements  to  Russia  and  the 
Ukraine  was  encouraged.  Tn  accordance  with 
this  spirit,  on  Sept.  2,  1923,  a  note  was  de- 
livered at  Moscow  declaring  Poland's  readiness 
to  recognize  the  Soviet  Federation  upon  the  ac- 
ceptance, by  all  of  its  constituent  parts,  of  the 
terms  of  the  Riga  treaty. 

Improvement  in  the  relations  with  Danzig 
were  marked  after  the  agreement  of  1921.  On 
Mar.  17,  1922,  Poland  signed  with  Finland,  Es- 
thonia,  and  Latvia  an  agreement  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  enduring  peace,  ^hile  later  in  the 
year  representatives  of  the  Baltic  States  met 
with  Russian  commissioners  for  the  purpose  of 
effecting  a  general  disarmament  in  the  region. 
By  the  en4  of  October  the  boundary  between 
Poland  and  the  Ukraine  was  definitively  fixed  by 
a  mixed  commission.  As  far  as  general  inter- 
national affairs  were  concerned,  however.  Polish 
policy  was  in  the  interest  of  France.  The 
French  attitude  toward  Poland  had  been  per- 
sistently friendly,  so  that  by  ties  of  grati- 
tude Poland  \vas  united  to  her  western  ally. 
During  1916-19,  the  French  had  encouraged 
the  organization  of  the  Polish  Legion  and 
had  championed  Polish  aspirations  at  the 
Peace  Conference,  going  so  far  as  to  favor 
Polish  claims  to  all  Upper  Silesia  and  both 
banks  of  the  lower  Vistula,  and  Danzig.  In 
1920,  too,  France  had  come  to  the  aid  of  Po- 
land in  the  Russian  war  and  in  the  next  year 
both  had  signed  a  defensive  alliance.  A  general 
political  alliance,  pledging  economic  and  diplo- 
matic cooperation,  and  promising  concerted  ac- 
tion in  case  of  unprovoked  attack,  was  signed 
by  France  and  Poland  on  Feb.  19,  1921.  The 
alliance  was  supplemented  by  a  commercial  con- 
vention (Feb.  6,  1922)  providing  for  reciprocal 
tariff  concessions,  by  a  loan  agreement  (1923) 
extending  to  Poland  a  French  advance  of  400,- 
000,000  francs  to  be  expended  mainly  for  strate- 
gic railways  and  other  military  purposes,  and 
by  other  commercial  and  military  agreements. 
Under  the  friendly  but  not  disinterested  pro- 
tection of  France,  and  in  close  concert  with  the 
Little  Entente  to  the  south  and  the  Baltic  na- 
tions to  the  north,  Poland  had  become  the  cor- 
nerstone of  the  barrier  between  Bolshevist  Rus- 


sia and  vengeful  Central  Europe.  It  was  a 
position  of  strategic  importance  and  prestige, 
but  likewise  of  potential  peril.  See  DANZIG; 
LITHUANIA;  SILESIA,  UPPER;  VILNA;  GAUCIA, 
EAST;  UKRAINE;  WAR  IN  EUROPE,  Eastern 
Front. 

POLAB  BESEABCH.  This  field  of  explora- 
tion was  less  affected  by  the  War  than  were 
other  phases  of  similar  activity.  The  Canadian 
Arctic  expedition,  Shacklpton's  voyage  into 
Weddell  Sea,  the  Greenland  expeditions  of  Ras- 
mussen  and  Koch,  MacMillan's  elimination  of 
Crocker  Land,  the  repeated  efforts  of  a  trans- 
Arctic  voyage  by  Amundsen's  3/awd,  Vilkitski's 
northeastern  passage  from  east  to  west,  and 
Cope's  work  in  southwestern  Graham  Land  were 
the  most  important  in  results. 

Antarctic.  Hold  in  plan  and  adventurous  in 
execution  was  Shackleton's  attempt  to  cross  the 
continent  of  Antarctica,  from  the  Endurance  in 
Weddell  Sea  to  the  Aurora  in  Ross  Sea.  In  the 
Endurance  he  penetrated  Weddell  Sea  to  77° 
south  latitude,  35°  west  longitude,  arid  skirting 
the  shore*,  of  the  southern  continent,  added 
200  miles  of  new  (Caird)  coast.  No  land- 
ing could  be  made,  and  the  ship,  beset  in 
ice  and  drifting  with  the  main  pack,  was  even- 
tually crushed.  After  tho  sea-Hoe  drifting 
north  melted,  the  crew  reached  Elephant 
Island  by  boat,  from  which  isolated  and  ice- 
lieset  land  they  were  finally  rescued  after  four 
dangerous  voyages  by  Shackleton.  In  1917,  this 
indomitable  explorer  rescued  seven  men  of  the 
Aurora  marooned  in  ROBS  Sea,  where  three  had 
died  in  the  meantime.  On  a  subsequent  Ant- 
arctic voyage  in  the  Qucul,  Shackleton  died  and 
was  buried  at  South  Georgia,  1022;  the  Quest 
leached,  however,  new  portions  in  the  Ant- 
arctic Ocean.  Cope's  expedition,  1920-23,  win- 
tered on  the  most  souths  eateily  point  reached 
on  Graham  Land,  and  there  made  extended  phys- 
ical observations.  Its  members  failed,  however, 
to  cross  Graham  Land  and  explore  the  west 
shores  of  Weddell  Sea. 

Arctic.  Most  important  was  the  Canadian 
Arctic  Expedition,  1013-18,  which  was  divided 
into  two  parties,  the  northern  under  Stefansson, 
and  the  southern  under  R.  M.  Anderson.  Stef- 
ansson's  plans  were  disarranged  by  the  beset- 
ment  and  loss  of  his  ship,  the  Karhik,  under 
Bartlett.  Continuing  his  exploration  under 
many  difficulties,  Stefansson  discovered  several 
islands,  and  traced  the  continental  shelf  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  from  Melville  Island,  northeast 
to  80°  7',  north  latitude,  98°  54'  west  longitude, 
lie  made  extensive  sledge  journeys  on  the  main 
ice  north  of  Alaska,  reaching  70°  30'  north  lati- 
tude, 132°  west  longitude;  later,  his  assistant 
Storkeson  attained  by  sledge  on  the  same  ice 
approximately  74°  north  latitude,  150°  west 
longitude.  The  southern  division  under  Ander- 
son did  less  spectacular  work,  but  made 
most  important  scientific  researches.  Besides 
surveying  Bathurst  Inlet,  it  made  a  thor- 
ough biological  and  physical  study  of  the 
adjacent  regions.  Aided  by  experts,  Ander- 
son was  in  1924  editing  the  official  reports, 
which  were  expected  to  fill  two  volumes  of 
narrative  and  16  of  scientific  memoirs.  These 
volumes  form  a  valuable  contribution  to  Ameri- 
can science,  as  they  treat  the  fauna,  flora,  eth- 
nology and  other  subjects  of  special  interest, 
pertaining  to  Arctic  Canada.  Up  to  Mar.  1, 
1924,  47  of  the  76  memoirs  had  appeared,  and 
the  others  were  under  preparation. 


POLASBK 


1063 


POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


Next  in  value  were  the  explorations  of  Mac- 
Millan.  In  his  first  voyage,  1913-17,  he  made 
an  unprecedented  northing  into  the  unknown 
regions  northwest  of  Grant  Land,  and  by  cross- 
ing by  sledge  the  alleged  site  of  Crocker  Land, 
reported  as  a  discovery  by  Peary,  proved  its 
nonexistence.  MacMillan  further  explored  the 
northern  edge  of  Parry  archipelago,  discovering 
six  islands  and  mapping  Finlay  Island,  his  far- 
thest west.  His  second  voyage,  1921-22,  was  to 
Baffin  Land,  where  he  added  new  coast  line,  ex- 
plored the  unknown  interior  and  made  collec- 
tions of  its  fauna  and  flora;  lie  also  found  new 
tribes  of  Eskimos  His  latest  voyage,  1923-24, 
covered  research  on  the  glaciers  of  the  Kane  Sea 


Pine  Arts,  "The  Sower"  at  the  Chicago  Art 
Institute,  "Aspiration"  at  the  Detroit  Institute 
of  Art,  and  "Bubble"  at  the  Milwaukee  Art 
Institute. 

POLICE  POWER.  See  LAW,  PROGRESS  OF 
THE. 

POLISH  LITERATURE.  See  SLAVONIC 
LITERATURE, 

POLISH  NATIONAL  COUNCIL.  See 
POLAND. 

POLITICAL  AND  SOCIAL  SCIENCE, 
AMERICAN  ACADEMY  OF.  A  learned  society 
founded  in  1889  for  the  study  of  political  and 
social  science  Its  bimonthly  official  publica- 
tion, The  Annals,  is  devoted' to  the  discussion 


regions.     Incidentally  he  erected  at  Cabe  Sabine      of  political  and  economic  subjects.     Among  the 
*i.«   *ov,i«*   «*   4i.«  -M**:***,,.!   nn».^oniiin   «rw.u*,r      Hubjects  treated  in  1915  were  industrial  oppor- 
tunity,  America's   interests   as   affected   by   the 
War   in    Europe,   and   public   budgets.     In    1916 
the  subjects  treated  included  national  industries 
and  the   Federal  government,  preparedness  and 
Rasmusseii's  fifth  expedition  from  Thule,  near      America's  international  programme,  and  new  pos- 


the  tablet  of  the  National  Geographic  Society 
marking  the  final  work  of  the  Grecly  expedi- 
tion, which  represented  the  United  States  in  its 
first  scientific  cooperation  with  other  nations — 
11  countries  in  all. 


('ape  York,  was  engaged  from  1920  in  a  bio- 
logical survey  of  the  Kskimo  tribes  living  on  the 
Arctic  edge  *of  North  America,  or  on  adjacent 
inlands.  Ilia  researches  up  to  1924  had  pro- 
gressed satisfactorily  among  the  primitive  polar 
people  between  Uafiin  Hay  and  Arctic  Alaska. 
Amundsen's  Arctic  expeditions,  1919-24,  were 
marked  by  lepeated  disasteis.  Originally  he 
planned  to  drift  in  the  Maud  across  the  Arctic 
•)cean,  starting  from  Bering  Strait.  Forced  to 
winter,  owing  to  ice  conditions,  at  Aion  Inland, 
Siberia,  191M-20,  he  discovered  new  islands,  made 
collections  of  fauna  and  flora,  and  studied  the 
Tchukchis  '1  wo  despatch  bearers  perished  eu 
route  to  Xonvav  Renewed  efforts  the  next  year 
damaged  the  ship  so  that  she  returned  for  re- 
pairs. Meanwhile  Amundsen  arranged  to  sup- 
plement the  drift  by  an  airplane  flight  from 
Alaska  to  Spitsbergen.  The  Maud  was  started 
again  in  1922,  and  in  1924  was  slowly  and 
safely  drifting  west  Failing  on  account  of  de- 
fects in  his  airplane  in  1923,  Amundsen  arranged 


sibilities  in  education.  During  1917  The  'An- 
nals contained  articles  on  the  purposes  and  „ 
ideals  of  the  Mexican  revolution,  modern  in- 
surance problems,  and  stabilizing  industrial  em- 
ployment. A  supplement  issued  in  May  of  that 
year  dealt  with  the  Mexican  constitution  and 
with  the  relation  of  the  United  States  to  inter- 
national affairs.  The  issues  for  1918  were 
devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  mobilization  of 
American  resources  for  war  and  lelief  work, 
rehabilitation,  and  labor  The  iinials  discussed 
in  1919,  with  other  subjects,  a  reconstruction 
labor  policy,  intei national  economics,  interna- 
tional reconstruction,  and  the  railroad  prob- 
lem. During  1920  the  following  subjects  were 
discussed,  the  new  American  thrift;  bonds  and 
the  bond  market ;  labor,  management,  and  pro- 
duction ,  and  social  and  industrial  conditions  in 
the  Germany  of  to-day  In  1920  the  leading 
subjects  were  present-day  immigration:  the  in- 
ternational trade  situation:  the  revival  of 
American  business:  and  child  welfare.  In  1922 


to     fly     from     Spit/bergen     to    Alaska,    having      space   was   given    to   the    Federal   Reserve    sys- 

Lieutenant   Davidson,    United    States   Navy,   as      A T> — :~    "«''--••    *'•-•   -*i-— .   -*  *i.-   — *— 

pilot. 

Koch's  explorations  of  extreme  northern 
Greenland,  in  which  he  introduced  the  use  of  a 
motor  tractor  in  field  work,  and  reached  80° 
north  latitude,  are  treated  under  GREENLAND. 

Ihishia  pursued  explorations  along  the  Si- 
beiian  coasts,  with  leferenee  to  establishing 
regular  summer  sea  traffic  but  the  definite  re- 
sults were  unknown.  Vilkitski  made,  in  1915, 
the  northeast  passage  fiom  east  to  west.  It  was 
learned  that  the  long  missing  Russian  north 
polar  expeditions  of  Russanoff  and  of  Urusiloff 
perished  east  of  Fran/  Josef  Land. 

POLASEK,  ALBIN  (1879-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can sculptor  and  teacher,  born  at  Frenstat, 
Moravia,  who  studied  art  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  the  American  Acad- 
emy in  Rome  and  in  1910  was  awarded  the 
Prix  de  Rome.  From  191 (>  he  was  head  of  the 
department  of  sculpture  at  the  Art  Institute  of 
Chicago.  His  sculptures  have  been  exhibited 
at  Rome,  Paris,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and 


tern;  Russia  to-day;  the  ethics  of  the  piofcs- 
sions  and  of  business;  America  and  the  rehabili- 
tation of  Kurope;  and  western  Europe  and  the 
United  States.  During  1923  the  following  vol- 
umes vveie  issued:  Public  Welfare  in  the 
rtrited  Stales;  The  Direct  Primary;  Social  and 
Economic  Conditions  in  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada;  America's  delations  to  the  European  Situ- 
ation, and  Prohibition  and  Its  Enforcement. 
At  meetings  of  the  Academy  held  during  the 
year,  subjects  of  national  and  international  in- 
terest are  discussed.  At  the  meeting  of  1923  the 
Academy  was  addressed  by  Sir  Auckland  Geddes. 
Two  conferences  were  held  in  November  and 
December,  on  the  coal  industries  and  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine,  respectively.  The  president  in 
1923  was  L.  S.  Rowe. 

POLITICAL  SCIENCE,  ACADEMY  OF.  An 
organization  founded  in  1880,  composed  of  men 
and  women  interested  in  political,  economic,  and 
social  questions.  It  works  in  cooperation  with 
Columbia  University  and  publishes  The  Political 
Science  Quarterly,  with  a  Supplement  twice  a 


Chicago   and    are    on    permanent    exhibition    at  year.     This    Supplement    contains    a    record    of 

the   Pennsylvania   Academy   of    Fine    Arts,    the  political  e\rents  of  the  world  in  general  and  of 

Metropolitan   Museum   of   New   York   City,   the  the   United    States   in    particular.     Semi-annual 

Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  and  the  Detroit  Mu-  meetings  are  held,  and  inniiv  subjects  of  impor- 

seum.     They  include  the  bust  of  Pierpont  Moi-  tance  were  discussed  in  the  decade  1914-24.     One 

gan  at  the  'Metropolitan  Museum,  a  portrait  of  of  the  most  interesting  and  important,  in  1919, 

F.  D.  Millet  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  considered  the  League  of  Nations  Covenant.     An 


POLITICS 


1064 


POLO 


extensive  volume  on  the  Covenant  was  published, 
including  addresses  by  many  statesmen.  Of 
these,  about  5000  copies  were  distributed.  The 
thirty-fifth  annual  convention  of  the  Academy 
was  held  in  New  York  City  in  1910.  At  the 
annual  meeting  in  1920,  the  subject  under  discus- 
sion was  American  and  foreign  trade  relations; 
about  1200  persons  attended.  The  annual  meet- 
ing of  1921  had  for  its  subject  construction 
experiments  in  industrial  cooperation  between 
employers  and  employees;  a  session  was  held 
jointly  with  the  Industrial  Relations  Association 
of  America.  At  the  annual  meeting  in  1922 
addresses  were  delivered  on  the  money  problem; 
these  included  "The  Outlook  for  the  Gold  Stand- 
ard," "The  Agricultural  Credit  Problem,"  and 
"The  Outlook  for  a  Stable  Monetary  Problem 
Abroad."  The  annual  and  semi-annual  meetings 
held  in  New  York  City  in  1923  were  of  unusual 
importance.  At  the  semi-annual  meeting  law 
and  justice  were  discussed,  and  at  the  annual 
meeting  the  chief  subject  was  American  economic 
policies  since  the  Armistice.  Goth  meetings 
brought  together  a  distinguished  group  of 
persons  competent  to  present  the  different  points 
of  view  of  these  subjects.  Detailed  reports  of 
the  meetings  are  published  in  the  Proceedings  of 
the  Academy,  and  The  Political  Science  Quarterly 
had  many  'notable  contributions  in  1923. 

The  educational  work  of  the  Academy  is 
carried  on  by  meetings  and  publications.  The 
publications  comprise,  besides  The  Political 
Science  Quarterly,  The  Annual  Record  of  Polit- 
ical Events  and  The  Proceedings  (semi-annual). 
Semi-annual  meetings  are  held,  and  many  sub- 
jects of  importance  have  been  discussed  in  the 
decade  1914-24;  these  have  included:  American 
mercantile  marine,  national  conference  on  war 
economy,  inflation  and  high  prices,  national  ex- 
penditures and  public  economy,  railroads  and 
business  prosperity,  and  wealth  and  taxation. 
The  membership  of  the  society  is  5000.  The 
officers  are:  president,  Samuel  McCune  Lindsay; 
vice  presidents,  Albert  Shaw  and  Paul  M.  War- 
burg; secretary,  Parker  T.  Moon;  Treasurer, 
George  A.  Plimpton;  assistant  tieasurer  and 
executive  secretary,  Ethel  Warner. 

POLITICS,  INSTITUTE  or.  A  conference 
founded  at  Williams  College  through  the  gener- 
osity of  Bernard  M.  Baruch,  and  continued  with 
the  financial  cooperation  of  the  General  Edu- 
cation Board,  for  the  puipose  of  advancing  the 
study  of  politics  and  promoting  a  better  un- 
derstanding of  international  problems  and  re- 
lations. Although  the  Institute  was  proposed 
in  1913,  the  first  session,  as  a  lesult  of  various 
conditions,  was  postponed  until  the  summer  of 

1921.  Membership  is  limited  to  members  of  the 
faculties  of  colleges  and  universities  and  those 
to  whom,  by  reason  of  special  training  and  ex- 
perience in  the  field  of  politics,  invitations  arc 
extended.     The   sessions  have  been   notable   for 
their  interest  and  importance.     The  first,  held 
in  July  and  August,  1921,  was  devoted  to  the 
study  of  international  relations.     Among  those 
present  and  participating  were  Viscount  James 
Bryce  of  England,  Count  Paul  Teleki  of  Hun- 
gary, Tommaso  Tittoni  of  Italy,  and  Prof.  A.  Vial- 
late  of  France.     In  the  second  session,  held  in 

1922,  the  subject  was  again  international  rela- 
tions   in    their   historic..!,    political,   legal,    and 
economic  phases.     Special  emphasis  was  placed 
on  the  problems  of  Central  and  Eastern  Europe, 
the  Far  East,  and  Latin  America.    Among  the 
eminent   scholars   and   statesmen    present   were 


Lionel  Curtis  and  Philip  Henry  Kerr  of  Eng- 
land, Manoel  de  Oliveira  Lima  of  Peru,  Ray- 
mond Hecouly  of  France,  and  Dr.  Joseph  Red- 
lich  of  Austria.  At  this  session  nearly  200 
members  were  present.  The  third  session  was 
held  from  July  26  to  Aug.  25,  1923.  The  ques- 
tion of  international  relations  was  again  treated 
from  many  angles  and  by  eminent  representa- 
tives of  the  greater  and  lesser  Powers.  Addresses 
were  delivered  by  Gen.  Tasker  H.  Bliss,  Sir 
Edward  Grigg  of  London,  Count  Harry  Kessler 
of  Berlin,  and  others.  Of  special  interest  was 
the  discussion  of  the  international  aspects  of  the 
Russian  question.  The  session  of  1924,  begin- 
ning August  1,  continued  the  discussion  of 
economic,  financial,  political,  and  social  con- 
ditions throughout  the  world.  Among  those  who 
participated  were  Sir  Valentine  Chirol;  Louis 
Aubert  of  Paris;  Sir  James  Arthur  Salter,  fi- 
nance chief  of  the  League  of  Nations;  R.  H. 
Tawney,  economic  adviser  of  the  British  Labor 
party ;  Prof.  Moritz  J.  Bonn  of  Berlin ;  Sir  Paul 
Vinogradoff  of  Oxford;  Yusuki  Tsurumi  of 
Tokyo;  Rear-admiral  Joseph  Strauss,  and  John 
Sparse.  The  administrative  officers  of  the 
Institute  number  Harry  Augustus  Garficld, 
chairman;  Walter  Wallace  McLaren,  execu- 
tive secretary;  and  Willard  Evans  Iloyt,  treas- 
urer. The  board  of  advisors  includes  distin- 
guished representatives  of  many  large  univer- 
sities. 

POLK,  FRANK  LYON  (1871-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican public  official  (see  VOL.  XIX).  He  was 
appointed  in  the  latter  year  councilor  of  the 
Department  of  State,  where  he  served  until 
1919,  when  he  became  Under-Secrctary  of  State 
In  the  absence  of  Secretary  Lansing  in  1918-19, 
he  \\as  Acting  Secietary  of  State.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Commissioner  of  the  United  States  to 
negotiate  peace  in  1919  and  was  head  of  the 
American  delegation  to  the  Peace  Conference 
in  Paris  from  July  to  December  of  that  year. 

POLLOCK,  riiAXKiNG  (1880-  )  An 
American  author  and  dramatist,  born  in  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.  He  studied  at  Bethel  Military 
Academy  at  Warrenton,  Virginia,  and  at  the 
Polyteclmique  in  Prague.  He  had  a  varied  news- 
paper career  before  devoting  his  attention  to 
dramatic  writing  His  later  plays  include: 
A  Perfect  Lady  with  Rennold  Wolf,  produced  by 
Rose  Stabl  (1914);  Ziegfcld  Follies  of  1915, 
with  Rennold  Wolf  (1915);  The  dross  Widow, 
uith  Rennold  Wolf  (1917);  Roads  of  Destiny, 
produced  by  A.  II.  Woods  (1918)  ;  The  Crowded 
Hour,  with  Edgar  Sehvyn,  produced  by  Sehvyn 
and  Company  (1918);  The  Sign  on  the  Door, 
produced  by  A.  H.  Woods  (1919),  by  Gladys 
Cooper  at  the  Playhouse  in  London  (1921),  and 
at  the  TheAtre  Renaissance  in  Paris,  as  well  as 
in  Vienna,  Madrid,  Amsterdam,  etc.;  7Aeafeld 
Follies  of  1921;  and  The  Fool,  produced  by 
Selwyn  and  Company  (1922).  During  1923  bo 
lectured  under  the  direction  of  the  Pond  Bureau. 
Besides  his  plays  he  \\rote  many  stories  and 
made  dramatizations  of  numerous  books. 

POLLUTION  OF  STBEAMS.  See  SEWEK- 
AGE  AND  SEWAGE  TREATMENT. 

POLO.  The  United  States  regained  posses- 
sion of  the  International  Polo  Cup,  lost  in  1914, 
by  defeating  Great  Britain  in  two  straight 
matches  at  Hurlingham,  England,  in  1921.  The 
scores  were  11  to  4  and  10  to  ft.  The  victo- 
rious team  comprised  Louis  E.  Stoddard,  Thomas 
Hitchcock,  Jr.,  J.  Watson  Webb,  and  Devereux 
Milburn,  while  the  losing  four  were  Colonel 


POLYTONALISM 


1065 


PORTLAND 


H.  A.  Tomkingon,  Major  F.  W.  Barrett,  Major 
Lockett  and  Lord  Wodehouse.  In  1023,  the 
United  States  was  the  scene  of  several  inter- 
national  competitions,  the  most  important  be- 
ing the  matches  between  the  army  fours  of  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  in  which  the 
Americans  were  successful.  The  Meadow  Brook 
Club  of  Long  Island  also  defeated  the  British 
army  team  in  the  final  match  for  the  United 
States  national  open  championship.  Several 
American  colleges  took  up  polo  after  the  War, 
Yale,  Princeton  and  Harvard  in  particular  de- 
veloping creditable  teams.  In  1923,  a  Yale  four 
captured  the  intercollegiate  championship,  both 
in  indoor  and  outdoor  play.  In  1924,  the  na- 
tional intercollegiate  title  was  won  by  Prince- 
ton, in  competition  with  the  University  of 
Arizona. 

POLYTONALISM.     See  Music. 

POMERANIA.     See  POLAND. 

FOMERENE,  ATLEE  (1803-  ).  An 
American  legislator  (see  VOL.  XIX).  He  was 
United  States  Senator  for  the  term  1911  to 
1917  and  was  reflected  in  1917  but  defeated  by 
Simeon  I).  Fess  in  1922.  In  March,  1924,  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Coolidge  one  of  the 
two  counsel  to  investigate  the  question  of  oil 
leases  and  the  criminal  responsibility  of  per- 
sons whose  connections  with  it  bad  been  revealed 
by  the  proceedings  of  the  .Senate  Committee 
investigating  oil  leases.  See  PETROLEUM. 

POMONA  COLLEGE.  A  coeducational  in- 
stitution at  Claremont,  Cal.,  founded  in  1887 
under  Congregational  auspices  but  free  from  ec- 
clesiastical control.  In  the  10  years  between  1914 
and  1924,  the  physical  equipment  and  material 
resources  of  the  college  wore  largely  increased. 
About  50  acres  were  added  to  the  campus;  the 
spacious  central  quadrangle  was  opened  and 
parked.  Five  large  reinforced-concrete  buildings 
were  erected  and  two  others  reconstructed  in 
such  a  way  as  to  be  practically  new.  The  li- 
brary grew  from  22,000  to  41,000  volumes,  and 
the  teaching  staff  from  45  to  70.  The  student 
body  was  limited  to  750  undergraduate  members. 
In  1924,  the  endowment  funds  of  the  college 
amounted  to  about  $1. 500.000,  and  the  total  as- 
sets to  about  $3,700,000.  President,  James 
Arnold  Blaisdell,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

PONSONBY,  ARTHUR  (1871-  ).  A  Brit- 
ish public  official,  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was 
page  to  Queen  Victoria  from  1882  to  1887  and 
was  connected  with  the  diplomatic  service  at 
Constantinople  and  Copenhagen  from  1894  to 
1899.  From  1906  to  1908  he  was  private  sec- 
retary to  Sir  Henry  Campbell-Bannerman.  He 
was  a  member  of  Parliament  from  1908  to  1918, 
and  in  1924  he  was  appointed  Under-Secretary 
of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs  in  the  Labor  cabinet 
of  Ramsay  Macdonald.  He  published  The  Camel 
and  the  Needle's  Rye  (1909);  The  Decline  of 
Aristocracy  (1912);  Democracy  and  Diplomacy 
(1915)  ;  Wars  and  Treaties,  1815-W14,  (1917)  ; 
Rebels  and  Reformers,  with  Dorothea  Ponsonby 
(1917);  Religion  in  Politics  (1921);  and  Eng- 
lish Diaries  '(1923). 

PONTOPPIDAN,  HENRIK  (1857-  ).  An 
popular  Danish  novelist  (see  VOL.  XIX).  In 
1917  the  Nobel  Prize  for  literature  was  divided 
between  him  and  Karl  Ojellerup.  His  recent 
publications  include  Enslers  Dod  (1915);  Far- 
singholm  (1916);  Randinghe  Menighed  (1916); 
Torben  og  Jytte  (1916)  ;  FA  Kaerliahedseventyr 
(1918);  En  Vinterrejse  (1020);  and  Hojsang 
(1921). 


POOLE,  ERNEST  (1880-  ).  An  American 
author,  born  in  Chicago.  He  graduated  from 
Princeton  in  1902  and  for  several  years  lived  in 
the  University  Settlement  in  New  York  City. 
Here  he  accumulated  material  for  articles  and 
stories.  His  first  published  work  was  a  play, 
None  So  Blind.  This  was  followed  by  The  Man's 
Friends;  The  Harbor  (1915);  His  Family 
(1917);  His  Second  Wife  (1918);  Blind 
(1920);  Beggar's  Gold  (1921);  and  Danger 
(1924) . 

PORK.     See  LIVE  STOCK. 

PORTER,  ARTHUR  KINGSLEY  (1883-  ). 
An  American  art  historian.  He  graduated  from 
Yale  in  1904,  and  studied  architecture  at  Colum- 
bia University.  After  several  years  of  travel 
and  study  he  became  lecturer  and  then  assistant 
professor  at  Yale  University.  In  1920  he  was 
appointed  professor  in  the  history  of  art  at 
Harvard  University.  Among  his  best-known 
books  are  Mediceval  Architecture  (1908);  The 
Construction  of  Gothic  and  Lombard  Vaults 
(1912);  Isombard  Architecture  (191.5-17)  and 
Romanesque  Sculpture  of  the  Pilgrimage  Roads 
(10  vols.,  1923). 

PORTER,  HAROLD  EVERETT  (  "HOLWORTIIY 
HALL")  (1887-  ).  An  American  writer, 
born  in  Hyde  Park,  Mass.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  in  1909  and  for  several  years 
was  engaged  in  the  publishing  business  in 
Boston  and  Xew  York.  He  served  as  cap- 
tain of  the  Air  Servire  in  the  United  States 
Army  in  1918  and  later  in  the  same 
year  was  detailed  to  the  office  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  War.  In  collaboration,  he  wrote  an 
official  history  of  all  types  of  aeroplanes  and 
engines  made  in  the  United  States.  He  was  a 
member  of  many  patriotic  and  other  societies. 
His  books  include  Pepper  (1915)  ;  Help  Wanted 
(1916);  The  Nix  Best  Cellars,  with  H.  M. 
Kahler  (1919);  Egan  (1920).  He  also  wrote 
several  books  on  aviation  and  was  a  frequent 
contributor  of  short  stories  to  leading  magazines. 

PORTLAND.  A  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Oregon.  The  population  increased  from  213,2.51 
in  1910  to  258,288  in  1920  and  to  273,021  by 
estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for  1923. 
A  major  street  plan  and  port  development 
scheme  were  partly  carried  out  by  the  city  be- 
tween 1914  and  1924  In  the  new  and  develop- 
ing portions  of  the  city,  eight  principal  streets 
were  planned  100  feet  wide,  and  water-front 
hauling  streets  120  feet  wide.  A  system  of 
boulevards  and  parkways  \\as  laid  out  and  the 
minor  residence  streets  limited  to  narrow  pave- 
ments. Nine  grade  crossings  were  eliminated 
by  depressing  the  railroad  tracks  over  the  entire 
distance  between  the  crossings,  and  building  via- 
ducts to  carry  the  streets  over.  The  cost  of 
this,  $1,055,000.  was  met  by  the  railroad  and 
the  city  together.  A  bond  issue  was  authorized 
in  1922  for  two  concrete  bridges  over  the  Wil- 
lamette River,  allotting  $3,000,000  to  a  new 
bridge  on  the  site  of  the  old  Burnside  bridge 
and  $1,000,000  for  another  bridge  about  1V6  miles 
further  upstream  at  Ross  Island.  The  first 
was  about  3000  feet  long  with  a  bascule  centre 
span;  Ross  bridge,  which  had  no  draw,  but 
cleared  low  water  by  132  feet,  was  to  be  4000 
feet  long  and  54  feet  wide.  A  memorial  civic 
centre  was  planned  by  the  city.  In  1917,  $3,- 
000,000  in  bonds  were  'issued  by  popular  vote  for 
improving  the  port  facilities,  constructing  a 
grain  elevator  of  1,000,000  bushels  capacity,  and 
a  dock  and  warehouse  1000  feet  long  by  175 


PORTLAND  CEMENT 


1066 


POBTO  BICO 


feet  wide.  Further  plans  for  port  improvement, 
adopted  in  1923,  included  the  purchase  by  the 
city  of  about  a  mile  of  water-front  property 
between  four  downtown  bridges,  building  a  sea 
wall  and  filling  the  land  behind  it,  moving  the 
interurban  railroad  tracks  from  streets  in  the 
-city  to  the  filled  land  and  elevating  the  ap- 
proaches to  the  bridges  so  they  would  span  the 
tracks,  and  the  building  of  interurban  terminals, 
public  markets,  and  an  interceptive  sewer.  A 
35  foot  channel  was  dredged  from  Portland  to 
the  sea.  A  new  post  office  building  was  com- 
pleted at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000  by  the  Federal 
government;  a  new  sewer  in  the 'Lents  district 
was  completed  by  the  city  in  1924  at  a  cost  of 
$780,000,  and  a  water  conduit  which  was  to 
have  a  capacity  of  65,000,000  gallons  was  under 
construction.  Building  permits  rose  from  5959 
valued  at  $8,334,075  in  1914  to  14,518  valued 
at  $25,247,135  in  1923,  bank  clearings  increased 
during  the  same  period  from  $578,884.000  to  $1,- 
871,946,000,  exports  from  $13,800,500  to  $44,- 
012,560,  and  imports  from  $3,890,222  to  $9,- 
503,863. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT.     See  CEMENT. 

POBTO  BICO.  An  island  possession  of  the 
United  States  in  the  West  Indies.  The  popula- 
tion of  Porto  Hico  increased  fiom  1,118,012  in 
1910  to  1,299,809  in  1920.  The  distribution  in 
1920,  according  to  color,  was  as  follows-  white, 
948,709;  black,  49,240:  mulatto,  301,816;  all 
others,  38.  The  chief  cities,  \\ith  their  popula- 
tion in  1920,  are  San  Juan,  71.443;  Ponce,  41,- 
912,  and  Mayaguez,  19,124. 

Government.  The  act  of  Ml  17  separated  the 
legislative  and  executive  functions  and  created 
an  appointive  judiciary  system  and  an  elective 
Senate.  The  chief  executive  is  a  governor,  ap- 
pointed by  the  President.  The  Legiplatme  con- 
sists of  two  Houses,  the  Senate  composed  of  19 
members  and  the  House  of  Representatives  com- 
posed of  39  members.  A  resident  commissioner 
represents  Porto  Hico  in  Congress.  Six  heads 
of  departments  form  a  council  to  the  governor. 

The  Judiciary  includes  the  supreme  court, 
eight  district  courts  appointed  by  the  governor, 
and  minor  courts  also  appointed  by  the  governor. 

Agriculture.  The  number  of  farms  in  Porto 
Rico  decreased  from  58,371  in  1910  to  41,078  in 
1920;  the  improved  land  in  farms  decreased  from 
1,570,304  acres  to  1,303,547.  The  value  of  farm 
property,  however,  increased  from  $102,378,874 
in  1910* to  $179,392.511  in  1920,  and  the  average 
value  per  farm  increased  from  $17.r>4  to  $4307. 
The  production  of  sugar  cane  increased  from 
3,180,750  tons  in  1909  to  3,901,984  in  1919;  the 
value  of  sugar  exports  increased  from  $23,545,922 
in  1910  to  $46,207,000  in  1023.  The  production 
of  tropical  fruits  became  an  important  industry 
in  the  island;  the  total  value  of  shipments  of 
fruit  and  fruit  products  in  1023  amounted  to 
$5,154,290.  The  acreage  in  coffee  decreased 
from  186,875  in  1909  to  193,501  in  1919,  and 
the  value  of  the  production  increased  from  $5,- 
292.179  to  $11,707,391.  In  1923,  16,000,000 
pounds  were  exported,  valued  at  $3,000,000  The 
owners  of  farms  decreased  from  46,779  in  1912 
to  36,407  in  1920;  the  number  of  farm  managers 
increased  from  1170  in  1912  to  1213;  the  tenant 
farmers  decreased  from  10,422  in  1910  to  3458 
in  1920.  The  white  farmers  in  1910  numbered 
44,251,  compared  with  35,194  in  1020;  the 
colored  farmers  decreased  from  13,850  to  5884. 
The  extension  work  in  the  island  is  carried  on 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Labor. 


Seed  selection  received  special  attention  through- 
out the  decade,  and  experiments  resulted  in  a 
considerable  development  of  cotton -growing.  A 
vigorous  campaign  was  carried  on  for  the  elim- 
ination of  insect  pests.  The  extension  of  the 
Federal  Loan  Act  in  1922  was  of  great  value  to 
farmers  in  Porto  Rico.  Agricultural  conditions 
after  1919  were  generally  favorable,  although 
there  were  decreases  in  certain  of  the  crops. 
The  production  of  sugar  in  1923  was  379,000 
tons  and  the  value  of  the  sugar  export  was  $40,- 
207,000.  The  production  of  coffee  declined  from 
1914.  when  50,000,000  pounds  were  exported; 
in  1923,  only  16,000,000  pounds  valued  at  $3,- 
000,000  were  exported.  The  tobacco  industry 
had  a  remarkable  increase.  In  1913,  only  473 
I>ersons  were  emploved  in  its  production;  in 
1919,  there  were  7272,  and  in  1922,  11,962.  In 
1923,  14,904,723  pounds  of  leaf  tobacco  and  4,- 
668,812  pounds  of  scrap  tobacco  were  sold  from 
Porto  Rico.  The  total  value  was  approximately 
$10,000.000. 

Manufactures.  The  chief  industry  of  Porto 
Rico  being  agriculture,  its  manufacturing  is,  to 
a  large  extent,  undeveloped.  The  number  of  es- 
tablishments decreased  from  939  in  1909  to  019 
in  1919.  The  persons  engaged  in  manufacture 
remained  practically  stationarv,  numbering  Iff,- 
122  in  1909  and  18,454  in  1919.  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  molas- 
ses, tobacco  manufacturers  and  the  cleaning  and 
polishing  of  coffee.  In  1919.  there  were  manu- 
factured 686,037,703  pounds  of  raw  sugar;  122,- 
668,473  pounds  of  clarified  sugar;  10.342,000 
pounds  of  brown  sugar;  18,783,172  gallons  of 
molanses,  as  compared  with  566  145,203  pounds 
of  raw  sugar  and  17,374,097  gallons  of  molasses 
in  1909.  The  total  value  of  all  kinds  of  sugar 
in  1919  was  $55,007,202;  of  molasses,  $637,799; 
and  of  all  other  products,  $100,031,  or  an  aggre- 
gate value  of  $06,411,032.  In  1909,  the  raw 
sugar  manufactured  was  valued  at  $20,104,887 
and  molasses  at  $397,008.  In  1919,  a  total  of 
171,184,749  cigars  were  manufactured,  compared 
with  217,792,000  in  1909.  The  total  value  of 
tobacco  products  in  1919  was  $8,134,534  com- 
pared with  $6,060,393  in  1909.  The  totnl  quan- 
tity of  cleaned  and  polished  coffee  in  1919  was 
50,252  820  pounds,  as  compared  with  44,350,435 
pounds  in  1909.  The  total  value  of  products  in- 
creased from  $30,749,742  in  1009  to  $8.V>0<>,834 
in  1919.  The  capital  invented  increased  from 
$25,554,385  in  1909  to  $83,151,310  in  1019. 
The  value  added  by  manufacture  increased  from 
$15,270,450  in  1909  to  $25,079,500  in  1019.  The 
manufacture  of  breads  and  bakery  products, 
men's  clothing,  food  preparations,  and  printing 
and  publishing  also  are  of  considerable  impor- 
tance. The  manufactures  are  limited  almost  en- 
tirely to  the  larger  towns,  San  Juan,  Poce, 
Mayaguez,  Caguaa,  Bayamon  and  Areeibo. 

Mineral  Production.  Stone  forms  practical- 
ly the  only  mineral  'production  of  Porto  Rico. 
The  total  value  of  the  product  of  all  the  quar- 
ries in  1919  was  $158,157,  compared  with  $5459 
in  1909,  or  an  increase,  of  nearly  3000  per  cent. 
There  were  14  quarries  under  operation  in 
1909,  and  13  quarries  in  1919,  employing  about 
200  wage  earners. 

Education.  Since  ihe  island  became  a  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States,  the  government  of 
Porto  ttico  has  used  the  utmost  efforts  to- 
ward the  education  of  the  people,  especially 
the  children.  These  efforts  have  been  well  re- 
ceived by  the  people  and  the  results  have  been 


POBTO  BIOQ 


1067 


POBTO  BICO 


extremely  favorable.  There  is  an  unusually 
large  school  population.  Out  of  a  total  of  1,- 
297,772  in  1020,  452,446  were  between  the  ages 
of  6  and  18.  The  percentage  of  school  popula- 
tion, therefore,  is  35,  which  is  probably  the 
largest  percentage  found  anywhere  in  the  United 
States,  or  perhaps  in  the  world.  The  average 
daily  attendance  in  all  the  public  schools  in- 
creased from  155,830  in  1914  to  184,991  in  1920, 
and  to  225,600  in  1923.  In  the  latter  year 
134,405  pupils  were  enrolled  in  rural  schools 
and  91,195  in  urban  schools.  In  addition  there 
were  5632  pupils  in  private  schools.  The  total 
number  in  public  and  private  schools  was  231,- 
232.  At  the  time  of  the  American  occupation, 
80  per  cent  of  the  population  were  found  to  be 
illiterate.  This  proportion  was  reduced  in  1910 
to  66  per  cent  and  in  1920  to  55  per  cent.  Jn 
1899,  only  8  per  cent  of  the  persons  5  to  17 
years  of  age  were  attending  school;  in  1920,  over 
45  per  cent  were  reported  in  school.  Special 
attention  was  given  during  the  decade  1913-23 
to  practical  instruction  in  agriculture.  Dur- 
ing the  first  decade  of  American  occupancy,  950 
rural  schools  were  established;  there  were  1700 
in  1920  and  2000  at  the  close  of  1923.  Indus- 
trial education  also  received  adequate  atten- 
tion. In  1914,  manual  training  for  boys  and 
household  economics  for  girls  were  made  oblig- 
atory for  students  in  grades  6  to  10  in  the  public 
schools,  in  towns  where  the  attendance  war- 
ranted the  installation  of  the  necessary  appa- 
ratus. The  importance  of  placing  education  with- 
in the  reach  of  a  large  number  of  illiterate 
adults  was  early  recognized  and  for  their  bene- 
fit night  schools  were  established.  In  1914,  an 
average  of  825  such  schools  were  maintained, 
and  this  number  had  greatly  increased  in  1923. 
During  the  decade,  instruction  in  hygiene  and 
health  preservation  was  established  and  strength- 
ened. Dental  clinics  were  established  in  many 
schools  and  general  health  clinics  were  started 
and  medical  inspection  in  rural  schools  was  be- 
gun. 

Facilities  for  higher  education  were  provided 
by  the  University  of  Porto  Rico  and  by  the  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  at 
Mayaguez.  The  university  consists  of  a  College 
of  *  Liberal  Arts,  College  of  Law,  College  of 
Pharmacy,  Normal  School,  and  High  School 
division  The  number  of  students  enrolled  in 
1922-23  was  1477;  the  number  of  professors  and 
teachers  was  77. 

Trade  and  Commerce.  The  remarkable  com- 
mercial expansion  of  Porto  Rico  in  the  decade 
1913-23  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of  trade  fig- 
ures. In  1913-14,  "the  combined  value  of  im- 
ports and  exports  was  $79,509,549;  in  1923,  it 
was  $154,237,655.  The  merchandise  shipped 
from  Porto  Rico  to  the  United  States  in  1914 
was  valued  at  $34,423,180;  in  1923,  it  was  $77,- 
007,257.  The  imports  from  the  United  States 
in  1914  were  valued  at  $32,568,368,  and  in  1923, 
$64,743,462.  The  chief  exports  are  sugar,  cigars 
and  cigarettes,  tobacco  leaf  and  coffee.  The  ex- 
ports of  sugar  increased  from  320,633  tons 
valued  at  $20,240,335  in  1914  to  355,423  tons 
valued  at  $46,207,276  in  1923.  There  were  ex- 
ported, in  1914,  150,363,991  cigars  and  184,625,- 
596  in  1923.  The  tobacco  leaf  and  scrap  ex- 
ported in  1914  was  valued  at  $3,206,610,  and  in 
1923  at  $9,647,063.  The  coffee  exports  in  1914 
were  valued  at  $8,193.544  and  in  1923  at  $3,- 
188,002,  a  considerable  decrease.  The  exports 
of  fruit,  including  oranges,  pineapples,  coconuts, 


grapefruit,  were  valued,  in.  1914,  at  $3,400,903, 
and  in  1923  at  $5,154,290.  During  the  Amer- 
ican occupation  there  was  a  rapid  growth  of 
trade  with  the  United  States.  During  the  23 
years  covered  by  this  occupation,  the  value  of 
imports  from  all  foreign  countries  increased 
only  from  3  to  7  million  dollars,  while  the  value 
of  purchases  from  the  United  States  increased 
from  6  to  04  million  dollars  The  value  of  ex- 
ports from  Porto  Rico  to  all  foreign  countries 
increased  from  3  to  5  million  dollars,  while  the 
value  of  Porto  Rican  shipments  to  the  Unit- 
ed States  increased  from  3  to  77  million  dol- 
lars. More  than  90  per  cent  of  all  the  external 
commerce  of  the  island  is  with  the  United 
States. 

Finance.  The  beginning  of  the  decade  1913- 
23  was  marked  by  a  severe  financial  crisis  caused 
by  the  fact  that  laws  passed  by  the  Legislature 
to  provide  sums  for  public  improvements  failed 
to  attain  the  results  expected.  The  result  was 
a  large  deficit.  Prompt  measures  were  taken 
to  avert  disaster  and  the  legislative  assembly 
in  1914  promptly  passed  laws  to  meet  the  situ- 
ation. All  forms  of  expenditure  upon  public 
improvements  were  suspended,  and  provision  was 
made  for  an  issue  of  $1,000,000  worth  of  bonds 
to  reimburse  the  treasury  for  money  already 
expended,  and  to  provide  for  further  work.  An 
Economy  Commission  was  also  appointed  to  re- 
adjust the  finances.  The  total  receipts  of  the 
treasury  for  the  year  1913-14  was  $10,108,708 
and  the  expenditures  amounted  to  $7,278,328. 
The  receipts  for  the  fiscal  year  1922-23  were 
$10,118,891  and  the  expenditures  $10,801,640. 
The  bonded  indebtedness  in  1913-14  was  $5,- 
925,000.  This  had  increased,  in  1920,  to  $10,- 
264,000,  and  in  1923  to  $12,694,000. 

Transportation.  An  elaborate  system  of  ex- 
cellent roads  has  been  perfected  and  as  a  result 
of  the  work  during  the  decade  1913-23,  there 
were  over  1000  miles  of  improved  highways  at 
the  end  of  that  period.  A  large  part  of  the 
transportation  of  commodities  is  done  by  motor 
trucks  over  these  highways.  There  were,  in 
the  island,  339  miles  of  railroad.  Important  im- 
provements were  made  during  the  decade  in  San 
Juan  harbor  where  a  reinforced  concrete  bulk- 
head  was  built  along  the  entire  waterfront. 
Streets  leading  to  the  harbor  were  paved  and 
made  suitable  for  the  heavy  transportation. 
The  new  pier  at  Ponce  was  completed  and  placed 
in  commission  in  1914.  In  1920,  provision  was 
made  for  the  construction  of  a  large  new  pier 
in  San  Juan  harbor  and  the  expansion  of  the 
bulkhead.  The  harbor  was  also  dredged,  in 
order  to  provide  navigation  by  the  largest 
vessels. 

Health  and  Sanitation.  The  sanitation 
service  in  the  island  was  organized  in  1913  un- 
der a  law  passed  in  1912,  and  during  the  decade 
1913-23  vigorous  and  successful  work  was  car- 
ried on  by  this  service.  Successful  efforts  were 
also  made  during  the  decade  for  the  building, 
in  various  cities,  and  towns,  of  modern  aque- 
ducts for  €he  supply  of  pure  water,  for  sewer 
systems,  for  sanitary  slaughterhouses  and  meat 
markets,  and  for  clean  dairies.  Great  improve- 
ment was  made  also  *n  the  proper  construction 
and  plumbing  of  dwelling-houses.  The  work  of 
eradicating  the  hookworm,  which  was  so  prev- 
alent in  the  island  that  over  90  per  cent  of  the 
laboring-people  were  infected,  was  undertaken. 
The  Insular  Health  Service  and  the  Rockefeller 
Foundation  cooperated  for  the  eradication  of 


POBTO  BIOO 


io6S 


POETTJGAL 


the  disease,  with  remarkable  success.  By  1923, 
approximately  one-sixth  of  the  rural  population 
of  the  island  had  received  treatment.  Tubercu- 
losis is  the  chief  menace  to  the  health  of  the 
people.  The  percentage  in  proportion  to  gen- 
eral mortality  increased  from  7.28  in  1914  to 
9.45  in  1923.  Every  effort  was  being  made  to 
eliminate  conditions  favorable  to  this  disease. 
Malaria  ranks  third  in  mortality  records.  In 
1023,  arrangements  were  made  by  which  the 
Rockefeller  Foundation  united  with  the  insular 
authorities  in  an  intensive  campaign  for  mosqui- 
to and  malaria  control.  The  death  rate  in- 
creased from  18.6  per  thousand  in  1913  to  21.11 
per  thousand  in  1923.  It  may  be  pointed  out, 
however,  that  the  rate  for  1923  was  the  low- 
est ever  recorded  on  the  island.  For  1912,  it 
was  24.02.  A  leper  colony  was  maintained  on 
the  Island  of  Cabras  at  the  entrance  of  San 
Juan  harbor.  Arrangements  were  made  to  re- 
move this  colony  to  the  mainland  and  work  was 
begun  in  1923  for  the  improvement  of  the  new 
location.  In  1910,  a  service  was  instituted  in 
the  island  for  the  study  and  prevention  of 
tropical  and  transmissible  di upases,  and  in  1920 
the  Legislature  created  an  institute  of  tropical 
medicine  and  hygiene.  This  institution  per- 
formed services  of  great  value  in  investigation 
and  research  and  hundreds  of  patients  were 
treated  annually  for  various  diseases. 

History.  The  most  important  event  in  the 
political  history  of  Porto  Rico  in  the  decade 
1914-24  was  the  passage  by  Congress,  in  1917, 
of  a  new  Organic  Act,  providing  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Islands.  The  beginning  of  the 
decade  was  one  of  financial  difficulty  and  eco- 
nomic readjustment.  Business  conditions  in 
Porto  Rico  were  greatly  affected  by  the  tariff 
law  passed  in  1913.  More  important  than  this, 
however,  was  the  serious  decline  in  the  sugar 
industry  in  1914,  owing  to  local  and  general 
conditions.  In  1915,  because  of  a  lack  of  co- 
operation between  the  two  houses  of  the  Legis- 
lature, comparatively  little  important  legisla- 
tion was  enacted.  The  Legislature  of  1916 
passed  several  important  measures  relating  to 
revenue  and  taxation.  On  Mar.  2,  1917,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  approved  the  new  Organic  Act  for 
Porto  Rico.  This  was  received  everywhere  with 
great  satisfaction  The  people  were  especially 
pleased  with  the  granting  of  American  citizen- 
ship. By  terms  of  this  measure  the  legislative 
power  is  vested  in  a  Legislature  consisting  of 
two  houses.  The  Senate  consists  of  19  members 
elected  for  four  years  and  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives consists  of  39  members  elected  for 
four  years.  Sessions  are  held  biennially.  The 
designation  of  the  qualifications  for  suffrage  is 
left  to  the  Legislature.  Both  branches  of  this 
body  are  elected  by  the  voters  but  its  action 
must  be  approved  by  Congress  and  by  the  Gov- 
ernor, who  is  appointed  by  the  President.  A 
"Resident  commissioner"  to  represent  the  islands 
in  Congress  is  elected  by  the  people.  With  the 
entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  War,  many 
new  problems  arose  in  Porto  Rico.  Among  these 
was  the  peril  of  interrupted  communication  with 
the  continents  and  the  laws  of  ships  engaged  in 
trade.  This  tended  to  increase  the  price  of 
foodstuffs,  which  were  already  abnormally  high. 
A  Food  Commission  with  wfde  powers  was  ap- 
pointed. After  the  passage  of  the  compulsory 
military  service  law,  the  people  of  Porto  Rico 
showed  a  strong  feeling  of  patriotism  and  loy- 
alty, and  readily  joined  in  all  the  activities,  in- 


cluding subscription  to  the  Liberty  Loan  issues. 
The  Legislature  in  1917  passed  a  joint  resolu- 
tion providing  for  the  holding  of  general  elec- 
tions and  providing  for  nomination  of  candi- 
dates. After  Mar.  2,  1918,  the  prohibition  of 
all  alcoholic  beverages  went  into  effect.  A  de- 
structive earthquake  occurred  in  October,  1918. 
The  heaviest  losses  were  at  Mayaguez  and  Agui- 
dilla.  About  150  lives  were  lost  and  the  dam- 
age  to  government  works  and  public  buildings 
was  over  $1,000,000.  A  great  sea  wave  followed 
the  earthquake  and  increased  the  loss,  especially 
at  Aguidilla.  The  Legislature  in  1918-19  passed 
a  new  election  law  changing  the  methods  and 
machinery  of  election,  a  new  municipal  law,  pro- 
viding for  a  larger  degree  of  self-government,  a 
grand  jury  law,  several  labor  laws,  and  a  meas- 
ure establishing  a  minimum  wage.  The  year 
1920  was  one  of  unusual  prosperity  and  prog- 
ress, although  there  were  several  strikes  during 
the  year  in  the  sugar  cane  fields  and  among  the 
dock  workers.  In  spite  of  these  disturbances 
the  general  prosperity  of  the  island  increased 
greatly.  A  special  session  of  the  Legislature, 
an  Apr.  26,  1920,  passed  an  important  amend- 
ment to  the  tax  laws.  It  also  amended  the 
excise  laws,  the  election  law,  the  municipal  law, 
and  the  workmen's  compensation  law.  An  act 
was  passed  authorizing  cooperative  societies  of 
production  and  consumption.  E.  Mont  Reily  was 
appointed  governor  by  President  Harding  in 
July,  1921,  succeeding  A.  M.  Yager,  who  had  oc- 
cupied that  post  since  1913.  Following  the  in- 
auguration of  Governor  Reily,  the  aggressive  at- 
titude adopted  by  him  toward  the  political  lead- 
ers of  the  island  at  once  created  a  situation  of 
great  difficulty.  The  Unionist  party  was  accused 
by  supporters  of  Governor  Reily  *of  aiming  at 
secession  from  the  United  States.  This  party 
was  the  most  powerful  of  the  political  bodies  of 
the  island  and  was  headed  by  Antonio  R.  Bar- 
celo,  president  of  the  Senate.  The  leaders  of 
this  party  were  charged  hv  Governor  Reily  with 
sedition  and  he  administered  a  severe  rebuke  to 
Sefior  Barcelo,  who  resigned  from  the  leadership 
but  was  obliged  to  resume  it  on  account  of  the 
insistence  of  his  supporters.  The  Governor  dis- 
missed several  high  officials  and  replaced  them 
with  Republican  successors.  In  this  he  was  se- 
verely criticized  By  the  end  of  the  year  a  ma- 
jority of  both  the  Lower  and  Upper  Houses  pe- 
titioned President  Harding  for  the  removal  of 
Governor  Reily.  The  President  took  no  action, 
but  Governor  Reily  resigned  on  Apr.  1,  1923 
He  was  succeeded  by  Horace  M.  Towner,  under 
whose  administration  political  difficulties  sub- 
sided. The  Legislature  of  1923  amended  the 
excise  tax  law,  amended  a  banking  law,  created 
a  tax  and  revenue  commission,  created  a  coal 
commission,  and  created  also  a  rural  improve- 
ments commission. 

PORTUGAL.  A  republic  of  western  Europe 
with  an  area,  including  the  Azores  and  Madeira 
islands,  of  35,490  square  miles,  and  a  population 
in  1920  of  6,041,000.  The  1911  population  had 
been  5,957.985.  The  chief  towns,  with  their 
populations  in  1920,  are:  Lisbon,  the  capital, 
489,007;  Oporto,  203,199;  Setubal,  37,074;  Braga, 
21,970.  Emigration  continued  to  keep  the  popu- 
lation almost  stationary;  31,138  natives  left  the 
country  in  1919  for  Brazil  and  the  United  States, 
largely.  Between  1912  and  1922  the  total  emi- 
gration was  estimated  at  700,000.  In  spite  of 
frequent  governmental  decrees,  education  made 
no  perceptible  advances.  The  number  of  primary 


POBTUGAL 


1069 


POBTTJGAL 


and  secondary  schools  in  1920*  showed  little 
increase  over  those  recorded  in  1911.  Seventy- 
five  per  cent  of  the  population  was  believed  to 
be  illiterate. 

Industry  and  Trade.  After  1902,  when  the 
last  census  of  agriculture  was  reported,  the 
state  of  agriculture  declined,  being  handicapped 
by  lack  of  transport  facilities  and  of  efficient 
use  of  fertilizers.  In  the  earlier  year,  34.9  per 
cent  of  the  total  area  was  devoted  to  tillage;  of 
late  (1921)  this  had  dropped  to  33.6  per  cent. 
Waste  land  increased  from  43.1  per  cent  to  49.1 
per  cent  of  the  total.  The  yield  of  wine,  one  of 
the  most  important  activities,  dropped  from  6,- 
869,400  hectoliters  in  1908  to  4,392,780  hectoli- 
ters in  1919.  The  cereal  crops  cultivated,  i.e. 
rye,  wheat,  corn,  were  for  home  consumption  and 
the  fattening  of  stock.  Articles  that  entered 
into  the  trade  of  the  country,  indicating  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  application,  were  oork.  olive  oil, 
raw  wool,  hides,  sardines,  and  wine.  The  trade 
foil  off  during  the  War,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
following:  exports  and  imports  for  1913  (escudo 
at  par  or  53V£  pence  per  cncudo),  £17,980,222 
and  £8,152,222;  exports  and  imjiorts  for  1918 
(escudo  at  30%  pence)  £11,561,990  and  £9,774,- 
720.  The  continued  decline  of  the  escudo  brought 
the  trade  record  still  lower  in  the  years  suc- 
ceeding. Thus,  while  exports  to  the  United 
Kingdom  were  £9,747,000  in  1918,  they  fell  to 
£4,580,000  in  1922.  Tonnage  figures  reveal  the 
same  state  of  affairs  In  1913,  10,638  vessels  of 
24,368,120  tons  entered  Portuguese  ports;  in 
11)17,  5860  vessels  of  4,906,599  tons  entered:  in 
1020  (the  best  post-armistice  year),  9909  vessels 
of  16,101,695  tons  entered.  During  and  after 
the  V\ar  the  general  economic  conditions  re- 
flected the  prevailing  social  and  political  unrest. 
Hn\\  materials  could  be  obtained  only  with  diffi- 
culty— the  shortage  of  cotton,  gasoline,  tin  plate, 
and  coal  being  particularly  severe — and  factories 
and  mines  had  to  suspend  operations.  From 
1014  to  1918,  the  average  price  increase  of  food- 
stuffs was  263  per  cent.  The  failure  of  wages 
to  rise  accordingly  (increases  were  only  for  50 
to  100  per  cent)  resulted  in  severe  strikes  in  the 
railroads,  telephone  companies,  shipping,  metal- 
lurgical industries,  etc.  However,  the  strikes 
were  successful  in  raising  wages  20  to  30  times 
the  pre-war  rates,  while  the  cost  of  living  ad- 
vanced 20  times.  Attempts  in  1918  and  in 
1920  to  check  the  depreciating  exchange  by  gov- 
ernment enactment  were  unavailing.  Tn  1918, 
a  law  was  passed  requiring  half  the  payments  of 
import  duties  in  gold;  in  19*20,  certain  imports 
\\cre  banned  altogether  because  of  the  rapid  flow 
of  gold  out  of  the  country.  Yet  so  rapid  was 
the  disappearance  of  the  gold  reserve  that  in 
1922  the  National  Bank  of  Portugal  had  only 
8,577,180  escudos  in  gold,  to  734,388,164  escudo 
paper  notes  in  circulation.  By  December,  1923, 
paper  in  circulation  totaled  1,395,700,000. 
Therefore,  whereas  the  escudo  had  been  worth 
53%  pence  before  the  War  ($1.08),  by  1921  it 
had  declined  to  7  pence  ($0.10)  and  by  the  end 
of  1923  to  about  3M:  cents.  Only  the  activi- 
ties of  the  colonies  succeeded  in  keeping  the 
home  industries  active,  for  the  raw  materials 
imported  made  up  in  part  for  the  decline  of  the 
foreign  trade. 

Communications.  In  1913,  there  were  1854 
miles  of  railway  in  operation;  in  1923,  2046 
miles.  The  steady  depreciation  of  equipment 
and  the  falling  off  of  traffic  piled  up  the  obliga- 
tions of  the  systems.  In  1923,  12,000,000  gold 


escudos  were  needed  for  repairs  and  replace- 
ments. Action  was  taken  in  1921  toward  the 
better  upkeep  of  fie  highways. 

Finance.  The  budget  for  1914-15  called  for 
revenues  of  79,649,140  escudos  and  expenditures 
(ordinary  and  extraordinary)  of  83,390,965  es- 
cudos. The  1922-23  budget  included  revenue 
estimates  of  276,137,853  escudos  and  expenditures 
of  561,326,152.  (It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  escudo  had  by  that  time  declined  to  one- 
twenty-fifth  of  its  nominal  value.)  All  attempts 
to  check  the  mounting  deficits  failed.  From 
1914  to  1924,  the  average  annual  deficit  was  197,- 
000,000  escudos.  For  1921-22,  the  deficit  was 
370,820,000,  and  for  1922-23,  an  estimated  de- 
ficit of  295,190,000.  The  decision  to  resort  to 
loans  for  the  meeting  of  war  expenditures  in- 
creased the  national  debt  enormously.  In  1913, 
the  external  debt  amounted  to  175,396,150  es- 
cudos; on  Dec.  31,  1923,  the  external  floating 
debt  amounted  to  2,686,403,269  paper  escudos 
(at  current  exchange  rates)  ;  on  July  31,  con- 
solidated external  debt  was  1,764,000,000  paper 
escudos.  By  1923  the  internal  debt  had  mounted 
to  2,049,000,000  escudos  (as  compared  with  713,- 
689,000  in  1913).  (In  connection  with  financial 
figures,  it  should  l>e  noted  that  Portuguese  of- 
ficial data  were  conflicting:  making  it  impos- 
sible to  render  consistent  statements  on  the  sub- 
ject.)  In  11)23.  to  check  the  speculation  and 
stabilize  the  currency,  the  government  offered  a 
loan  of  £4,000,000  gold  bonds  to  be  paid  for  in 
escudos  at  the  rate  of  5  pence  to  the  pound 
In  Februarv,  1024,  in  spite  of  all  promises  to  the 
contrary,  tlie  government  coolly  repudiated  the 
interest  payment  in  gold  on  this  loan. 

Administrative  Affairs.  During  the  period, 
decrees  affecting  working  conditions,  accidents, 
women  and  child  labor  (1014-15)  and  the  eight- 
hour  day  for  government  employees  ( 1910),  were 
promulgated.  In  1018,  a  ministry  of  agricul- 
ture was  set  up  with  extensive  powers  for  the 
encouragement  of  production  by  the  renting  of 
cattle  and  machinery;  and  the  extension  of 
credits.  By  enactment  in  1014  and  later  in 
1010,  extensive  autonomy  was  granted  to  the 
colonies.  State  aid  was  guaranteed  settlers;  the 
status  of  native  laborers  was  advanced;  expert 
agricultural  and  geological  investigations  were 
promised.  These  measures  were  occasioned  by 
the  fact  that  the  Union  of  South  Africa  sought 
to  acquire  Portuguese  East  Africa,  and  Belgium, 
northern  Angola.  The  home  government  realized 
that  only  the  colonies  might  hasten  the  resur- 
rection of  Portugal;  the  loss  of  them  would 
mean  the  definite  submergence,  economically,  of 
the  country. 

History.  Portugal's  recent  history  was  a 
continuous  change  of  administrations  accom- 
panied by  crises  of  smaller  or  greater  impor- 
tance. The  great  gulf  existing  between  political 
leaders  and  the  people  at  large  was  perceptible 
as  ministries  rose  or  fell  amid  a  general  in- 
difference. The  increasing  illiteracy,  the  steady 
emigration  of  the  peasantry  to  the  New  World, 
and  the  lack  of  capital  for  new  enterprises,  all 
accounted  for  the  general  stagnation.  The 
violent  break  between  church  and  state,  which 
had  been  one  of  the  first  works  of  the  revolu- 
tion, was  considerably  tempered  by  conversations 
resumed  by  President  Paes  with  the  Vatican  in 
1918.  In  1919,  a  papal  nuncio  was  appointed  to 
Portugal,  and  in  1920  the  Pope  expressed  him- 
self as  satisfied  with  the  improved  conditions. 

Portugal's  traditional  friendliness  with  Eng- 


PORTUGAL 


1070 


PORTUGUESE  BAST  AFRICA 


land,  her  dependence  on  the  latter  for  heavy  im- 
portations of  wheat  and  coal,  and  the  fear  enter- 
tained for  the  safety  of  the  African  colonies,  led 
Portugal  to  •  affirm  her  obligations  under  the 
British  treaty,  in  November,  1914.  Troops  were 
immediately  despatched  to  Africa  and  contin- 
gents were  sent  throughout  the  War,  40,000 
men  seeing  service  in  this  area.  In  1916,  Portu- 
guese troops  entered  the  Kionga  triangle  and 
thus  restored  to  their  country  a  territory  that 
had  been  seized  by  Germany  in  1894.  In  1910 
Geiman  ships  lying  in  Portuguese  waters  were 
seized  (240,000  tons);  Germany  retaliated  by 
formally  declaring  war  on  Mar.  9,  1916,  and 
opening  a  severe  submarine  attack  on  shipping 
and  ports.  In  1917,  shipping  losses  were  par- 
ticularly heavy.  At  first,  the  country's  entry 
into  the  War  served  to  unite  all  factions.  A 
coalition  ministry  was  erected  and  the  royalists 
for  a  time  stayed  their  intrigues  to  offer  their 
patriotic  services.  Portuguese  contingents  saw 
action  on  the  Western  front  in  19 IS,  in  all,  60,- 
000  men  taking  part.  At  the  Peace  Congress, 
Portugal  was  represented,  first  by  Dr.  Egas 
Moniz,  and  later  by  Dr.  Afonso  Costa.  Subse- 
quent meetings  of  the  Supreme  Council  restored 
the  Kionga  triangle  to  Mozambique  and  allotted 
Portugal  0.75  per  cent  of  the  German  indemnity. 
Portugal's  participation  in  the  War  did  not 
check  internal  disorders.  In  1915,  a  mutiny  of 
sailors  resulted  in  the  bombardment  of  Lisbon 
and  the  killing  of  100  persons;  Sr.  Pimenta  de 
Castro,  the  piime  minister,  was  transported  to 
the  Azores;  his  successor  was  shot  at,  and  re- 
signed BOOH  after;  and  this  was  followed  imme- 
diately by  tbe  resignation  of  President  Arriaga. 
These*  events  were  a  prelude  to  the  larger  events 
of  1917.  In  December  of  that  year,  a  revolution 
broke  out  in  Lisbon  and  the  fleet  was  fired  upon. 
The  purposes  of  the  revolutionaries  were  for 
a  more  active  participation  in  the  War,  and  the 
resignation  of  the  government  which  had  an- 
tagonized the  conservative  classes.  The  result 
was  tbe  deportation  of  President  Machado,  the 
arrest  of  the  premier,  Dr.  Afonso  Costa,  and  tbe 
selection  as  provisional  president  of  Maj.  Si- 
don  io  Paes,  leader  of  the  revolt.  On  Apr.  28, 
1918,  Sr.  Paes  was  elected  by  direct  suffrage  as 
president,  though  tbe  republican  parties  refused 
to  participate.  By  tbe  support  of  the  Catholics, 
whom  he  immediately  propitiated,  and  the  con- 
servative elements,  his  powers  at  once  became 
dictatorial.  Parliamentary  ministers  were  trans- 
formed into  secretaries  responsible  to  tbe  presi- 
dent; all  efforts  were  bent  on  the  prosecution  of 
the  War,  to  the  great  approval  of  the  Allies. 
But  Sr.  Paes,  who  mitfht  have  restored  Portugal 
to  something  like  stability,  was  assassinated  on 
Dec.  14,  1918,  and  the  country  was  once  more  in 
a  state  of  turbulence.  In  1919.  the  uncertainty 
was  capitalized  by  the  monarchists  who  pro- 
claimed a  monarchy  at  Oporto  under  the  re- 
gency of  Captain  Conceiro.  The  general  rising 
of  the  marines  and  the  radical  elements  made  the 
royalist  revolution  short-lived  so  that  after  a 
few  weeks  of  desultory  fighting,  Captain  Con- 
ceiro  was  captured  and  the  civil  war  ended. 
Ministry  followed  ministry  in  rapid  succession. 
Adm.  Canto  e  Castro,  having  followed  Paes 
in  the  presidency,  resigned  in  1919;  he  was 
followed  by  Dr.  Jos£  de  Almeida.  The  rail- 
road strike  of  1920  embarrassed  tlie  government; 
the  failure  to  cope  with  the  pressing  internal 
problems  of  taxation,  the  currency,  public  works, 
served  to  render  the  existing  machinery  useless. 


The  counsel  of  former  King  Manuel  to  his  fol- 
lowers, in  1920,  to  give  up  violence  and  resort  to 
constitutional  tactics  only,  had  little  influence 
on  affairs.  During  1921,  Sr.  Gran  jo,  the  prime 
minister,  was  killed  as  the  result  of  another 
outbreak  in  Lisbon;  and  bomb  outrages  were 
frequent  in  1921  and  1922.  After  eight  minis- 
tries had  held  office  for  brief  terms  in  1922,  a 
cabinet  created  by  Sr.  de  Silva  seemed  to  bear 
the  stamp  of  permanency,  for  it  lasted  into 
1923.  But  the  election  of  the  new  president, 
Sr.  Teixeira  Gomez,  in  August,  1923,  brought 
about  a  new  ministry.  The  year  1923  saw  a 
continuance  of  disturbances  accompanied  Iry 
bomb  throwing,  strikes,  and  rioting.  Lisbon 
was  once  again  fired  on  in  December.  A  long 
drawn-out  marine  strike  threatened  to  wipe  the 
Portuguese  Hag  from  the  high  seas.  As  yet, 
there  was  in  sight  no  surcease  from  the  intestine 
strife  which  had  prevailed,  with  distressing  re- 
sults, for  more  than  two  decades. 

PORTUGUESE  EAST  AFRICA,  or  MOZAM- 
KIQUE.  A  Portuguese  colony  on  the  east  coast 
of  Africa  \\ith  an  area  of  427,713  square  miles 
and  an  estimated  population  of  3,437,844  natives, 
10,500  whites,  1100  Asiatics.  In  1919,  the  Su- 
preme Council  awarded  the  province  an  area  of 
400  square  miles,  formerly  part  of  German  East 
Africa,  known  an  the  Kionga  triangle.  Capital, 
Lourenc.o  Marques,  had  an  estimated  population 
of  20,000  Sugar,  coconut  palm,  and  sisal  areas 
increased,  particularly  in  the  districts  con- 
trolled by  the  Mozambique  Company.  Other 
products  wcie  rubber,  ivory,  wax,  and  various 
ores.  The  trade  figures  for  1913  and  1921  \\erc, 
in  escudos:  imports,  12,t>78,000  and  39,812,313; 
exports,  r>,34ti,000  and  20,117,513;  reexports,  8,- 
933,000  and  42,055,947;  transit,  34,044,000  and 
135,:W3,.V2(J.  Most  of  the  transit  trade  was 
handled  through  the  port  of  Louren^o  Marques  at 
which,  in  1920,  018  vessels  of  2,321, (108  tons  en- 
tered; of  this  tonnage,  two-thirds  was  British. 
Costs  of  administration  mounted  during  the 
period.  In  1913-14,  the  budget  balanced  at  5,- 
878,598  escudos;  in  1922-23,  at  16,300,835  es- 
cudos. (One  escudo^  $1.08  at  par.)  After 
1913,  the  railway  building  was  active  due  to  the 
interest  manifested  by  the  British  South  African 
provinces  because  of  their  desire  to  utilize  the 
Territory's  ports.  Some  160  miles  along  the 
route  from  Delapoa  Bay  to  Inhambane  were 
completed;  the  building  of  a  line  170  miles  long 
from  Beira  to  the  Zambc/i  was  begun  in  1920, 
and  projects  were  under  way  for  the  development 
of  the  areas  north  and  south  of  the  Mozambique 
Company's  holdings.  The  position  of  Portu- 
guese East  Africa  became  increasingly  important 
after  1909  because  the  province  served  as  the 
nearest  outlet  for  the  British  South  African 
products  to  the  sea.  Delagoa  Bay  in  particular, 
being  100  miles  nearer  to  Johannesburg  than 
Durban,  was  favored,  «nd  the  commercial  facili- 
ties and  social  amenities  of  its  city,  Lourenc.o 
Marques,  allowed  continual  improvement.  Coal- 
bunkering  plants  were  erected  as  well  as  large 
wharves  and  docks.  Through  Delagoa  Buy  went 
much  of  the  Transvaal's  coal,  copper,  tin,  as- 
bestos, and  maize.  Shipping  after  1914  was 
mainly  in  British  and  Portuguese  hands.  This 
economic  relationship  between  the  province  and 
the  British  colonies  accounted  for  the  attention 
which  Portuguese  East  Africa  received  from  the 
home  administration  after  1910.  The  natives 
were  subjugated  and  turbulent  areas  pacified, 
and  Portuguese  capital  was  invited  to  aid  in  the 


PORTUGUESE  WEST  A7BICA 


1071 


POWEB 


province's  exploitation.  The  result  of  the  War 
put  an  end  to  the  attempts  of  the  German- 
controlled  Nyasa  Company  to  dominate  the 
province.  Great  Britain,  01  course,  then  became 
the  paramount  factor. 

PORTUGUESE  WEST  AFRICA.  Sec  AN- 
GOLA. 

POSEN.    See    POLAND. 

POSITION  INDICATOR.  See  ELECTRIC 
MOTORS  IN  INDUSTRY. 

POSTGATE,  JOHN  PhRrnAL  (1853-11)20). 
An  English  philologist  (see  VOL.  XIX).  lie  was 
formeily  a  professor  of  Latin  at  Liverpool 
(1009-20).  Among  his  latent  works  aie  an  edi- 
tion of  Lucan  (11)17),  New  h'ltin  Pumcr  (1018), 
critical  edition  of  Phirdrux,  Fallen  (1022); 
Translation  and  Translation*  (1022),  and  Pro- 
Hodia  Latina  (1023). 

POSTIMPRESSIONISM.  See  PAINTING  and 
SCULPT  LIKE. 

POTASH.     See  FERTILIZERS. 

POTASSIUM    SALT.     See    CHEMISTRY. 

POTATOES.  The  average  annual  production 
of  potatoes  in  the  United  States,  1014-24,  was 
3,802,000  bushels.  The  largest  acreage  towaid 
the  close  of  the  period,  4,384,000  acres,  was 
harvested  in  1017;  and  the  largest  yield,  4,">1,- 
18."),000  bushels,  was  secured  in  1022.  Heginning 
\vith  1014,  potato  eulture  inei  eased  in  the  north- 
ern Mississippi  Valley,  especially  in  Minnesota 
and  North  Dakota;  and  several  localities,  par- 
ticularly in  western  Nebraska,  Idaho,  and  Colo- 
rado, became  prominent  in  the  production  of  the 
crop  Latterly  the  production  of  early  potatoes, 
which  come  upon  the  market  about  May  1, 
became  an  important  enterprise  in  Florida.  The 
growing  of  certified  potatoes  for  seed  also  be- 
came an  established  industry,  with  an  increasing 
annual  production  of  »uch  potatoes  in  a  number 
of  States  and  in  Canada.  Certified  potatoes  are 
gro\\n  by  reliable  parties  in  accordance  with  the 
rules  and  regulations  for  eligibility  to  certifica- 
tion in  the  various  States.  These  requirements 
aie,  generally,  fieedom  from  varietal  mixtures; 
conformity  of  tubers  to  the  accepted  type  for  the 
\ariety  in  shape,  color,  size,  and  chaiacteristic 
markings;  a  fair  degree  of  uniformity  in  size, 
and  freedom  from  disease.  The  crop.  a«  a  rule, 
is  inspected  two  or  three  times  during  growth. 
During  the  \Var,  limited  supplies  and  unsettled 
conditions  led  to  the  subjection  of  the  interna- 
tional tiade  in  potatoes  to  governmental  regula- 
tion in  many  countries.  In  the  United  States 
all  large  potato  dealers  were  under  license  to  the 
Food  Administration,  and  standard  grades  recom- 
mended by  the  Food  Administration  and  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  were  prescribed  from 
January  31  to  Dec.  10,  1018.  Use  of  the 
grades  proved  so  satisfactory  that  it  was  con- 
tinued voluntarily,  and  many  States  later  passed 
laws  establishing  these  or  very  similar  grades 
as  their  oflicial  standards.  As  revised  and  ef- 
fective July  1,  1022,  the  United  States  grades 
for  potatoes  comprise  U.  S  No  1;  Fancy;  U. 
S.  No.  1;  U.  S.  No  1  Small;  and  U.  S.  No  2. 
These  ratings  are  based  on  size,  shape,  uniform- 
ity, and  the  general  absence  of  defective  stock. 
In  1021  and  1022  low  prices  and  high  freight 
rates  reduced  shipments  from  many  sections 
producing  potatoes  commercially,  and  these  con- 
ditions added  materially  to  the  financial  dis- 
tress which  befell  farmers  in  the  years  following 
the  War. 

In  the  list  of  diseases  attacking  the  potato 
plant  hopperburn  (or  tipburn),  spindling  sj>rout, 


and  mosaic  caused  trouble.  Hopperburn,  caused 
by  the  potato  leaf  hopper,  is  a  blighting  and 
drying  up  of  the  leaves  during  hot  and  dry  sea- 
sons; spindling  sprout  is  the  production  of  weak 
and  threadlike  sprouts;  and  mosaic,  long  known 
in  Europe,  is  a  disease  showing  mottling  of  the 
leaflets  with  patches  of  light  green.  The  Colo- 
rado potato  beetle  invaded  Europe  and  became 
established  in  France  and  Belgium.  This  was 
suggested  as  possibly  the  result  of  the  unusual 
war-time  intercourse  It  was  causing  dismay  in 
northern  Europe,  where  potatoes  form  a  large 
part  of  the  average  diet.  Consult  William 
Stuart,  The  Potato.  Its  Culture,  f/«e»,  History, 
and  Classification  (Philadelphia  and  London, 
1023). 

POTT'S  DISEASE.  See  ALIILE,  FRED  HOUD- 
LKTT. 

POUND,  ROSCOF  (1870-  )  An  American 
lawyer  and  educator  (see  VOL.  XIX).  From 
1013  he  was  Carter  Professor  of  Jurisprudence 
and  from  101G  dean  of  the  Law  School  at  Har- 
vard University,  lie  wrote  Lectures  on  the 
Philosophy  of  Free  Masonry  (1013),  and  The 
tipint  of  the  Common  Law  (1021). 

POWDEB,   SwoKhLhss.     See   EXPLOSIVES. 

POWELL,  K.  ALEXANDER  (1870-1025).  An 
Ameiican  author  and  war  correspondent,  born 
at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  ami  educated  in  Syracuse 
Univeisity  and  Oberlin  College.  During  the 
War  he  was  correspondent  for  daily  papers  in 
>.ew  York  and  London  and  for  tfcribner'tt  Maga- 
zine, and  served  with  distinction  in  the  army. 
His  books  include*  The  Last  Frontier  (1012); 
(tcntlcmni  JtorciR  (1013)  ;  Fighting  in  Flanders 
(1014);  Italy  at  War  (1017):  The  Army  Be- 
hind the  Armi/  (1010);  The  Xew  Frontier  of 
Freedom  (1020);  and  Asia  at  the  Crossroads 
(1022). 

POWELL,  JOHN  (1882-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can pianist  and  composer,  born  at  Richmond,  Va., 
and  educated  in  music  in  Vienna,  where  he 
studied  from  1002  to  1007  with  Leschetizky 
(piano)  and  NavrAtil  (composition).  After  his 
piaiustic  debut  in  Berlin  (1008)  he  played  in 
Vienna,  l^ondon,  and  Paris.  In  1012  he  returned 
to  his  native  country  and  made  his  American 
debut  in  Xew  York  He  later  made  frequent 
appearances,  chiefly  as  interpreter  of  his  own 
works.  While  his  compositions  have  titles  sug- 
gesting classical  forms,  the  contents  and  treat- 
ment are  very  free,  so  that  th?  works  give  the 
impression  of  being  improvised  rather  than 
logically  developed.  For  his  thematic  material 
he  made  extensive  use  of  negro  melodies  har- 
monized in  the  most  modern  fashion.  His 
works  comprise  a  concerto  for  piano  and  or- 
chestra; a  violin  concerto;  an  overture,  In  Old 
Virginia;  Rapsodie  ^cgre  for  piano  and  or- 
chestra, and  a  string  quartet.  His  piano  works, 
almost  exclusively  in  cyclical  forms,  include  four 
sonatas  (Virginiancsquc,  Psychology  quo,  Noble, 
Teulonica)  and  two  suites  (In  the  South  and 
At  Ihe  Fair). 

POWER,  FKEDERICK  HELDINQ  (1853-1927). 
An  American  chemist,  born  at  Hudson,  N.  Y., 
and  educated  at  the  Philadelphia  College  of 
Pharmacy  and  in  Strassburg.  During  1880-83 
he  had  charge  of  the  chemical  laboi  atories  of  the 
Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy  and  during 
1883-02  was  professor  of  pharmaceutical  chemj 
istry  and  materia  medica  at  the  University  of 
Wisconsin.  In  1892  he  became  director  of  the 
laboratories  of  Fritzsche  Brothers  and  in  1896 
accepted  an  appointment  in  the  Wellcome  Chem- 


POWEB  STATIONS 


1072 


PBBSBYTEBIAN  CHURCH 


ical  Research  Laboratories  of  London  which  he 
held  until  1916  when  he  returned  to  the  United 
States  and  was  given  charge  of  the  phytochemical 
laboratory  of  the  Chemical  Bureau  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  His  orig- 
inal researches  were  in  connection  with  phyto- 
chemistry  and  with  essential  and  fatty  oils,  espe- 
cially the  development  of  chaulmoogra  oil  as  a 
remedy  for  leprosy.  In  addition  to  many  scien- 
tific papers  he  was  associated  with  F.  Hoffman 
in  the  publication  of  the  Manual  of  Chemical 
Analysis  (1883). 

POWEB  STATIONS.  See  ELECTRIC  POWER 
STATIONS  AND  GENERATING  APPARATUS;  WATER 
POWER;  STEAM  TURBINES. 

PBANDTL,  LUDWIG  (1875-  ).  A  Ger- 
man scientist  in  charge  of  experimental  work 
on  aerodynamics  in  the  laboratory  at  Gottingen. 
He  published  with  C.  Wieselsberger  and  Dr.  A. 
Betz  Ergebnissc  der  Aerodynamischen  Versuchs- 
anstalt  zu  Gbttingen,  containing  heretofore  un- 
published results  of  experiments,  some  conducted 
during  the  War,  and  some  shortly  after  its 
termination.  He  is  best  known  for  the  Tech- 
nische  Berichte  included  in  his  book. 

PBATELLA,  BALILLA  (1880-  ).  An 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Lugo.  He  was  trained 
at  the  Liceo  Rossini  in  Pesaro,  taught  at  Cesena, 
and  in  11)10  became  director  of  the  Institute  di 
Musica  at  Lugo.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active 
of  the  extreme  futurists,  both  as  composer  and 
writer.  He  was  the  first  to  formulate  the  mus- 
ical creed  of  the  futurists,  as  early  as  1915  (see 
Mrsic,  Recent  Tendencies).  His  writings, 
mainly  attacks  on  established  standards  and  in- 
stitutions, offer  nothing  of  constructive  value. 
His  compositions  may  serve  as  practical  illus- 
trations of  his  theories.  He  wrote  the  operas 
Liha  (Lugo,  1D13),  La  8ina  di  Vargoun  (Bo- 
logna, 1919),  and  L' A  via  tore  di  Dro  (Lugo, 
1920)  ;  Romagna,  five  poems  for  orchestra;  La 
Guerra,  three  dances  for  orchestra;  Inno  a  Vita; 
chamber  music,  and  pieces  for  organ  and  for 
piano. 

PBATT,  EDWARD  EWING  (1886-  ).  An 
American  commercial  expert,  born  in  Streator, 
111.,  and  educated  at  Oberlin  College  (1906) 
and  at  Tulane  University.  For  several  years  he 
was  a  Fellow  of  the  Bureau  of  Social  Research 
in  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  From  1910  to 
1912  he  was  assistant  professor  of  economics  and 
statistics  at  the  New  York  School  of  Philan- 
thropy. He  was  special  investigator  for  im- 
portant industrial  and  economic  bureaus  in  New 
York  City,  and  from  1915  to  1917  was  chief  of 
the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce 
in  the  United  States  Department  of  Commerce. 
From  1920  he  was  engaged  in  business.  He  lec- 
tured on  foreign  trade  at  Columbia  University  in 
1921.  His  published  writings  include  Industrial 
Causes  of  Congestion  of  Population  in  New 
York  City  (1911)  and  Occupational  Diseases 
(1912),  besides  many  articles  on  foreign  trade 
and  industrial  betterment. 

PBATT,  JAMES  BISSETT  (1875-  ).  An 
American  professor  of  philosophy,  born  at  El- 
mi  ra,  N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  Williams  College 
and  Harvard  University.  In  1905  he  joined  the 
faculty  of  Williams.  With  Santayana,  Lovejoy, 
and  others  he  published  Essays  on  Critical  Real- 
ism (1920).  His  other  writings  are  concerned 
largely  with  the  philosophy  of  the  religious  life. 
They  include:  The  Psychology  of  Religious  Be- 
lief ( 1907) ;  What  Is  Pragmatism f  ( 1909) ;  In- 
dia and  Its  Faiths  ( 1915 ) ;  Democracy  and  Peace 


(1916);    The  Religious   Consciousness    (1918); 
and  Matter  and  Spirit  (1922). 

PBATT  INSTITUTE.  A  nonsectarian,  en- 
educational  institution  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  found- 
ed in  1887,  comprising  Schools  of  Fine  and  Ap- 
plied Arts,  Household  Science  and  Arts,  Science 
and  Technology,  and  Library  Science.  The  en- 
tering enrollment  for  1923-24  was  3722.  The 
faculty  consisted  of  4  directors,  153  instructors, 
and  approximately  05  lecturers.  The  library 
contained  109,098  volumes  in  1914  as  compared 
with  130,642  in  1923-24.  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees  and  executive  head  of  the  in- 
stitution. Frederic  B  Pratt;  Secretary  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees,  Charles  Pratt 

PRAY,  JAMES  STTTRCJIS  (1871-  ).  An 
American  landscape  architect.  In  1905-14  he 
was  assistant  professor  of  landscape  architecture, 
and  from  1914,  Charles  Eliot  Professor,  at  Har- 
vard University,  and  from  1908  chairman  of  the 
School  of  Landscape  Architecture.  From  1015 
to  1920  he  was  Harvard  adviser  to  the  Cambridge 
Planning  Board,  meanwhile  acting  (1917)  as 
city  planning  expert  in  laying  out  various  army 
cantonments,  and  planning  (1918)  United  States 
government  towns  for  munition  workers  In 
1920  he  became  chairman  of  the  National  Confer- 
ence on  Construction  in  Landscape  Architecture. 
He  was  a  member  of  many  architectural  so- 
cieties and  author  of  City  Planning,  with  Kim- 
ball  (1913). 

PREFERENTIAL  TABIFF.  See  BRITISH 
EMPIRE. 

PREHISTORIC  BACES  OF  MAN.  See 
MAN,  PREHISTORIC  KACES  OF;  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

PBEKINDEBOABTEN  SCHOOLS.  See 
EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

PBESBYTEBIAN  CHURCH.  The  Presby- 
terian Churches  comprise  10  branches,  as  fol- 
lows: Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America;  'Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  (South)  ;  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church;  United  Presbyterian  Church;  Colored 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  'Church ;  Welsh  Pres- 
byterian Church  (Calvinistic  Methodists,  united 
in  1920  with  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America)  ;  Associate  Reformed 
Presbyterian  Synod;  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  (Old  School);  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church,  (ierieral  Synod;  and  Associate  Synod  of 
North  America  (Associate  Presbyterian  Church) 
The  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  Churches  repre- 
sent those  features  of  the  Reformation  empha- 
sized by  Zwingli  and  Calvin. 

As  a  whole,  the  various  branches  of  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  showed  marked  growth  in  the 
years  between  1914  and  1924.  The  total  num- 
ner  of  members  in  the  United  States  increased 
from  2,083,617  in  1914  to  2,948,140  in  1922.  The 
members  and  adherents  of  the  Presbyterian  and 
Reformed  Churches  throughout  the  world,  all 
holding  the  presbyterian  system,  and  organized 
in  a  World  Alliance  for  purposes  of  fellowship 
and  cooperation,  increased  during  the  period 
from  35,000,000  to  more  than  41,000,000,  exclu- 
sive of  the  more  than  5,000,000  Reformed  Lu- 
therans. 

In  this  country  the  largest  of  the  Presby- 
terian churches  is  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  America.  Its  member- 
ship increased  from  1,458,085  in  1914  to  1,803,- 
593  communicants  in  1923,  and  the  number  of 
Sunday  school  scholars  from  1,318,628  to  1,499,- 
890.  The  number  of  churches  dropped  from  10,- 
130  to  9706,  and  the  number  of  ministers  was 


PRICES 


1073 


PRICES 


increased  from  0536  to  9979.  Contributions  in 
1914  totaled  $27,681,970,  and  in  1023  $50,430,- 
097.  Of  the  total  for  1914,  $2,401,972  was  con- 
tributed for  home  missions,  $1,562,800  for  for- 
eign missions,  $891,654  for  education,  and  $19,- 
771,05})  for  general  congregational  expenses; 
and  of  the  1923  total  $5,386,459  was  con- 
tributed for  home  missions,  $3,802,627  for 
foreign  missions,  $1,624,373  for  education, 
and  $35,501,050  for  congregational  expenses. 
The  denomination  maintained  11  theolog- 
ical seminaries  in  1914  and  13  in  1923.  The 
reports  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  showed 
a  decrease  between  1914  and  1923  from  27  to  26 
foreign  missions,  but  an  increase  from  165  to 
166  stations,  from  1226  to  1428  missionaries, 
from  5766  to  6856  native  helpers,  from  728  to 
1027  fully  organized  churches,  and  from  133,713 
to  178,290  communicants  The  number  of  mis- 
sion schools  fell  from  2074  in  1915  to  2034  in 
1920,  and  the  number  of  students  from  81,183  to 
78,733,  but  the  number  of  Sabbath  school  schol- 
ars increased  from  183,656  to  232,321,  and  the 
number  of  hospitals  and  dispensaries  from  165 
to  175.  In  1919,  the  church  launched  the  New 
Era  Movement,  designed  to  cultivate  the  inter- 
est and  support  of  the  church  for  its  missionary 
and  benevolent  enterprises.  Among  other  things, 
this  effort  was  responsible  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  increase  in  giving  for  the  10-year  period 
as  noted  above.  In  1023,  all  the  missionary  and 
benevolent  agencies  of  the  church  were  completely 
leorganized,  16  different  boards  and  agencies  be- 
ing combined  into  four  boards  as  follows:  The 
Board  of  National  Missions,  the  Board  of  For- 
eign Missions,  both  with  headquarters  at  156 
Fifth  Avenue,  New  York,  the  Board  of  Christian 
Education  and  the  Board  of  Ministerial  Relief 
and  Sustentation,  with  headquarters  at  the 
VYitherspoon  Building,  Philadelphia. 

For  many  years  the  General  Assembly  by 
formal  action  favored  the  union  of  all  the  Pres- 
byterian Churches  in  the  United  States.  Con- 
feiences  with  members  of  the  same  ecclesiastical 
family  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  General 
Council  of  the  Reformed  Churches,  by  which  co- 
operative work  was  being  conducted  (1024),  and 
that  with  a  view  to  ultimate  organic  union.  In 
1020  actual  union  with  the  Welsh  Calvinistic 
Church  was  effected.  In  1018  the  General  As- 
sembly proposed  a  conference  with  all  evangel- 
ical churches  looking  to  a  closer  unity,  but  the 
bodies  participating  for  the  most  part  concluded 
that  the  unity  desired,  for  the  present  at  least, 
can  be  secured  through  the  existing  Federal 
Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America. 
Overtures  for  union  with  the  Congregational 
Church  were  (1024)  under  consideration  by  com- 
missions appointed  by  the  two  bodies. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States, 
often  called  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church, 
became  a  distinct  denomination  in  1861.  It  in- 
creased its  membership  from  310,612  in  1014  to 
411,854  in  1023,  its  churches  from  3430  to  3402, 
and  the  number  of  its  ministers  from  1810  to 
2056.  Its  theological  seminaries  numbered  four 
in  1015,  and  five  In  1023. 

PRICES.  Changes  in  price  levels,  in  distinc- 
tion from  changes  in  the  cost  of  living,  are 
measured  customarily  from  differences  in  whole- 
sale prices  of  certain  commodities.  The  com- 
modities usually  selected  are  those  which  have 
been  available  in  the  markets  in  uniform  grade 
for  some  period  of  time  and  seem  likely  to  con- 
tinue to  be  so  available  in  the  future.  In  the 


United  States  the  more  important  index  num- 
bers for  wholesale  prices  are  those  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board,  The  Annalist,  Bradstreet,  Dun, 
and  the  somewhat  different  type  of  index  num- 
ber recently  established  by  Prof.  Irving  Fisher. 
Price  changes  in  Great  Britain  are  shown  by 
the  index  numbers  of  the  British  Board  of  Trade, 
The  Economist,  and  The  Statist  ( Sauerbeck ) . 
For  Canada,  we  have  the  index  number  of  the 
Dominion  Bureau  of  Statistics;  for  Australia, 
that  of  the  Commonwealth  Bureau  of  Census  and 
Statistics;  for  France,  that  of  the  Statistiquo 
Ge*ngrale;  for  Italy,  that  of  Prof.  Riccardo 
Bachi;  for  Japan,  that  of  the  Bank  of  Japan 
in  Tokyo.  Index  numbers  of  wholesale  prices 
are  available  also  in  many  other  countries. 
While  there  is  always  some  variation  in  the 
amount  of  change  shown  by  different  index  num- 
bers in  the  same  country  as  well  as  by  those  for 
different  countries,  according  to  the  kinds  of 
commodities  selected  as  the  basis  for  the  index 
number  and  the  way  in  which  the  prices  of  these 
commodities  happen  to  be  affected  by  current 
market  conditions,  there  was  a  surprising  uni- 
formity prior  to  the  War  in  the  price  trend 
shown  by  the  indexes  then  available.  Follow- 
ing a  world-wide  increase  in  prices  over  many 
years,  a  decrease  in  prices  began  about  1873  in 
all  countries  and  continued  until  about  180(i. 
An  upward  movement  then  began  and  was  still 
in  progress  in  1014. 

With  the  many  and  varied  economic  disturb- 
ances caused  by  the  War,  the  accurate  measure- 
ment of  changes  in  price  levels  became  increas- 
ingly difficult.  Prices  of  certain  articles  rose 
rapidly,  others  but  slightly.  Elaborate  systems 
of  price-fixing  were  established  in  many  coun- 
tries; fairly  high  prices  were  fixed  in  some  in- 
stances to  encourage  production,  and  in  other  in- 
stances fairly  lo\\  prices  were  fixed  to  check 
profiteering,  noth  in  connection  with  large  sales 
to  the  government  and  its  allies,  and  in  connec- 
tion with  retail  sales  to  consumers.  The  general 
effect  of  price  control  in  the  United  States  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  table  showing  index 
numbers  for  a  large  number  of  commodities 
brought  under  official  control  between  August, 
1917,  and  November,  1018,  in  comparison  with 
other  commodities  left  uncontrolled. 

WAR  INDUSTRIES  BO\RD  INDEX  NUMBER 
Separated  into  Controlled  and  Uncontrolled  Prices 

(Average   Prices,   July,   1913,   to  June,  1914  =  100) 

Controlled      Vnrontrollfd  Ml 

in  ice*  prices  commodities 

(573  (793  (1,366 

commodities)    commodities)  commodities) 

1913  Year   .      .        100  102  101 

1914  Year          .        100  <)7  99 

1915  Year                   102  102  102 

1916  Year      .             125  124  126 

1917  August              204  162  187 
September         205  163  186 
October              198  107  182 
November   .      200  172  183 
Decembei    ..    193  174  182 
Year                  188  156  175 

1918  January            195  178  185 
February    .  .    198  180  187 
Manh    '           197  182  188 
April         .         190  187  191 
May    ...      .192  189  190 

June     189  191  189 

July      ..      .    195  194  193 

August             199  195  196 

September    .    204  199  201 

October          .    201  201  201 

November     .   200  200  200 

Year     .      ..197  191  194 


PRICES 


1074 


PBINCB  EDWARD  ISLAND 


In  the  European  countries  especially  closely 
affected  by  the  War,  price  control  began  mucn 
earlier  than  in  the  United  States;  a  large  num- 
ber of  articles  were  usually  covered,  and  all 
price  rulings  were  carefully  enforced.  In  all 
countries,  however,  whether  or  not  there  was 
price  control,  uniform  tendencies  were  found  in 
price  trend,  indicating  the  strength  of  the  forces 
which  control  changes  in  price  levels  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  As  between  1913  and  1914,  almost 
no  change  in  price  level  was  shown.  A  signifi- 
cant and  continued  increase  beginning  in  1915 
culminated  about  October,  1918.  During  the 
winter  of  1918-19  there  were  slight  and  irregular 
fluctuations  in  prices,  followed  by  a  period  of 
rapid  increase,  until  the  peak  was  finally  reached 
during  the  summer  of  1920.  Prices  then  fell 
even  more  rapidly  during  a  year  and  up  to 
1924  remained  relatively  stationary  with  slight 
tendencies  toward  small  increases  in  most  coun- 
tries, the  exception  being  in  the  price  indexes  of 
countries  with  a  depreciating  paper  currency, 
where  obviously  a  marked  increase  in  prices  in 
paper  currency  may  be  shown  even  when  there 
has  been  a  decrease  in  purchasing  power  in  rela- 
tion to  a  fixed  monetary  standard.  The  differ- 
ences in  the  price  indexes  for  certain  countries 
before  and  after  conversion  to  a  gold  basis  are 
shown  by  the  following  price  indexes  of  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Board  of  the  United  States. 

FEDERAL  RESERVE  BOARD  WHOLESALE 
PRICE  INDEXES 

ON    PAPER    CURRENCY    BASIS 

United 

Year          States  England  France  Canada  Japan 

1913 100  100  100  100  100 

1919 211  241  207  235 

1920    .       239  310  512  250  240 

1921 149  198  344  167  181 

1922 158  165  319  149  182 

1923 164  170  394  150  188 

CONVERTED  TO  GOLD  BASIS 

United 

Tear         States  England  France  Canada  Japan 

1913 100  100  100  100  100 

1919  211  219  .  198  241 

1920 239  233  187  223  242 

1921 149  156  133  150  175 

1922 158  150  136  147  175 

1923 164  159  124  147  183 

Although,  as  has  been  indicated  above,  a  pol- 
icy of  price  fixing  was  adopted  during  the  War 
as  a  stimulus  to  production,  there  was  little 
tendency  to  continue  this  policy  longer  than 
necessary  for  war  purposes.  This  has  been  true 
also  with  reference  to  price  fixing  as  a  means  of 
protecting  purchasers  from  excessively  high 
prices  in  relation  to  costs  of  production  and 
distribution;  every  effort  was  usually  made  to 
restore  as  rapidly  as  possible  earlier  conditions 
of  price  control  through  free  and  open  competi- 
tion. The  acute  housing  shortage  in  many  coun- 
tries necessitated  the  protection  of  tenants  from 
rent  increases  until  additional  housing  construc- 
tion should  have  brought  available  supply  of 
houses  into  closer  relation  to  acute  demand  for 
housing  accommodations.  The  rent  restriction 
laws  which  were  enacted  in  a  number  of  Euro- 
pean countries  during  or  immediately  follow- 
ing the  War  tended  therefore  to  remain  in  force 
up  to  1924.  This  is  true  also  in  the  United 
States,  whore  the  New  York  legislature  voted 
almost  unanimously  in  1924  to  extend  until  1926 
the  emergency  rent  laws  applying  to  certain 
cities  where  a  housing  emergency  had  been  found 


to  exist.  In  the  District  of  Columbia  also  rent 
laws  were  in  operation,  but  elsewhere  in  the 
United  States  little  attempt  was  made  after 
the  War  to  control  prices  officially.  See  AGRI- 
CULTURAL CREDIT;  FINANCE  AND  BANKING. 

PRIESTLY,  HERBERT  INGRAM  (1875-  ). 
An  American  educator  and  historian,  born  at 
Fairfleld,  Mich.,  and  educated  at  the  University 
of  Southern  California.  He  taught  in  California 
for  several  years  and  from  1901  to  1904  was  a 
teacher  and  superintendent  of  schools  in  Luzon, 
P.  I.  Returning  to  the  United  States,  he  was 
superintendent  of  schools  and  teacher  in  Cali- 
fornia high  schools  until  1912,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed assistant  curator  of  the  Bancroft  Li- 
brary at  the  University  of  California.  In  1920 
he  was  librarian  and  also  associate  professor  of 
Mexican  history  at  that  university.  He  wrote 
t/08^  de  Qalvez,  Visitor-General  of  New  Spain, 
1165-71  (1910),  and  many  articles  on  Cali- 
fornian,  Mexican,  and  Spanish-American  history. 
In  1918  he  was  awarded  the  second  Lou  bat 
prize  at  Columbia  University  for  the  best  woik 
on  the  history  of  North  America  during  the 
colonial  period.  In  1920  he  became  editor  of 
The  American  historical  Revieii. 

PRIMITIVE  MAN.    See  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

PRINCE,  MORTON.  See  PSYCHOLOGY,  AB- 
NORMAL. 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND.  The  am  a  1  lent 
of  the  Canadian  provinces  with  an  area  of  2184 
square  miles.  In  1911,  the  population  was 
93,728;  in  1921  it  had  fallen  to  88,015,  or  a 
decrease  of  5.5  per  cent  The  rural  population 
was  still  preponderant  though  it  declined  as  a 
result  of  the  migrations  to  the  cities;  84  per 
cent  of  the  population  was  rural  in  1911,  and 
78.5  per  cent  in  1921.  Populations  of  the  prin- 
cipal cities  in  1921  were:  Charlottetown,  12,- 
347;  Summerside,  3228. 

Industry  and  Trade.  Of  the  total  1,397,990 
acres  in  the  province,  1,216,483  acres  were  oc- 
cupied as  farms.  Among  the  tield  crops  hay  and 
clover,  oats,  potatoes,  and  wheat  received  the 
most  attention.  Diversified  farming,  however, 
was  the  rule,  the  abundance  of  fodder  crops  mak- 
ing the  live-stock  industry  particularly  impor- 
tant. Stocks  increased  over  the  decade  1912-22 
so  that  in  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese 
the  province  was  able  to  rank  high  in  the  whole 
Dominion.  (In  the  manufacture  of  cheese  it 
stood  after  Ontario  and  Quebec.)  Total  value 
for  farm  products  was  $15,929,000  in  1923. 
Fox  breeding  continued  to  be  important  and 
yielded  about  $1,240,000  in  1922  in  pelts  and 
live  animals  sold  (pelts  alone,  $448,780).  The 
fish  catch  netted  $1,009,600  for  1922  as  com- 
pared with  $1,379,905  in  1913.  Lobsters  made 
up  three-fourths  of  the  total  and  were  canned  in 
local  establishments.  The  vast  oyster  areas 
owned  by  the  province  had  by  1922  still  proved 
unsuccessful  because  of  the  importation  of  dis- 
eased oysters  and  the  prevalence  of  pests.  Manu- 
facturing continued  on  a  small  scale.  In  1921 
the  446  establishments  represented  a  capital  of 
$2,452,820  ($2,013,365  in  1910),  employed  1098 
workers  and  added  $1,575,684  by  manufacture. 
Exports  to  foreign  countries  (1921-22)  amounted 
to  $415,870;  imports  for  consumption  to  $954,- 
549.  In  1922,  there  were  still  278  miles  of 
railways,  no  construction  having  been  done  in 
the  period* 

Government.  Revenues  for  1922  were  $748,- 
988;  in  1914  they  had  been  $525,555.  Expendi- 
tures for  1914  and  1922  were  $445,396  and  $687,- 


PRINCE  OF  WALES 


1075 


PROHIBITION 


241.  Expenditures  on  education  for  1013  were 
$261,641;  for  1022,  $428,860.  Women  were  en- 
franchised and  given  the  right  to  stand  for  the 
provincial  assembly.  Representation  in  Cana- 
dian Parliament:  House  of  Commons,  4;  Sen- 
ate, 4. 

PRINCE  OF  WALES.  See  EDWARD  ALBERT 
CHRISTIAN  GEORGE  ANDREW  PATRICK  DAVID, 
PRINCE  OF  WALES. 

PRINCETON  UNIVERSITY.  A  nonsec- 
tarian  institution  for  men  at  Princeton,  N.  J., 
founded  in  1740.  The  enrollment  increased  from 
1641  in  1914  to  2373  in  1922  when  a  limitation 
of  number  to  about  2000  undergraduates  was 
adopted  owing  to  lack  of  housing  and  teaching 
equipment.  In  1923,  the  total  undergraduate 
and  graduate  enrollment  was  2418.  During  the 
decade  the  productive  funds  of  the  university 
increased  from  $5,399,130  to  $12,760,650;  the 
faculty  increased  from  207  to  264;  the  library 
grew  from  320,701  to  409,506.  With  the  limita- 
tion of  enrollment  a  selective  process  was  insti- 
tuted by  uhich  admission  was  based  not  only  on 
scholarship  but  also  on  character. 

Shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  volun- 
tary military  training  was  organized  and  in 
1910  military  science  became  for  the  first  time 
a  part  of  the  curriculum.  Summer  camps  \\ere 
held  in  1917  and  1918.  The  United  States  School 
of  Milituiy  Aeronautics  was  opened  in  1917,  oc- 
cupying four  dormitories,  the  university  dining 
halls  and  Palmer  Physical  Laboratory,  and  dur- 
ing its  continuation  until  the  Armistice  3714 
cadets  were  registered,  of  whom  2458  were  grad- 
uated. In  1918  the  university  came  under  gov- 
ernment control  through  the  Student  Army 
Training  Corps  and  the  Naval  Unit.  In  the 
same  year  the  United  States  Navy  Department 
installed  in  the  Graduate  College  buildings  a 
Na\y  Pay  Officers  School  in  which  over  500 
men  were  enrolled.  A  Radio  Station  of  He- 
search,  a  Bureau  of  Medical  Research  and  a 
Bureau  of  the  Sound  Ranging  Service  of  the 
Army  occupied  other  university  buildings,  and 
extensive  investigations  in  explosives  and  poison 
gases  were  conducted  for  the  government  in  the 
chemical  laboratory.  Over  5500  graduates  and 
undergraduates  were  in  various  branches  of  gov- 
ernment service,  upwards  of  3000  being  commis- 
sioned officers;  150  died  in  the  War.  Memorial 
scholarships  were  founded  in  the  names  of  these 
men  As  a  continuation  of  the  Reserve  Officers 
Training  Corps  maintained  during  the  war  per- 
iod, a  Reserve  Officers  Training  Corps  in  Field 
Artillery  was  instituted  after  the  War,  commis- 
sioning selected  students,  on  graduation,  to  serve 
as  reserve  officers  in  the  United  States  Army. 

The  necessary  reconstruction  of  the  university 
on  a  more  substantial  financial  basis  led  to  a 
campaign  for  increasing  its  endowment.  Of  the 
$14,000,000  set  as  a  goal,  a  total  of  $9,857,559 
had  been  pledged  and  a  sum  of  $7,513,593  col- 
lected by  December,  1923. 

The  executive  and  administrative  departments 
of  the  university  were  reorganized  with  a  view  to 
better  coordination,  and  a  system  of  cost  ac- 
counting was  installed,  marking  a  new  departure 
in  university  finance.  Faculty  autonomy  and 
sympathetic  cooperation  between  the  board  of 
trustees  and  the  faculty  developed  to  a  degree 
remarkable  in  academic  history.  All  questions 
of  academic  policy  were  discussed  in  joint  council 
through  a  Conference  Committee;  a  plan  for 
systematizing  faculty  appointments,  salaries, 
promotions,  retirement  and  pension  was  in  opera- 


tion; ^the  faculty  had  a  voice  in  nominating  ita 
committees;  representatives  of  the  faculty  sat 
with  the  Trustees'  Committee  on  Honorary  De- 
grees; and  the  rights  of  the  individual  in  cases 
of  dismissal  were  safeguarded.  Student  self- 
government  made  marked  progress  through  the 
Student  Honor  Committee  and  the  Committee  on 
the  Spirit  of  the  Honor  System  and  the  partici- 
pation of  the  Senior  Council  in  matters  of  disci- 
pline. The  Graduate  Council  was  enlarged  and 
a  National  Alumni  Association  centralized  in 
one  organization  the  54  alumni  associations  in 
the  country,  the  Council  remaining  the  execu- 
tive core  of  the  new  body  The  alumni  trustees 
of  the  university  were  increased  from  five  to 
eight,  elected  two  each  year  by  the  alumni,  to 
represent  regional  districts  and  to  serve  four 
years.  President,  John  Orier  Hibben,  Ph.D., 
D.D. 

PRODUCERS'  COOPERATION.  See  CO- 
OPERATION . 

PROHIBITION.  Prohibition  is  the  term 
generally  used  throughout  the  United  States  to 
describe  governmental  prohibition  of  the  manu- 
facture, sale,  and  transportation  of  intoxicating 
beverages.  As  an  outgrowth  of  the  temperance 
and  anti-saloon  rmnements  of  many  preceding 
decades,  it  became  one  of  the  outstanding  issues 
of  the  decade  bince  1914.  Mjany  believe  that 
prohibition  by  legislation  and  amendment  was 
precipitated  by  the  War.  Federal  or  national 
prohibition  is  tlie  culmination  of  various  efforts 
to  regulate  and  restrict  the  liquor  traffic  and  is 
a  sequence  to  cumulative  local  and  State  pro- 
hibition The  term  prohibition  is  being  used 
to  include  activities  similar  to  those  just  men- 
tioned when  they  occur  in  other  countries. 

Local  and  State  Prohibition.  Prohibition 
early  became  effective  through  the  exercise  by 
communities  of  the  privilege  of  "local  option" 
in  this  matter,  as  extended  to  them  through 
State  legislation.  In  time,  this  local  option  ex- 
tended to  districts  and  to  States;  and  until 
1914  it  was  the  prevailing  form  of  prohibition 
in  the  United  States.  State-wide  prohibition, 
by  legislation  and  constitutional  amendment, 
spread  rapidly  during  the  first  few  years  of  the 
decade  1914-24.  At  the  close  of  1913  only  nine 
States  had  "gone  dry."  Eight  of  these,  Maine, 
North  Dakota,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  North  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  and  Mississippi,  had  adopted  State- 
wide prohibition  before  1910;  \Nest  Virginia 
joined  the  procession  in  1912.  In  some  of  these 
States  the  early  enforcement  legislation  proved 
inadequate,  and  the  States  did  not  have  what 
was  commonly  called  "bone-dry"  legislation  until 
a  later  date.  In  Georgia,  for  instance,  a  State 
prohibition  law  was  enacted  in  1907  and  became 
effective  in  1908,  but  the  enforcement  was  lax 
until  more  drastic  prohibition  legislation,  passed 
in  1915,  became  effective  in  1910;  and  even  after 
this  a  so-called  bone-dry  law  was  passed  in  1917 
at  a  special  session  of  the  Legislature  called  to 
consider  this  issue.  In  1914,  four  more  States, 
Colorado,  Oregon,  Virginia,  and  Washington, 
brought  the  total  to  13;  and  in  1915,  three  more 
States,  Alabama,  Arizona,  and  South  Carolina, 
made  the  total  16.  Alabama  had  enacted  statu- 
tory prohibition  in  1909  which  was  practically 
repealed  in  1911  and  redacted  in  1915.  In  1916, 
seven  additional  States,  Arkansas,  Idaho,  Iowa, 
Michigan,  Montana,  Nebraska,  and  South  Da- 
kota, made  a  total  of  23,  one  less  than  half  the 
number  of  States  in  the  United  States,  but  prin- 
cipally the  less  densely  populated  southern  and 


PROHIBITION 


1076 


PBOHIBITION 


western  States.  In  other  States  there  had  been 
a  rapid  extension  of  local  prohibition  under  local 
option  so  that  some  of  these  States  were  half 
and  a  few  three-quarters  dry  territorially.  All 
of  this  occurred  before  the  United  States  entered 
the  War  in  1917.  State-wide  prohibition  con- 
tinued to  spread  steadily,  and  before  the  Federal 
amendment  had  become  effective  in  1920,  State- 
wide prohibition  had  carried  in  10  more  States. 
Four  of  these,  Indiana,  New  Hampshire,  New 
Mexico,  and  Utah,  went  dry  in  1917;  four,  Flor- 
ida, Nevada,  Ohio,  and  Wyoming,  in  1918;  and 
two,  Kentucky  and  Texas,  in  1919.  The  amend- 
ments and  legislation  in  many  of  these  States 
did  not  become  effective  until  the  year  following 
its  adoption,  and  in  several  cases  not  until  the 
second  year  thereafter.  Prior  to  the  time  that 
the  national  prohibition  amendment  became  ef- 
fective, 33  States  had  adopted  some  form  of 
State-wide  prohibition,  and  many  of  the  States 
had  supplemented  their  early  legislation  with 
bone-dry  legislation.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  dry  territory  at  this  time  contained  about 
two-thirds  of  the  population  of  the  United  States, 
for  some  of  the  more  densely  populated  States, 
so  far  as  State  legislation  was  concerned,  re- 
mained "wet"  until  they  came  under  Federal 
prohibition.  Considerable  sections  of  these  15 
wet  States  were,  however,  under  local  prohibi- 
tion. In  21  of  the  33  dry  States,  the  issue  had 
been  decided  by  popular  vote,  and  in  12  by  the 
respective  State  Legislatures. 

Federal  Prohibition  Legislation.  Federal 
action  on  this  issue  began  in  1913  when  the  prohi- 
bitionists attained  a  majority  in  Congress,  which 
up  to  1924  they  had  never  lost.  The  first  act  was 
the  passage  of  the  Webb-Kenyon  Inter-State  Liq- 
uor Shipment  Act  over  the  veto  of  the  President 
of  the  United  States.  This  act  made  illegal  the 
shipment  of  liquor  from  a  wet  to  a  dry  State. 
'Although  President  Taft  vetoed  the  bill  because 
in  his  opinion  it  was  unconstitutional,  the  Su- 
preme Court  handed  down  a  decision  (Jan.  8, 
1917)  upholding  its  constitutionality.  Shortly 
after  this  decision,  the  Alaska  Prohibition  Act 
and  the  Porto  Rico  Prohibition  Referendum  were 
passed.  The  former  placed  Alaska  under  pro- 
hibition, the  citizens  of  that  Territory  having  ex- 
pressed their  preference  in  a  vote  in  1916.  The 
latter  provided  for  a  vote  on  the  matter  in 
Porto  Rico,  and  at  a  special  election  (July  10, 
1917),  prohibition  was  adopted,  the  legisla- 
tion becoming  effective  Mar.  2,  1918.  On  Mar. 
3,  1917,  the  President  signed  the  District  of 
Columbia  Prohibition  Bill  which  became  effec- 
tive Nov.  1,  1917.  As  a  result  of  activities  led 
by  Senator**  Reed  and  Jones  and  by  Representa- 
tive Randall,  there  were  passed  as  amendments 
to  the  Post  Office  Appropriation  Bill  provisions 
whereby  the  United  States  mails  were  closed  to 
all  advertisements  of  the  sale  of  alcoholic  bev- 
erages, including  letters  or  newspapers  contain- 
ing the  same,  when  addressed  to  any  person, 
firm,  corporation,  or  association  in  any  State 
or  Territory  where  the  sale  and  manufacture  of 
intoxicating  liquors  had  been  prohibited.  These 
amendments  included  what  was  in  effect  an  ex- 
tended and  more  definite  statement  of  (be  in- 
tent of  the  Webb-Kenyon  Act.  This  legislation 
was  also  approved  by*  the  President  on  Mar.  3, 
1917.  In  1919  Senator  Sheppard  added  an 
amendment  to  the  revenue  bill  under  consider- 
ation by  the  Senate,  which,  being  adopted,  made 
these  Reed-Jones-Randall  provisions  effective 
with  respect  to  the  District  of  Columbia.  Dur- 


ing the  War  a  number  of  emergency  measures, 
restrictive  and  prohibitive,  were  passed,  aiming 
to  conserve  the  food  and  fuel  supply  and  to  pro- 
tect the  efficiency  of  the  army  and  navy  and  of 
the  workers  in  the  war  industries.  Among  these 
was  the  War  Prohibition  Act,  passed  Nov  21, 
1918,  and  effective  in  July,  1919,  which  forbade 
until  demobilization  had  been  completed  the 
sale  for  beverage  purposes  of  distilled,  malt,  or 
vinous  intoxicating  liquors.  This  act  continued 
to  function  until  the  Eighteenth  Amendment  be- 
came effective. 

The  Eighteenth  Amendment.  The  general 
movement  for  Federal  prohibition  registered  it- 
self in  1914  when  a  resolution  pioposing  a  con- 
stitutional amendment  received  a  majority  vote 
in  the  House,  and  in  1916  when  such  a  motion 
was  reported  by  committee  in  the  Senate.  A 
resolution  submitting  to  the  States  a  national 
prohibition  amendment  to  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  was  adopted  by  the  Senate 
on  Aug.  1,  1917,  by  a  vote  of  05  to  20,  and  passed 
with  slight  amendments  by  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives on  Dec.  17,  191*7.  by  a  vote  of  282  to 
128.  The  day  following,  the 'Senate  concurred, 
and  the  resolution  was  adopted.  The  article 
of  the  joint  resolution  which  is  now  Article 
A VII I  of  the  Amendments  to  the  Constitution 
was  and  is  us  follows: 

1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article 
the    manufacture,    sale    or    transportation    thereof    into, 
or  the  exportation   thereof  from  the   United  States  and 
all    territory    subject    to    the    jurisdiction    thereof,    for 
beverage   purposes,    is   hereby   prohibited. 

2.  The   Congress    and   the   several    States    shall   have 
concurrent  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

3.  Thm    article    shall    bo    inoperative    unlesi    it    shall 
have  been  ratified  as  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution 
by  the  Legislatures   of   the  several   States,   as  provided 
by  the   Constitution   within   seven  years   from   the  date 
of  the  nubuiission  hereof  to  the  States  by  the  Congress. 

The  Legislatures  of  the  necessary  three-fourths 
(36)  of  the  States  had  ratified  t*he  amendment 
on  Jan.  10,  101!).  The  ratification  was  pro- 
claimed by  the  Secretary  of  State  on  January  20. 
Since  that  time  10  additional  States  have  'rati- 
fied. The  States  that  have  not  ratified  are 
Rhode  Island  nnd  Connecticut. 

Federal  Enforcement  Legislation.  The  Na- 
tional Prohibition  Act.  commonly  known  as  the 
Volstead  Act,  was  passed  by  Congress  and  sub- 
mitted to  the  President,  who  vetoed  it  on  Oct. 
27,  1919.  The  same  day  the  House  voted  to  pass 
over  the  veto:  yeas,  176;  nays,  55;  answering 
present,  3;  not  voting,  197.  The  next  day  the 
Senate  voted  to  pass  over  the  executive  veto: 
yeas,  65;  nays,  20:  not  voting,  11.  This  act 
fixed  one-half  of  1  per  cent  as  the  maximum 
of  alcohol  in  11011  intoxicating  beverages.  It 
placed  responsibility  for  enforcement  with  the 
"Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue  and  his  as- 
sistants." They  were  to  "investigate  violations" 
and  to  "report  to  the  local  United  States  At- 
torney," who  must  "prosecute  offenders  under 
the  Attorney  General's  direction."  The  law 
provided  for  drastic  enforcement  of  the  amend- 
ment and  established  strict  regulation  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  liquor  for  the  few  specific  uses  per- 
mitted by  the  law.  The  United  States  Supreme 
Court  on  June  7,  1920,  in  a  unanimous  decision 
sustained  the  validity  of  the  Eighteenth  Amend- 
ment and  of  the  Vo1  stead  Act. 

The  Enforcement  Unit.  The  Prohibition 
Unit  is  a  complex  body  with  ramifications 
through  the  executive  departments.  Its  organ- 
ization has  been  much  criticized  on  this  score 


PROHIBITION 


1077 


PROHIBITION 


and  the  consequent  possibilities  of  "passing  the 
buck."  It  has  been  defended  on  the  count  that 
all  these  agencies  are  needed  for  approaches  to 
effective  enforcement.  The  Federal  Prohibition 
Commissioner  is  under  the  Commissioner  of  In- 
ternal Revenue,  who  is  under  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  who  derives  his  policies  from  the 
President  of  the  United  States.  He  works  with 
postal  inspectors,  the  Bureau  of  Investigation 
of  the  Department  of  Justice,  the  Secret  Service 
of  the  Treasury  Department,  the  internal  rev- 
enue officers  in  charge  of  income  tax,  custom  of- 
ficers and  the  Coast  Guard.  The  principal  weak- 
ness lies  in  the  fact  that  the  apprehension  of 
violators  is  in  one  government  department,  and 
their  prosecution  is  in  another.  This  division  of 
responsibility  raises  obvious  questions  as  to 
efficiency 

Adjustments  of  State  and  National  Regu- 
lation. Prior  to  the  decade  1914-24,  prohibition 
enforcement  had  been  a  right  and  privilege  of 
the  several  States.  The  provision  of  "concur- 
rent power"  in  prohibition  of  alcoholic  drinks 
and  narcotics  brought  up  some  very  involved 
problems  of  adjusting  the  relations  of  two  gov- 
ernments acting  in  legal  independence  in  the 
same  territory.  The  repeal  of  the  New  York 
prohibition  law  87  caused  considerable  stir  and 
loft  that  State  with  only  the  Volstead  Act  as 
a  means  of  enforcing  the  Eighteenth  Amend- 
ment. Nevada,  having  repealed  her  old  acts, 
was  embarrassed  when  her  Supreme  Court  de- 
clared her  new  act  unconstitutional  and  thus 
left  her  in  much  the  same  plight  as  New  York. 
Among  the  most  interesting  adjustments  of  State 
law  aie  the  following.  Pennsylvania  defines  as 
intoxicating  beverages  those  so  declared  by  "Acts 
of  Congress  passed  .  .  .  from  time  to  time." 
In  Illinois,  if  death  results  from  poisonous  liquor 
sold  "for  beverage  purposes*'  the  sale  is  mur- 
der. Similar  legislation  has  been  passed  in 
Oklahoma  and  Tennessee,  and  in  Iowa  the  sale 
or  giving  is  manslaughter.  Oregon  180  opens 
the  State  courts  to  abate  nuisances  under  the 
national  act,  and  either  State's  attorneys  or  Fed- 
eral officers  may  prosecute.  One  of  the  most 
conspicuous  incidents  of  Federal-State-municipal 
cooperation  was  in  Philadelphia,  where  Gov- 
ernor Pinchot,  Mayor  Kendrick,  and  General 
Butler  effected  a  signally  drastic  enforcement. 

Anti-Saloon  League  of  America.  The 
agency  moie  responsible  than  any  other  for  lead- 
ership in  the  State  and  national  prohibition  leg- 
islation during  the  decade  was  the  Anti-Saloon 
League  of  America.  Organized  in  May,  1893,  it 
is  frequently  described  as  "the  church  in  action 
against  the  saloon."  It  is  properly  credited, 
both  by  its  friends  and  its  enemies,  as  having 
been  chiefly  responsible  for  the  rapidly  increasing 
sentiment  in  favor  of  prohibition.  It  is  organ- 
ized by  States  and  acts  as  an  agent  for  the 
churches  in  matters  concerning  the  annihilation 
of  the  liquor  traffic.  The  League  established 
national  propaganda  headquarters  at  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  in  1915,  and  in  1010  it  launched  the 
national  campaign  for  the  amendment  of  the 
Fedeial  Constitution.  Tt  has  kept  corps  of 
trained  men  at  the  national  and  at  State  capitals 
to  represent  its  constituency.  It  has  examined 
the  practices  of  representatives  of  the  people 
and  inquired  into  the  attitude  of  candidates  for 
public  office,  insofar  as  these  related  to  prohibi- 
tion, and  opposed  those  who  did  not,  regardless 
of  party  affiliation.  Since  the  adoption  of  the 
Eighteenth  Amendment  and  the  passage  of  the 


Volstead  Act,  it  has  turned  its  energies  to  the 
difficult  task  of  promoting  law  enforcement,  to 
project  a  programme  of  Americanization,  and  to 
carry  on  the  work  of  prohibition  in  foreign 
countries.  For  the  latter  purpose,  the  World 
League  against  Alcoholism  has  been  formed. 
The  avowed  purpose  of  the  new  organization  is 
"to  attain  by  means  of  education  and  legislation 
the  total  suppression  throughout  the  world  of 
alcoholism."  It  pledges  itself  to  "avoid  affili- 
ations with  any  political  party  as  such,  and  to 
maintain  an  attitude  of  strict  neutrality  on  all 
questions  of  public  policy,  not  directly  'and  im- 
mediately concerned  with  the  traffic  in  alcoholic 
beverages." 

Opposition.  There  has  been  much  opposition 
ranging  from  unreasonable  pressure  of  self-in- 
terest to  rational  judgments  concerning  the  beat 
interests  of  public  welfare.  Among  the  latter 
are  the  "laissez-faire"  group  who  generally  op- 
pose governmental  control,  those  who  oppose 
all  laws  tending  to  fix  status,  those  who  oppose 
Federal  action  in  what  has  been  hitherto  a 
States'  right,  those  \*ho  oppose  the  use  of  the 
Federal  Constitution  for  what  they  regard  as  a 
legislative  function,  and  those  who  are  opposed 
to  the  Volstead  Act  as  a  method  or  as  an  in- 
terpretation of  the  amendment.  Tlenry  W.  Jes- 
sup  stated  that  "if  the  Federal  government  has 
the  right  to  make  a  sumptuary  law  of  any  de- 
scription, it  will  have  a  right  to  make  sump- 
tuary laws  of  every  description "  President 
Nicholas  Murray  Butler  of  Columbia  University 
claimed  that  "the  amendment  introduces  for  the 
first  time  a  specific  and  almost  unamendable 
and  irrepealable  police  regulation  into  a  docu- 
ment whose  purpose  was  to  set  up  a  form  of 
government  and  limit  its  powers."  He  further 
said  that  it  is  generally  admitted  that  "the 
Amendment  itself  is  not  only  a  violation  of  the 
principles  on  which  our  government  rests,  but 
a  revolutionary  departure  from  them."  There 
is  also  considerable  popular  opposition  which 
hangs  on  to  slogans  and  shibboleths,  many  of 
which  have  little  or  no  basis  in  fact  and  are 
principally  clever  inventions  of  propagandists. 

Labor  Attitude.  The  American  Federation 
of  Lal>or,  "as  the  spokesman  of  the  unorganized 
as  well  as  of  the  organized  toilers,"  published 
a  statement  that  it  had  been  "decided  by  unan- 
imous vote  in  its  comention  held  in  Denver  in 
June,  1021,  that  the  Volstead  Enforcement  Act 
must  be  modified  so  as  to  promote  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  beer  and  light  wines."  They 
claimed  the  act  to  be  "an  improper  interpreta- 
tion of  the  piohibition  amendment — a  social 
and  a  moral  failure — a  dangerous  breeder  of  dis- 
content and  of  contempt  for  all  law  "  In  a 
poll,  however,  of  326  labor  leaders  taken  by  The 
Literary  Digest  in  March,  1920,  345  voted  that 
prohibition  was  a  benefit  to  the  workingman, 
143  voted  that  it  was  not,  31  were  doubtful,  and 
7  claimed  that  it  had  not  had  a  fair  trial. 

Social  and  Economic  Consequences  of 
Prohibition.  Many  statistics  have  been  com- 
piled in  order  to  prove  both  the  good  and  the 
ill  effects  of  prohibition.  Coming  as  it  did  at 
the  close  of  the  War,  when  all  the  social 
and  economic  factors  were  disturl>ed  and  all 
indices  were  turbulent,  it  is  difficult  to  prove 
just  what  are  postwar  and  what  are  postpro- 
hibitiou  reactions.  The  very  careful  studies 
compiled  by  the  llescarrh  Department  of  the 
Federal  Council  of  Churches  of  Christ  in  Amer- 
ica are  the  most  significant  available.  The 


PROHIBITION 


1078 


PRO: 


TION 


studies  have  included  an  analysis  of  crime, 
deaths  from  alcoholism  and  cirrhosis  of  the 
liver,  alcoholic  psychoses,  drunkenness,  savings, 
poverty  and  relief,  and  all  the  other  vital  social 
changes  which  might  have  been  consequences  of 
prohibition  Although  the  period  of  time  is 
short,  the  data  limited  and  not  too  good,  and 
the  researches  as  yet  far  from  complete,  there 
seems  to  be  a  "typical  curve"  of  beneficial  ef- 
fects, especially  in  the  northeastern  industrial 
and  densely  populated  areas  most  affected  by  na- 
tional prohibition.  This  "typical  curve"  seems 
to  indicate  a  maximum  benefit  from  prohibition 
in  1920  and  a  regression  of  benefit  since  that 
time  but  not  as  yet  a  regression  to  preprohibi- 
tion  conditions.  It  is  presumed  that  this  regres- 
sion \\as  in  part  due  to  increased  traffic  in  and 
consumption  of  alcoholic  beverages. 

Law  Observance  Campaign.  This  tendency 
toward  disregard  of  the  prohibition  laws,  to- 
gether with  a  general  tendency  to  regard  all  law 
more  lightly,  called  forth  protests  and  various 
demands  for  the  observance  of  law  and  order. 
The  outstanding  activities  were  those  inaugu- 
rated by  the  Citizenship  Conference  held  in  \\  ash- 
ington,  D.  C..  iu  October,  1023.  Called  by  Fred 
Smith,  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  Federal 
Council  of  Churches,  it  assembled  delegates  who 
represented  nearly  every  phase  of  religious,  edu- 
cational, social,  and  welfare  organizations,  as 
well  as  commercial  and  labor  bodies  It  op- 
posed the  alleged  prevailing  tendency  toward 
disregard  of  law  and  the  unique  attacks  on  the 
Eighteenth  Amendment  and  Volstead  Act  which 
tended  to  nullify  them.  This  body  organized 
permanently  as  the  Citizenship  Committee  of 
One  Thousand. 

Effects  of  Prohibition.  It  was  impossible 
in  1924  to  record  many,  if  indeed  any,  of  the 
permanent  important  social  changes  that  have 
resulted  from  the  adoption  of  prohibition  as  a 
national  public  policy.  Considerable  time  is  re- 
quired before  the  more  fundamental  social  and 
economic  changes  consequent  on  so  extensive  a 
social  adjustment  properly  register  themselves. 
Observations  at  this  time  were  necessarily 
limited  to  the  consideration  of  the  most  imme- 
diate and  perhaps  the  least  significant  effects. 
Any  attempt  to  appraise  properly  the  more  re- 
mote effects  must  be  based  on  opinions  of  es- 
timable men  concerning  these  probabilities.  In 
respect  to  the  more  immediate  effects,  it  was 
generally  conceded  that  there  was  little  trust- 
worthy evidence  available  and  that  most  of  the 
so-called  evidence  was  more  nearly  propaganda 
or  was  at  least  colored  by  "wishful  thinking," 
however  honestly  it  might  have  been  intended. 
Jt  is  very  worth  while  to  inquire  as  to  the  ef- 
fect which  the  prohibition  activities  have  actu- 
ally had  on  the  consumption  of  alcoholic  bever- 
ages. Until  the  facts  regarding  consumption 
are  established  it  is  difficult  to  draw  conclusions 
as  regards  changes  due  to  diminished  consump- 
tion. 

The  Consumption  of  Liquor  since  Prohi- 
bition. The  consumption  of  liquors  has  been 
of  two  sorts,  legal  and  illegal.  The  former 
covers  especially  consumption  for  medicinal  and 
sacramental  purpoues  and  conversion  for  indus- 
trial alcohol  The  latter  included  irregular 
withdrawals  from  warehouses,  domestic  man- 
ufacture, and  smuggling  The  facts  regard- 
ing the  withdrawal  of  bonded  liquors  from 
bonded  warehouses  are  comparatively  definite. 
The  "peak"  of  the  annual  withdrawals  of  liquor 


of  this  sort  occurred  in  1917,  during  which  year 
160,000,000  gallons  were  taken  out  of  bond.  In 
1923  about  11,000,000  gallons  were  thus  with- 
drawn. At  the  beginning  of  the  decade  there 
were  285,000,000  gallons  in  bond  and  in  1923 
but  45,000,000.  It  is  self-evident  that  this 
source  of  supply  could  not  long  continue,  and 
the  activities  of  the  Enforcement  Unit  were 
operating  to  make  more  difficult  the  removal 
of  the  balance  for  illicit  purposes  The  com- 
mercial manufacture  of  high  alcoholic  drinks 
seemed  to  have  been  abandoned  by  almost  all  of 
those  engaged  in  this  business  prior  to  1920. 
The  consumption  of  beer  is  quite  another  mat- 
ter. Prior  to  prohibition,  beer  constituted  by 
volume  00  per  cent  of  the  liquor  consumed  in  the 
United  States  The  American  Brewers*  Associ- 
ation estimated  that  the  total  1924  production 
of  beer  was  about  20  per  cent  of  what  it  for- 
merly was,  and  there  are  reasons  for  believing 
that  this  is  a  fairly  liberal  estimate  Credit- 
able estimates  place  the  number  of  brewers 
brewing  "beer  substitutes"  at  about  one-third  of 
the  number  of  prepiohibition  brewers.  Some  of 
these  claimed  to  be  operating  at  a  loss,  with  a 
hope  that  the  one-half  per  cent  maximum  al- 
coholic content  fixed  by  the  Volstead  Act  might 
be  raised.  Many  breweries  were  manufacturing 
"near  beer/'  advertised  us  "brewed  exactly  as 
before."  It  was  made  exactly  as  before,  but  the 
excessive  alcoholic  content  nad  to  be  distilled 
off  before  the  lieer  left  the  breweries.  An  exact 
check-up  of  this  latter  process  presented  many 
difficulties,  and  even  when  it  was  accomplished, 
consumers  and  "bootleggers"  contrived  in  vari- 
ous ways  to  restore  the  alcoholic  content 

"Home-brew"  activities  spread  rapidly.  All 
efforts  to  gauge  their  extent  in  the  aggregate 
were  relatively  futile.  The  various  studies  made 
of  the  consumption  of  commodities  essential  to 
home  brew,  such  as  malt,  rye,  hops,  yeast,  etc., 
and  of  the  sale  of  apparatus  for  the  purpose, 
were  full  of  errors  and  of  doubtful  hypotheses. 
There  was  much  illicit  manufacture  of  wines. 
This  was  somewhat  reflected  in  the  enormous 
traflic  in  grapes,  which,  however,  must  be  con- 
sidered also  in  relation  to  the  general  increase 
in  the  traflic  in  fruits  and  the  increased  use  of 
grapes  for  unfermented  grape-juice  products. 
The  Secretary  of  the  United  States  Brewers'  As- 
sociation estimated  that  the  shipments  of  grapes 
from  California,  New  York,  Michigan,  and  Penn- 
sylvania in  1922  would  make  over  1,250,000 
gallons  of  wine.  There  were  many  ramifications 
of  these  activities,  some  of  which  were  merely 
more  extensive  activity  in  ancient  practices  such 
as  the  making  of  hard  cider  and  of  "apple-jack." 
Many  prominent  social  workers  were  inclined 
to  look  on  these  activities,  especially  home-brew- 
ing, as  temporary  reactions;  novelties  which 
were  troublesome,  expensive,  a  general  nuisance, 
and  which  at  best  yielded  unsatisfactory  prod- 
ucts of  amateurs  They  did,  however,  furnish 
a  very  considerable  supply  of  alcoholic  beverages 
for  local  consumption. 

The  manufacture  of  synthetic  liquors,  com- 
monly called  "hootch,"  resulted  in  much  sick- 
ness and  many  deaths.  About  80,000  samples 
of  alcoholic  liquors  were  examined  during  the 
year  1922-23.  In  his  report  to  the  Prohibition 
Commissioner  dated  Apr.  24,  1923,  Dr.  Doran, 
head  of  the  industrial  alcohol  and  chemical  di- 
vision of  the  Prohibition  Unit,  stated  that  "it 
is  noticeable  that  the  percentage  of  genuine 
whisky  in  all  the  samples  examined  in  our 


PBOHIBITION 

laboratories   is   not  as  great  a 
mouths  or  a  year  ago 


5000  samples  of  distilled  spirits  submitted  to 
the  laboratory  during  the  last  six  months  not 
over  50,  or  1  per  cent,  are  genuine  whisky." 
Smuggling  activities  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
and  over  the  Canadian  bordei  served  as  a  source 
of  supply  for  a  lively  bootlegging  industry  in  the 
noitheastem  section  of  the  United  States.  This 
fact  was  geneially  admitted  by  both  the  enemies 
and  friends  of  prohibition.  It  was  of  course 
dillicult  to  estimate  the  extent  of  these  activities. 
The  business  seemed  to  be  of  such  hi/c  as  to  ab- 
sorb the  heavy  losses  which  came  through 
frequent  large  Hcizures  and  consequent  penalties. 
In  1018  importations  of  spirituous  liquors  into 
the  nearby  Bahama  Islands  wus  negligible;  in 
1920  it  amounted  to  160,000  proof  gallons,  and 
data  compiled  by  the  British  Premiei  made  it 
about  twice  that  amount  for  1022,  a  rather  good 
supply  for  a  veiy  small  base.  Enforcement  of- 
ficials looked  for  a  reduction  in  smuggling  as  a 
result  of  treaty  arrangements  and  a  bieaking-up 
of  the  "rum  row"  by  the  strengthening  in  si/e 
and  speed  of  the  Coast  Guaid  as  a  result  of  ap- 
propriations made  by  Congiebs  on  Apr.  2, 
1024.  A  convention  signed  with  the  Canadian 
government  in  June,  1024,  ai  ranged  for  coopei- 
ation  in  suppressing  illicit  traflic  in  liquors  and 
narcotics  between  the  two  countries. 

Research,  In  no  issue  of  its  size  before  the 
public  was  it  so  difficult  to  obtain  accurate,  com- 
preheiibhe  information  in  regard  to  social  and 
economic  consequences,  as  in  this.  Researches  of 
the  Federal  Council  of  Churches  ie\ealed  a  dis- 
tressing paucity  of  unprejudiced  data.  An  ex- 
tensive and  intensive  research  for  the  enlight- 
enment of  public  opinion  on  the  immediate  and 
probable  remote  effects  of  prohibition  was 
needed 

Liquor  Regulation  in  Other  Countries. 
In  Canada,  some  of  the  provinces  had  prohibi- 
tion; some,  regulation.  Prohibition  was  in  ef- 
fect in  1024  in  Prince  Edward  Island  (1007); 
Saskatchewan  (10ir>)  ;  Alberta  and  Nova  Scotia 
(li)l(i);  New  Brunswick  and  Newfoundland 
(11117);  Yukon  Territory  (1020)  British  Co- 
lumbia adopted  prohibition  in  19  H>  and  changed 
to  state  control  in  1921 ;  Manitoba  adopted  pro- 
hibition in  lOlfl  and  state  control  in  1023;  On- 
tario went  dr}  in  10 1C  and  adopted  state  con- 
trol in  1010;  Quebec  had  government  control. 
In  England  during  the  War  the  liquor  traffic 
had  been  variously  icgulated,  in  zones  about 
army  and  navy  stations,  and  where  war  material 
was  being  handled;  in  1021  a  bill  imposing 
somewhat  similar  restriction  was  enacted,  for 
the  country  as  a  whole,  to  regulate  hours  ^of 
sale  and  alcoholic  content  of  hard  liquor.  Na- 
tional prohibition  was  defeated  (Api.  20,  102.3) 
in  the  House  of  Commons  by  a  vote  of  23G  to 
14.  Finland,  after  having  its  prohibition  legis- 
lation twice  annulled  by  the  C/ar  under  the  old 
regime,  in  1917  again  passed  a  prohibition  law, 
effective  in  1910.  In  Norway,  as  a  result  of  a 
referendum  in  1919,  traffic  in  liquois  containing 
over  14  per  cent  of  absolute  alcohol  was  for- 
bidden; but  following  the  threat  of  France, 
Spain,  and  Portugal  to  bar  the  fish  products 
of  Norway  if  her  wine  importation  were  cut  off, 
the  alcoholic  content  in  1923  was  raised  to  21 
per  cent.  For  a  similar  reason,  Iceland's  na- 
tional prohibition  act  of  1908  also  was  suspended 
temporarily,  in  1922,  to  allow  the  admission  of 
liquors  containing  up  to  21  per  cent  of  alcohol 


1079  PBOKOITEV 

it   was   nine      from  Spain.    Local  option  obtained  in  parts  of 
and  1  now  find  that  of      Holland,   Belgium,  Scotland,  Poland,   and   Den- 
mark   (where  a  uniform  local-option  bill  failed 


a 

in  the  upper  house  in  1919)  ;  and  some  measure 
of  regulation  was  being  exercised  in  Germany, 
Austria,  Northern  Ireland,  Japan,  Mexico,  and 
many  South  American  countries.  Federal  con- 
trol and  taxation  of  liquor  was  defeated  in 
Switzerland  in  1923;  and  in  that  year,  accord- 
ing to  reports,  the  Turkish  Empire  adopted 
nation-wide  prohibition.  The  prohibition  of  the 
liquor  traffic  in  Russia  during  the  War  did  not 
apply  to  the  light  wines  of  the  southern  regions, 
which  were  subject  to  local  veto;  and  certain 
phases  of  the  vodka  trade  were  afterward  re- 
established as  a  government  monopoly. 

National  and  International  Temperance 
Organizations.  The  following  bodies  were 
peimanently  oiganized  for  the  promotion  of 
temperance  and  the  prevention  of  alcoholism: 
World  League  against  Alcoholism;  World's 
\\  oman's  Temperance  Union;  Permanent  Inter- 
national Congress  on  Alcoholism;  International 
Order  of  (iood  Templars;  Sons  of  Temperance; 
World  Student  Federation  against  Alcoholism; 
Intercollegiate  Prohibition  Association ;  World 
Prohibition  Federation ;  National  Temperance 
Council;  National  Legislative  Conference;  Sci- 
entific Temperance  Federation;  National  Tcm- 
peiance  Society;  International  lip-form  Bureau; 
Woman's  Prohibition  League  of  America;  Com- 
mittee of  One  Thousand  In  addition  there  are 
the  various  boards  of  churches  and  church  fed- 
erations. See  LAW,  PROGRESS  OF  THE. 

PROJECTILE.  During  the  War,  several 
new  types  of  shell  were  given  trials;  some 
seemed  likely  to  come  into  general  use.  T.N.T. 
(trinitrotoluene)  became  the  explosive  generally 
used  in  the  bursting  charge  in  place  of  picric 
acid  compounds  and  gunpowder.  (See  EXPLO- 
SIVES.) The  use  of  common  shell  with  thin 
walls  and  extia  heavy  bursting  charge,  in  fleet 
action,  was  practically  gi\cn  up.  The  nonrieo- 
chct  or  "diving"  shell,  so  designed  that  it  would 
e\en  at  a  low  angle  of  impact  enter  the  water 
and  nearly  maintain  its  aerial  direction,  was  de- 
^sed  for  use  against  submarines,  and  the  models 
brought  out  near  the  close  of  the  War  were  ef- 
ficient The  gas  shell,  so  effective  in  land  oper- 
ations, was  little  used  at  sea,  although  gas  shell 
and  aeiial  gas  bombs  are  likely  to  be  important 
features  of  mnal  warfaic  in  the  future  unless 
barred  by  international  agreement.  Illumi- 
nating shells  were  used  to  some  extent  and  were 
generally  adopted  as  a  necessary  naval  equip- 
ment. They  may  be  fitted  to  burst  in  the  air 
or  on  contact  with  the  water  and  illuminate 
nearby  objects.  Smoke  shell,  producing  a  large 
volume  of  dense  smoke,  have  a  limited  useful- 
ness Anti-aircraft  shell,  fitted  with  night  and 
day  tracers  giving  out  visible  lines  of  fire  or 
smoke,  were  still  undergoing  improvement  in 
1924.  Gas,  explosive,  and  depth  bombs  (see 
BOMIJ,  DLPTII,  and  BOMBING  OF  VESSF-LS)  are 
partly  projectile  in  character  and  seemed  to  have 
an  ever-increasing  field  of  usefulness.  See 
GUNS,  NAVAL;  ARTILLKRY;  ORDNANCE. 

PBOKOFIEV,  SERGEI  (1891-  ).  A  Rus- 
sian composer,  born  at  Soutsavka  in  southern 
Russia  Having  received  his  first  instruction 
from  his  mother,  he  entered  the  Petrograd  Con- 
servatory in  1904  and  studied  piano  with  Essipov 
and  composition  with  Uauov  and  Rimsky- 
Korsakov.  Graduating  in  1910,  he  won  the 
Rubinstein  prize.  He  made  several  tours  as  a 


PBOLBTXULT 


1080 


PBUBSIA 


pianist,  appearing  in  the  United  States  in  1918. 
As  a  composer  be  belongs  to  the  extreme  futur- 
ists. His  works  include  the  operas,  Maddalena, 
The  Gambler  (Petrograd,  1916),  and  Love  for 
Three  Oranges  (Chicago,  1921);  a  ballet,  Le 
Bouffon;  a  tiinfonictta;  a  symphonic  poem, 
Dreamt;  Scythian  Suite  for  orchestra;  a  Class- 
ical Symphony;  a  violin  concerto;  two  piano 
concertos;  Conjurements  for  soli,  chorus,  and  or- 
chestra :  and  miniature  bits  for  piano  and  songs. 

PBOLETKULT.    See  ESTHETICS. 

PBOPEBTT.    See  LAW,  PROGRESS  OF  THE. 

PROTEINS.     See    FCOD  AND   NUTRITION. 

PROTESTANT  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 
In  doctrine  this  religious  body  is  similar  to 
the  Church  of  England,  from  which  it  is  de- 
scended. It  recognizes  three  orders  in  the  min- 
istry— bishops,  priests,  and  deacons;  the  dio- 
cesan bishops  are  elected  by  the  clerical  and  lay 
members  of  the  convention  of  the  diocese.  The 
number  of  communicants  of  the  denomination 
grew  steadily  from  1,015,248  in  1914  to  1,143,- 
801  in  1923,"  the  number  of  clergy  from  5538  in 
1915  to  6024  in  1923.  the  number  of  Sunday 
school  pupils  from  462,221  to  476,375,  and  the 
number  of  teachers  and  officers  from  5*2,534  to 
53,992.  The  number  of  parishes  increased  from 
8098  in  1918  to  8242  in  1923.  At  the  General 
Convention  in  1919,  a  new  canon  was  adopted 
providing  for  the  organization  of  a  permanent 
executive  body,  called  the  Presiding  Bishop  and 
Council  In  1922,  the  name  was  changed  to  Na- 
tional Council.  Among  other  things,  this  coun- 
cil was  to  exercise  all  the  powers  of  the  Domes- 
tic and  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  and  have 
charge  of  the  unification,  development,  and  pros- 
ecution of  the  work  of  missions,  church  exten- 
sion, religious  education  and  Christian  social 
service.  However,  the  Missionary  Society  re- 
tained its  corporate  existence  and*  continued  to 
receive  and  hold  bequest 8,  trust  funds  and  title 
to  property  of  all  kinds  In  the  United  States, 
the  church  carried  on  extensive  work  among 
the  Indians,  the  negroes,  the  southern  mountain- 
eers, and  the  foreign-born,  while  work  with 
deaf  mutes,  and  in  rural  and  industrial  centres, 
became  increasingly  effective.  The  cnurch's  in- 
fluence waa  also  felt  in  the  remote  parts  of  the 
republic — in  Alaska,  the  Philippines  and  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  the  Canal  Zone  and  the  pos- 
sessions in  the  West  Indies.  Abroad,  work  was 
carried  on  in  China,  Japan,  Liberia,  Mexico, 
Brazil,  Cuba,  the  Dominican  Republic,  and 
Haiti.  In  1919,  a  movement,  known  as  the 
Nation-Wide  Campaign,  was  inaugurated,  the 
purpose  of  which  was  to  increase  interest  in  the 
missionary  work  of  the  church  at  home  and 
abroad  One  result  of  this  movement  was  that 
the  giving  of  the  church  for  all  purposes  was  in 
1920  more  than  $10,000,000  larger  than  in  1919 
and  grew  larger  each  year  thereafter.  See  RE- 
FORMED EPISCOPAL  CHFRCH. 

PROUST,  MARCEL  (1873-1922).  One  of  the 
leading  French  writers  of  the  twentieth  century, 
born  in  Paris.  Proust,  like  his  fictional  hero 
Swann,  was  a  man  of  the  world  and  seemed  to 
his  friends  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  man  of 
the  world  with  perhaps  an  amateurish  interest 
in  letters.  At  the  age  of  45,  Proust  had  pub- 
lished only  two  French  translations  of  Ttuskin, 
The  Bible  of  Amiens  and  Sesame  and  Lilies,  and 
an  original  volume,  Lea  Plaiairs  et  les  Jours 
(Delight*  ami  Days}.  It  wan  in  the  preface  to 
the  latter  volume  that  Anatole  France  in- 
dicated that  Proust  "delights  equally  in 


describing  the  desolated  splendor  of  the  set- 
ting sun  and  the  agitated  vanities  of  a  snobbish 
soul."  A  man  of  feeble  constitution,  Proust  al- 
ternated his  mundane  parties  with  seclusion  in 
an  invalid's  bed.  It  was  thus  that  he  pre- 
pared himself  to  be  the  fictional  Saint-Simon  of 
French  society  of  the  fin  de  Mole.  In  1914  he 
began  the  publication  of  his  fictional  notebooks, 
an  11 -volume  novel,  A  la  Recherche  du  Temps 
Perdu  (In  Searoh  of  Days  Gone  Ry).  Four  or 
five  additional  volumes,  which  he  had  completed 
but  not  corrected  at  the  time  of  his  death,  re- 
main (1924)  still  to  be  published.  Public  at- 
tention was  attracted  to  P roust's  work  in  1919 
when  the  section  of  his  novel  called  .1  r Ombre 
des  Jeunes  Fillett  en  Fleurs  (In  the  Rhode  of 
Hudding  Young  Girls}  won  the  Prix  Ooncourt. 
He  was  hailed  immediately  as  an  eccentric  lit- 
erary genius  who  wrote  from  imaginative  rem- 
iniscence instead  of  from  imaginative  construc- 
tion. He  described  hifl  literary  method  in  the 
Cotf  de  (iuermantes.  For  reference  consult  La- 
lou's  Histoire  dc  la  Littcrature  Franyaise  Con- 
temporaine,  pp.  639-045  (1923) 

PROVIDENCE.  The  capital  of  Rhode 
Island,  and  the  second  city  of  New  England. 
The  population  increased  from  224,326  in  1910 
to  237,,'59o  in  1920  and  to  242,378  by  estimate 
of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for  1923.  An  ex- 
tensive plan  for  improvement  of  the  port  was 
started  in  1918  The  city  appiopriated  $tf()0,- 
000,  the  State  $1,500, 000, 'and  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment $1.000,000  to  have  the  harbor  deepened 
and  a  straight  thirty  foot  channel  dredged  to 
deep  water.  The  State  built  a  laige  pier  with  a 
two  story  steel  shed  400  by  100  feet,  and  the 
city  built  a  quay  3000  feet  long  in  thirty  feet 
of  water  at  mean  low  tide,  equipped  with  com- 
plete freight  handling  apparatus  and  railroad 
connections.  The  new  Scituate  Reservoir  was 
built  with  a  dam  3200  feet  long  and  100  feet 
high.  A  seven-mile  aqueduct  brought  the  water 
to  a  new  filtration  plant.  A  zoning  ordinance 
was  adopted  in  1923. 

PRUSSIA,  in  the  early  part  of  1914  there 
was  a  good  deal  of  protest  on  the  part  of  the 
Prussian  Conservatu  es  against  the  imperial 
policy  of  Bethmann-Hollweg,  which  they  alleged 
worked  to  the  prejudice  of  the  position  of  Prun- 
sia  in  the  Empire.  The  appointment  of  the 
Prussian  Minintcr  of  the  Interior,  Von  Dallwitz, 
to  the  post  of  Statthalter  of  Alsace-Lorraine  re- 
moved the  most  violent  opponent  of  Prussian 
Franchise  Reform  But  the  sanguine  hopes 
which  had  been  placed  on  his  successor.  Von 
Loebell,  were  soon  shattered  by  the  latter's  in- 
augural speech  in  the  Diet,  in  which  he  stated 
that  he  had  no  intention  of  drawing  up  a  Fran- 
chise Bill.  The  outbreak  of  the  War  tempora- 
rily forced  all  internal  questions  into  the  back- 
ground, but  the  problem  of  internal  reform  in 
Prussia  could  not  long  be  ignored.  During  the 
budget  debates  in  the  Diet  of  March,  1915,  the 
Poles  and  the  Danes  abstained  from  voting  and 
at  the  same  time  voiced  their  protest  against 
the  repressive  measures  which  the  government 
had  seen  fit  to  continue  against  these  nation- 
alities in  spite  of  their  unquestionable  loyalty 
in  the  War.  At  the  same  time  the  Socialists 
voted  against  the  Prussian  budget  because  of  the 
unwillingness  of  the  government  to  grant  a  dem- 
ocratic franchise  and  the  right  of  free  combina- 
tion to  the  masses.  The  Prussian  war  meas- 
ures dealing  with  the  economic  situation  were 
similar  to  and  worked  in  complete  harmony  with 


PRUSSIA 


1081 


PSYCHOLOGY 


tho  cor  responding  imperial  measures.  On  Jan. 
13,  1916,  the  Chancellor  appeared  before 
Hie  Prussian  Diet  with  a  promise  of  electoral 
reform,  but  stated  at  the  same  time  that  it  must 
he  deferred  until  the  end  of  the  War.  The  gov- 
ernment was  forced,  however,  to  abandon  this  po- 
sition as  a  result  of  the  changes  in  the  foreign 
and  internal  situation  during  1016  and  1917 
and  particularly  in  consequence  of  the  ever- 
growing opposition  of  the  Reichstag  majority. 
ITence  the  more  liberal  Hertling  government,  in- 
stalled late  in  1917,  introduced  during  Novem- 
ber of  the  same  year  reform  measures  which, 
while  making  certain  progress  in  regard  to  elec- 
toral reform,  curtailed  substantially  the  rights 
of  the  Lower  House  in  the  matter  of  the  budget. 
After  much  wrangling  the  bill  was  finally  adopt- 
ed on  Oct  24,  1918,  but  then  the  situation  had 
gone  too  far  to  be  capable  of  being  remedied  by 
mere  electoral  reform. 

The  revolution  of  November,  1918,  did  away 
with  the  dynasty,  Prussia's  position  of  hegemony 
in  Germany,  and  the  personal  union  between 
the  German  and  Prussian  governments.  A  re- 
public was  proclaimed,  the  House  of  Lords  was 
abolished  and  the  Ix>wer  House  dissolved.  On 
Nov.  16,  1918,  a  ministry,  consisting  for  the 
most  part  of  Socialists,  was  appointed  by  the 
Executive  Committee  of  the  Workers'  and 
Soldiers'  Council.  The  result  of  the  elections 
for  the  Constituent  Assembly  on  Jan.  26,  1919, 
was  as  follows:  Majority  Socialists,  145;  In- 
dependent Socialists,  24;  Centre,  88;  Democrats, 
<;;>,  German  People's  party,  21;  German  Nation- 
al party,  50;  Hanoverians,  7.  The  revolutionary 
period  proper  ended  with  the  convening  of  the 
Assembly  on  March  13  and  the  promulgation  of 
a  provisional  constitution.  Thereupon  the  So- 
cialist Hirsch  formed  a  coalition  cabinet,  consist- 
ing of  Socialists,  Centrists,  and  Democrats,  which 
v\as  succeeded  after  the  Kapp  Putsch  in  March, 
1020,  by  a  similarly  constituted  coalition  minis- 
try under  the  Socialist  Braun.  The  new  consti- 
tution of  Prussia  was  completed  by  the  Assembly 
after  many  difficulties  on  Mar.  30,  1920.  It 
v\as  drafted  under  the  decisive  influence  of  the 
constitution  of  the  Reich  and  merely  carried 
out  the  instructions  of  the  latter.  In  it  the 
attempt  was  made  to  bring  about  closer  union 
with  the  Reich  and  far-reaching  decentralization 
within  Prussia.  When  the  elections  for  the  Diet 
in  February,  1921,  resulted  in  a  strengthening  of 
the  extreme  Right  and  Left,  the  formation  of  a 
new  ministry  was  made  very  difficult  and  only 
on  April  22*  did  the  Centrist  Fehrenbach  suc- 
ceed in  forming  a  coalition  of  Centrists,  Demo- 
crats, and  experts.  In  the  Braun  ministry  of 
November,  1921,  this  coalition  was  broadened  so 
as  to  include  the  Socialists  and  the  People's 
party  During  the  last  years  of  the  period 
1914-24,  Nationalism  and  Communism  grew 
apace  in  Prussia  as  in  all  other  parts  of  the 
Reich.  In  March,  1923,  Minister  of  the  Interior 
Severing  dissolved  the  activist  organizations  of 
the  Monarchists  and  prevented  the  Communists 
from  forming  "fighting  unions."  In  the  early 
fall  of  the  same  year  an  insignificant  and  unsuc- 
cessful Monarchist  coup  was  attempted  in  the 
fortress  of  Kuestrin  in  Brandenburg. 

Prussia  suffered  severely  under  the  Peace  Trea- 
ty of  Versailles.  She  lost  the  province  of  Posen, 
the  larger  part  of  West  Prussia,  parts  of  East 
Prussia,  Silesia,  Schleswig-Hol stein,  and  the 
Rhine  Province,  in  all  56,000  square  kilometers 
with  approximately  4,700,000  inhabitants.  The 


conditions  resulting  from  the  Peace  Treaty,  the 
antagonism  of  the  provinces  to  the  Berlin  gov- 
ernment, old  particularistic  aspirations,  and  the 
intrigues  of  the  French,  combined  to  bring  about 
during  the  first  years  after  the  Armistice  vari- 
ous movements  aiming  at  the  separation  of  in- 
dividual provinces  from  Prussia  and  the  break- 
ing up  of  the  state  into  several  states  within  the 
Reich.  By  cleverly  making  use  of  an  old  Rhen- 
ish distaste  for  things  Prussian,  the  French  en- 
deavored for  a  long  time  to  create  an  independ- 
ent Rhenish  buffer  state  and  after  lavish  expend- 
iture of  money  and  much  efl'ort  succeeded  finally 
in  the  fall  of  1923  in  setting  afoot  with  the 
help  of  all  sorts  of  disgruntled  and  disrepu- 
table elements  a  Rhenish  Separatist  movement. 
The  Separatists  found  very  little  response  among 
the  Rhenish  population  and  were  protected  from 
the  wrath  of  the  Rhinelanders  only  by  French 
and  Belgian  bayonets.  Once  the  suppoit  of  the 
armies  of  occupation  had  been  withdrawn  the 
movement  quickly  collapsed  As  a  defense  meas- 
ure against  Separatism,  the  Rhenish  people  or- 
ganized a  movement  for  an  autonomous  Rhenish 
state  within  the  Reich  The  portion  of  Upper 
Silesia  which  remained  German  voted  to  form, 
as  heretofore,  a  part  of  the  Province  of  Silesia 
and  of  the  State  of  Prussia  instead  of  becom- 
ing, as  had  l>eeii  the  offer,  a  separate  Prussian 
province  or  an  autonomous  state.  The  pro- 
longed clamor  of  the  Hanoverian  autonomists 
induced  the  Prussian  government  to  give  the 
question  of  autonomy  for  Hanover  a  test  and 
hence  instituted,  in  *  the  spring  of  1924,  pro- 
ceedings in  conformity  with  the  provisions 
of  the  constitution  o'f  the  Reich  to  bring 
about  a  plebiscite.  Upon  the  failure  of  in- 
itiative petition  to  receive  the  required  in- 
indorsement  of  the  people,  the  matter  was  aban- 
doned for  the  time  being  \o  doubt  the  feeling 
that  in  view  of  R  bin  eland  Separatism  the  time 
was  not  propitious  for  such  a  plebiscite  was 
largely  responsible  for  the  unfavorable  verdict. 

PBZEMYSL,  BATTLES  OF.  See  \YAR  IN  EU- 
ROPE, Eastern  Front. 

PSYCHIATRY.  See  PSYCHOLOGY,  ABNOR- 
MAL: INSANITY. 

PSYCHOANALYSIS.  See  PSYCHOLOGY,  AB- 
NORMAL; CONSCIOUSNESS  AND  THE  UNCONSCIOUS  : 
^ESTHETICS. 

PSYCHOLOGY.  A  historian  of  contempo- 
rary psychology  is  compelled  inevitably  to  be- 
come an  interpreter  and  critic  even  more  than 
an  objective  chronicler.  With  the  conflicting 
aspirations  of  the  various  schools,  with  the 
different  methodologies  and  points  of  approach, 
it  is  manifestly  impossible  to  do  even-handed 
justice  to  all  claims  and  to  all  discoveries.  Yet 
it  is  possible  to  attempt  with  the  broad  sym- 
pathy of  a  noncombatant  to  evaluate  more  or 
less  adequately  the  more  significant  contribu- 
tions of  the  rival  schools.  This  is  the  task  of 
the  present  article. 

In  the  decade  after  1914  there  were  two  im- 
portant challenges  to  the  school  of  experiment- 
al psychology,  which  had  arrogated  to  itself, 
not  without  some  justice,  the  label  of  scientific 
psychology.  These  challenges  were  made  by  the 
doctrine  of  behaviorism  (q.v. )  and  by  the  Ger- 
man theory  of  the  Gestaltpttychologie  (see  PEB- 
CHPTION).  The  system  of  psychology  which 
they  challenged  is  the  so-called  structural  or 
introspective  psychology,  developed  in  Germany 
by  Fechner  and  Wundt'and  in  the  United  States 
by  the  Cornell  school  of  Professor  Titchener.  In 


PSYCHOLOGY 

a  few  words,  what  this  school  sought  to  do  was 
to  correlate  psychological  facts  as  observed  in- 
trospectively  with  physical  or  physiological 
phenomena  as  recorded  by  the  best  laboratory 
methods.  With  the  purest  intentions  in  the 
world,  the  psychologists  of  this  school  did  not 
avoid  making  metaphysical  assumptions,  which 
were  confusing  ooth  to  themselves  and  to  their 
opponents. 

Everybody  knows  that  there  is  not  a  one  to 
one  correlation  between  a  stimulus  as  physically 
defined  in  terms  of  social  discourse  and  the  im- 
pressions it  may  arouse  in  a  human  being's 
conscious  experience.  All  the  arts  which  em- 
ploy illusion  in  one  form  or  another — the  pic- 
torial and  theatrical  arts,  to  mention  but  two 
examples — depend  upon  this  fact.  What  struc- 
tural psychology  attempted  to  do  was  not 
merely  to  observe  empirical  correlations  and  dis- 
cordances between  these  types  of  phenomena  but 
to  transform  them  into  an  explanatory  system. 
To  do  this,  the  theory  of  psychophysical  paral- 
lelism was  borrowed  from  philosophy  and 
adapted  with  a  special  signification  for  psycho- 
logical problems. 

Where  the  man  in  the  street  regarded  mental 
events  as  causes  of  physical  events  and  physical 
events  as  causes  of  mental  phenomena,  the  paral- 
lelistic  doctrine  kept  the  two  series  radically 
distinct.  Aa  the  doctrine  was  applied  in  psychol- 
ogy, it  meant  that  for  every  simple  physical 
event,  that  is  to  say  for  every  stimulus,  'there 
was  a  corresponding  sensation  in  the  mind.  At 
this  point  the  physical  series  was  abandoned 
and  attention  directed  to  the  mental  series — 
how  from  theoretically  simple  sensations  there 
are  built  up  the  complexities  of  mental  life, 
the  perceptions,  memories,  and  logical  infer- 
ences. The  analytic  study  of  these  mental  proc- 
esses, with  correlation  wherever  possible  to 
underlying  physiological  changes,  made  up  what 
was  kno\in  as  structural  psychology. 

But  the  task  of  applying  analytic  language 
to  "mental  stuff"  was  never  satisfactorily  met. 
The  simple  sensation  could  not  be  isolated  in 
introspection,  so  that  the  structuralist  school 
was  compelled  to  build  its  mental  world  out  of 
attributes,  or  dimensions  of  sensations — quality, 
duration,  intensity,  extensity,  and  clearness. 

Now  at  the  beginning  of  the  decade  under 
consideration  the  doctrine  of  attributes  and  sen- 
sations had  become  pretty  well  shaken.  In  a 
doctoral  dissertation  on  "The  Relation  of  Sen- 
sation to  Other  Categories  in  Contemporary 
Psychology"  (Psychological  Review  Monographs, 
vol.  xvi,  no.  67),  C.  Rahn  had  pointed  out  the 
frailty  of  the  ideological  structure,  as  well  as 
the  difficulty  of  distinguishing  between  clear- 
ness as  a  sensory  attribute  and  clearness  as  a 
quality  of  a  cognitive  situation.  Partly  as  a  re- 
sult of  this  attack,  partly  through  internal  de- 
velopment, the  Cornell  school  after  1914  leaned 
less  and  less  on  the  concept  of  sensation.  In- 
stead they  developed  a  conception  of  mental  life 
as  a  fluid  process,  with  the  standard  attributes 
as  the  dimensional  components  of  this  process. 

Such  a  conception  tended  to  obliterate  the  dis- 
tinction between  sensory  experience  and  the 
higher  mental  processes.  In  fact,  C.  M.  Ogden 
definitely  raised  the  question  { American  Journal 
of  Psychology,  1922,  vol.  xxxiii)  whether  the 
traditional  distinction  between  sensation  and 
perception  should  be  maintained  any  longer. 
The  Cornell  school  hesitated  to  accept  this  radi- 
cal solution,  inasmuch  as  it  would  have  thrown 


PSYCHOLOGY 

all    differentiation    of    psychological    experience 
into  the  problem  of  meaning. 

In  the  meantime,  the  absorption  of  this  school 
with  the  introspective  phase  of  psychological 
theory  could  not  but  disappoint  those  who  were 
impatiently  expecting  positive  contributions 
from  psychology  for  the  control  of  human  na- 
ture. Radical  behaviorism,  that  is  to  say,  the 
reduction  of  psychology  to  externally  observ- 
able data,  furnished  one  solution.  In  Ameri- 
can psychological  periodicals  the  topic  of  be- 
haviorism provided  most  of  the  heat  and  a  little 
of  the  theoretical  light  on  the  problem  of  mental 
analysis.  Behind  the  clash  of  schools,  there 
was  really  a  conflict  of  metaphysical  systems, 
each  system  being  built  around  a  particular 
technique  or  method  of  analyzing  phenomena. 
By  themselves,  the  method  of  introspection  and 
the  method  of  observing  external  reactions  are 
not  involved  in  contradiction.  But  unfortu- 
nately it  is  difficult — and  for  many  persons  al- 
most impossible — to  separate  methodology  from 
metaphysics.  Thus  very  few  psychologists  were 
able  to  distinguish  the  behavior istic  method 
from  the  behavioristic  metaphysics  as  cham- 
pioned explicitly  by  Holt  and  Perry  and  im- 
plicitly by  Watson.  And  it  was  also  a  common 
charge  against  introspective  psychology  that  it 
led  to  a  mentalistic  view  of  the  universe,  that 
is  to  say  to  a  subjective  idealism;  although  if 
this  charge  were  taken  seriously,  it  would  mean 
that  no  person  could  ever  resort  to  introspection 
without  running  the  risk  of  becoming  philosoph- 
ically a  subject ivist. 

As  we  pass  to  some  of  the  other  "systems"  of 
psychology,  we  find  it  again  necessary  to  sepa- 
rate the  essential  method  from  the  accretion  of 
dogmatism.  In  Professor  McDougall's  Outline 
of  Psychology  (1923),  the  conception  of  in- 
stincts and  dispositions  forms  the  basis  of  his 
total  psychological  structure.  However,  the 
urge  to  system  building  makes  him  entitize  or 
hypostatize  these  instincts,  and  the  result  is  a 
crude  animistic  monadology  scarcely  different 
from  the  ancient  eschatologies.  (See  his  presi- 
dential address  before  the  British  Society  for 
Psychical  Research,  1920).  Yet  instincts  are 
valid  conceptions  when  interpreted  in  their  con- 
text, that  is  to  say  in  connection  with  the  study 
of  human  nature  from  a  historical,  biological, 
or  moral  point  of  view. 

The  difficulty  lies  in  the  coordination  of  such 
concepts,  which  are  qualitatively  of  a  different 
order  from  the  concepts  of  physics,  with  the 
rather  rigid  structure  of  laboVatory  science. 
This  genuine  difficulty,  instead  of  being  faced 
in  the  same  manner  as  we  face  differences  of 
language  among  men,  gave  rise  to  a  babel  of  mis- 
understanding between  the  mechanistic  psychol- 
ogists and  the  purposive  psychologists. 

The  tendency  to  put  all  notions  on  the  same 
plane  of  existence  is  also  illustrated  in  the 
Psychological  Principles  of  James  Ward.  The 
mind  is  said  to  exist,  together  with  its  powers 
of  feeling,  judging  and  ideating,  and  the  exter- 
nal world  is  said  to  exist.  But  as  the  notion  of 
existence  is  based  upon  physical  experience,  the 
mind  is  thus  turned  into  a  suprasensible  sub- 
stance. To  be  sure,  Professor  Ward  makes  his 
mind  a  stream  of  consciousness,  but  even  this 
does  not  avoid  the  paradox  of  dualism,  that  is  to 
say  of  two  forms  of  existence.  To  appreciate 
this  paradox,  it  is  enough  to  point  out  that  if 
we  start  on  the  psychological  side,  with  the 
self,  it  is  impossible  to  get  back  to  the  external 


PSYCHOLOGY 


1083 


PSYCHOLOGY 


world;  and  if  on  the  other  hand,  we  begin  with 
the  realistic  thesis  of  the  external  world,  we 
find  consciousness  a  troublesome  superfluity. 
The  way  the  dilemma  is  commonly  avoided  is  by 
accepting  from  the  common  sense  tradition  both 
theses  at  once,  regardless  of  their  contradictory 
nature  when  taken  in  the  raw  and  without  in- 
terpretation. 

The  late  Theodore  Merz  in  his  Fragment  on 
the  Human  Mind  invented  an  expression  which 
is  calculated  to  dispel  confusion  in  this  field. 
He  speaks  of  the  "firmament  of  thought"  un- 
derlying the  phenomenal  stream  of  conscious- 
ness that  we  attain  to  by  introspection  The 
firmament  of  thought,  containing  within  it  that 
system  of  spatial  relations  which  we  call  the 
external  world,  is  much  vaster  than  the  tem- 
poral flow  of  awareness,  but  yet  all  our  organized 
knowledge — ultimately  resting  on  the  great  fir- 
mament— passes  through  the  level  of  conscious- 
ness in  order  to  be  intellectually  organized.  If 
\\e  may  resort  to  an  everyday  set  of  metaphors, 
we  may  compare  the  introspective  consciousness 
to  the  retail  stock  in  trade  of  an  industry. 
However,  in  this  rase  we  cannot  observe  the 
manufacturing  end  but  we  may  only  infer  its 
processes  from  the  table  of  purchases  and  sales. 
\\  lien  we  forget  the  practical  problems  of  mer- 
chandising and  just  revel  in  the  retailing  activ- 
ity, \\e  do  something  that  corresponds  closely  to 
introspection. 

If  our  comparison  is  legitimate  it  is  clear  that 
tin*  introspective  method  will  never  result  in  a 
nystematization  of  the  introspecthe  conscious- 
ness. To  the  extent  that  it  is  systematized,  to 
that  extent  it  loses  its  character  as  the  psycho- 
logical stuff  of  immediacy.  This  fact  is  all  the 
more  obvious  when  we  deal  with  the  affective 
phase  of  conscious  life.  An  intellectual  schema- 
tism gives  only  the  bare  formal  outline  of  the 
sentiments,  not  their  "matter";  yet  we  cannot 
say,  as  a  number  of  modern  psychologists  have 
attempted  to  say,  that  emotions  are  sugar  in 
the  blood  or  adrenalin  secretion  in  the  endocrine 
glands  Such  questions  concerning  the  nature 
of  the  stuff  of  consciousness  or  of  the  stuff  of 
emotions  become  factitious  when  we  realize  that 
\\e  are  plunged  in  immediate  conscious  expe- 
rience and  that  our  natural  knowledge  is  but 
an  effort  to  hold  fast  to  a  few  bits  of  this  con- 
scious experience  as  the  guiding  norms  and 
framework  around  which  to  organize  our  future 
and  past  experience.  To  quote  a  remarkable 
sentence  from  Goethe,  "Sympathy  and  enjoy- 
ment in  what  we  see  is  in  fact  the  only  reality, 
and  from  such  reality,  reality  as  a  natural 
product  follows." 

Bibliography.  More  notable  publications  of 
the  10-year  period  1914-24  were:  G.  S.  Brett, 
History  of  Psychology  (3  vols.  1912-21);  G. 
Dumas  et  al.,  Traite  de  Psychologic  (vol.  i, 
1923);  Knight  Dunlap,  Outlines  of  Psychology 
(1023);  Walter  S.  Hunter,  General  Psychology 
(1919)  ;  E.  B.  Holt,  The  Freudian  Wish  (1915) ; 
Wolfgang  Kohler,  Die  Phys\schen  (Icstalten  in 
Kuhe  und  im  Stattonen  Zustand  (1920);  Kurt 
Koffka,  Beitrage  zur  Psychologic  der  Oestalt 
(1919);  Oswald  Ktllpe,  Vorlesungen  tiler 
Psychologic  (1920);  E.  D.  Martin,  Psychology 
(1924);  Theodore  Merz,  A  Fragment  on  the 
Human  Mind  (1919);  William  McDougall,  An 
Outline  of  Psychology  (1923);  Charles  Ralin, 
Psychological  Review  Monographs,  "The  Relation 
of  Sensation  to  Other  Categories"  (vol.  xvi,  no. 
67);  Bertrand  Russell,  The  Analysis  of  Mind 


(1920)  j  Charles  Spearman,  The  Nature  of  "In- 
telligence"  and  the  Principles  of  Cognition 
( 1023 ) ;  E.  B.  Titchener,  "Act  and  Function," 
American  Journal  of  Psychology,  vols.  xxxii, 
xxxiii;  John  B.  Watson,  Psychology  from  the 
Standpoint  of  a  Behaviorist  (1919);  James 
Ward,  Psychological  Principles  (1918);  H.  C. 
Warren,  Human  Psychology  (1919);  R.  S. 
Woodworth,  Dynamic  Psychology  (1921).  See 
PSYCHOLOGY,  EXPERIMENTAL;  SOCIAL  PSYCHOL- 
OGY, ACTION,  ADVERTISING,  ESTHETICS,  ANIMAL 
PSYCHOLOGY,  ASSOCIATION  TESTS,  ATTENTION, 
ATTRIBUTE,  AUDITION,  BEHAVIORISM,  CONSCIOUS- 
NESS AND  THE  UNCONSCIOUS,  INSTINCT,  MENTAL 
MEASUREMENT,  PERCEPTION. 

PSYCHOLOGY,  ABNORMAL,  AND  *  PSYCHO- 
ANALYSIS. If  one  accepted  the  standard  di- 
vision of  knowledge  into  theoretical  science  and 
applied  science,  one  might  suppose  that  abnor- 
mal psychology  were  the  concrete  application  of 
the  data  and  laws  furnished  by  general  or  sys- 
tematic psychology.  In  actual  fact  this  sup- 
position is  not  borne  out.  So  far  from  borrow- 
ing its  material  from  the  general  psychology  of 
sensations  and  perceptions,  abnormal  psychol- 
ogy and  its  derivative  psychoanalysis  *  havo 
furnished  a  new  approach  to  the  problems  of 
mental  behavior.  The  trend  of  thought  known 
as  the  "new  psychology,"  even  with  its  exaggera- 
tions and  unsupported  generalizations,  may  be 
put  do\Mi  to  the  credit  of  psychiatrists  who  were 
able  to  combine  clinical  knowledge  and  thera- 
peutic skill  with  genuine  philosophic  insight. 

Among  this  class  of  psychiatrists  may  be  in- 
cluded Charcot  and  Janet  in  France,  Freud  in 
Austria,  Morton  Prince  and  Boris  Sidis  in 
America.  Different  as  are  their  various  the- 
ories on  specific  problems,  these  psychologists  are 
yet  at  one  in  their  refusal  to  reduce  to  the 
materialistic  system  of  physiology.  They  affirm 
the  specificity  of  psychological  phenomena  and 
the  necessity  of  an  explanation  of  such  phe- 
nomena in  terms  of  psychological  conceptions 
rather  than  in  terms  of  an  unknowable  structure 
of  the  cortex  and  body  nerve  tissue.  The  change 
in  terminology  is  itself  an  indication  of  the 
revolution  in  thought:  instead  of  speaking  of 
the  science  of  neurology — which  is  essentially  a 
language  pun  built  up  around  the  popular  meta- 
phor of  nervousness — we  now  use  the  terms  psy- 
chiatry, psychoanalysis,  psychological  analysis. 
This  is  not  to  say  that  one  attempts  to  explain 
phenomena  in  terms  of  new  psychical  or  spirit- 
istic entities,  but  rather  in  terms  of  the  mean- 
ings which  particular  objective  events  have  for 
particular  individuals  in  particular  circum- 
stances. Just  as  when  we  seek  to  account  for 
the  effect  the  reading  of  a  particular  hook  had 
on  a  particular  person,  we  find  the  objective 
facts  about  ink  and  paper  of  little  importance 
and  must  attempt  to  envisage  the  subjective 
meanings  aroused  by  the  contents  of  the  book; 
so  psychologists  have  come  to  realize  that  it  is 
of  no  purpose  to  study  events  as  mere  physical 
shocks  on  a  physical  system  without  taking  into 
account  the  emotional  contexts,  the  meanings 
that  are  more  or  less  individual  to  the  par- 
ticular organism. 

To  describe  this  type  of  meanings,  many  psy- 
chologists and  physicians  have  preferred  to  use 
the  notion  of  function,  and  they  thus  speak  of 
certain  psychological  tumbles  as  functional  neu- 
roses. But  whether  this  term  is  adopted  or  not, 
it  has  been  found  that  there  was  only  one 
method  for  studying  the  phenomena  in  question 


PSYCHOLOGY 


1084 


PSYCHOLOGY 


and  that  was  for  the  psychiatrist  to  familiarize 
himself,  by  patient  questioning  and  clinical  ob- 
servation, with  the  inner  history  of  the  trouble. 
This  leads  us  to  another  observation;  namely, 
that  knowledge  and  theories  of  this  sort — de- 
pendent, as  they  are,  very  largely  upon  the  ar- 
tistic insights  of  the  physician  and  psychiatrist — 
cannot  have  the  same  positivity  as  the  observa- 
tions of  physical  science.  Freud  himself  recog- 
nized this  fact  when  he  wrote  (in  his  Introduc- 
tion to  Psychoanalysis)  that  "it  would  be  an 
error  to  suppose  that  a  science  is  composed  only 
of  theses  rigorously  demonstrated,  and  it  is  a 
mistake  to  demand  this."  Janet  said  much  the 
same  thiug  when  he  pleaded  for  psychologists 
not  to  consider  psychology  as  a  science  (in  the 
sense  that  physicists  use  the  term )  but  rather  as 
a  collection  of  monographs. 

Doubtless  because  of  the  frailty  of  the  sub- 
ject matter,  the  theories  of  abnormal  psychology, 
particularly  those  of  psychoanalysis,  were  sub- 
ject to  grave  misunderstandings.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  worshippers  of  clear  and  precise  ideas 
were  scandalized  at  the  fleeting  nature  of  some 
of  the  intuitions.  But  on  the  other  hand  many 
advocates  of  the  psychoanalytic  doctrine  more 
than  made  up  for  this  by  bringing  rather  too 
much  precision  into  their  science.  They  could 
do  this  only  by  constructing  a  metaphysics  of 
the  sex  instinct  and  its  symholization.  In  this 
metaphysics  complexes  and  symbols  were  treated 
sometimes  as  dynamic  concepts  (i.e.  with  fluid 
meaning),  sometimes  as  static  concepts  on  a 
par  with  those  of  the  physical  sciences.  An  am- 
biguity of  this  type  is  practically  unavoidable, 
for  such  notions  as  symbol  and  complex  carry 
this  ambiguity  in  their  philological  meaning. 
We  need  only  remember  that  the  earliest  philoso- 
phers to  use  the  notion  of  symbolism,  tbe  Pytha- 
goreans, slipped  very  naturally  into  the  error  of 
confounding  the  metaphorical  act  of  symboliza- 
tion  with  symbols  as  static  entities  represent- 
ing other  objects.  Similarly  the  association  psy- 
chologists confounded  the  dynamic  act  of  asso- 
ciation or  growth  of  meaning  with  association 
viewed  externally  as  a  mechanical  process,  and 
therefore  describable  by  laws.  And  inasmuch 
as  the  idea  of  complex  is  practically  identical 
with  association,  it  is  readily  seen  how  psycho- 
analysts fall  into  the  same  ambiguity. 

For  the  purposes  of  discursive  inferential  reas- 
oning, it  is  necessary  to  treat  some  of  these  con- 
cepts statically  as  if  they  were  obeying  the 
laws  of  mechanical  causality.  But  when  that  is 
done,  the  results  must  be  tested  by  empirical 
facts  and  not  by  means  of  the  semiaesthetic,  sym- 
bolic intuitions.  Thus  it  is  one  thing  for  a 
commander  of  military  troops  to  treat  sex 
as  a  mechanical,  almost  material  problem,  on 
a  par  with  food  supplies  and  munitions.  It 
is  quite  another  thing  for  a  psychoanalyst, 
tracing  genetically  the  rise  and  fall  of  senti- 
ments in  a  human  individual,  to  discover  what 
he  calls  transferences  or  sublimations  of  the  sex 
instinct.  In  the  first  instance  we  are  treating 
man  as  a  machine  with  definite  springs  which 
behave  in  definite  fixed  ways,  and  sex  is  one  of 
those  springs.  Such  a  conception  is  an  abstract 
one,  and  scarcely  fits  the  facts  even  in  a  limited 
situation.  However,  it  is  a  precise  conception 
and  allows  itself  either  to  be  verified  or  denied 
by  empirical  facts.  In  the  second  case,  sex 
ceases  to  be  a  definite  thing  at  all  and  becomes  a 
sentiment — "an  aspiration  after  happiness,"  to 
quote  Remy  de  Gounnont,  "than  which  nothing 


is  less  definite."  And  the  many  gropings,  the 
many  expressions  of  the  ultimate  Libido,  are  not 
so  much  causes  of  one  another  as  contingent  tem- 
poral sequences.  In  order  to  show  a  relation  of 
causality  in  the  intellectual  or  scientific  sense, 
it  is  necessary  to  have  a  limited  situation  in 
which  an  observed  sequence,  after  being  purified 
— so  to  speak — of  its  arbitrariness  and  subjec- 
tivity, has  been  experimentally  confirmed. 

Now  the  difficulty  of  the  psychoanalytic  tech- 
nique is  that  it  employs  both  of  these  schema- 
tisms. The  psychoanalyst  tries  to  be  both  a 
scientist,  dealing  not  in  advice  but  in  observed 
correlations  of  fact,  and  a  philosopher-confessor 
who  assists  his  patient  in  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness. Professor  .Janet  in  reporting  to  the  French 
Academy  of  Medicine  on  the  doctrines  of  Freud 
pointed  out  that  psychoanalysis  at  times  lays 
claim  to  an  entire  system  of  ethics.  In  a  certain 
sense,  it  is  true,  neither  the  psychiatrist  nor  the 
physician  escapes  that  responsibility:  the  analy- 
sis of  human  nature  is  too  close  to  the  aspira- 
tions of  human  nature  to  avoid  involving  the 
latter.  But  the  scientific  and  ethical  responsi- 
bilities must  be  distinguished  and  recognized 
for  Mhat  they  are. 

The  war  cases  of  shell  shock  have  disproved, 
in  an  objective  way,  the  extieme  Freudian  thesis 
that  sex  disturbances  (in  the  more  specific  sense) 
are  the  cause  of  neuroses.  They  re\ealcd  a 
rather  new  type  of  neuiosis  with  preoccupations 
very  different  from  those  of  civilian  cases  and 
reflecting  quite  definitely  the  war  anxieties. 
They  also  served  to  dispro\e  the  mechanistic, 
physiological  conception  of  the  so-called  func- 
tional nerve  diseases. 

\\  ith  the  destruction  of  the  extreme  Freudian 
thesis  and  the  dogmatic  physiological  conten- 
tion, no  specific  theory  of  neuroses  has  been  left 
standing.  In  France — wheie  psychological 
thought  has  never  accepted  either  of  these  theses 
— an  attempt  was  made  by  a  brilliant  writer, 
Dr.  Albert  Deschamps,  to  exploit  the  theory  of 
fatigue  as  the  raisou  d'etre  of  the  general  type 
of  neurasthenic  diseases.  Both  the  theory  and 
the  cure  which  it  proposed  harked  back  to  the 
famous  rest  treatment  of  Weir  Mitchell,  which 
was  very  popular  among  psychiatrists  a  genera- 
tion ago;  but  like  so  many  other  theories  in  ab- 
normal psychology,  the  conception  of  fatigue 
and  insufficiency  of  nervous  energy  was  seen  to 
be  a  valuable  partial  truth  which  permits  the 
observer  to  understand  the  concrete  nature  of 
a  particular  class  of  cases  but  which  is  mislead- 
ing when  generalized  into  what  amounts  to  a 
metaphysical  conception. 

The  question  may  well  be  asked  why  such 
partial  truths  do  not  sooner  or  later  find  their 
place  in  a  systematic  classification,  such  as  ob- 
tains in  the  natural  sciences;  why,  for  instance, 
there  is  not  as  complete  a  table  of  mental  dis- 
eases with  more  or  less  empirical  specifics  as 
is  the  case  in  physiological  therapeutics.  The 
answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  entire  absence  of  a 
spatial  form  of  representation,  a  circumstance 
which  makes  every  mental  concept,  every  mental 
theory,  an  elusive  metaphor.  In  the  domain 
of  mind  we  come  in  contact  with  truths  in  a 
manner  not  very  different  from  scents  and  odors. 
That  is  why  the  science  of  mind,  necessarily 
different  from  the  science  of  matter,  comes  in 
the  long  run  to  have  no  other  criterion  than  the 
cultivated  taste  of  the  connoisseur. 

We  come  back  to  the  point  we  made  at  the 
beginning  of  this  article.  The  real  significance 


PSYCHOLOGY 


of  abnormal  psychology  as  a  theoretical  study 
is  for  the  light  it  sheds  on  the  nature  of  normal 
psychological  facts.  An  analogy  comes  to  mind 
from  social  experience.  Just  as  the  political 
reliel,  by  challenging  the  ideology  of  an  existing 
order,  often  makes  the  rest  of  the  people  realize 
the  narrowness  of  the  folkways,  so  the  psy- 
chologically maladapted  bring  to  light  the  lim- 
ited horizons  of  ordinary  mental  behavior  and 
even  of  the  sciences  of  such  behavior. 

Bibliography.  Charles  Blondel,  La  Con- 
science Morbide  (1914);  J.  W.  Bridges,  Outline 
of  Abnormal  Psychology  (1919);  1.  H.  Coriat, 
Repressed  Emotions  (1920)  ;  Albert  Deschamps, 
Left  Maladies  de  V Esprit  ( 1919)  ;  Georges  Dumas, 
Troubles  Mentaux  et  Troubles  Nerreux  de  Guerre 
(1920)  ;  Sigmund  Freud,  Introduction  to  Psycho- 
analysis (1921),  Croup  Psychology  and  the 
Analysis  of  the  Ego  (1922)  ;  H.  L.  Hollingworth, 
Psychology  of  Functional  Neuroses  (1920);  J. 
H.  van  dcr  Hoop,  Character  and  the  Unconscious 
(1923)  ;  Pierre  Janet,  Les  Medications  Psycholo- 
giques  (3  vols.,  1919),  La  Medicine  Psychologi- 
<fue  (1923);  Ernest  Jones,  Papers  on  Psycho- 
analysis (1919),  The  Treatment  of  Neuroses 
(1920)  ;  C.  J.  Jung,  Studies  in  Word  Association 
(1919),  Collected  Papers  on  Analytical  Psychol- 
ogy (1923);  Hugh  Crichton  Miller  (editoi), 
Functional  Ken  c  Disease,  an  Epitome  of  ~\Var 
Experience  for  \  the.  Practitioner  (1920);  A. 
Wohlgcmuth,  A  Critical  Examination  of  Psycho- 
analysis  (1923).  Consult  also  the  files  of  the 
Journal  of  A  bnormal  Psychology,  The  In- 
ternational Journal  of  Psychoanalysis,  Jour- 
nal de  Psychologic  'Normale  et  Pathologique, 
etc. 

PSYCHOLOGY,  EXPERIMENTAL.  The  prog- 
ress of  systematic  experimental  psychology  dur- 
ing the  decade  1914-24  was,  as  previously, 
largely  confined  to  the  tabulation  and  classifica- 
tion of  sensations.  A  number  of  attempts  were 
made  to  carry  on  the  study  of  feeling  and  affec- 
tion along  experimental  lines,  but  the  results 
discovered  remained  isolated  and  were  not  in- 
tegrated with  the  general  body  of  natural  knowl- 
edge. After  the  failure  of  'Wundt's  tridimen- 
flional  theory  of  feeling,  nobody  attempted  to 
construct  a  comprehensive  empirical  theory. 
The  study  of  affective  states  was  thus  by  force 
relegated  to  the  theoreticians  of  psychoanalysis 
and  abnormal  psychology,  who  because  they  ap- 
proached their  subject  less  rigorously  often  got 
more  concrete  results.  On  the  other  hand  the 
experimental  study  of  perception — a  much  more 
feasible  programme — was  for  a  long  time  held 
up  and  thwaried  on  account  of  the  systematic 
assumptions  held  by  many  psychologists.  These 
assumptions  were  not  challenged  in  the  experi- 
mental realm  until  the  rise  of  the  configura- 
tional  or  Gestalt  school  of  psychology  in  Ger- 
many. The  dispute  over  the  assumptions  of  the 
structural  experimentalists  and  the  German  con- 
figuration ists  was  still  an  open  question  in  1924; 
for  that  reason  we  are  treating  the  subject  of 
perception  (q.v.)  in  a  separate  article 

Vision.  In  the  field  of  vision,  Prof.  L.  T. 
Troland  brought  together,  in  a  monograph  pub- 
lished by  the  National  Research  Council  (Bull., 
vol.  5,  no.  27,  December,  1922),  the  available  ex- 
perimental data  on  the  "Present  Status  of  Visual 
Science."  Passing  lightly  over  the  theories  of 
color  vision,  he  concentrated  his  attention  on  the 
psychophysics  of  vision.  He  reduced  the  intro- 
spective attributes  of  color  to  brilliance,  satura- 
tion, and  hue,  the  latter  two  being  included  in 


1085  PSYCHOLOGY 

the  term  "chroma."  Each  of  these  attributes 
can  be  correlated  with  the  wave  length,  intensity, 
and  purity  of  the  light  stimulus.  Troland  also 
made  a  similar  analysis  of  the  perception  of 
forms  and  of  things  in  motion,  first  separating 
the  introspective  conditions  from  the  physical 
and  then  proceeding  to  work  out  psychophysical 
relationships  between  them. 

These  relationships  or  functions  he  sought  to 
divide  up  among  the  several  stages  of  visual  re- 
sponse. For  instance,  he  assigned  such  effects 
as  sc-otopic  and  photopic  adaptation  to  the  re- 
reptors,  while  other  effects  such  as  Carpentier's 
bands  he  attributed  to  the  afferent  conduction, 
with  still  others,  like  motion  perception,  belong- 
ing to  the  cortex.  These  relationships  hold 
between  the  stimulus  and  the  visual  conscious- 
ness, but  in  some  instances,  according  to  Tro- 
land, "we  are  actually  able  to  establish  empiri- 
cally the  relationships  between  visual  conscious- 
ness and  stages  in  the  response  other  than  the 
stimulus."  He  went  on  to  say  that  "this  is 
particularly  true  with  respect  to  the  central 
process  itself.  The  disturbances  of  vision  which 
accompany  lesions  in  the  occipital  lobe  of  the 
cerebrum  demonstrate  clearly  the  fact  that  the 
totality  of  the  visual  consciousness  depends 
phyrhophysically  upon  the  brain  process;  so  that 
relations  such  as  those  studied  in  the  majority 
of  laboratory  experiments,  between  conscious- 
ness and  the  stimulus,  must  be  explained  in 
terms  of  the  physiological  mechanism  of  the 
response,  leading  up  to  the  focal  region  in  the 
cortex,  as  well  as  by  the  direct  psychophysical 
relation  which  exists  between  consciousness  and 
the  cortical  activity  in  question." 

Professor  Troland's  monograph  contains  a 
detailed  bibliography  of  268  titles,  to  which  we 
refer  the  interested  reader. 

Audition.  Professor  Troland's  systematiza- 
tion  of  visual  science  is  paralleled  by  a  treatise 
by  Prof.  R.  M.  Ogden  on  Hearing  (1924).  The 
volume  treats  every  phase  of  the  subject,  from 
the  controverted  question  of  tonal  attributes 
to  the  psychology  of  musical  ability.  The  Psy- 
chology of  Round  (1917),  by  Henry  J.  Watt,  'is 
another  systematic  treatise.  As  is  usual  with 
systematic  treatises,  the  empirical  facts  are  im- 
bedded within  a  methodological  viewpoint.  In 
the  case  of  Watt,  he  contributes  the  attribute  of 
order,  and  it  is  upon  this  basis  that  he  organ- 
izes a  whole  system  of  auditory  space  and 
volume.  This  attribute  was  objected  to  by  other 
experimentalists 

G.  J.  Rich,  in  a  study  of  tonal  attributes 
(American  Journal  of  Psychology,  vol.  xxx) 
concluded,  on  the  basis  of  numerical  limens  and 
the  reports  of  his  observers,  that  only  three  such 
attributes  exist.  These  are  pitch-brightness,  vol- 
ume, and  tonality.  Vocality  he  found  to  be  a 
perceptive  sign  and  not  an  attribute  as  main- 
tained by  Schole,  Koehlcr,  and  others.  Rich's 
concept  of  tonality  resembled  Kohler's  Tonhohe 
more  than  Revesz's  Qualitat. 

Sir  Thomas  Wrightson,  in  his  Inquiry  into  the 
Analytical  Mechanism  of  the  Inner  Ear  (1918), 
attacked  the  classic  Helmholtz  theory  of  hearing 
and  proposed  one  of  his  own.  He  availed  him- 
self of  the  histological  researches  of  Keith  to 
propose  a  mechanical  pressure-balance  theory  of 
hearing,  in  place  of  the  German's  conception  of 
nerve  fibres  as  resonators.  Profs.  E.  B.  Titchener 
and  E.  G.  Boring  (American  Journal  of  Psy- 
chology, 1920,  vol.  xxxi)  then  proceeded  to  de- 
molish the  Wrightson  theory,  and  showed  that 


PSYCHOLOGY 


1086 


PUTNAM 


while  Helmholtz'a  theory  was  not  sufficient  to 
cover  all  the  known  facts,  neither  was  any  other 
theory  proposed  thus  far. 

Taste  and  Smell.  The  outstanding  contribu- 
tion of  the  decade  was  the  revision  of  the 
classification  of  taste  and  smell  qualities  by 
H.  Henning  (Zeitschrift  fur  Psychologic,  vols. 
bcxiii,  Ixxiv).  Experimental  psychology  had 
been  content,  in  general,  to  accept  Zwaarde- 
maker's  improvement  on  the  old  Lmnsean  clas- 
sification of  odorous  Dualities,  and  of  the  same 
investigator's  results  in  the  matter  of  olfactory 
mixtures  and  compensations.  Heuning,  after 
trial  of  over  400  stimuli,  proposed  a  new 
classification.  There  are,  according  to  him, 
six  fundamental  qualities:  fruity  (lemon), 
putrid  (H»S),  flowery  (violet),  resinous  (frank- 
incense), scorched  (tar),  and  spicy  (nutmeg). 
[The  examples  in  parentheses  are  typical  only.] 
The  whole  body  of  olfactory  qualities,  funda- 
mental and  intermediate,  may  be  arranged  on 
the  surface  of  a  triangular  prism.  At  the  six 
angles  stand  the  pure  fundamental  odors,  and 
along  the  edges,  diagonals,  and  other  cross  lines 
of  the  surface  lie  the  qualities  which  "resemble" 
two  or  more  of  the  fundamental  qualities. 
These  intermediate  qualities  are  all  psychologi- 
cally simple;  their  relation  to  the  fundamentals 
is  analogous  to  that  of  a  tone  to  the  limiting 
tones  of  the  octave  within  which  it  is  placed. 

The  basis  of  classification  was  introspective, 
although  Kenning  undertook  a  correlation  with 
chemical  structure;  likeness  of  intermolecular 
combination  appeared  to  parallel  likeness  of  ol- 
factory quality.  In  the  matter  of  mixture,  Hen- 
ning  denied  outright  the  analogy  of  odor  and 
color;  the  olfactory  experiences  which  result 
from  dual  stimulation,  in  his  opinion,  resemble 
rather  the  tonal  fusions,  for  like  the  latter  they 
evince  degrees  of  fusion  ranging  from  the  "com- 
binational odor"  to  less  unitary  forms.  In  gen- 
eral, any  olfactory  quality  may  fuse  with  any 
other;  but  the  nature  of  the  fusion  depends 
upon  the  nearness  or  remoteness  of  its  com- 
ponents in  the  olfactory  series. 

The  treatment  of  taste  on  the  part  of  Henning 
was  no  less  radical.  The  German  psychologist 
recognized  the  four  fundamental  qualities  of 
sweet,  sour,  bitter,  and  salt,  but  insisted  that 
they  are  connected  by  series  of  simple  interme- 
diate qualities,  whose  relation  to  the  pure  quali- 
ties is  akin  to  that  of  the  intermediate  colors 
to  the  pure  red,  yellow,  green,  and  blue  of  the 
color  square.  The  whole  system  of  taste  quali- 
ties may  be  arranged  on  the  boundary  lines  of 
a  tetrahedron,  with  the  pure  fundamentals  at 
the  four  angles.  The  mixture  of  gustatory 
stimuli  gives  fusions  which  in  every  case  are 
readily  analyzable. 

Cutaneous  Sensation.  Head's  theory  of  pro- 
topathic  and  epicritic  sensibility  was  attacked 
from  two  quarters.  H.  Carr  (Psychological  Re- 
view, vol.  xxiii)  criticized  the  theory  on  grounds 
both  of  logic  and  of  observation.  E.  G.  Boring, 
repeating  Head's  experiment  under  improved 
conditions,  reported  his  own  observations  of  the 
return  of  cutaneous  sensitivity  after  section  of  a 
sensory  nerve  (Quarterly  Journal  of  Experi- 
mental Psychology ',  vol.  x).  He  found  that 
the  results  which  Head's  technique  threw  into 
high  relief  lost  their  special  importance  in  the 
light  of  a  more  refined  method,  and  that  they 
took  their  place  in  a  total  body  of  fact  which 
shows  no  such  line  of  cleavage  as  that  described 
by  the  British  physiologist. 


Boring  himself  outlined  a  theory  of  multiple 
innervation  of  the  sensory  "spots";  the  nerve 
supply,  he  held,  is  so  distributed  that,  under 
varying  conditions,  summation  or  inhibition  of 
excitations  may  occur  in  varying  degree.  A 
hypothesis  of  this  sort  is,  in  Boring's  opinion, 
adequate  to  the  data  of  observation,  and  avoids 
the  duplication  of  sensibilities  which  Head  was 
led  to  assume. 

Organic  Sensations.  E.  G.  Boring  (Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Psychology,  vol.  xxvi)  reported 
experiments  on  the  sensations  aroused  by  the 
stimulation  of  the  alimentary  tract.  He  used 
thermal,  mechanical,  chemical,  and  electrical 
stimulation.  In  the  esophagus,  sensations  cor- 
responding to  all  stimuli  except  pepper  and  mus- 
tard were  reported;  in  the  stomach  all  were 
sensed,  but  it  was  not  certain  whether  the  sensa- 
tions of  cold,  warmth,  and  electrical  shock  arose 
in  the  stomach  or  in  the  surrounding  tissues. 
Hydrochloric  acid  was  found  to  induce  the  sensa- 
tion of  hunger.  The  greatest  error  of  localiza- 
tion occurred  in  the  direction  of  the  median 
line  through  throat  and  stomach,  reference  be- 
ing often  made  to  head,  to  throat,  or  to  a  point 
below  the  sternum, 

Boring  also  made  a  qualitative  study  of  ex- 
periences referred  to  the  alimentary  and  urinary 
tracts  (Psychological  Kerien ,  vol.  xxii).  He 
concluded  that  under  favorable  conditions  most 
of  the  experiences  are  introspect ively  reducible 
to  various  patterns  of  pressure  and  pain. 
Nausea  was  the  most  difficult  experience  to 
analyze.  Experiments  reported  by  A.  J.  Carl- 
son (The  Control  of  Hunger  in  Health  and  Dis- 
ease, 1010)  confirmed  many  of  Boring's  observa- 
ions.  Carlson,  however,  maintained  that  hunger 
is  experimentally  distinguishable  from  appetite; 
appetite,  he  held,  may  appear  in  the  absence  of 
hunger,  and  can  be  aroused  by  weak  chemical 
stimuli  which  inhibit  the  hunger  contractions. 

PSYCHOLOGY,  SOCIAL.  See  SOCIAL  PSY- 
CHOLOGY. 

PUEBLO  INDIAN  LANDS.     See  INDIANS. 

PULP,  WOOD.    See  PAPER  AND  WOOD  PULP. 

PURDUE  UNIVERSITY.  A  technological 
State  institution  founded  in  1860  at  Lafayette, 
Ind.  The  number  of  students  rose  from  2341 
in  1914  to  3235  in  1924,  the  number  of  the  fac- 
ulty from  185  to  323  and  the  library  increased 
from  40,000  to  60,000  volumes.  The"  tax  appro- 
priations for  the  support  of  the  university  were 
correspondingly  increased  during  the  period  from 
$479,251  to  $1,415,000.  A  department  of  for- 
estry was  established,  and  the  total  number  of 
courses  offered  in  all  departments  was  increased 
from  421  to  579.  Advanced  military  training 
was  introduced  into  the  junior  and  senior  years 
of  all  schools.  Buildings  costing  more  than 
$800,000  were  built  during  the  10  years.  These 
included  the  armory,  costing  $194,350,  built  in 
1918;  the  home  economics  building  built  in  1923 
at  a  cost  of  $151,414;  Stanley  Coulter  TIall,  for 
the  biology  department,  built  in  1917  at  a  cost 
of  $101,440;  a  recitation  building  for  the  de- 
partments of  education,  history  and  economics 
and  mathematics;  a  veterinary  building;  a  horti- 
cultural greenhouse;  a  campus  greenhouse;  a 
locomotive  museum;  and  buildings  for  the  farm 
of  the  School  of  Agriculture.  Winthrop  Ells- 
worth Stone  was  succeeded  as  president  by  Ed- 
ward C.  Elliott. 

PUTNAM,  NINA  WILCOX  (Mas.  ROBERT  J. 
SANDBEBON)  (1888-  ).  An  American  au- 
thor, born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  and  educated 


PUTNAM  I087  PYROTECHNICS 

privately.     She  began  writing  at  the  age  of  11.  contributor    of    short    stories    to    the    leading 

Her  books  include  Esmeralda   (1018);   It  Pays  magazines. 

to    Smile     (1020);     West    Broadway     (1921);  PYBITE.     See  SULPHUB. 

Laughter    Ltd.     (1022);    Kay    It    with   Bricks  PYROTECHNICS.    See  ORDNANCE;  TRENCH 

(1023) ;  and  Easy  (1024).    She  was  a  frequent  WABFABE  MATERIAL. 


0 


O -SHIPS.    See  VESSELS,  NAVAL. 
QUANTUM       THEOBY.     See 
CHEMISTRY,    ORGANIC. 
QUABRIES,     UNITED    STATES. 
See  STONE. 
QUATAB,    EL.     See    ARABIA. 
QUEBEC.     A    Canadian     Prov- 
ince with  an  area  of  700,834  square  miles,  and 


722,664  ($378,441,000  in  1913),  and  $784,753,- 
805  the  value  of  products  produced  ($406,167,- 
950  in  1913).  The  number  of  employers  was 
10,762  and  salaries  and  wages  paid,  $164,450,- 
443.  The  distribution  in  1921  of  the  value  of 
manufactured  products  was.  Montreal,  $593,- 
881,752;  Quebec,  $45,121,279;  Hull,  $16,623,- 
648.  The  leading  industries  in  order  were: 


a  population  of  2,361,199  in  1921,  a  gain  of  17.7       pulp  and  paper,  wood,  lath,  etc.,  cottons,  flour- 
per  cent  over  the  2,005,776  of  1911.     The  rural      mill    products,    leather,    shoes,    tobacco,    butter 


population  continued  to  fall  off,  in  1921  only  44 
per  cent  of  the  total  population  living  in  rural 
districts  as  compared  with  51.8  per  cent  in  1911. 
In  1921,  males  numbered  1,180,028  and  females 
1,181,171.  By  the  1911  census,  316,103  of  the 
inhabitants  were  of  British  and  1,605,339  of 
French  descent.  There  were  442,356  families 
in  1921  as  compared  with  307,304  in  1901. 
Populations  of  the  largest  cities  in  1921  were: 
Montreal,  618,506  (490,504  in  1911);  Quebec, 
the  capital,  95,193  (78,710  in  1911);  Hull,  24,- 
117  (18,222  in  1911);  Verdun,  25,001;  Sher- 
brooke,  23,515;  Three  Rivers,  22,367. 

Industry.  Agriculture  continued  to  thrive, 
averaging  a  total  value  of  field  crops  of  about 
$200,000,000.  Low  prices  in  1923  accounted 
for  the  falling  off  in  that  year,  the  total  being 
$133,137,400  ($99,279,000  in  1914).  Hay  and 
clover,  oats,  potatoes,  buckwheat,  barley,  spring 
wheat  continued  to  lead.  Potatoes  and  turnips 
in  particular  showed  increases.  Fruit  culture 
flourished,  as  did  the  maple  sugar  and  syrup 
industry  which  averaged  about  $6,000,000  an- 
nually (1922,  $4,187,630,  as  compared  with  $1,- 
600,000  in  1913).  In  1920,  33,000  acres  were 
under  tobacco,  but  the  tillage  fell  off  to  16,573 
acres  in  1922.  The  live-stock  industry  contin- 
ued, to  expand,  milch  cows  increasing  from 
761,816  to  968,705;  other  cattle  from  693,540 
to  813,046;  sheep  from  602,751  to  822,997; 
swine  from  661,768  to  797,726.  The  wool  clip 
in  1923  was  4,682,602  pounds  and  was  second 
only  to  that  of  Ontario.  Dairying,  always  an 
important  industry,  brought  in  $61,188,000  in 
1923  in  cheese,  butter,  and  other  products. 
Lumbering  produced  $19,656,462  worth  of  cuts 
of  lumber  in  1921.  The  manufacture  of  pulp 
and  paper  products  led  the  Dominion.  In 
1922,  $43,329,740  worth  of  wood  wa«  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  pulpwood  while  paper  prod- 
ucts totaled  $108,076,952.  In  1921  the  fish 
catch  had  brought  in  $2,592,382;  in  1921,  $1,- 
815,284;  in  1913,  $1,988,241.  The  mineral 
yields  had  only  barely  tapped  the  vast  resources 
of  the  Province.  In  1922,  the  total  mineral 
production  was  $17,647,939,  as  compared  with 
$11,836,929  in  1914.  Asbestos  ($5,552,723  in 
1922),  cement  ($5,907,300),  and  limestone  con- 
tinued to  lead,  Discoveries  of  gold  in  north- 
western Quebec  drew  prospectors  to  Malmartic 
and  Fourniere  townships  BO  that  3000  acres  in 
claims  had  been  staked  out  by  1922.  The 
industrial  development  of  the  Province  was 
marked,  the  census  of  1921  showing  10J62  es- 
tablishments, with  a  capital  investment  of  $973,- 


and  cheese,  meat  packing,  clothing,  shipbuild- 
ing, housebuilding,  rolling  mills.  In  every  case 
the  product  was  more  than  $20,000,000.  The 
estimated  water  power  of  the  Piovince  totaled 
probably  6,915,244  horse  power  of  which  1,073,- 
H83  liorwe  power  had  already  been  developed,  all 
by  private  capital.  Work  was  under  way  on 
plants  on  the  Montreal  Kiver  and  Lake  St. 
John  in  1923. 

Trade  and  Communications.  In  1922  there 
were  4977  miles  of  railway  as  compared  with 
4043  miles  in  1914.  Total  imports  for  con- 
sumption in  1922-23  amounted  to  $222,478,422 
($187,301,493  in  1912-13);  exports  to  $315,- 
480,911  ($147,723,907  in  1912-13) 

Government.  Revenues  for  1913-14  were 
$9,000,377;  expenditures  $8,624,368;  by  1921- 
22  these  had  reached  revenues  of  $2 i, 609,396 
and  expenditures  of  $16,575,977.  While  the 
Dominion  subsidy  had  remained  the  same  o^  er 
the  period,  larger  revenues  \\cre  derived  fiom 
the  succession  and  commercial  corporation 
taxes.  In  June,  1922,  the  funded  debt  \vas 
$55,604,926  ($24,579,166  in  1914).  For  1921, 
there  were  5686  Roman  Catholic  elementary 
schools  with  227,986  enrolled  pupils;  697  model 
schools  with  108,125  pupils;  378  academies 
with  110,202  pupils;  13  normal  schools  with 
1215  pupils;  in  all  (including  all  others), 
there  were  6934  schools  with  477,944  pupils. 
Besides,  there  were  799  Protestant  schools  of 
all  grades  with  70,307  pupils  enrolled  The 
total  expenditure  for  all  education  in  1920-21 
was  $22,122,979  as  compared  with  $9,225,771 
in  1913.  In  the  Dominion  parliament  repre- 
sentation remained  the  same;  House  of  Com- 
mons, 65,  Senate,  24.  Of  all  the  Canadian 
Provinces,  Quebec  remained  the  only  one  in 
which  \\omen  were  not  enfranchised  or  per- 
mitted to  stan-i  for  the  Legislature  of  the 
Province. 

QUEENSLAND.  A  state  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia  occupying  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  continent.  Area,  670,500  square 
miles;  population,  in  1911,  605,813;  in  1!)22, 
785,449;  average  annual  increase,  2.52  per  cent. 
Brisbane,  the  capital,  including  suburbs,  had 
200,699  inhabitants  in  1921.  Of  the  total  area 
of  the  state,  94  per  cent  still  remained  unpre- 
empted.  Leading  agricultural  activities  cen- 
tred in  the  planting  of  maize,  wheat,  hay,  and 
sugar  cane.  Pastoral  pursuits  continued*  to  be 
important.  The  wool  output  in  1921  was  132,- 
579,733  pounds  (136,878,270  pounds  in  1912- 
13).  Sugar  in  particular  snowed  increases, 


1088 


QTJTCXSrLVEB 


1089 


QT7INN 


the  yield  in  1021  being  2,287,400  tons  of  cane 
as  against  1,135,126  tons  in  1912-13.  Total 
value  of  minerals  in  1912,  £4,175,355;  in  1920, 
£3,462,214;  in  1921,  £1,456,436.  Gold  contin- 
ued to  decline,  dropping  from  £1,128,868  in 
1913  to  £171,504  in  1921.  Coal  was  the  only 
mineral  to  show  important  gains  in  the  decade. 
Imports  for  1916-17  and  1921-22  were  £6,263,- 
102  and  £8,639,446;  exports  for  the  same  years 
were  £14,542,270  and  £17,573,103  Government 
aocounts  showed:  revenues  and  expenditures  for 
1913,  £6,378,213  and  £6,372,097;  the  same  for 


country  over  that  in  1922  was  the  result  of  the 
resumption  of  production  at  the  New  Idria  in 
California.  Without  this  contribution  the  pro- 
duction in  1923  would  have  been  lower  than  in 
1922.  During  1923,  the  United  States  exported 
318  flasks  of  quicksilver  and  imported  18,073 
flasks.  There  was  an  increase  of  nearly  14  per 
cent  in  the  average  price  at  San  Francisco  over 
the  previous  years  and  an  increase  of  nearly  25 
per  cent  in  the  production.  The  price  of  the 
metal  declined  from  $70.70  in  the  first  week  of 
1923  to  $59.35  in  the  last  week,  and  the  average 


QUICKSILVER 

PRODUCED 

IN   THE   UNITED 

STATES 

IN 

1923 

State 

Mines 
producing 

Ore 
treated 

Qui 
Percentage 
tenor  won  * 

Flasks  of 
75   pounds 

Value 

California 
Texas,  Nevada, 

Total    for 
Total    for 

9 

(short  tons) 
38,648 
12,148 
50,796 
43,084 

0.52 
0  82 
0.59 
0.51 

6 

0 

5,417 
2,490 
7,937 
6,375 

$357,759 
163,543 
521,302 
36K.348 

Oregon,  and  Idaho   .    .  . 

.  .    .        5 

1923 
1922     . 

14 

10 

"Weighted    moans   for    lf)'J3 

*  Includes  31  flasks  obtained  from  cleanups,  etc.,  and    not  considered   in  calculating  percentage  tenor 

e  Includes  179  flasks  obtained  from  an  unknown  quantity  of  ore  and  not  considered  in  calculating  percentage 


tenor. 

11)21-22  wore  £12,311,378  and  £12,499,970.  The 
debt  mounted  from  £55,023.506  in  1014  to  £88,- 
005,001  in  1923  Here,  as  in  New  South  Wales, 
the  Labor  party  continued  the  most  powerful 
group.  In  1922*,  as  a  result  of  continuous  agi- 
tation, a  referendum  decided  for  the  abolition 
of  the  legislative  council 

QUICKSILVER.  The  production  of  quick- 
silver was  somewhat  stimulated  by  the  War, 
and  in  1918  the  world's  output  amounted  to 
3421.6  metric  tons,  but  in  1921  it  had  declined 
to  2019  metric  tons.  In  the  latter  year,  Italy 
was  the  largest  producer,  its  output  amounting 
to  1071  metric  tons,  followed  by  Spain  with 
0354  metric  tons,  and  the  United  States  with 
215.0  metric  tons  In  the  year  1922,  the  pro- 
duction of  the  United  States  increased  slightly, 
being  represented  by  a  total  of  0375  flasks  of 
75  pounds  each,  valued  at  $368,348  This  was 
very  little  in  advance  of  the  1921  production, 
0339  flasks,  the  lowest  annual  output  in  the  72 
years  of  recorded  production  of  domestic  quick- 
silver in  the  United  States  In  this  vear  a  new 
duty  of  25  cents  a  pound  ($18.75  a  flask)  was 
a  source  of  encouragement  to  the  American 
quicksilver  industry  but  with  it  came  increas- 
ing difficulty  in  finding  new  ore  and  in  securing 
competent  labor 

As  will  appear  from  the  table,  California 
produce!  09  per  cent  of  the  7937  flasks  of 
quicksi?»rer  credited  to  the  United  States  in 
1923,  and  most  of  the  remainder  was  produced 
in  Texas.  The  increase  in  the  output  of  the 


for  the  year  was  $65.08.  Early  in  1924  the 
price  improved  notably,  and  could  it  be  main- 
tained near  or  over  $70  a  flask,  there  would  be 
increased  production.  Interest  among  produc- 
ers of  quicksilver  was  directed  to  the  new  mer- 
cury boilers  designed  by  W  L  R  Emmet.  If 
this  should  prove  as  successful  in  practice  as 
its  sponsors  believed,  it  would  unquestionably 
produce  an  increased  demand  for  quicksil- 
ver. Should  this  demand  eventually  develop, 
a  large  part  of  the  quicksilver  to  satisfy  it 
would  have  to  be  sought  in  foreign  countries, 
for  the  deposits  in  the  United  States  do 
not  appear  to  be  adequate  to  supply  it.  See 
BOILERS. 

QUINIDIN.     See  HEART  DISEASE. 

QTJINN,  EDMUND  T.  (1868-  ).  An 
American  painter  and  sculptor  born  in  Phila- 
delphia. He  was  a  pupil  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  of  Thomas  Eakins, 
and  in  "Paris  of  Injalbert  He  is  an  Associate 
of  the  National  Academy  and  a  member  of  the 
National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters  ^and  is 
represented  in  America  by  a  statue  of  Zoroas- 
ter, at  the  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences; a  bust  of  Edgar  Allan  Poe  in  Poe  Park, 
New  York;  a  statue  of  Edwin  Booth  in  the 
character  of  Hamlet  at  Gramercy  Park,  New 
York,  and  the  World  War  Memorial  at  New 
Kochelle,  N.  Y.  He  has  executed  many  por- 
trait busts  of  prominent  American  men,  and 
is  a  member  of  the  council  of  the  National 
Society  of  Sculptors. 


R 


RABATJD,    HENBI    (1873-        ).    A 
French    conductor    and    composer, 
born    in    Paris.    He    was    trained 
under  Massenet  at  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire   and    in    1894    won    the 
Prix    de    Home    with    a    cantata, 
Daphne.     In   1908-14  he  was  conductor  at  the 
Op6ra  Comique  and  in   1914-18  at  the  Grand 
Op£ra~     In  1915  he  was  also  appointed  conduc- 
tor of  the  famous   Concerts   du   Conservatoire. 
During  the  season  of  1918-19  he  conducted  the 
Boston  Symphony  Orchestra  and   in   1920  suc- 
ceeded Faure*  as  director  of  the  Paris  Conserva- 
toire.    His  works  comprise  the  operas,  La  Fille 
de   Roland    (Paris,    1904),   Le   Premier   Glaive 
(B6ziers,  1908),  M&rouf,  and  Ravetier  du  Caire 
(Paris,   1914;   New  York,   1917);   two  sympho- 
nies;   a   symphonic   poem,   La   Procession   Noc- 
turne; Divertissement  sur  des  Chansons  Russes; 
Eclogue;   an   oratorio,  tAob;   a   Psalm   for   soli, 
chorus  and  orchestra;   incidental  music  to  The 
Merchant  of  Venice,  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  and 
St.    Pierre's    Paul    et    Virginie;    Hymne    d    la 
France  Eternelle;  a  string  quartet,  and  other 
chamber  music. 

BABIES.  See  VETERINARY  MEDICINE. 
BACE  BIOLOGY.  See  EUGENICS. 
RACE  PROBLEMS,  UNITED  STATES.  The 
United  States  has  faced  internal  race  problems 
from  the  beginning.  First,  there  were  the  In- 
dian tribes  to  be  displaced,  controlled,  and  as- 
similated. In  the  main,  this  was  a  problem  of 
conquest  and  subjection,  and  though  once  a  se- 
rious matter,  it  has  long  ceased  to  trouble  any 
one,  except  an  a  moral  obligation  of  the  nation 
to  deal  justly  with  the  few  Indians  that  survive 
(see  INDIANS).  Next  in  order  came  the  Negro 
problem,  resulting  in  the  Civil  War,  through 
which  the  Negro  came  into  the  right  to  citizen- 
ship, but  this  raised  anew  social  and  political 
problems  that  are  still  acute  Finally,  the 
open  door  policy  upon  which  the  Government 
of  the  United  States  was  founded  as  an  asylum 
for  the  oppressed  and  dissatisfied  of  every  color, 
creed,  and  nationality  brought  so  many  diverse 
racial  elements  to  its  shores  that  public  senti- 
ment began  to  demand  restrictive  measures, 
which  ultimately  culminated  in  an  exclusion 
policy  (see  IMMIGRATION).  Both  the  Negro 
and  the  immigration  question  are  very  complex, 
but  one  of  the  factors  alway*  recognized  is  that 
of  race,  or  the  biological  problem.  The  appar- 
ent rapid  increase  of  mulattoes,  for  example, 
threatens  to  end  in  complete  hybridization  of 
both  white  and  Negro  stocks.  Naturally,  this 
raises  the  question  an  to  the  desirability  of  such 
amalgamation  and  the  quality  of  the  resulting 
hybrids.  Again,  in  the  early  decades  of  the  na- 
tion's history,  immigration  was  chiefly  from  the 
countries  of  northern  Europe  where  the  people 
were  very  much  alike;  but  later,  Asiatic  peo- 
ples threatened  to  fill  up  the  western  States, 
and  still  later,  the  populations  of  southern  Eu- 
rope began  to  migrate  to  the  Atlantic  States  in 
large  numbers.  As  to  Asiatics,  the  race  ques- 
tion was  promptly  raised  and  a  policy  of  ex- 


XOQO 


elusion  adopted.  Finally,  the  growing  volume 
of  immigration  from  eastern  and  southern  Eu- 
rope raised  questions  of  policy  leading  to  an 
Act  of  Congress  in  1907  creating  an  Immigra- 
tion Commission. 

While  the  chief  factors  considered  by  this 
commission  were  economic,  they  did  provide  for 
a  study  of  -the  racial  elements  in  immigration. 
This  research  was  directed  by  Prof.  Franz  Boas 
of  Columbia  University,  and  the  results  were 
published  in  1910.  The  immediate  objective  of 
the  inquiry  was  to  discover  what  biological 
changes,  if  any,  took  place  in  the  successive 
descendants  of  foreign  stocks.  The  stocks  se- 
lected for  study  were  Bohemians,  Slovaks,  Poles, 
Hungarians,  Jews,  Sicilians,  and  Neapolitans, 
and  the  results,  it  was  claimed,  showed  that 
certain  marked  changes  were  going  on  in  head 
form,  facial  dimensions,  and  stature.  In  other 
words,  the  new  environment  in  which  the  chil- 
dren of  immigrants  grew  up  seemed  to  have 
brought  about  definite  modifications  in  facial 
characters.  These  changes  were  minute,  but 
they  were  heralded  as  proving  that  racial  types 
were  not  stable  and  that  the  new  environment 
of  America  tended  to  level  down  differences. 
The  investigation  was  too  limited  in  scope  to 
warrant  such  a  sweeping  conclusion,  and  it  was 
not  followed  up.  Its  chief  value,  then,  is  in 
pointing  out  the  scientific  approach  to  the  bi- 
ological problems  in  immigration.  The  publi- 
cation of  this  study  provoked  a  great  deal  of 
discussion,  and  it  was  closely  followed  by  sev- 
eral forceful  statements  of  the  racial  problems 
involved  in  the  immigration  question;  e.g.  Mad- 
ison Grant's  book,  The  Passing  of  the  Great 
Race.  Mr.  Grant's  thesis  was  that  the  peoples 
of  northern  Europe,  grouped  under  the  name 
Nordic,  are  responsible  for  the  modern  civili- 
zation of  western  Europe  and  America,  that 
their  peculiar  racial  abilities  are  the  basic 
causes  in  the  evolution  of  this  type  of  civiliza- 
tion, and  that  with  the  development  of  this  civ- 
ilization come  abundant  contacts  with  other  ra- 
cial stocks,  resulting  in  mixture  of  blood  and 
the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  old  Nordic 
stock. 

The  War  put  the  supreme  test  to  the  natural- 
ized citizen  and  his  children.  The  situation  so 
created  awakened  a  sense  of  insecurity  in  the 
face  of  large  blocks  of  ill-assimilated  aliens 
and  shocked  the  country  into  a  sober  contem- 
plation of  the  political  and  social  dangers  in- 
volved. Further,  the  universal  draft  brought 
into  the  army,  the  navy,  and  other  branches  of 
the  service,  representatives  of  all  the  racial 
groups  in  the  country,  so  that  they  were  thrown 
into  competition  with  each  other.  For  some 
years  previous  to  the  War,  the  special  students 
of  psychology  and  education  had  been  actively 
developing  methods  of  rating  the  abilities  of  in- 
dividuals. Naturally  these  methods  were  used 
in  the  classification  of  the  army  personnel,  and 
it  was  inevitable  that  in  comparing  the  ratings 
given,  account  should  be  taken  of  racial  dif- 
ferences. These  were  fully  set  forth  in  a  bulky 


BACE  PROBLEMS 


1091 


BACE  PROBLEMS 


report  on  Psychological  Examining  in  the 
United  States  Army,  edited  by  Robert  M. 
Yerkes.  Later,  the  racial  differences  in  sol- 
diers' ratings  were  critically  presented  by  Carl 
C.  Brigham  in  A  Study  of  American  Intelli- 
gence. Marked  differences  in  rating  were  found 
for  the  several  racial  elements  in  the  army. 
The  Question  of  relative  racial  merits  was  thus 
raised,  and  also  the  danger  of  lowering  the  na- 
tional intelligence  average  by  unrestricted  im- 
migration from  stocks  with  a  low  rating  was 
apprehended  The  publication  of  the  army  test 
results  provoked  heated  discussion,  and  this  in 
turn  stimulated  research  by  psychologists  and 
educators.  Careful  studies  were  started  in  the 
schools  of  the  country,  where  the  results  could 
be  fully  checked.  Fundamental  inquiries  were 
also  being  made  as  to  tbe  objective  criteria  of 
superior  ability,  which  would  in  the  end  give 
more  precise  methods  for  distinguishing  be- 
tween the  native  ability  of  the  individual  and 
what  he  has  acquired  by  education. 

From  the  army  tests  it  was  observed  that  the 
relative  average  ratings  for  men  of  English, 
Dutch,  Scotch,  German,  and  Danish  descent  was 
above  the  United  States  national  average  for 
the  native-born  white.  The  full  series  in  order 
from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  in  rating  was  as 
follows:  England,  Holland,  Scotland,  Germany, 
Denmark,  native-born  white,  Canada,  Sweden, 
army  average  for  all  white  soldiers,  Norway, 
IJelgiuin,  Ireland,  Austria,  Turkey,  Greece,  for- 
eign-born white,  Russia,  Italy,  Poland,  and 
Negroes.  This  rating  indicated  that  the  immi- 
grants from  countries  in  noithern  Europe  were 
better  qualified  to  perform  the  duties  of  sol- 
diers than  weie  those  from  southern  Europe. 
In  these  results  an  attempt  was  made  to  elim- 
inate the  learning  and  language  factor,  as  by 
comparing  the  ratings  for  those  of  little  school- 
ing with  those  from  the  same  racial  stock  with 
more  than  the  average  school  experience,  etc. 
The  critics  of  these  studies  have,  however,  em- 
phasized the  specific  character  of  the  army  tests 
and  raised  the  more  general  question  as  to 
whether  abilities  shown  in  them  are  desirable 
in  times  of  peace.  On  the  other  hand,  the  psy- 
chologists have  been  able  to  make  a  good  case 
in  their  claim  that  to  a  large  decree  native 
ability  is  measured,  but  they  are  now  actively 
engaged  in  further  researches  on  this  problem. 

Of  the  studies  completed  in  the  United  States 
since  the  War,  mention  may  be  made  of  those 
of  Indian  children  by  Professor  Hunter  of  the 
University  of  Kansas,  which  show  not  only  that 
Indians  rank  below  white  children,  but  that 
the  mixed-blood  children  take  intermediate  po- 
sitions according  to  the  degree  of  mixture.  In 
a  similar  way,  by  the  use  of  psychological  tests, 
Sullivan  and  Paschal  of  the  University  of  Ari- 
zona have  shown  that  among  so-called  Mexican 
children  in  the  public  schools  of  the  border 
States  the  rating  increases  with  the  lightness 
of  skin  color.  These  are,  however,  but  samples 
of  the  great  volume  of  data  which  in  1924  was 
being  accumulated  in  the  educational  institu- 
tions of  the  country,  where  the  use  of  psy- 
chological and  educational  tests  had  become  all 
but  universal.  Since  all  the  racial  elements  in 
the  population  are  represented  in  the  schools, 
educators  and  psychologists  were  expected  soon 
to  have  in  their  hands  a  basis  for  estimating 
the  relative  qualities  of  mental  ability  in  each. 
On  the  psychological  side  of  the  race  problem, 
1914-24  has  been  a  decade  of  progress,  probably 


psyi 
lonj 


the  forerunner  of  a  great  advance  in  knowledge 
and  consequently  of  the  formulation  of  new 
national  policies. 

The  race  problem  has  other  such  aspects  as 

ychopathic  tendencies,  immunities  to  disease, 
ongevity,  fecundity,  etc.,  as  well  as  all  forma 
of  social  delinquency  Modern  conditions  doom 
the  able  and  competent  to  support  the  sick,  the 
inefficient,  the  criminal  and  defective;  hence,  it 
is  inevitable  that  stock  should  be  taken  of  the 
different  racial  immigrant  groups  with  respect 
to  these  characteristics.  Insurance  companies 
had  begun  to  segregate  their  vital  statistics  ac- 
cording to  race,  and  this  reveals  positive  dif- 
ferences in  the  expectation  of  life.  An  investi- 
gation by  Dublin  showed  a  higher  rate  of  mor- 
tality for  the  foreign-born  of  New  York  as  a 
whole  and  higher  than  for  the  same  stocks  at 
home.  When  the  races  are  treated  separately, 
however,  the  Russian  Jews  equal  the  native- 
born;  the  descending  order  is  Russian  Jews, 
Italians,  English,  Scotch,  Welsh,  Germans,  and 
Irish.  These  varying  death  rates  are  probably 
indicative  of  different  degrees  of  resistance  to 
the  strain  of  readjustment  to  American  life, 
and  so  are  an  index  of  racial  values  in  immi- 
grants. 

Further,  the  United  States  Congress  author- 
ized an  inquiry  as  to  the  relative  number  of  de- 
fectives in  public  institutions,  a  report  on 
which  was  made  by  Dr.  H.  H.  Laughlin.  Ac- 
cording to  this  report,  a  much  greater  propor- 
tion of  the  foreign-born  are  found  in  public  in- 
stitutions for  feeble-mindedness,  insanity,  epi- 
lepsy, blindness,  deafness,  etc.,  than  of  the  na- 
tive-born, and  again  the  ratio  for  immigrants 
from  southern  Europe  is  much  higher  than  for 
those  of  northern  Europe.  While  this  is  a  pio- 
neer study  and  the  results  cannot  be  taken  as 
final,  yet  like  all  the  preceding  investigations, 
it  makes  clear  the  force  of  the  race  factor,  and 
the  need  of  extensive  research  for  guidance  in 
the  development  of  a  sound  policy  with  respect 
to  immigration  and  internal  affairs. 

Further,  the  need  of  anthropometric  studies 
among  the  population  of  the  nation,  region  by 
region,  has  become  apparent.  Not  only  did  the 
publication  of  measurement  data  by  the  Sur- 
geon-General of  the  United  States  Army  reveal 
the  importance  of  such  studies,  but  the  manu- 
facturers of  ready-made  clothing,  engaged  in 
quantity  production,  are  finding  it  increasingly 
difficult  to  gauge  accurately  the  proportionate 
number  of  suits  for  each  standard  size.  A 
faulty  estimate  in  this  will  entail  losses  of 
great  magnitude.  Clothing  manufacturers  are 
in  the  same  predicament  as  a  life  insurance 
company  would  be  without  vital  statistics,  for 
without  adequate  data  on  the  regional  differ- 
ences in  bodily  size  and  proportion,  they  can 
only  proceed  blindly.  And  the  uncertain  ele- 
ment is  race,  since  immigration  has  been  chang- 
ing the  population  content  from  decade  to  dec- 
ade and  hybridization  has  been  introducing 
new  ratios  of  bodily  proportions.  It  is,  there- 
fore, becoming  clearer  that  a  study  of  bodily 
size  and  vigor  on  a  national  scale  is  needed  for 
economic  as  well  as  for  social  reasons 

Even  during  the  late  War  the  United  States 
military  authorities  experienced  great  difficul- 
ties in  supplying  in  advance  the  proper  sizes 
of  clothing  for  the  enlisted  men.  Accordingly, 
a  series  of  measurements  were  made  at  demo- 
bilization for  the  establishment  of  sizes  and  fre- 
quencies. In  these  measurements  the  ancestry 


BACKS 


xoga 


RACIAL  MINORITIES 


of  soldiers  was  taken,  thus  giving  some  com- 
parative data  as  to  race,  from  which  it  appears 
that  significant  differences  in  sifce  and  propor- 
tion hold  for  the  several  race  groups.  As  a 
sample  of  these  differences  in  size  and  propor- 
tion the  following  ranks  may  be  noted: 


Chest 

Waist 

Stature 

Weight 

Circumference 

Circumference 

Scotch 

German 

Polish 

German 

English 

Polish 

German 

Polish 

Get  man 

English 

Italian 

Irish 

Irish 

Scotch 

Irish 

Scotch 

PoliKh 

Irish 

Scotch 

French 

French 

French 

French 

Jtalinn 

Hebrew 

Italian 

Enelish 

Hebrew 

Italian 

Hebrew- 

Hebrew 

English 

The  greatest  average  measurement  is  at  the 
top  of  each  column;  thus,  while  the  Scotch  and 
English  are  tallest,  they  are  quite  far  down 
the  line  in  waist  circumference,  especially  the 
English.  Likewise  the  measurements  for  the 
native-born  show  that  the  mountaineers  of  Car- 
olina, Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  who  are  largely 
of  Scotch  and  English  stock,  are  very  tall,  but 
slender  in  body.  The  Poles,  Italians,  etc.  mak- 
ing up  the  bulk  of  recent  immigration  are  rela- 
tively large  in  chest.  It  is  clear  that  the  phy- 
sique of  the  nation  is  undergoing  regional 
changes  and  that  its  bodily  future  presents  mil- 
itary as  well  as  industrial  problems.  However, 
the  study  of  populations  is  now  generally  rec- 
ognized as  a  special  field  for  research,  upon 
which  a  volume  has  been  issued  by  A.  Carr- 
Saunders,  entitled  The  Population  Problem. 
In  general,  however,  it  is  clear  that  race  prob- 
lems in  the  United  States  are  little  short  of 
world  problems  and  that  under  modern  condi- 
tions they  are  the  most  fundamental  of  popu- 
lation problems  See  ANTHROPOLOGY;  ETH- 
NOGRAPHY; MENTAL  MEASUREMENT. 

BACES,  OKIQIN  OF.  See  ANTHROPOLOGY. 
RACES  OF  MAN.  See  ANTHROPOLOGY. 
RACIAL  MINORITIES  TREATIES.  The 
protection  of  racial,  linguistic,  and  religious 
minorities  constituted  one  of  the  most  difficult 
problems  dealt  with  at  the  Peace  Conference  of 
Paris.  Throughout  the  world  there  was  a  tre- 
mendous agitation  for  national  self-determina- 
tion. The  peace-makers  of  1919-20  endeavored 
to  enshrine  the  principle  of  nationality  in  the 
political  and  territorial  resettlement  of  Europe, 
and  to  a  large  extent  they  succeeded  (see  PEACE 
CONFERENCE  AND  TREATIES)  ;  but  so  intermin- 
gled were  different  nationalities  in  various 
parts  of  the  former  empires  of  Russia,  Austria- 
Hungary,  and  Turkey  that  it  proved  virtually 
impossible  to  draw  frontiers  for  Poland,  Czecho- 
slovakia, Rumania,  Serbia,  Greece,  etc.,  which 
would  satisfy  the  legitimate  ambitions  of  their 
own  peoples  and  yet  not  outrage  their  neigh- 
bors. Ethnographic  considerations  had  to  be 
weighed,  along  with  economic  and  strategic  ne- 
cessities and  desires.  A  racio-religious  prob- 
lem like  that  of  the  Jews  who  were  suffering 
persecution  even  during  1919  in  various  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  particularly  Poland,  served  to 
complicate  the  situation.  The  Jews  were  in- 
deed promised  a  national  homeland  in  Pales- 
tine, but  even  there  they  were  in  a  minority. 
Meanwhile,  what  was  to  become  of  their  kins- 
men in  Europe  f  These  problems  could  not  be 
solved  by  splitting  up  the  world  indefinitely. 
Not  every  tiny  group  could  have  its  own  flag 
and  place  in  the  family  of  nations.  The  for- 
mula of  self-determination,  carried  to  an  ex- 


treme, would  have  been  a  reductio  ad  abaurdum. 
On  the  other  hand  the  world  had  been  so  long 
and  so  sorely  troubled  by  such  repressive  move- 
ments as  the  Anglicization  of  Ireland,  the  Rus- 
sification  of  Poland,  Finland,  etc.,  that  it  would 
have  been  utter  folly  to  hand  over  dissentient 
minorities  to  the  tender  mercies  of  nationalist 
patriots  who  despite  their  own  thirst  for  na- 
tional political  independence  and  national  cul- 
tural expression  would  tyrannize  over  "inferior 
races."  Experience  had  amply  demonstrated 
that  newly  emancipated  or  unified  nations  were 
the  first  to  deny  emancipation  or  unification  to 
others. 

The  Great  Powers  which  dominated  the  Peace 
Conference  did  not  intend  to  have  their  sover- 
eignty impaired  by  pledges  regarding  the  equit- 
able treatment  of  minorities  within  their  own 
boundaries,  but  neither  were  they  entirely  will- 
ing to  underwrite  a  settlement  affecting  other 
states  in  which  the  oppression  of  submerged  na- 
tionalities should  constitute  too  great  a  menace. 
They  argued  that  as  it  was  their  efforts  that 
had  largely  won  the  War,  it  was  their  duty 
and  privilege  to  dictate  the  peace,  and  as  they 
were  consenting  to  the  resurrection  or  augmen- 
tation of  Poland,  Rumania,  Czechoslovakia, 
Jugo-Slavia,  etc.,  and  were  transferring  large 
numbers  of  people  of  different  races,  languages, 
and  religions  from  those  of  the  majority,  they 
had  the  right  and  were,  in  duty  bound  to  see 
that  states  which  they  were  so  conspicuously 
aiding  should  not  be  in  a  position  by  unjust 
or  tyrannical  treatment  of  such  minorities  to 
imperil  the  peace  of  the  world.  During  the 
stormy-  eighth  plenary  session  on  May  31,  1919, 
President  Wilson  took  the  lead  in  defending 
the  attitude  of  the  Great  Powers,  much  to  the 
dismay  and  discontent  of  the  smaller  powers. 
Rumania  and  Jugo-Slavia  hotly  resisted  the  ex- 
action of  such  pledges  as  were  contemplated 
and  even  refused  for  several  months  to  sign  the 
Treaty  of  St  Germain,  but  eventually  (Decem- 
ber, 1919)  they  were  partly  coerced,  partly  con- 
ciliated, into  signing.  (See  PEACE  CONFEB- 
ENCE  AND  TREATIES.)  During  1919  and  1920 
the  Great  Powers  negotiated  a  series  of  treaties 
with  the  Balkan  powers  and  succession  states 
which  elicited  pledges  to  respect  and  preserve 
political,  religious,  cultural,  and  economic 
rights  of  dissentient  groups. 

In  the  case  of  Poland  (treaty  signed  June 
28,  1919),  special  protection  was  deemed  neces- 
sary for  the  Jews,  who  constituted  one-seventh 
of  the  population.  The  new  Poland  came  to  in- 
clude also  some  2,000,000  Germans  and  3,000,- 
000  Ruthenians,  in  the  province  of  Galicia, 
who  were  to  be  similarly  protected.  In  the 
case  of  Czecho-Slovakia,  there  were  some  3.000,- 
000  Germans,  750,000  Magyars,  and  460,000 
Ruthenians,  not  to  mention  the  religious  minor- 
ities comprising  some  1,000,000  Protestants, 
500,000  Greek  Catholics,  and  350,000  Jews.  In 
the  case  of  Rumania  there  were  several  million 
Magyars,  Germans,  Serbs,  etc.,  and  a  large  ele- 
ment of  Jews  (750,000).  In  Jugo-Slavia  spe- 
cial provisions  were  made  for  the  Moslems.  In 
addition  there  were  incorporated  in  this  new 
state  some  450,000  Germans,  450,000  Magyars, 
150,000  Rumanians,  and  some  Bulgarians.  Ita- 
ly, which  acquired  not  only  the  Italian -speak- 
ing population  of  irredentist  Trentino  and 
Trieste  but  also  some  300,000  Austro-Germans 
in  the  Tirol  and  a  like  number  of  Jugoslavs 
near  the  Adriatic,  was  not  obliged  to  make  any 


RACIAL  MINORITIES 


1093 


RADIO  TELEGRAPHS' 


pledges.    Greece,  however,  being  a  small  power,  that   under   existing   internal   laws,   minorities 

was   forced    to   promise   special   treatment    for  were  protected,  and  a  declaration  was  needles^ 

minorities  in  Macedonia,  Thrace,  etc.    Clauses  The  Great  Powers  made  no  pledges  regarding 

protecting  minorities  were  inserted  in  the  trea-  themselves,    but    the    Third    Assembly    of    the 

ties    with    Austria,    Bulgaria,    Hungary,    and  League    (1922)    formally   "expressed   the    hope 

Turkey;  and  subsequently  Germany,  as  a  result  that  states  not  bound  to  the  League  by  any 

'lied  legal  obligations,  such  as  that  contained  in  the 


of  the  Unoer  Silesian  settlement,  was  compe 
to  subscribe  to  the  principal  parts  of  the  Polish 


Minorities  Treaties,  would  nevertheless  observe 


awarded  to  her. 

The  minorities  treaties  were  alike  in  all  es- 
sentials, differing  only  from  state  to  state  as 


Minorities  Treaty  tor  at  least   15  years  as  re-      in  their  relations  with  racial,  religious,  or  lin- 
gards   those   parts   of   Upper    Silesia   definitely      guistic  minorities,  at  least  the  same  degree  of 
J  J  J-  '-—  justice  arid  tolerance  as  is  required  by  the  trea- 

ties watched  over  by  the  Council." 

The    protection    of    minorities   was    certainly 

special  provisions  were  made  to  meet  exception-  not  completely  achieved,  but  a  long  step  for- 
al  circumstances.  In  general  they  removed  all  ward  was  taken  in  providing  international  ma- 
restrictions  on  the  use  of  languages,  on  the  ex-  -*-: *---•».•---'*.  <•  ~  .,  .  , 

ercise  of  any  religion  not  injurious  to  public 
welfare,  and  on  the  press  and  right  of  free 
speech,  free  assemblage,  and  free  association, 
etc  All  languages  were  to  be  given  adequate 
facilities  before  the  courts.  All  racial,  linguis- 
tic, and  religious  minorities  were  to  have  the 
right  to  establish,  manage,  and  control,  at  their 


chinery  to  achieve  that  end.  Some  thinkers  ob- 
jected to  the  Minorities  Treaties  as  a  potential 
source  of  great  trouble.  Says  one  writer: 

"Equality  of  treatment  to  the  degree  specified  in  the 
treaties  places  restrictions  upon  the  action  of  a  peo- 
ple in  making  laws  or  modifying  their  constitution 
that  may  prove  unendurable.  Such  restrictions  are 
really  a  limitation  of  national  sovereignty  respecting 
internal  affairs.  They  are  justifiable  only  if  the 


own    expense,    charitable,    religious,    and    social       League  of  Nations  wm  see  that  the  minorities  do  not 

institutions  and  schools.     The  national  govern-      1-""—  •  —•'—<'  -'•>«  -« *  -' --«— 

ment,  i.e.  the  dominant  majority  in  the  state, 
might  make  instruction  in  its  official  language 
obligatory  in  all  schools,  only  providing  it  of- 
fered adequate  and  reasonable  facilities  for  oth- 
er languages  used  by  the  people  within  its 
frontiers. 

These  stipulations  were  primarily  guaranteed 
by  the  Great  Powers,  but  they  were  also  de- 
clared "objects  of  international  concern  over 
which  the  League  of  Nations  has  jurisdiction." 
Any  member  of  the  Council  was  empowered  to 
call  attention  to  infractions  of  a  minority  trea- 
ty, and  disputes  as  to  law  and  fact  might  in 
certain  instances  be  referred  to  the  Permanent 
Court  of  International  Justice  for  final  deci- 
sion. When  it  came  into  existence,  the  League 
<if  Nations  assumed  control.  It  was  early  de- 
cided that  under  ordinary  circumstances,  when 
the  Secretariat  received  a  petition  from  a  mi- 
nority, it  was  to  communicate  it  to  the  govern- 
ment concerned  before  passing  it  on  to  the 
Council,  in  order  to  allow  the  government  to 
examine  the  charges  and  to  state  its  position. 
The  whole  matter  was  then  to  be  studied  by  a 
Council  committee,  and  if  action  were  deemed 


become  a  privileged  class  and  do  not  carry  on  ceaseless 
and  unjustifiable  agitation.  In  the  United  States  there 
is  solidarity  m  part  through  a  common  language.  In 
Central  Europe  the  languages  of  the  minorities  are 
retained,  and  the  state  is  compelled  to  countenance 
and  even  to  develop  them.  Linguistic  differences  -will 
be  perpetuated  and  even  increased.  Irredentism  will 
continue.  Many  of  the  wisest  men  of  Europe  and 
America  deprecate  these  treaties;  they  regard  them 
as  a  standing  invitation  to  quarrel. 

"The  extraordinary  hatred  of  one  people  for  another 
through  Central  Europe  will  be  lessened  only  if  the 
processes  of  migration  (and  assimilation)  are  added 
to  strong  economic  revival  Hatreds  are  difficult  to 
maintain  in  the  face  of  profitable  trade.  Unless  tend- 
encies mitigating  hatred  are  cultivated,  the  Minorities 
Treaties  will  be  worthless ;  if  natural  tendencies  toward 
friendship  can  be  created,  the  Minorities  Treaties  will 

RACING.    See  SPORTS. 

RADCLIFFE  COLLEGE.  A  college  for 
women  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  founded  in  1879. 
Instruction  is  given  by  members  of  the  Harvard 
faculty.  Most  of  the  courses  of  study  are  iden- 
tical with  courses  of  study  offered  in  Harvard, 
and  all  the  courses  are  of  the  same  grade  as 
those  given  at  Harvard.  The  enrollment  in 
1914  and  in  1921  was  exactlv  the  same,  628 
students,  and  in  the  years  between  approxi- 
mated that  figure,  but  in  1922  the  number 


1921  the  productive  endowment  of  the  college 
was  increased  from  approximately  $1,000,000  in 
1914  to  $3,000,000  in  1923-24.  BriggB  Hall,  a 


necessary,  the  Council  was  authorized  to  take  jumped  to  728,  and  in  1923  to  852.     The  total 

suitable  measures  for  the  observance  of  treaty  number  of  graduate  students  enrolled  on  Nov. 

obligations.     Czechoslovakia  very  soon  won  an  1,   1923,  was   212.     The   faculty  was   increased 

honorable  renown  bv  the  readiness  with  which  during  the   decade   from    136   to    148    members, 

she  cave  all  necessary  information  to  the  League  and  the  library  from  32,000  to  50,000  volumes, 

recardinz  her  treatment  of  minorities  and  her  Due  largely  to  an  endowment  campaign  held  in 

whole-hearted     fulfillment     of     treaty     pledges.  ln01    *^  — <*»^™  ^™— *   ~*  «.-   -n.™ 
But  the  attitude  of  Poland   and  Rumania  did 

not  prove  to  be   so  cooperative.  .         .                             ^            . 

In  addition  to  watching  over  the  observance  new  dormitory,  equipped  to  house  72  students, 

of  Minorities  Treaties  signed  at  the  Peace  Con-  was  under  construction  in  1923.     In  September, 

ference    the  League  obtained  declarations  from  1923,    Ada    Louise    Comstock,    LL.D.,    Litt.D., 

various    Powers,    on    their    admission    into   the  L.H.D.,    succeeded    Le    Baron    Russell    Briggs, 

League,  with  regard  to  the  protection  of  minor-  LLLD.^Litt.D:2-as-  president 
ities.  On  Sept.  22,  1921,  Albania  signed  a  dec- 
laration promising  besides  other  things  to  pro- 
vide "an  electoral  system  giving  due  considera- 
tion to  the  rights  of  racial,  religious,  and  lin- 
guistic minorities,"  to  give  full  detailed  infor- 
mation, and  to  "take  into  account  any  advice  it 

micht  receive  from  the  League  of  Nations  with  of  continuous  or  sustained  waves  instead  of  the 

reeard  to  the  question."    Similar  declarations  damped  waves  of  the  former  spark  sets  marked 

were  obtained  in   1921   from  Lithuania  and  in  a  very   important   change^  in  jadio  ^  telegraphy 

1922   from   Esthonia  and   Latvia.     In   the   case      —       A  "* 

of  Finland,  the  Council  resolved  (Oct.  2,  1921) 


RADIOACTIVE  ELEMENTS.  See  CHEM- 
ISTRY. 

RADIO  COMMUNICATION.    See  PHYSICS. 

RADIO  COMPASS.  See  NAVIGATION  and 
RADIO  TELEGRAPHY.  

RADIO  TELEGRAPHY.    The  introduction 


and  gave  birth  to  radio  telephony    (qv.).    "Al- 
though   continuous    waves    were    produced    for 


RADIO  TELEGRAPHY 


1094 


RADIO  TELEGRAPHY 


radio  by  machine  generators  many  years  ago, 
it  wai  not  until  the  Poulsen  Arc  came  into 
vogue  that  the  continuous  waves  (C.W.)  were 
much  used  in  practice.  This  method  was  soon 
superseded  by  the  Alexanderson  high  frequency 
generator,  which  in  turn  was  being  superseded 
by  the  oscillating  vacuum  tube  set. 

The  improvements  in  vacuum  tubes  (three- 
electrode  thermionic  tube)  in  the  10  years  since 
1914  were  notable.  The  introduction  of  the 
tlioriated  filament  enormously  increased  the 
electron  emission  and  made  posflihle  tubes  of 
higher  efficiency  and  greater  capacity.  With 
the  thorium-impregnated  filament  the  power  re- 
quired for  the  filament  was  reduced  to  about 
one-quarter  that  used  previously  and  a  small 
tube  was  made  requiring  only  018  watt  in  the 
filament,  while  for  the  convenience  of  the  ama- 
teur a  tube  was  developed  the  filament  of  which 
can  be  supplied  by  one  standard  sire  dry  bat- 
tery (1  volt  and  0.25  amperes).  A  tube  capa- 
ble of  dissipating  250  watts  in  its  plate  circuit 
is  now  a  standard  and  tubes  have  been  built  for 
an  output  of  20  kilowatts  using  12,000  to  15,- 
000  volts  on  the  plate.  In  this  tube  the  anode 
(plate)  is  the  container  and  water  cooling  IB 
employed  In  commercial  practice  a  life  of 
4000  hours  is  expected  of  tubes  and  it  is  stated 
that  it  is  possible  to  get  100  kilowatts  in  the 
antenna  with  a  bank  of  tubes,  while  a  4  kilo- 
watt in  the  antenna  was  standard  practice  in 
radio  telegraphy  (Marconi) 

The  organization  of  the  Radio  Corporation  of 
America  in  1919  brought  together  several  oper- 
ating and  manufacturing  companies  controlling 
interdependent  patents  and  put  at  the  disposal 
of  one  organization  most  of  the  important 
United  States  patents  relating  to  radio  in  gen- 
eral and  to  tubes  in  particular. 

In  radio  telegraphy  the  construction  of  con- 
tinuous wave  generators  of  the  Alexanderson 
type  in  sizes  of  200  kilowatts  with  incidental 
speed,  frequency  and  voltage  controlling  devices 
marked  an  important  step  forward  in  trans- 
oceanic communication.  Marconi  stated  that 
sending  apparatus  and  antennae  had  been  im- 
proved to  the  point  where  35  per  cent  of  the 
plate  output  and  50  per  cent  of  the  antenna 
input  were  radiated  into  the  ether  The  use  of 
machine  senders  employing  prepared  tape  in- 
creased the  regularity,  accuracy  and  speed  of 
sending,  while  the  automatic  receiver  using  a 
beam  of  light  playing  on  a  sensitized  photo- 
graphic tape  made  it  possible  to  receive  at  the 
rate  of  100  words  per  minute  under  exceptional 
conditions  and  at  50  words  per  minute  under 
normal  conditions.  The  speed  of  transmission 
in  1924  was  from  10  to  12  times  that  accom- 
plished in  1912. 

The  Heterodyne  or  beat-note  receiver  with 
amplification  by  tubes  increased  the  sensitive- 
ness of  the  receiver  The  directive  antenna  fur- 
ther increased  the  selectivity,  while  the  com- 
bination of  two  or  more  such  antenna  with  a 
device  called  the  "barrage  receiver"  which  com- 
bines two  circuits  so  that  an  interfering  signal 
from  a  near-by  sending  station  is  neutralized 
out,  while  the  desired  signal  is  amplified,  made 
possible  duplex  radio.  This  is  the  simultane- 
ous sending  and  receiving  of  messages  between 
two  given  stations.  Thus  a  sending  station  lo- 
cated at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  its  receiv- 
ing station  at  Bel  mar  (later  at  Riverhead,  L. 
I.)  could  work  simultaneously. 

The    "wave    antenna"    came    a    little    later. 


This  is  a  very  long  straight  horizontal  antenna 
having  a  length  approximately  that  of  one 
wave  (15,000  meters).  It  is  pointed  in  the  di- 
rection from  which  a  desired  signal  comes  and 
the  end  at  which  the  signal  arrives  is  grounded 
by  a  suitable  resistance  to  prevent  wave  re- 
flections. Static  coming  from  any  other  direc- 
tion than  that  of  the  signal  is  practically  elim- 
inated as  the  antenna  is  not  sensitive  to  waves 
coming  crosswise  and  any  undesirable  effects 
coming  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  of  the 
signal  disnipate  themselves  in  the  resistance. 

In  1921,  the  Radio  Corporation  put  into  op- 
eration its  radio  central  at  Rocky  Point,  L.  I., 
for  general  transoceanic  service.  This  had  a 
large  transmitting  antenna  and  nearby,  at  Riv- 
erhead, one  receiving  antenna.  The  transmit- 
ting antenna  consisted  of  12  wires,  7500  feet 
long,  operating  at  135,000  volts,  which  was  sup- 
plied by  200-kilowatt  generators.  It  could 
send  two  messages  simultaneously  at  wave 
lengths  of  16,405  and  17,500  meters.  The  re- 
ceiving antenna  consisted  of  two  wires,  9  miles 
long  (15,000  meters)  and  was  of  the  wave  and 
directive  type.  On  it  six  messages  from  differ- 
ent parts  of  Europe  could  be  received  at  the 
same  time  at  reasonably  different  wave  lengths 
(2  per  cent).  Both  the  sending  and  receiving 
of  messages  was  controlled  from  the  main  sta- 
tion in  New  York  City  and  no  manual  relaying 
was  required.  The  speed  of  transmission  was 
from  40  to  100  words  per  minute. 

In  1922,  regular  radio  telegraph  service  was 
established  between  San  Francisco  and  Hawaii 
and  Japan  by  means  of  a  sending  and  a  sepa- 
rate receiving  station  in  the  neighborhood  of 
San  Francisco  with  the  control  in  the  main  of- 
fice in  San  Francisco. 

Recent  experience  has  shown  that  radio  waves 
are  refracted  and  deflected  by  layers  of  the  at- 
mosphere of  differing  densities  and  character 
Thus  it  had  been  found  that  after  crossing  the 
ocean  the  waves  arrive  from  a  direction  at  quite 
an  angle  with  the  true  direction  between  send 
ing  and  receiving  stations  and  that  this  deflec- 
tion rhanges  from  hour  to  hour. 

During  the  War,  radio  communication  be- 
tween airplanes,  both  by  telegraphy  arid  teleph- 
ony, was  developed  to  a  practical  succ^n  and 
received  a  further  practical  demonstration  on 
the  occasion  of  the  flight  of  the  United  States 
Navy  airplane  WC4  across  the  Atlantic,  as  it 
was  almost  continuously  in  communication 
with  radio  stations. 

Radio  Compass.  The  directive  receiver, 
based  on  the  invention  of  Bellini-Tosi,  made 
possible  the  "radio  compass"  which  is  in  regu- 
lar service  on  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
coasts.  Two  such  stations  are  located  some 
miles  apart  on  the  coast.  As  a  ship  at  sea 
sends  out  radio  signals,  the  operator  at  each 
station  manipulates  its  directive  antenna  .until 
the  intensity  of  the  received  signals  indicates 
the  bearing  of  the  ship  from  that  station. 
From  the  readings  of  the  two  stations  and  their 
distance  apart  the  exact  location  of  the  ship 
may  be  found  by  triangulation.  This  informa- 
tion is  then  sent  to  the  ship. 

Bibliography.  Many  works  on  radio  com- 
munication have  been  published  and  appear 
from  time  to  time.  Those  that  can  be  recom- 
mended include:  Lauer  and  Brown,  Radio  En- 
gineering Principles  (New  York,  1920)  ;  More- 
croft,  Principles  of  Radio  Communication  (New 
York,  1920);  Signal  Corps,  United  States 


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BADIO  TELEPHONY 


Armv,  Radio  (Washington);  and  Institute  of 
Radio  Engineers,  Transactions.  See  RADIO 
TELEPHONY. 

BADIO     TELEPHONY.    Radio     telephony 


1095 


BADIO 


IONY 


wag  limited  to  receive  from  only  one  broadcast- 
ing station. 

The  radio  repeating  station  was  a  new  tech- 
nical    development     introduced     in     1923.     By 


.  •  __—      w -    .£'-••*•»•••'          *.uv*  vruui,w.          *•*  *.trt*w*         J-'J 

came   into  very   general   use   during   the  War,      this   means   one   large   important   broadcasting 
r,or+im,iorW   *nr   msiif.m,    M1MMAU   ™»-    A«*      station,  which  is  so  located  that  it  can  obtain 

the  best  talent  for  its  programmes,  broadcasts 
to  its  immediate  neighborhood  at  some  wave 
length  from  250  to  600  meters,  and  in  addition 
sends  out  the  same  programme  on  the  wave 
length  of  about  100  meters,  which  will  not  inter- 
fere with  any  broadcasting.  This  100-meter 
wave  picked  up  by  various  subordinate  stations, 
hundreds  of  miles  away,  is  converted  to  a  stand- 
ard broadcasting  wave  length,  amplified  and 
sent  out  to  its  immediate  neighborhood.  This 
gives  the  people  in  an  out-of-the-way  part  of 
the  country  the  same  programme  as  those  in 
the  large  cities  without  the  necessity  of  buying 
elaborate  receiving  sets  and  with  less  interfer- 
ence than  if  received  directly. 

After  1910  there  was  a  wonderful  develop- 
ment in  the  production  of  simple  and  efficient 
receiving  sots  as  well  as  elaborate  and  sensitive 
sets.  By  1924  it  was  possible  to  obtain  a  sim- 
ple set  at  reasonable  cost  which  would  receive 
very  well  with  a  good  antenna  the  programme 
of  the  local  broadcasting  station,  while  for  re- 
ceiving from  a  great  distance  ^ets  were  avail- 
able which  uhile  fairly  complicated  in  their 
construction,  were  very  simple  to  operate.  For 
the  city  dweller  in  an  apartment  who  could  not 
have  an  outdoor  antenna  the  coil  or  "loop" 
antenna  served  as  a  substitute.  This  is  a  flat 
roil  of  20  to  30  turns  in  the  form  of  a  square 
of  about  30  inches  on  a  side.  It  receives  very 
well  if  three  or  four  stages  of  amplifications 
are  used  and  may  be  used  inside  a  building. 
It  is  quite  sensitive  to  direction  and  must  be 
turned  with  its  plane  in  the  line  of  the  signals. 
The  Neutroclyne  was  the  trade  name  of  a  pop- 
ular set  usually  consisting  of  five  tubes,  two 
radio  frequency*  amplifiers,  a  detecter  and  two 
audio  frequency  amplifiers,  with  a  special  con- 
denser connected  between  the  grid  of  each  of 
the  radio  frequency  amplifiers  and  a  middle 
point  of  the  secondary  of  the  transformer  to  the 
next  step  The  object  of  this  connection  is  t'o 
stabilize  the  operation  by  neutralizing  the  effect 
of  the  capacity  between  the  grid  and  plate  and 
their  leads 

The  reflex  is  a  general  name  given  to  a  pop- 
ular type  of  circuit  in  which  a  crystal  is  used 
as  a  rectifier  or  detecter  and  tubes  are  used 
both  for  radio  and  audio  frequency  amplifica- 
tion. By  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  circuits, 
one  tube  may  be  used  twice,  once  for  radio 
frequency  amplification  and  onee  for  audio  fre- 
quency amplification.  The  claim  that  the 


particularly  for  military  purposes"  over  short 
distances.  Before  that  it  had  been  in  an  ex- 
perimental stage.  The  first  demonstration  of 
long-distance  telephony  was  the  sending  of  a 
voice  message  from  Arlington,  near  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  to  Honolulu  and  to  Paris  on  Oct.  23, 
1915.  Vacuum  tubes  were  used  to  supply  the 
power  for  this  experiment  and  it  was  consid- 
ered a  great  accomplishment  that  the  message 
was  intelligible  and  the  voice  recognizable.  In 
1919,  a  telephone  message  was  sent  from  Wash- 
ington to  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  and  from  there 
sent  by  radio  to  President  Wilson  on  board  the 
U.S.S.  Qeorge  Washington  on  the  Atlantic.  On 
Jan  14,  1923,  conversation  was  maintained  for 
some  hours  between  Arlington  and  London, 
England.  This  was  accomplished  by  a  scheme 
of  eliminating  the  carrier  wave  after  it  had 
been  modulated,  and  transmitting  only  the  fre- 
quencies known  as  the  side-band,  thus  reducing 
the  power  required  and  the  range  of  frequency 
used.  This  proved  that  trans-Atlantic  teleph- 
ony Was  entirely  practicable  and  only  awaited 
economic  justification.  Since  then  the  pro- 
grammes of  American  broadcasting  stations 
have  been  frequently  heard  in  Kngland 

In  1920,  regular  radio  telephone  communica- 
tion wan  established  between  the  cities  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  the  North  American  continent 
and  Avalon  on  Catalina  Island  by  interlinking 
the  telephone  system  of  the  mainland  with  that 
on  the  inland  by  means  of  radio  telephony.  It 
is  possible  to  get  connection  from  a  private  sta- 
tion on  the  mainland  to  one  on  the  island  in 
the  same  manner  as  any  long-distance  call  is 
obtained. 

Broadcasting.  Broadcasting  by  radio  by 
1024  had  become  not  only  a  national  pastime 
in  the  Pnited  States  but  almost  a  necessity  rnd 
an  essential  part  of  American  economic,  politi- 
cal, and  social  life  The  growth  of  broadcasting 
stations  was  so  rapid  that  in  1924  there  were 
several  hundred  in  the  United  States  and  it  be- 
came necessary  for  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce systematically  to  license  them  and  allot 
wave  lengths  and  time  schedules  in  order  to  pre- 
vent annoying  confusion.  From  the  beginning 
these  stations  used  vacuum  tubes  as.  their  source 
of  power.  A  few  were  permitted  to  use  1000 
watts  in  the  antenna,  but  the  majority  em- 
ployed 250  or  less.  There  had  been  a  continu- 
ous improvement  in  the  technique  of  their  oper- 
ation and  this  had  extended  their  range  almost 
as  much  as  the  increase  in  power  used.  By  a 


natural   and   healthy  growth   the  standards  of      crystal  gives  a  better  quality  of  reproduction 


technical  operation  and  the  quality  of  the 
material  in  their  programmes  improved  greatly 
so  that  they  justified  themselves  as  national 
educators 

Important  market,  agricultural  and  financial 
news  was  sent  out,  as  well   as  sporting  news 


appeared  to  be  justified. 

Superheterodyne.  The  Superheterodyne  of 
Armstrong  was  a  combination  of  circuits  for 
receiving  radio  messages  which  received  much 
publicity.  It  is  based  on  the  beat-note  principle 
and  gives  very  strong  signals  from  a  loop  or 


university   lectures,   church   services  and   music      coil.    The  incoming  signal  is  tuned  in  the  loop 


of  all  classes  including  the  highest.  This  ser- 
vice was  free  to  any  possessor  of  a  receiving 
set,  and  might  be  considered  a  very  striking 
economic  phenomenon  and  differentiating  the 
United  States  from  almost  all  other  countries. 
In  many  of  the  latter  the  owner  of  a  receiving 
set  was  forced  to  pay  a  tax,  license  fee  or  ren- 
tal for  the  privilege,  and  in  some  countries  he 


circuit  and  then  impressed  upon  an  oscillating 
tube  circuit  which  is  tuned  to  give  a  beat  note 
of  a  definite  frequency  with  the  incoming  signal. 
This  beat  note  is  sent  through  two  or  three 
amplifying  tubes  and  circuits  which  are  very 
accurately  tuned  to  the  definite  beat  note,  which 
is  the  same  for  all  signals.  This  amplified  beat 
note  is  then  rectified  (detected)  and  amplified 


BADIO  TELEPHONY 


Army,  Radio  (Washington) ;  and  Institute  of 
Radio  Engineers,  Transactions.  See  RADIO 
TELEPHONY. 

BADIO  TELEPHONY.  Radio  telephony 
came  into  very  general  use  during  the  War, 
particularly  for  military  purposes  over  short 
distances.  Before  that  it  had  been  in  an  ex- 
perimental stage.  The  first  demonstration  of 
long-distance  telephony  was  the  sending  of  a 
voice  message  from  Arlington,  near  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  to  Honolulu  arid  to  Paris  on  Oct.  23, 
1915.  Vacuum  tubes  were  used  to  supply  the 
power  for  this  experiment  and  it  was  consid- 
ered a  great  accomplishment  that  the  message 
was  intelligible  and  the  voice  recognizable.  In 
1919,  a  telephone  message  was  sent  from  Wash- 
ington to  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  and  from  there 
sent  by  radio  to  President  Wilson  on  board  the 
U.S.S.  George  Washington  on  the  Atlantic.  On 


1095 


BADIO  TELEPHONY 


was  limited  to  receive  from  only  one  broadcast- 
inff  station. 

The  radio  repeating  station  was  a  new  tech- 
nical development  introduced  in  1923.  By 
this  means  one  large  important  broadcasting 
station,  which  is  so  located  that  it  can  obtain 
the  best  talent  for  its  programmes,  broadcasts 
to  its  immediate  neighborhood  at  some  wave 
length  from  250  to  600  meters,  and  in  addition 
sends  out  the  same  programme  on  the  wave 
length  of  about  100  meters,  which  will  not  inter- 
fere with  any  broadcasting.  This  100-meter 
wave  picked  up  by  various  subordinate  stations, 
hundreds  of  miles  away,  is  converted  to  a  stand- 
ard broadcasting  wave  length,  amplified  and 
sent  out  to  its  immediate  neighborhood.  This 
gives  the  people  in  an  out-of-the-way  part  of 
the  country  the  same  programme  as  those  in 
the  large  cities  without  the  necessity  of  buying 


Jan    14,  1923,  conversation  was  maintained  for      elahorate  receiving  sets  and  with  less  interfer- 

some    hours    between    Arlington    and    London,      ^--   -•* r_.j   j-___^_. 

England.  This  was  accomplished  by  a  scheme 
of  eliminating  the  carrier  wave  after  it  had 
been  modulated,  and  transmitting  only  the  fre- 
quencies known  as  the  side-band,  thus  reducing 
the  power  required  and  the  range  of  frequency 
used.  This  proved  that  trans-Atlantic  teleph- 
ony Was  entirely  practicable  and  only  awaited 
economic  justification.  Since  then  *  the  pro- 
grammes of  American  broadcasting  stations 
have  been  frequently  heard  in  England 

In  1920,  regular  radio  telephone  communica- 
tion was  established  between  the  cities  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  the  North  American  continent 
and  Avalon  on  Catalina  Island  by  interlinking 
the  telephone  system  of  the  mainland  with  that 
on  the  island  by  in  pit  us  of  radio  telephony.  It 
is  possible  to  get  connection  from  a  private  sta- 
tion on  the  mainland  to  one  on  the  island  in 
the  same  manner  as  any  long-distance  call  is 
obtained. 

Broadcasting.  Broadcasting  by  radio  by 
1024  had  become  not  only  a  national  pastime 
Jii  the  Tmted  States  hut  almost  a  necessity  rnd 
an  essential  part  of  American  economic,  politi- 
cal, and  social  life.  The  growth  of  broadcasting 
stations  was  so  rapid  that  in  1924  there  were 
several  hundred  in  the  United  States  and  it  be- 
came necessary  for  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce systematically  to  license  them  and  allot 
wave  lengths  and  time  schedules  in  order  to  pre- 
vent annoying  confusion.  From  the  beginning 
these  stations  used  vacuum  tubes  as  their  source 
of  power.  A  few  were  permitted  to  use  1000 
watts  in  the  antenna,  but  the  majority  em- 
ployed 250  or  less.  There  had  been  a  continu- 
ous improvement  in  the  technique  of  their  oper- 
ation and  this  had  extended  their  range  almost 
as  much  as  the  increase  in  power  used.  By  a 


ence  than  if  received  directly. 

After  1910  there  was  a  wonderful  develop- 
ment in  the  production  of  simple  and  efficient 
r rcei \  ing  sets  as  well  as  elaborate  and  sensitive 
sets.  By  1924  it  was  possible  to  obtain  a  sim- 
ple set  at  reasonable  cost  which  would  receive 
very  well  with  a  good  antenna  the  programme 
of  the  local  broadcasting  station,  while  for  re- 
ceiving fiom  a  great  distance  sets  were  avail- 
able which  v\hile  fairly  complicated  in  their 
construction,  were  very  simple  to  operate.  For 
the  city  dweller  in  an  apartment  who  could  not 
have  an  outdoor  antenna  the  coil  or  "loop" 
antenna  served  as  a  substitute.  This  is  a  Hat 
coil  of  20  to  30  turns  in  the  form  of  a  square 
of  about  30  inches  on  a  side.  It  receives  very 
well  if  three  or  four  stages  of  amplifications 
are  used  and  may  be  used  inside  a  building. 
It  is  quite  sensitive  to  direction  and  must  be 
turned  with  its  plane  in  the  line  of  the  signals. 

The  Neutrodyne  was  the  trade  name  of  a  pop- 
ular set  usually  consisting  of  five  tubes,  two 
radio  frequency*  amplifiers,  a  detecter  and  two 
audio  frequency  amplifiers,  with  a  special  con- 
denser connected  between  the  grid  of  each  of 
the  radio  frequency  amplifiers  and  a  middle 
point  of  the  secondary  of  the  transformer  to  the 
ne\t  step  The  object  of  this  connection  is  to 
stabili/e  the  operation  by  neutralizing  the  effect 
of  the  capacity  between  the  grid  and  plate  and 
their  leads 

The  reflex  is  a  general  name  given  to  a  pop- 
ular type  of  circuit  in  which  a  crystal  is  used 
as  a  rectifier  or  detecter  and  tubes  are  used 
both  for  radio  and  audio  frequency  amplifica- 
tion. By  an  ingenious  arrangement  of  circuits, 
one  tube  may  be  used  twice,  once  for  radio 
frequency  amplification  and  once  for  audio  fre- 
quency '  amplification.  The  claim  that  the 


natural   and   healthy  growth   the  standards  of      crystal  gives  a  better  quality  of  reproduction 


technical  operation  and  the  quality  of  the 
material  in  their  programmes  improved  greatly 
BO  that  they  justified  themselves  as  national 
educators 

Important  market,  agricultural  and  financial 
news  was  sent  out,  as  well  as  sporting  news, 


appeared  to  be  justified. 

Superheterodyne.  The  Superheterodyne  of 
Armstrong  was  a  combination  of  circuits  for 
receiving  radio  messages  which  received  much 
publicity.  It  is  based  on  the  beat-note  principle 
and  gives  very  strong  signals  from  a  loop  or 


university   lectures,   church   services   and   music      coil.    The  incoming  signal  is  tuned  in  the  loop 


of  all  classes  including  the  highest.  This  ser- 
vice was  free  to  any  possessor  of  a  receiving 
set,  and  might  be  considered  a  very  striking 
economic  phenomenon  and  differentiating  the 
United  States  from  almost  all  other  countries. 
In  many  of  the  latter  the  owner  of  a  receiving 
set  was  forced  to  pay  a  tax,  license  fee  or  ren- 
tal for  the  privilege,  and  in  some  countries  he 


circuit  and  then  impressed  upon  an  oscillating 
tube  circuit  which  is  tuned  to  give  a  beat  note 
of  a  definite  frequency  with  the  incoming  signal. 
This  beat  note  is  sent  through  two  or  three 
amplifying  tubes  and  circuits  which  are  very 
accurately  tuned  to  the  definite  beat  note,  which 
is  the  same  for  all  signals.  This  amplified  beat 
note  is  then  rectified  (detected)  and  amplified 


KADITCH 


again  by  audio  amplification  if  desired.  The 
contains  as  many  as  eight  tubes  and  requires 
very  careful  tuning  of  the  beat  note  circuits. 
The  principal  advantage  is  that  there  is  no 
radio  frequency  amplification  with  its  attendant 
instability,  but  the  amplification  is  done  at  a 
much  lower  frequency  (usually  50,000  to  100,- 
000  cycles). 

Badio  to  Moving  Trains.  It  wus  found  en- 
tirely practicable  to  receive  radio  signals,  either 
telegraphic  or  telephonic,  on  a  moving  train 
either  from  near-by  stations  of  the  railroad  com- 
pany or  from  the  general  broadcasting  stations. 
The  original  intention  of  this  was  to  transmit 
instructions  to  the  train  crews  while  traveling 
between  stations,  but  its  most  general  use  was 
to  furnish  entertainment  for  the  passengers. 
See  RADIO  TELEGRAPHY  and  consult  for  reference 
works  mentioned  there  under  Bibliography. 

BADITCH,  STEPHEN.  See  JUGO-SLAVIA, 
History. 

BADITTM  AND  RADIUM  MINERALS. 
Radium  is  a  metal  with  a  white  metallic  lustre. 
It  has  been  isolated  only  once  or  twice,  and 
few  persons  have  seen  it.  It  is  ordinarily  ob- 
tained from  its  ores  in  the  form  of  sulphate, 
chloride,  or  bromide,  and  is  usually  sold  and 
used  in  the  form  of  these  salts.  These  are  all 
white  or  nearly  white  substances.  Radium, 
radium  salts,  and  radium  minerals  are  not  gen- 
erally luminescent.  Tubes  containing  radium 
salts  glow  mostly  because  they  include  impu- 
rities which  the  radiations  from  the  radium 
cause  to  give  light.  Radium  is  found  in  nature 
in  such  exceedingly  small  quantities  that  it  is 
never  visible  even  when  the  material  is  exam- 
ined with  a  microscope.  Radium  ore  ordinarily 
carries  only  a  small  fraction  of  a  grain  of 
radium  to  the  ton;  radium  will  never  be  found 
in  large  masses,  because  it  is  formed  by  the 
decay  of  uranium,  a  process  that  is  wonderfully 
slow;  and  radium  itbelf  decays  and  changes  to 
other  elements  so  rapidly  that  it  does  not  ac- 
cumulate naturally  in  visible  masses. 

Original  radium  minerals,  such  as  uraninite, 
samarskite,  and  brannerite,  are  black  and  have 
a  shiny  fracture  and  a  high  specific  gravity. 
They  are  rarely  found  in  commercially  valuable 
quantities.  Pitchblende,  which  has  the  same 
composition  as  uraninite  and  the  same  general 
appearance  except  tliat  it  shows  no  crystal  form, 
occurs  in  veins.  It  has  been  found  in  a  few 
places  only — in  Bohemia,  southern  Saxony,  Corn- 
wall, and  Gil  pin  County,  Colorado.  When  these 
minerals  break  down  through  weathering,  other 
radium  minerals  are  formed  from  them,  such  as 
autunite,  torbernite,  car  not  He,  and  tyuyamunite. 
Carnotite  and  tyuyamunite  are  the  most  abund- 
ant of  these  minerals  and  in  1924  were  fur- 
nishing the  bulk  of  the  world's  radium.  Both 
are  bright  canary  yellow  in  color  and  are  pow- 
dery, finely  crystalline,  or,  rarely,  claylike  in 
texture  Carnotite  is  a  hydrous  potassium- 
uranium  vanadate.  Tyuyamunite  is  similar  in 
composition  but  contains  lime  instead  of  potash. 
The  greatest  known  deposits  of  these  two  min- 
eral A  are  in  southwestern  Colorado  and  south- 
eastern Utah,  where  both  are  associated  with 
fossil  wood  and  other  vegetation  in  friable, 
porous,  fine-grained  sandstone.  Small  quan- 
tities of  carnotite  have  been  produced  near  Olary, 
South  Australia.  The  only  other  deposits  that 
yield  tyuyamunite  in  notable  quantity  are  those 
of  Tyuya-Muyun,  in  the  Andidjan  district,  Fer- 
ghana government,  central  Asiatic  Russia  (Rus- 


1096  RAILWAYS 

it  sian  Turkestan),  where  tyuyamunite  occurs 
with  rich  copper  ores  in  a  pipe  in  limestone  (see 
below). 

Radium  Industry.  An  important  radium 
industry  was  started  in  the  United  States  dur- 
ing the  War,  utilizing  the  carnotite  deposits  in 
Utah.  This,  however,  was  rather  short-lived  as 


by  1922  the  cheap  production  of  radium  from 
the  rich  altered  pitchblende  deposits  near  Eliza- 
bethville  in  the  Belgian  Congo  controlled  by  the 
Union  Minicre  du  Haut  Katanga  Company,  ren- 
dered it  impossible  to  work  at  a  profit  the 
carnotite  deposits  of  Colorado  and  Utah.  As  a 
result  of  this  changed  condition  capital  amount- 
ing to  several  million  dollars  invested  in  mines, 
plants  for  the  isolation  of  pidium,  vanadium, 
and  uranium,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  ap- 
paratus for  the  handling  of  radium  was  ren- 
dered nonproductive.  The  United  States  Radium 
Company  in  1923  made  an  effort  to  isolate  radi- 
um in  the  United  States  hut  only  on  a  small 
scale,  while  the  Standard  Chemical  Companv  op- 
erated on  an  experimental  basis  its  mill  in 
Colorado  for  the  concentration  of  the  vanadium- 
bearing  sandstone  associated  with  the  carnotite 
deposits. 

The  price  of  radium  had  been  $120,000  a  gram 
but  in  1922  it  had  fallen  to  $70,000  per  gram. 
American  companies,  after  closing  down  their 
own  mines,  undertook  to  market  the  African 
product  and  up  to  1924  that  material  ruled 
the  market.  The  Katanga  ore  was  shipped  to 
Oolen,  about  40  miles  from  Antwerp,  Belgium, 
where  it  was  treated  at  the  plant  of  the  sub- 
sidiary company.  This  single  plant  was  said  to 
have  a  capacity  of  3  grams  of  radium  (element) 
per  month,  which  was  about  the  total  capacity 
of  all  the  plants  that  once  operated  in  the 
United  States. 

Interest  also  was  aroused  by  the  report  of  a 
Soviet  Commission  on  ore  deposits  at  Tyuya 
Muyun,  in  Russian  Turkestan.  The  ore  was  be- 
lieved to  be  tyuyamunite,  hydrous  calcium- 
uranium  vanadate,  and  according  to  the  com- 
mission there  was  sufficient  ore  of  good  grade 
to  yield  15  to  20  grams  of  radium,  60  tons  of 
uranium,  90  tons  of  vanadium,  and  120  tons  of 
copper.  Even  on  this  basis,  however,  the  ore 
would  be  too  lean  to  compete  successfully  with 
that  from  Katanga.  In  Portugal  one  of  the 
mines  worked  during  the  year  1923  was  said 
to  yield  an  ore  carrying  as  much  as  6  per  cent 
of  uranium  oxide,  while  in  Madagascar  and  in 
Cornwall  certain  ore  deposits  also  were  worked. 
There  was,  however,  every  reason  to  believe  in 
1924  that  the  Belgian  interests  would  be  able 
to  control  the  markets  of  the  world  for  some 
time  and  that  prices  would  continue  to  stand 
firm. 

RAILWAY  LABOR  BOARD.  See  RAIL- 
WAYS. 

RAILWAYS.  After  the  United  States  en- 
tered the  War  there  was  a  short  period  during 
which  an  attempt  was  made  to  continue  the 
operation  of  American  railways  under  private 
management,  but  under  the  authority  of  the 
War  Department  and  other  governmental  agen- 
cies. Priority  orders  were  the  cause  of  the  fail- 
ure of  this  attempt  and  led  to  government  op- 
eration of  the  railroads. 

Priority  orders  were  designed  to  expedite  the 
movement  of  such  freight  as  was  most  urgently 
required.  This,  of  course,  required  discrimina- 
tion between  different  classes  of  freight,  and 
such  discrimination  was  supposed  to  rest  with 


BAILWAYS 


1097 


RAILWAYS 


the  military  authorities  at  Washington.  It  soon 
became  expedient  to  delegate  this  authority  to 
subordinate  officers,  and  conflicting  priority  or- 
ders brought  about  so  great  a  confusion  that 
railroad  operation  generally  became  demor- 
alized 

The  final  effort  to  avert  government  operation 
was  made  when  a  committee  of  five  railroad  men 
— consisting  of  Fairfax  Harrison,  president  of 
the  Southern  Railway,  Samuel  Kea,  president 
of  Pennsylvania,  Julius  Kruttschnitt,  chair- 
man of  the  executive  committee  of  the  Southern 
Pacific;  Hale  TJolden,  president  of  the  Chicago, 
Burlington,  and  Quincy,  and  Howard  Klliot, 
formei  ly  president  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
and  Hartford — was  appointed  by  the  Association 
of  Railway  Executives  and  other  executives  at 
a  meeting  held  in  Washington,  Apr.  11,  1917. 
At  this  meeting  the  executives  pledged  them- 
selves to  follow  the  orders  of  the  committee, 
which  they  had  themselves  elected,  regardless 
of  competitive  conditions  and  the  individual 
necessities  and  preferences  of  each  road  Most 
of  the  executives  called  meetings  of  their  boards 
of  directors  and  had  their  action,  in  thus 
delegating  their  authority,  confirmed  by  vote  of 
the  board. 

Had  it  not  been  for  the  continual  conflict  of 
priority  orders  this  experiment  might  have 
worked  out,  although  even  under  the  stress  of 
war  conditions  and  the  stimulation  of  patri- 
otic desires,  it  was  found  almost  imposbiblc  to 
overcome  the  habits  and  prejudices  of  a  life- 
time of  competition  Even  with  the  sincerest 
desire  to  be  of  use  to  the  country,  some  railway 
executives  found  it  nearly,  if  not  quite  impos- 
sible to  carry  out  orders  that  \\ould  icsull  in 
loss  to  their  company  and  gain  to  a  competitor. 

The  opportunity  to  show  \\hnt  cooperation,  in- 
telligence and  genius  could  do  when  actuated  by 
disinterested  motives  was  as  great  as  anything 
that  Amencan  railway  history  has  presented. 
Heretofoie  the  greatest  mileage  winch  had  ever 
lieon  under  the  direction  of  one  man  in  the 
United  States  was  the  Harriman  system  of  ap- 
proximately '23,000  miles  Such  a  system,  how- 
ever, was*  competithe  throughout'  its  length 
with  other  independently  operated  railroads. 
The  Fairfax  Harrison  committee  had  pledged  to 
it  the  cooperation  of  the  managers  of  200,000 
miles  of  railroad,  and  the  complete  elimination 
of  competition.  The  greatness  of  the  opportu- 
nity and  the  undoubtedly  sincere  desire  of  most 
of  those  concerned  in  the  experiment  was  not 
suf lie-lent  to  make  it  a  success. 

On  Dec.  26,  1917,  President  Wilson  issued  a 
proclamation  fixing  Jan  1,  1018,  as  the  date  on 
which  the  executive  branch  of  the  United  States 
government  should  take  charge  of  the  opera- 
tion of  the  principal  railroads  of  the  United 
States.  William  G.  McAdoo,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury,  was  appointed  Director-General  of 
Railroads,  and  on  January  1  took  o\er  the  prop- 
erties. On  Jan.  28,  1018,  Congress  passed  a 
law  embodying  the  terms  under  which  the  gov- 
ernment operated  the  railroad  properties  Un- 
der this  law  the  government  took  over  the  sup- 
plies and  all  current  assets  as  of  Jnn  1,  1018, 
and  assumed  the  payment  of  railroad  em- 
ployees' and  officers'  salaries,  and  of  all  the  ex- 
penses of  operation.  It  likewise  collected 
freight  and  passenger  revenues  Thus,  the  rail- 
road properties,  including  their  current  assets, 
were  rented  to  the  government  for  a  fixed  an- 
nual sum  equal  to  the  average  operating  income 


for  the  three  years  ended  June  30,  1917*  It  was 
agreed  that  the  government  should  make  such 
additions  and  betterments  to  the  properties  as 
was  found  necessary  to  enable  them  to  satisfac- 
torily perform  the  service,  first,  of  carrying  sup- 
plies for  the  government  and  moving  of  troops, 
and  second,  of  performing  the  civilian  require- 
ments for  movement  of  freight  and  passengers. 

It  was  found  necessary  to  make  a  separate 
contract  between  the  government  and  each  one 
of  the  railroad  companies.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  standardize  this  contract  on  the  basis 
of  the  annual  rental  equal  to  the  average  an- 
nual net  operating  income  for  the  three  years 
ended  June  30,  1917.  The  majority  of  the  rail- 
road companies  signed  this  standard  contract, 
but  others  refused  to  sign  it  and  were  operated 
during  the  entire  period  of  government  opera- 
tion with  the  basis  of  their  rental  undeter- 
mined. 

The  Government's  Railroad  Organization. 
The  Director-General  formed  a  stall  which  in- 
cluded an  Assistant  Director-General,  a  Division 
of  Law,  a  Division  of  Finances  and  Purchases, 
a  Division  of  Operation,  a  Division  of  Traffic, 
a  Division  of  Capital  Expenditures,  a  Division 
of  Labor,  a  Division  of  Public  Service  anil  Ac- 
counting, and  an  Actuary  to  the  Railroad  Ad- 
ministration. The  country  was  divided  at  first 
into  three  regions,  eastern,  northwestern,  and 
southwestern.  A.  H  Smith,  president  of  the 
New  York  Central,  was  made  director  of  the* 
Eastern  Region,  II  H.  Aishton,  president  of  the 
Chicago  &  North  Western,  was  made  director 
of  the  Northwestern  Region  and  C.  H.  Mark- 
ham,  president  of  the  Illinois  Central,  was 
made  director  of  the  Southwestern  Region  It 
was  soon  found  necessary  to  expand  this  or- 
ganization, and  the  country  was  divided  into 
se\en  regions.  The  eastern  region  included  the 
territory  bounded  on  the  north  by  Canada,  on 
the  west  by  Lake  Michigan  and 'the  Indiana- 
Illinois  State  line,  and  on  the  south,  roughly, 
by  the  Pennsylvania  line,  from  Philadelphia  to 
Chicago.  The  Allegheny  region  took  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  as  far  west  as  Pittsburgh, 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  line  as  far  west  as 
Pittsburgh,  and  the  other  lines  in  that  territory 
which  included  New  Jersey,  the  greater  part  of 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and  the 
northern  slice  of  West  Virginia.  The  Pocahontas 
region  included  the  principal  bituminous  coal 
roads,  the  Norfolk  and  Western  and  the  Chesa- 
peake and  Ohio,  and  other  roads  in  Virginia, 
and  the  larger  part  of  West  Virginia,  and  part 
of  Kentucky.  The  southern  region  included  all 
of  the  southeastern  States  from  the  North 
Carolina-Virginia  line  south  to  the  gulf,  and 
west  to  the  Mississippi.  The  northwestern  re- 
gion included  the  territory  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Canada,  and  on  the  east  by  Lake 
Michigan,  and  on  the  south  by  a  line  running 
iriegularly  from  Chicago  to  the  southern  bound 
ary  of  Oregon,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific. 
The  central  western  region  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  this  southern  line  of  the  northwestern 
region,  on  the  east  by  the  Illinois-Indiana  State 
line,  on  the  south  by  a  line  zigzagging  south- 
west from  Cairo,  111 ,  to  the  southern  boundary 
of  New  Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific. 
The  southwestern  region  was  bounded  on  the 
north  by  this  southern  boundary  of  the  central 
western  region,  on  the  east  by  the  Mississippi, 
and  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, and  Mexico. 


RAILWAYS 


2098 


BAXLWAYS 


In  his  Instructions  to  regional  directors, 
Director-General  McAdoo  said,  "Broadly  speak- 
ing, I  wish  to  give  you  power  to  direct  railroad 
operations  in  your  territory  so  as  to  handle 
traffic  with  the  least  congestion,  the  highest  ef- 
ficiency, and  the  greatest  expedition.  ...  I 
have  put  upon  you  responsibility  for  the  entire 
operating  situation."  Notwithstanding  this  re- 
sponsibility, however,  the  regional  directors 
were  not  given  the  authority  to  appoint  officers 
actually  in  charge  of  the  operation  of  the  rail- 
roads in  their  territory.  The  Director-General 
appointed  "Federal  managers"  and  "general 
managers "  The  Federal  manager  or  general 
manager  was  in  charge  of  a  particular  railroad. 
The  difference  in  titles  is  a  difference  in  the 
size  of  the  road  managed,  and  presumably  in 
the  salary.  Thus,  a  Federal  manager  was  ap- 
pointed for  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford,  while  a  general  manager  was  ap- 
pointed for  the  Central  Vermont 

In  making  his  appointments,  both  for  the  cen- 
tral administration  and  the  regional  administra- 
tions, the  Director-General  selected  railroad  men 
of  long  experience  and  marked  ability.  Thus, 
Carl  Gray,  of  the  division  of  operation,  was 
chairman  and  president  of  the  Western  Mary- 
land, and  formerly  had  been  president  of  the 
Northern  Pacific.  Edward  Chambers,  director 
of  the  division  of  traffic,  was  vice  president  of 
the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe*,  and  Robert 
'S.  Lovett,  director  of  the  division  of  capital  ex- 
penditures, was  chairman  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  Union  Pacific.  One  of  the  ablest 
of  railroad  lawyers,  Walker  D.  Hines,  chairman 
of  the  board  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and  Santa 
Fe*,  was  appointed  assistant  director  general. 
As  regional  directors,  there  were  A.  H.  Smith, 
president  of  the  New  York  Central,  C.  H.  Mark- 
nam,  president  of  the  Illinois  Central,  Hale 
Holden,  president  of  the  Chicago,  Burlington, 
and  Quincy,  B.  F.  Bush,  president  of  the  Mis- 
souri Pacific,  etc.  In  the  appointment  of  Fed- 
eral and  general  managers,  in  general,  the  chief 
operating  officer  of  the  road  under  the  old  cor- 
porate management  was  appointed  under  the 
government  organization  In  cases  where  the 
president  of  the  road  was  its  chief  operating 
officer,  rather  than  the  controlling  interest  in 
the  management  of  the  company,  he  was  ap- 
pointed Federal  manager.  Thus,  B.  J.  Pearson, 
president  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven,  and 
Hartford,  was  made  Federal  manager  of  the 
road.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  president 
of  the  company  was  an  executive,  rattier  than 
an  operating  officer  employed  by  the  board  of 
directors,  he  did  not  enter  the  government  serv- 
ice, but  remained  as  an  officer  of  the  corporation. 
Thus,  Samuel  Rea,  president  of  the  Pennsylvania, 
did  not  become  Federal  manager  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania, but  remained  an  officer  of  the  cor- 
poration, and  Elisha  Lee,  who  had  been  general 
manager  of  the  Pennsylvania  lines  east  of 
Pittsburgh,  was  appointed  Federal  manager. 
The  line  of  cleavage  between  the  men  who  re- 
mained corporate  officers  and  those  who  were 
appointed  Federal  managers  might  form  the 
basis  of  immensely  interesting  study,  not  only  in 
railroad  development,  but  in  the  economic  de- 
velopment of  any  great  American  industry.  Mr. 
McAdoo  fixed  the  salary  of  regional  directors 
and  Federal  and  general  managers  high  enough 
to  command  the  services  of  the  long  experienced, 
successful,  and  able  railroad  officers.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  did  not  take  into  his  organiza- 


tion men  to  whom  a  salary,  even  of  $50,000  a 
year,  was  not  of  paramount  importance,  and,  it 
might  be  mentioned,  men  whose  services  could 
not  be  measured  by  a  salary,  however  great. 
The  value  of  an  E.  P.  Ripley  to  the  Atchison, 
Topeka,  and  Santa  F6,  of  an  L.  F.  Loree  to  the 
Delaware  and  Hudson,  or  a  Samuel  Rea  to  the 
Pennsylvania  is  something  that  cannot  be  pur- 
chased for  so  much  a  month,  or  so  much  a  year. 

The  regional  directors  were  given  authority 
to  operate  the  roads  in  their  territory,  subject 
only  to  general  orders  from  the  central  ad- 
ministration The  actual  responsibility  of  op- 
erating the  roads,  however,  fell  on  the  Federal 
and  general  managers.  Furthermore,  general 
orders  included  orders  dealing  with  wages  and 
working  conditions.  Thus,  the  authority  of  the 
Federal  manager  was  in  part  taken  away  by  the 
regional  director,  and  in  part  undermined  by 
the  central  administration  in  its  dealings  direct 
with  labor.  In  the  opinion  of  probably  the 
majority  of  railroad  officers,  high  and  low,  this 
separation  of  authority  from  responsibility 
proved  a  great  weakness  in  the  railway  organ- 
ization. 

The  Labor  Situation.  The  first  order  is- 
sued by  the  Director-General  was  one  calling 
upon  employees  to  continue  in  the  performance 
of  their  regular  duties.  This  was  on  December 
29.  On  December  31,  the  railroads'  war  board 
resigned  and  on  January  21,  a  railroad  wage 
commission  was  organized,  consisting  of  Frank- 
lin K.  Lane,  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  C.  P. 
McChord,  member  of  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission,  J.  Harry  Covington,  chief  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia, and  William  R.  Wilcox,  formerly  of  the 
New  York  public  service  commission.  This 
board  listened  to  the  testimony  of  various  classes 
of  railroad  employees,  and  early  in  March  made 
a  report  in  which  it  recommended  that  an  ad- 
vance in  wages  be  given  to  all  employees,  on  a 
sliding  scale  of  percentages,  figured  on  the  rates 
of  pay  in  effect  in  December,  1915,  these  per- 
centages ranging  from  a  maximum  of  43  per 
cent  for  the  man  receiving  $46  or  less  a  month 
to  no  increase  for  the  man  receiving  $250  a 
month  or  more.  The  basis  of  the  award  was 
the  increased  cost  of  living.  On  May  25,  the 
Director-General  issued  order  No .  27,  which 
gave  the  advances  recommended  in  the  commit- 
tee's report,  but  advanced  the  wages  of  com- 
mon laborers  and  shop  men  more  than  was  rec- 
ommended, this  being  found  necessary  in  order 
to  hold  the  men;  the  demand  for  common  labor 
and  for  shop  men  in  other  industries  was  so 
great  that  the  railroads  had  to  meet  the  higher 
wages  offered  by  these  other  industries.  Order 
No.  27  was  followed  by  many  supplements  which 
were,  of  course,  in  the  nature  of  additional 
wage  increases. 

Thus,  supplement  No.  8,  issued  September  10, 
did  away  with  the  percentage  advances  in  wages 
insofar  as  they  applied  to  track  laborers  and 
track  foremen,  and  gave  a  straight  advance  of 
12  cents  per  hour  to  track  laborers  over  the 
rate  in  effect  Jan.  1,  1918,  with  a  minimum  of 
28  cents  and  a  maximum  of  40  cents  per  hour. 
Track  foremen  were  advanced  $25  per  month, 
with  a  minimum  of  $100  per  month.  Supple- 
ment No.  10  increased  telegraphers',  telephone 
operators',  agent  telegraphers',  etc.,  wages  by 
about  $25  per  month,  with  a  minimum  wage  of 
$95  per  month.  In  general,  the  application  of 
Order  No.  27  would  have  deducted  any  increases 


EAILWAYS 


1099 


RAILWAYS 


in  pay  received  since  December  15  from  the  per- 
centage increase  that  was  made  by  the  order, 
but  the  increase  in  wages  which  enginemen  and 
trainmen  received  as  the  result  of  the  eight-hour 
law,  passed  in  1917,  was  exempted,  and  they 
received  the  full  increase  provided  in  the  order, 
without  any  deduction  for  the  change  from  a 
ten-  or  nine-hour  basis  to  an  eight-hour  basis. 
The  wage  awards  in  most  cases  were  retroac- 
tive so  that  they  applied  to  the  entire  calendar 
year  1918. 

Bate  Increases.  On  February  4  a  bill  era- 
lx)dying  in  general  the  principles  laid  down  in 
President  Wilson's  proclamation  taking  over 
the  roads  was  reported  to  the  Senate,  and  on 
February  22  was  passed  by  the  Senate,  on  Feb- 
ruary 28  by  the  House,  and  was  approved 
March  21  by  President  Wilson.  In  the  mean- 
time, demurrage  rates,  which  are  charges  made 
by  the  railroad  against  a  shipper  who  holds 
cars  beyond  a  certain  period,  were  increased, 
and  the  Director-General  ordered  that  the  ex- 
penses of  financial  and  corporate  officers  as  dis- 
tinguished from  operating,  engineering,  and 
traffic  officers,  should  not  l>e  charged  to  the  op- 
erating expenses  of  the  railroad,  thus  making 
them  a  charge  which  had  to  be  paid  out  of  the 
rental  received  by  the  companies  from  the  gov- 
ernment. This  was  followed  by  the  discontinu- 
ance of  off-line  traffic  offices,  and  the  discharge 
from  service  of  traffic  solicitors.  On  May  25  a 
general  advance  was  made  in  freight  and  pas- 
senger rates  All  passenger  rates  were  raised 
to  a  straight  3  ceritn  a  mile,  with  an  additional 
charge  of  %  cent  a  mile  for  occupants  of  Pull- 
man cars  This  was  an  increase  of  50  per  cent 
in  places  in  the  Kast,  and  from  25  to  50  per 
cent  in  the  West.  The  increase  in  freight  rates 
uas  roughly  25  per  cent.  The  greatest  increase 
in  freight  rates  that  the  railroads  themselves 
had  ever  asked  for  was  15  per  cent,  and  the  In- 
terstate Commeice  Commission,  even  under  war 
conditions,  had  refused  to  grant  a  straight  10 
per  cent  increase.  The  increase  made  by  the 
Director-General  was,  of  course,  in  addition  to 
all  increases  of  less  than  10  per  cent  allowed 
in  the  previous  year  by  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission.  The  State  commissions  asked  the 
administration  to  suspend  rates,  but  this  request 
was  refused,  and  on  July  1  it  was  announced 
that  rates  would  he  changed  by  the  administra- 
tion without  waiting  for  the  permission  of  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission.  In  Novem- 
ber the  charge  of  an  extra  %  cent  per  mile  for 
passengers  traveling  in  Pullman  cars  was  with- 
drawn, the  pressure  of  public  opinion  and  the 
expressions  of  discontent  being  so  numerous 
that  the  railroad  administration  yielded  to 
them,  despite  the  fact  that  either  on  a  theory 
of  cost  of  service  or  of  value  of  service  the  extra 
M>  cent  charge  was  entirely  justifiable  and 
equitable. 

The  Equipment  Situation.  When  the 
Director-General  took  charge  of  the  roads  there 
was  a  severe  car  shortage,  due  to  congestion  of 
traffic  in  New  England  and  at  the  eastern  sea- 
board. There  was  also  a  shortage  of  locomo- 
tives, in  part  due  to  the  unparalleled  demand 
for  transportation,  and  in  part  to  extraordi- 
narily severe  weather  conditions. 

In  April,  1918,  the  Railroad  Administration 
placed  an  order  for  100,000  standard  freight 
cars  divided  as  follows:  25,000  40-ton  double 
sheathed  box  cars;  25,000  50-ton  single  sheathed 
box  cars;  20,000  50-ton  composite  gondola  cars; 


5000  70-ton  low-side  gondola  cars;  25,000  55-ton 
hopper  cars. 

Notwithstanding  the  need  for  additional  cars, 
only  13  per  cent  of  the  above  order  was  delivered 
during  1018.  Of  the  total  2030  standard  loco- 
motives ordered  by  the  government,  078  were 
delivered  up  to  December  21  During  1918, 
there  were  built  6475  locomotives,  of  which 
3668  were  on  domestic  orders,  and  2807  on  or- 
ders for  the  United  States  military  railroads 
outside  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  In 
1017,  there  were  5440  locomotives  built,  of 
which  2585  were  for  domestic  service,  and  2861 
for  export.  In  1907,  7362  locomotives  were 
built.  There  was  a  total  of  124,708  freight  cars 
built  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  in  1918. 
This  compares  with  151,401  built  in  1917,  and 
284,188  built  in  1907.  In  1918,  there  were 
1573  passenger  cars  built,  comparing  with  2000 
built  in  1917,  and  5457  built  in  1907. 

The  United  States  Railroad  Administration 
ordered  2030  standard  locomotives  for  use  in  the 
United  States.  The  first  order,  for  553  locomo- 
tives, was  given  to  the  American  Locomotive 
Company,  and  one  for  470  to  the  Baldwin  Loco- 
motive Works.  This  was  supplemented  by  a 
further  order  for  249  locomotives  from  the 
lAmerican  Locomotive  Company,  100  from  the 
Baldwin  and  45  from  Lima.  The  types  of  loco- 
motives ordered  were  the  standard  heavy  Mikado 
weighing  320,000  pounds  with  cylinders  27x30; 
the  light  Mikado  weighing  290,800  pounds  with 
cylinders  26  x  30 ;  the  light  Mountain-type  loco- 
motive weighing  320,000  pounds  with  cylinders 
27  x  30 ;  the  heavy  Mountain-type  locomotive 
weighing  352,000  pounds  with  cylinders  28x30; 
the  light  Pacific-type  locomotive  weighing  270,- 
000  pounds  with  cylinders  25  x  28 ;  the  heavy 
Pacinc-type  weighing  300,000  pounds  with  cylin- 
ders 27x28;  the  light  Santa  Fe  type  weighing 
352,000  pounds  with  cylinders  27  x  32  and  the 
heavy  Santa  Fe"  type  weighing  390,000  pounds 
with  cylinders  30  x  32. 

The  discussion  of  standard  types  of  equipment 
for  railroads  over  the  entire  country  was  one 
which  developed  wide  differences  of  opinion. 
Standardization  had  become  so  much  a  catch- 
word that  the  railroad  administration  had  no 
difficulty  in  convincing  the  general  public  of 
the  great  economies,  both  in  the  cost  of  build- 
ing and  of  operation,  of  a  few  standard  types  of 
locomotives  and  cars.  The  corporations  owning 
the  railroads  protested  vigorously  against  dras- 
tic standardization.  It  would  appear  from  testi- 
mony and  discussion  on  this  point  that  there 
were  sound  arguments  for  standardization  of 
certain  types  of  freight  cars.  Freight  cars 
travel  all  over  the  country,  and  the  advantages 
of  having  repair  parts,  etc.,  on  whatever  road 
the  car  might  happen  to  lie,  are  real,  and  of 
importance  On  the  other  hand,  in  general,  loco- 
motives are  confined  to  service  on  the  road  that 
owns  them,  and  more  often  than  not,  to  a  single 
operating  division  of  that  road.  The  Pennsyl- 
vania railroad,  which  has  for  years  dealt  with 
its  locomotive  and  equipment  problems  in  a  more 
scientific  way  than  any  other  company,  had 
gone  further  toward  designing  locomotives  espe- 
cially for  the  work  which  they  were  to  do,  and 
for  the  division  on  which  they  were  to  operate, 
than  had  any  other  company. 

Even  after  the  Railroad  Administration  had 
relinquished  control,  the  controversy  between  the 
Administration  and  railroad  officers,  working  for 
the  Administration  but  still  loyal  to  the  com- 


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panics  which  had  employed  them,  had  been  for- 
gotten, there  were  differences  of  opinion  as  to 
whether  the  standard  design  of  locomotive  was 
an  economy  in  the  long  run  and  whether  stand- 
ardization of  locomotive  design  was  desirable 
and  economical.  The  truth  appears  to  lie  some- 
where in  between  the  divergent  views.  The 
standard  locomotives  were  better  than  those  or- 
dered prior  to  government  operation  by  many 
roads.  On  the  other  hand,  the  standard  loco- 
motive was  not  as  well  designed  a  type  for  the 
particular  nature  of  the  work  on  some  roads 
as  the  engineers  of  the  private  companies  had 
designed. 

Both  cars  and  locomotives  were  ordered  at 
a  time  when  prices  were  at  the  peak.  The  Rail- 
road Administration  assigned — of  necessity  arbi- 
trarily—cars and  locomotives  to  the  various 
properties  as  the  needs  of  traffic  seemed  to  re- 
quire. This  equipment,  of  course,  became  a 
capital  charge  against  the  railroads  owning  the 
various  properties.  Naturally  there  were  pro- 
tests against  assignments  and  some  friction  be- 
tween the  Railroad  Administration  and  the 
railroad  executives.  At  about  the  time,  however, 
that  the  railroads  were  returned  to  the  owning 
companies  a  car  shortage  began  to  develop  and 
the  companies,  in  general,  were  willing  to  take 
the  assignments  made  to  them. 

To  finance  these  purchases  the  companies  is- 
sued equipment  trust  certificates  up  to  the  full 
cost  of  the  equipment  and  the  Railroad  Adminis- 
tration took  these  equipment  trust  certificates 
into  its  treasury.  It  had  been  customary  for 
private  companies,  in  financing  the  purchase  of 
cars  and  locomotives,  to  issue  equipment  trust 
certificates  against  only  75  to  80  per  cent  of 
the  total  cost  of  the  equipment,  and  for  the 
company  to  furnish  out  of  its  current  funds  the 
20  or  25  per  cent  equity.  Since  there  was  no 
equity  in  the  so-called  government  equipments, 
it  was  thought  that  investors  would  be  loath  to 
buy  from  the  government  these  equipment  trust 
certificates  which  matured  serially.  It  was 
found,  however,  that  with  strong  companies  like 
the  Union  Pacific,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  the 
New  York  Central,  investors  were  very  willing 
to  buy  equipment  trust  certificates  even  where 
there  was  no  equity. 

In  the  case  of  the  weaker  roads  the  govern- 
ment, in  order  to  relieve  itself  of  some  of  this 
burden,  stamped  25  per  cent  of  the  equipment 
trusts  as  subordinate  in  lien  to  the  other  75 
per  cent,  and  investment  bankers  found  a  com- 
paratively ready  market  for  the  75  per  cent  of 
certificates  that  were  prior  in  lien  to  the  25 
per  cent  the  government  continued  to  hold 
Eventually  a  good  many  of  the  so-called  sub- 
ordinated equipments  were  sold  by  the  govern- 
ment to  bankers  and  found  their  way  into  the 
hands  of  investors  There  were  no  defaults  on 
any  of  these  equipment  trust  certificates. 

The  railways,  uncertain  of  their  credit  and 
of  business  generally,  were  loath  to  place  orders 
•for  equipment  after  the  roads  were  returned  to 
their  owners,  and  the  orders  for  domestic  loco- 
motives in  the  last  year  of  government  opera- 
tion and  the  first  two  years  following  govern- 
ment operation,  were  as  follows:  214  in  1019; 
1098  in  1920;  239  in  1921.  By  1922,  it  had 
become  obvious  that  the  railroads  would  need  a 
great  many  more  locomotives  and  cars  if  they 
were  to  handle  satisfactorily  the  business  that 
appeared  likely  to  develop  in  1923.  Orders  were 
placed  during  1922  for  2600  locomotives,  2382 


passenger  cars  and  180,154  freight  cars.  De- 
liveries of  the  orders  placed  in  1922  were  made 
in  the  latter  part  of  1922  and  during  the  year 
1923,  and  the  railways  met  the  requirements  of 
the  heavy  crop  movement  of  the  fall  of  1923 
without  serious  car  shortage. 

Extensions.  The  government  policy  of  rail- 
road development  rests  on  the  belief  that  con- 
solidation of  facilities  would  result  in  economies. 
Extensions  played  almost  no  part  in  the  govern- 
ment's programme.  There  was,  therefore,  very 
little  new  railroad  building  during  all  the  period 
of  government  operation  and  the  two  years  im- 
mediately following,  but  in  1923  there  was  a 
resumption  of  considerable  railroad  building. 
In  1918,  there  were  721  miles  of  railroad  line 
completed;  in  1919,  686  miles;  in  1920,  314 
miles;  in  1921,  475  miles;  in  1922,  324  miles, 
and  in  1923,  427  miles. 

Service.  It  is  generally  conceded  to  be  quite 
unfair  to  use  the  quality  of  service  furnished 
by  the  railroads  under  the  Railroad  Administra- 
tion as  a  measure  of  government  operation  of 
railroads.  Service  in  hotels,  department  stores, 
and  every  other  branch  of  activity  where  em- 
ployees come  in  contact  with  the  general  pub- 
lic, deteriorated  under  war  conditions.  Certain 
facts,  however,  may  be  pointed  out  as  regards 
the  operation  of  the  railroads;  the  administra- 
tion of  labor  was  not  delegated  to  the  Federal 
managers  but  was  controlled  from  Washington 
on  what  was  generally  conceded  to  be  a  political 
basis.  The  effect  on  wages  is  discussed  else- 
where but  the  effect  on  service  was  quite  im- 
portant. Without  effective  control  over  the 
terms  of  employment  it  was  quite  impossible  for 
the  Federal  managers  to  exact  service  to  the 
public,  and  it  is  thought  by  some  people  that 
service  of  the  railways  was  even  more  adversely 
affected  than  service  in  lines  of  industry  that 
remained  under  private  control 

One  item  of  service  deserves  special  mention. 
The  Railroad  Administration  undertook  to 
change  the  dining-car  system.  A  standard  meal 
was  served  at  a  standard  price — the  dinner  was 
$1.50.  Exactly  the  same  menu  was  served  by 
the  great  majority  of  railroads  and  each  day 
in  the  week  had  its  standardized  menu.  The 
result  might  have  been  foreseen  and  protests 
were  raised  everywhere.  Men  who  traveled  day 
after  day  found  the  system  thoroughly  distaste- 
ful and  the  experiment  served  to  show  that, 
despite  all  the  dissatisfaction  there  has  been 
with  private-company  operation  of  American 
dining  cars,  the  easy  method  of  standardization 
is  not  the  satisfactory  way  out. 

Accounts  with  Government.  The  long  and 
involved  process  of  adjusting  the  accounts  be- 
tween the  government  and  the  railroads,  which 
were  taken  under  Federal  control  in  December, 
1917,  and  relinquished  in  1920,  had  been  con- 
cluded by  1024.  The  Railroad  Administration 
had  completed  its  settlements  with  all  of  the 
important  roads  which  it  operated.  The  In- 
terstate Commerce  Commission  had  completed 
the  adjustment  and  had  issued  final  certificates 
for  payment  by  the  Treasury  Department  of 
most  of  the  accounts  involved  in  the  six-month 
guarantee  allowed  by  the  Transportation  Act  for 
the  period  following  the  termination  of  Federal 
control. 

All  the  financial  relations  however,  between 
the  railroads  and  the  government,  arising  from 
the  War  and  the  government's  assumption  of 
railroad  operation,  could  not  be  terminated  by 


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that  year,  because  many  railroads  gave  the  gov- 
ernment various  forms  of  evidences  of  indebted- 
ness for  the  capital  expenditures  made  by  the 
government,  and  there  were  still  outstanding 
in  1024  many  loans  made  by  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  from  the  $300,000,000  revolv- 
ing fund  established  by  the  Traiibportation  Act 
to  help  tide  over  the  transition  period. 

Baiiroad  Administration  Settlements.  Of 
the  241,104  miles  of  road  taken  over  by  the 
government,  roads  operating  178,045  miles  had 
effected  final  settlement  before  the  year  1024 
Except  for  the  short-line  roads,  which  had  a 
different  status,  the  settlements,  which  involved 
original  claims  of  the  railroads  amounting  to 
$1,014,511,000,  were  completed  without  litiga- 
tion and  a  detailed  report  was  being  compiled 
Up  to  Dec.  1,  1023,  the  settlements  represented 
original  claims  of  $053,473,000,  although  some 
of  them  were  reduced  during  the  course  of  the 
negotiations  This  docs  not  mean  that  the  Rail- 
road Administration  had  to  pay  out  anything 
like  that  sum  after  February,  1920,  because  the 
amounts  due  the  lailroacls  on  current  account, 
such  as  delayed  payments  of  their  guaranteed 
compensation  as  well  as  amounts  for  materials 
and  supplies,  under-inaintenance,  depreciation, 
interest  and  other  items,  were  ollset  against  the 
amount  of  capital  expenditures  made  by  the 
government  and  charged  against  the  companies. 
The  Pennsylvania,  for  example,  paid  the  govern- 
ment $00,000,000  as  the  excess  of  its  indebted- 
ness to  the  government  over  the  government's 
indebtedness  to  it  Some  few  loads  paid  the 
Kaihoad  Administration  for  over-maintenance 
but  up  to  December,  1023,  the  goveinment  had 
paid  the  railroads  a  net  amount  of  $188,401,235 
lor  umler-maintenance,  including  $150,(i57/)70 
foi  maintenance  of  way  and  $28,743,250  for  main- 
tenance of  equipment  The  roads  had  claimed 
an  aggregate  of  $008,000,000  for  under-rnain- 
tenarue  A  considerable  part  of  the  amounts 
owed  by  the  railroads  for  capital  expenditures 
was  funded.  In  1024,  there  were  still  pend- 
ing a  good  many  claims  against  the  Railroad 
Administration  on  the  part  of  short  lines 
and  "third  persons''  such  as  claims  of  ship- 
pers for  overcharges  and  loss  and  damage 
claims. 

Six-Month  Guarantee.  The  claims  of  the 
railroads  for  the  six-month  guarantee  amount- 
ed to  about  $057,000,000  but  the  Inter- 
state- Commerce  Commission  reduced  the 
amount  after  checking  the  accounts.  In  1020  it 
estimated  the  amount  payable  as  about  $536,- 
000,000  and  in  two  later  annual  reports  it  ad- 
hered to  this  estimate.  As  of  Oct.  31,  1022,  the 
commission  estimated  that  $85.020,054  was  still 
due  the  carriers  tip  to  Oct.  31,  1023,  final 
settlements  had  been  made  with  355  carriers, 
110  cases  had  been  dismissed  and  202  cases  were 
still  to  be  disposed  of.  Certificates  had  been 
issued  to  the  amount  of  $501,322,074  (and  the 
actual  payments  by  the  Treasury  approximate 
that  amount),  leaving  an  estimated  balance 
payable  of  $34,077.325  which  was  somewhat  re- 
duced by  additional  certificates  during  the  early 
part  of  1024. 

A  total  of  352  carriers,  mainly  short  lines, 
had  filed  claims  amounting  to  approximately 
$25,000,000  for  reimbursement  of  deficits  for 
the  Federal  control  period  under  section  204  of 
the  Transportation  Act.  At  the  date  of  its  re- 
port the  commission  had  certified  $8,205,030  on 
this  account  and  after  many  claims  had  been 


dismissed  or  withdrawn,  02  were  left  for  final 
disposition. 

Loan  Fund.  Under  section  210  of  the  Trans- 
portation Act,  which  established  the  $300,000,- 
000  loan  fund,  the  commission  has  allowed  loans 
to  the  amount  of  about  $350,000,000,  the  origi- 
nal fund  having  been  increased  by  interest  and 
repayments.  On  Dec.  1,  1023,  a  total  of  $147,- 
862,502  had  been  repaid  Under  the.  law  loans 
subsequent  to  Feb  28,  1022,  were  made  only  on 
applications  filed  prior  to  that  date  but  as 
recently  as  December  5  the  commission  allowed 
a  loan  of  $7,000,000  to  the  Boston  and  Maine. 

The  statement  of  the  Treasury  Department  on 
the  subject,  as  of  Dec.  1,  1023,  shows  total  pay- 
ments to  the  railroads  under  the  Transporta- 
tion Act  amounting  to  $803,084,588,  exclusive 
of  the  payments  by  the  Director-General  of  Rail- 
roads, but  this  includes  the  loans,  some  of 
which  have  been  repaid.  During  the  year  1024, 
it  should  be  possible  to  ascertain  with  some  de- 
gree of  accuracy  the  total  cost  to  the  government 
of  Federal  control  of  the  railroads,  which  was 
estimated  at  $1,700,000,000  to  $1,800,000,000, 
including  approximately  $550,000,000  for  the 
six-month  guarantee  period  and  the  reimburse- 
ment of  short  lines,  but  the  exact  figure  can  not 
be  known  as  long  as  the  loans  and  the  funded 
indebtedness  of  the  carriers  remain  outstanding. 

Belinquishment  of  Government  Control. 
William  G.  McAdoo,  as  Director-General  of  Kail- 
roads,  advocated  the  extension  of  government 
operation  for  a  period  of  years  after  the  end  of 
the  War.  There  was  a  great  deal  of  political 
discussion  of  the  question  and  the  question 
of  government  ownership  was  raised.  Public 
sentiment,  however,  was  so  obviously  against 
government  ownership,  which  Mr.  McAdoo  ad- 
vocated, that  he  fell  back  on  his  proposal  for 
an  extension  of  government  operation  This  did 
not  meet  with  the  approval  of  Congress  and 
two  bills  were  drawn  up:  that  known  as  the 
Cummins  Bill  in  the  Senate  and  the  Each  Bill  in 
the  House.  These  two  bills  were  finally  consoli- 
dated and  passed  as  the  "Transportation  Act, 
1020"  which  recites  that  it  is  "An  Act  to  pro- 
vide for  the  termination  of  Federal  control  of 
railroads  and  systems  of  transportation;  to 
provide  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  between 
carriers  and  their  employees;  to  further  amend 
an  Act  entitled  'An  Act" to  regulate  commerce,' 
approved  Feb  4,  1887,  as  amended,  and  for 
other  purposes."  The  three  important  changes 
which  the  "Transportation  Act"  made  in  the  act 
to  repulnte  commerce  were:  (1)  A  duty  is 
placed  on  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission, 
in  making  freight  and  passenger  rates,  to  make 
such  rates  as  will  allow  the  lailroads  as  a  whole, 
in  one  territorial  group,  to  earn  a  fair  return 
on  their  valuation  as  fixed  by  the  Commission; 
(2)  A  scheme  for  voluntary  consolidations  of 
the  railroads  is  provided  for  and  this  is  so 
closely  connected  with  the  fair  return  provisions 
of  the  Act  that  the  two  will  be  discussed  to- 
gether; (3)  The  Act  creates  a  Railroad  Labor 
Board  of  nine  members,  three  representing  the 
public,  three  the  railroads  and  three  the  rail- 
road employees  It  was  provided  that  in  any 
disputes  regarding  wages,  the  railroad  manage- 
ments would  attempt  to  arrive  at  a  settlement 
with  their  own  employees,  and  failing  this, 
either  side  could  bring  the  dispute  before  the 
Railroad  Labor  Board.  Tt  was  the  duty  of 
the  Railroad  Labor  Board  then  to  make  an  in- 
vestigation of  the  facts  and  come  to  a  conclu- 


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ftion,  making  public  its  findings,  but  there  was 
no  power  given  the  board  to  enforce  its  findings 
through  the  application  of  penalties. 

Both  the  railroad  employees  and  the  railroad 
managements  have  in  certain  instances  refused 
to  follow  the  findings  of  the  board,  but  notwith- 
standing this  it  is  probably  the  consensus  of 
opinion  among  railroad  managements  that  the 
labor  board  is  an  improvement  over  the  former 
method  of  dealing  with  railroad  employees 

The  strike  of  the  railway  shopmen  which  took 
place  in  1922  was  in  defiance  of  the  findings 
of  the  Railroad  Labor  Board.  The  shopmen, 
who  had  been  organized  and  had  become  affili- 
ated with  the  American  Federation  of  Labor, 
during  the  government  operation  of  the  roads, 
had  asked  for  an  increase  in  wages.  The  Rail- 
road Labor  Board  made  an  investigation  of 
living  conditions  and  wage  scales  in  other  lines 
of  industry,  and  fixed  as  fair  wage  a  some- 
what lower  rate  than  the  shopmen  had  staked 
for.  A  strike  was  called  on  July  1,  1022,  and 
the  question  was  bitterly  fought  out  The  Labor 
Board  issued  a  public  statement  in  which  it 
said  that  the  strike  was  in  defiance  of  justice, 
but  it  continued  to  work  for  the  reconciliation 
between  the  men  and  the  managements.  The 
strike  was  peculiarly  bitter  in  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  the  United  States.  Here  the  fam- 
ilies of  employees  who  remained  loyal  to  the 
companv  were  persecuted  and  innumerable  acts 
of  cruelty  to  men  and  their  families  were  com- 
mitted in  the  name  of  the  striking  shopmen. 

The  Association  of  Railway  Executives  car- 
ried on  negotiations  with  representatives  of  the 
American  Federation  of  Labor  and  in  the  mean- 
time the  officers  actually  in  charge  of  the  op- 
eration of  the  railroads  attempted  to  replace  the 
(striking  shopmen  and  to  carry  on  railroad 
service  Railroad  service  was  actually  carried 
on  without  any  serious  interruption  although 
there  were  delays  and  the  cost  to  the  railroads 
was  extremely  heavy.  Finally  the  labor  union 
took  the  position  that  if  its  men  should  be  re- 
stored to  their  seniority  rights  and  the  men  em- 
ployed in  their  places  should  be  discharged  or 
demoted,  the  strikers  would  return  to  their 
work  at  the  Labor  Board  wage  scale.  In  many 
instances  the  railway  executives  had  given  their 
personal  word  to  the  men  employed  in  the  place 
of  strikers  that  they  should  retain  their  newly 
gained  seniority  rights  and  continue  to  hold 
their  jobs  The  Association  of  Railway  Execu- 
tives separated  into  two  groups:  one  group  set- 
tling with  the  strikers  under  the  so-called  Bal- 
timore plan,  by  which  the  strikers  were  grant- 
ed, in  substance,  the  demand  for  reinstatement 
with  restored  seniority  rights,  the  other  group 
refusing  to  settle.  The  second  group  included 
some  of  the  best  managed  railroads  in  the  Unit- 
ed States;  for  instance,  the  Union  Pacific. 
Theoretically  the  strike  against  these  roads  con- 
tinued on  through  1022  and  1023  Actually, 
however,  by  1023  the  new  forces,  even  on  the 
southwestern  roads  such  as  the  Missouri  Pacific 
and  the  St.  Louis-Southwestern,  had  been  or- 
ganized and  were  functioning  smoothly. 

The  most  notable  instance  of  the  refusal  of 
railroad  management  to  follow  the  finding  of 
the  Railroad  Labor  Board  was  in  the  case  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  which  formed  unions 
of  its  own  employees,  of  which  only  employees 
were  officers.  This,  of  course,  excluded  the 
professional  labor  leader  of  the  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor.  The  scheme  was*  fought  bitterly 


by  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  and  was 
brought  before  the  Railroad  Labor  Board,  be- 
cause when  the  election  of  men  to  represent 
employees  before  the  Board  took  place  on  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  followers  of  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor  refused  to  vote  for  men  who 
were  Pennsylvania  Railroad  employees  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  man- 
agement insisted  that  only  employees  of  the 
Pennsylvania  should  represent  employees  before 
the  Labor  Board  The  Labor  Board  held  that 
the  men  had  a  right  to  elect  American  Federa- 
tion of  Labor  or  other  profession!  labor  leaders 
to  represent  them  and  that  the  Pennsylvania 
was  wrong.  The  Pennsylvania  management  was 
engaged  in  1023  in  attempting  to  get  the  ques- 
tion before  the  Supreme  Court. 

Consolidations.  In  connection  with  the 
provision  in  the  Transportation  Act  which  lays 
a  duty  on  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission 
to  fix  rates  that  will  yield  a  fair  return,  leav- 
ing no  recourse  to  the  railroads,  however,  if 
this  duty  is  not  lived  up  to,  and  leaving 
it  entirely  to  the  commission  to  decide  what 
is  the  fair  rate  of  return,  there  is  also  a  pro- 
vision which  establishes  a  revolving  fund  and 
provides  that  any  railroad  company  that  earns 
in  excess  of  0  per  cent  on  its  valuation  in  any 
year  shall  pay  into  the  revolving  fund  one- 
half  of  the  excess  earnings  and  retain  the  other 
half  as  a  fund  to  make  up  deficiencies  in  follow- 
ing years. 

The  framers  of  the  Transportation  Act  of 
1021 — the  Esch-Cummins  bill — were  acutely 
aware  of  the  "weak"  and  "strong"  railroad  prob- 
lem, and  they  made  a  provision  that  if  one 
company  earned  more  than  6  per  cent  on  its 
valuation  the  excess  earnings  should  be  appro- 
priated in  part  by  the  government,  to  he  dis- 
tributed as  a  loan  or  otherwise  to  the  com- 
panies in  the  same  group  that  were  unable  to 
earn  a  fair  return  on  the  value  of  their  prop- 
erty. 

The  change  of  attitude  on  the  part  of  the 
government,  which  that  Transportation  Act 
expressed,  consisted  (1)  in  a  recognition  of  the 
principle  that  capital  invested  in  railroads,  taken 
as  a  whole,  should  be  permitted  to  earn  a  fair 
rate  of  interest;  and  (2)  in  a  recognition  of 
the  fact  that  under  the  same  rates  some  rail- 
road companies  would  earn  more  than  a  fair 
interest  rate  on  their  investment  and  others 
would  earn  less.  It  was,  further,  a  recognition 
of  the  fact  that  the  so-called  "weak"  roads 
must  be  kept  in  business;  and  it  laid  down 
the  somewhat  socialistic  doctrine  that  since 
railroads  were  not  created  equal  the  govern- 
ment could  take  from  the  strong  and  give  to  the 
weak.  Apparently  there  was  doubt  as  to  the, 
constitutionality  and  the  sound  economics  of  this 
doctrine,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  attain 
the  same  end  by  providing  for  the  consolida- 
tion, under  one  company,  of  weak  and  strong 
roads. 

"The  commission  shall  as  soon  as  practicable 
prepare  and  adopt  a  plan  for  the  consolidation 
of  the  railway  companies  of  the  continental 
United  States  into  a  limited  number  of  systems  " 
The  Transportation  Act  goes  on  to  explain  that 
in  making  plans  for  consolidations,  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission  shall  preserve  com- 
petition as  fully  as  possible  and  disturb  existing 
routes  of  trade  as  little  as  possible.  The  com- 
mission is  not  given  power  to  force  consolida- 
tions but  has  the  power  to  prevent  consolida- 


RAILWAYS 


1103 


BANDOLPH-MACON 


tions  which  are  not  in  accordance  with  its 
plans. 

The  commission  employed  Prof.  William  Z. 
Ripley  to  formulate  a  tentative  plan  of  con- 
solidation, and  he  divided  the  railroads  of  the 
United  States  into  21  systems.  For  rate-mak- 
ing purposes  the  commission  had  already  di- 
vided the  United  States  into  four  sections,  and 
Professor  Eipley  arranged  the  roads  in  sys- 
tems so  as  to  keep  each  system  wholly  within 
a  rate  group. 

The  Ripley  plan  put  the  railroads  lying  in  the 
trunk-line  territory  (eastern  rate  group)  into 
five  systems,  each  having  a  through  line  from 
New  York  to  Chicago.  Thus  the  Pennsylvania 
system  utilized  the  through  line  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania and  its  affiliated  companies;  the  New 
York  Central  system  utili/cd  the  New  York 
Central  through  line;  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio- 
Reading  system  made  use  of  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  line  from  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore  to 
Chicago  and  added  to  it  the  Philadelphia  and 
Reading  and  the  Central  of  New  Jersey — giving 
it  a  line  into  'New  York ;  the  Erie  and  Lehigh 
Valley-Wabash  system  used  the  Erie  through 
line  between  New  York  and  Chicago;  and  the 
Lackawanna-Nickel  Plate  system  combined  the 
Delaware,  Lnckawanna  and  Western  lino  from 
New  York  to  Buffalo  and  the  New  York,  Chi- 
cago and  St.  Louis  line  from  Buffalo  to  Chicago. 

The  grouping  of  the  railroads  for  rate-making 
purposes  recogni/es  that  the  roads  in  New  Eng- 
land and  the  roads  in  the  Michigan  peninsula 
each  has  characteristics  as  to  traffic,  etc.,  pe- 
culiar to  itself.  Professor  Ripley  therefore 
made  one  railroad  system  out  of  the  New  Eng- 
land roads  and  one  *syHtem  out  of  the  roads  in 
the  Michigan  peninsula. 

The  roads  that  run  between  the  coal  fields  of 
\V  est  Virginia  and  tidewater  on  the  east  and 
middle-western  cities  on  the  west  have  both  op- 
erating and  traffic  conditions  which  are  peculiar 
to  themselves.  These  roads  Professor  Ripley 
combined  into  two  systems:  one  the  Chesapeake 
and  Ohio  and  the  other  a  combination  of  the 
Norfolk  and  Western  and  the  Virginian  Railway. 

It  will  be  noted  that  Professor  Ripley  pre- 
served ample  competition  in  suggesting  five 
trunk-line  systems,  and  adequate  competition 
in  suggesting  two  soft-coal  systems;  but  he  made 
no  provision  for  competition  in  the  New  England 
system  or  the  Michigan  peninsular  system. 

The  southeastern  rate-group  region  roads  were 
parceled  out  among  five  systems  under  the  Rip- 
ley  plan,  two  of  these  corresponding  quite  ex- 
actly with  the  present  affiliation  of  roads.  The 
Southern  Railway  system  was  left  almost  intact, 
and  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line-Louisville  and  Nash- 
ville system  is  the  same  as  the  present  grouping 
of  roads  under  the  control  of  H.  H.  Walters  and 
his  associates. 

The  third  system  was  a  consolidation  of  vari- 
ous roads  with  the  Illinois  Central,  the  fourth 
system  a  consolidation  of  various  roads  with 
the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  and  the  fifth  a  consoli- 
dation of  a  few  roads  with  the  Florida  East 
Coast  Railway. 

The  Ripley  plan  consolidated  the  roads  west 
and  southwest  of  Chicago  into  seven  systems, 
five  of  which  he  grouped  together  as  a  western  - 
transcontinental  region  and  two  as  a  southwest- 
ern Gulf  region.  The  systems  in  the  western 
transcontinental  region  consisted  of  consolida- 
tions based  on  (1)  Union  Pacific,  (2)  the  Chi- 
cago, Burlington  and  Quincy-Northern  Pacific, 


(3)  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee. and  St.  Paul-Great 
Northern,  (4)  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific-Southern  Pacific,  and  (5)  the  Atchison, 
•Topeka  and  Santa  F6.  The  two  systems  in  the 
southwestern  Gulf  region  were  founded  on  the 
St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco  and  on  the  Missouri 
Pacific. 

The  most  important  contribution  from  railroad 
officers  themselves  toward  a  consolidated  plan 
was  that  of  Hale  Holden,  president  of  the  Chi- 
cago, Burlington  and  Quincy,  which  divided  all 
of  the  roads  west  of  Chicago  and  New  Orleans 
into  four  systems,  giving  each  system  two  routes 
from  the  eastern  base  line  to  the  Pacific  Coast, 
giving  each  system  lines  to  Minneapolis  and  St. 
Paul  and  giving  each  system  lines  into  the  south- 
west. 

The  year  1924  saw  the  beginning  of  what 
apparently  was  a  restoration  of  railroad  credit 
and  saw  the  railroads  themselves  in  better  physi- 
cal condition  than  at  any  time  since  1914.  See 
RAPID  TRANSIT. 

BAIL  WAYS,  ELECTBIC.  See  ELECTRIC  RAIL- 
WAYS 

BAISA,  ROSA  (1893-  ).  A  Russian  dra- 
matic soprano,  born  at  Bielostok.  To  escape 
the  horrors  of  the  Jewish  persecutions  her 
parents  fled  (1907)  to  Naples,  where  she  re- 
ceived her  musical  education  at  the  Conservatory 
under  Barbara  Marchisio.  She  made  her  d£but 
at  Parma  (Sept  6,  1913)  in  Verdi's  Oberfo, 
Conte  di  San  Bonifacio,  during  the  Verdi  cen- 
tenary celebration  under  Campanini,  the  director 
of  the  Chicago  Opera  Association.  Campanini 
engaged  her  the  next  year  for  Chicago,  where 
she  remained  as  one  of  the  principal  stars  and 
a  prime  favorite.  She  has  also  appeared  with 
brilliant  success  in  London,  Rome,  Buenos  Aires. 
Montevideo,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  and  Now 
York.  Toscanini  chose  her  to  create  the  r&le  of 
Asteria  in  the  world  premiere  of  Boito's  Nerone 
(Milan,  May  1,  1924)  In  1920  she  married 
the  operatic  baritone  Giacomo  Rimini. 

RAISTJLI,  ACHMED  BEN  MOHAMMED  (1875- 
).  A  Moroccan  bandit  and  political  leader 
(see  VOL.  XIX).  Instigated  by  Germany,  he 
raised  a  revolt  against  the  French  government 
in  Morocco  in  1918  and  continued  active  until 
1923,  when  he  surrendered  to  the  French.  He 
was  also  a  leader  in  the  Riff  rebellion  against 
Spain  in  Spanish  Morocco.  See  MOROCCO. 

BAND,  HEBBERT  WILBUR  (1872-  ).  An 
American  zoologist,  born  at  Oil  City,  Pa ,  and 
educated  at  Allegheny  College  and  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. He  was  assistant  principal  of  the  high 
school  at  Oil  City  (1894-9G),  and  at  Harvard 
he  was  instructor  in  zoology  (1900-09),  as- 
sistant professor  (1909-19),  and  associate  pro- 
fessor (1919-  ).  He  published  articles 
mainly  on  regeneration  in  animals,  especially 
the  earthworm. 

BANDOLPH-MACON  WOMAN'S  COL- 
LEGE. An  institution  for  women  at  Lynch- 
hurg,  Va.,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist 
Church,  founded  in  1893.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents registered  increased  from  610  in  1914  to 
7G7  in  1924,  the  faculty  was  increased  from  47 
to  53  members,  and  the  library  from  12,500  to 
22,965  volumes.  The  total  yearly  income  was 
increased  from  $183,227  in  1914  to  $348,167  in 
1922-23,  and  the  endowment  from  $376,500  to 
$465,049.  A  Phi  Beta  Kappa  chapter  was  in- 
stalled in  1916,  the  Latin  requirements  for  en- 
trance were  changed  from  four  to  three  units, 
and  nine  hours'  credits  allowed  for  music.  For 


BANGS 


1104 


RAPID  TRANSIT 


the  degree,  a  grade  of  85  in  half  the  courses 
was  required.  Four  buildings  were  erected,  the 
Smith  Memorial  Student  Building,  Webb  Dor- 
mitory, the  president's  home,  and  the  observ-* 
atory.  A  campaign  was  being  carried  on  in 
1023-24  for  $1,250,000,  of  which  all  but  $125,- 
000  had  been  raised  by  January,  1924.  Presi- 
dent, Dice  Robins  Anderson,  Ph.D. 

RANGE.    See  ARTILLERY. 

RANKIN,  JEANNETTE  (1880-  ).  An 
American  public  official,  born  in  Missoula, 
Mont.,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Mon- 
tana and  the  School  of  Philanthropy  in  New 
York  City.  She  engaged  in  social  work  in 
Seattle  and  took  an  active  pait  in  woman  suf- 
frage work,  she  was  field  secretary  of  the  Na- 
tional American  Woman  Suffrage  Association. 
In  1917  she  was  elected  to  Congress  as  Uepre- 
sentative-at-large  from  Montana  and  was  the 
first  woman  ever  seated  in  that  body  She  was 
defeated  for  reelection  in  1920. 

RANSOME,  FREDERICK  LESLIE  (1808-  ). 
An  American  geologist,  born  at  Greenwich,  Eng- 
land, and  educated  at  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia. He  was  assistant  in  mineralogy  and 
petrography  at  Harvard  and  entered  the  service 
of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  where 
in  1900  he  became  geologist  in  charge  of  various 
sections  of  western  a  real  geology  (1912-10)  and 
later  of  metalliferous  deposits.  He  also  lectured 
on  ore  deposit*  at  Chicago  in  1(J07  and  was 
Silliman  lecturer  at  Yale  in  1913.  During  the 
War  Dr.  Ransorne  was  connected  with  the  Na- 
tional Research  Council  and  became  its  treasurer 
in  1919.  In  addition  to  being  an  associate 
editor  of  Economic  (jeology,  he  is  the  author  of 
many  official  monographs  on  the  geology  of 
western  mining  districts  and  papers  in  scientific 
journals. 

RAPALLO,  TREATY  OF.  See  Fiu ME- ADRIATIC 
CONTROVERSY  ,  PEACE  CONFERENCE  A*ND  TREATIES. 

RAPID  TRANSIT.  Notwithstanding  the 
War  and  the  unsettled  condition  of  the  various 
countries  in  the  decade  between  1914  and  1924, 
there  was  no  single  question  that  aroused  more 
general  interest  in  and  about  large  cities  than 
the  provision  of  adequate  urban  and  suburban 
transit  facilities  This  was  due  in  large  meas- 
ure to  the  phenomenal  growth  of  the  large  cities 
particularly  in  the  new  countries,  and  the  con- 
centration of  activities  and  industries  in  certain 
districts  at  a  distance  from  available  housing 
facilities 

The  problem  was  not  entirely  one  of  new  or 
additional  subways;  there  were  cities  where 
elevated  railways  were  constructed  in  the  period 
under  consideration,  and  also  cities  where  im- 
portant readjustments  and  at  times  relocations 
of  surface  traffic  were  demanded  so  as  to  re- 
lieve in  a  measure  the  congestion  which  pre- 
vented the  proper  handling  of  the  traffic  espe- 
cially at  the  times  of  peak  load  and  when  the 
streets  were  thronged  with  vehicular  and  pedes- 
trian traffic. 

The  troubles  were  not  only  of  construction. 
Between  1914  and  1924  costs  of  operation,  due 
particularly  to  increased  cost  of  materials  and 
labor  mounted  so  that  in  many  American  lines 
what  was  considered  the  standard  fare  of  five 
cents  became  inadequate  to  meet  even  operating 
costs  while  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States 
the  operation  of  interurban  or  suburban  lines 
was  no  longer  possible  due  to  the  competition  of 
motor  vehicles  both  public  and  private.  In  New 
York  City  in  1919  the  New  York  City  Railways 


and  the  Brooklyn  Rapid  Transit  Company  went 
into  the  hands  of  a  receiver  while  the  Inter- 
borough  Rapid  Transit  Company  later  was 
saved  only  by  careful  financing. 

So  serious  was  this  situation  in  the  United 
States  that  in  1920  when  the  report  of  a  Fed- 
eral Electric  Railway  Commission,  appointed  by 
President  Wilson,  May  31,  1919,  was  issued,  it 
was  frankly  stated  that  the  electric  railway  in- 
dustry was  without  financial  credit  and  was  not 
properly  performing  its  public  function.  The 
reason  for  this  was  given  as  early  financial  mis- 
management, various  economic  causes  accentu- 
ated by  high  price  levels  of  labor  and  materials, 
and  the  failure  of  the  five  cent  fare  to  provide 
revenues  adequate  to  meet  operating  costs, 
maintenance,  and  necessary  extensions.  See 
ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 

Throughout  the  United  States  there  was  a 
movement  towards  government  operation  and 
ownership,  which  often  was  revealed  in  oppres- 
sive measures  of  regulation  that  interfered  with 
the  efficient  and  profitable  conduct  of  the  vari- 
ous utilities.  See  MUNICIPAL  OWNLRSHIP. 

New  York  City  Subways.  The  10  years 
1914-24  witnessed  important  developments  in 
New  York,  but  also  a  disintegration  of  the  ex- 
isting system  of  surface  lines  and  a  failure  of 
the  municipal  authorities  to  develop  plans  for 
additional  much  needed  lines  and  to  provide 
means  to  cany  them  into  effect  The  so-called 
Steinway  Tube  under  the  East  River  from  42nd 
Street,  Manhattan,  to  Long  Island  City  was 
opened  in  1915  as  a  part  of  the  Interborotigh 
Rapid  Transit  system.  The  dual  subway  system 
was  further  developed  and  the  various  lines  of 
the  New  York  Municipal  Railways  including  the 
Broadway  subway  were  opened  in  1917  and  1918 
and  \\ere  extended  from  time  to  time  but  the 
complete  development  of  the  dual  system  nlonjr 
the  lines  originally  laid  out  was  impossible  on 
account  of  the  hostility  of  the  New  York  Munic- 
ipal government  which  was  favorably  disposed 
toward  city  owned  and  operated  transit  facilities 
and  absolutely  opposed  to  any  increase  of  fare 
over  the  time-honored  five  cents. 

The  carrying  capacity  of  the  elevated  railways 
was  extended  by  the  building  of  third  tracks 
over  which  express  tiains  were  run  to  take  care 
of  the  heavy  traffic  at  morning  and  night.  In 
1924,  New  York  City  had  in  operation  over  GOO 
miles  of  subway  and  elevated  tracks  of  which  the 
Interborough  operated  301  miles  and  the  Brook- 
lyn-Manhattan Transit  Corporation,  a  succes- 
sor to  the  New  York  Municipal  Railroad,  258 
miles.  Of  the  Interborough's  lines,  222  miles 
were  subway  and  139  miles  elevated  railway. 

The  immensity  of  the  transit  problem  in  New 
York  City  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  Intel - 
borough  Rapid  Transit  in  the  year  ended  June 
30,  1924,  carried  1,074,343,243  passengers. 
Such  traffic  was  handled  under  conditions  of 
crowding  and  congestion  and  the  same  was  true 
for  the  Brooklyn-Manhattan  Transit  Lines. 
There  was  an  urgent  need  of  additional  sub- 
ways and  connections  for  which  various  plans 
had  been  prepared. 

Boston.  The  Boston  Transit  Commission 
ceased  to  exist  on  June  30,  1918,  after  24  years 
of  existence  during  which  it  had  developed  a 
comprehensive  traction  system  for  that  city  and 
had  supplied  all  of  the  facilities  called  for,  or 
rather  all  that  means  were  available  for  con- 
structing. After  the  elevated  railways  had  been 
constructed  and  the  subway  from  Tremont 


BAPID  TRANSIT 


1205 


BAPID  TBANSIT 


Street  to  Cambridge,  the  next  section,  the  Boyl- 
ston  Street  subway,  running  through  the  Back 
Bay  District  to  the  junction  of  Commonwealth 
Avenue  and  Beacon  Street,  was  opened  on  Oct. 
3,  1014.  Following  this  came  the  section  to  An- 
drew Square,  Dorchester,  which  was  opened  in 
10 10.  In  addition,  there  were  completed  the 
Washington  Street  and  East  Boston  subways  so 
that  Boston  had  a  well  unified  system  of  sub- 
ways. Operation  of  the  Boston  Elevated  Road 
passed  into  the  control  of  a  Board  of  trustees 
on  July  1,  1918,  and  to  meet  'deficiencies  in 
revenue  the  fare  was  raised  from  five  to  seven 
cents  on  August  1,  and  later  in  the  year  to  8 
cents.  Even  this  was  insufficient  to  meet  op- 
erating costs,  as  was  a  10-cent  fare  adopted 
later 

Philadelphia.  Rapid  transit  development 
was  an  important  feature  in  Philadelphia  be- 
tween 1014  and  1024  An  existing  subway  ran 
east  and  west  under  Market  Street,  terminat- 
ing in  a  short  north  and  south  elevated  line 
along  the  river  front,  and  on  Apr.  26,  1015,  the 
city  voted  a  bond  issue  to  provide  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  subway  which  would  cross  under 
the  older  one  at  the  City  Hall  and  extend  north 
and  south  under  Broad  Street.  There  was  also 
involved  an  elevated  line  to  Frankford  which 
was  completed  in  1010  The  next  elevated  line 
to  be  built  was  the  Woodland  Avenue  section  of 
the  Darby  route  The  construction  referred  to 
as  gradually  completed,  however,  did  not  meet 
the  requirements  and  in  1023  a  general  and 
comprehensive  plan  was  under  consideration  of 
which  various  extensions  of  the  subway  routes 
and  elevated  lines  were  decided  on. 

Chicago.  The  City  of  Chicago,  with  its  sur- 
face and  elevated  railways,  experienced  a  con- 
gestion of  traffic  no  less  than  other  American 
cities  but  in  the  decade  under  review  little  had 
been  done  beyond  the  preparation  of  plans  and 
discussion. 

Detroit.  In  1023,  the  City  of  Detroit  was  so 
near  its  debt  limit  that  little  could  be  done  in 
the  way  of  bond  issues  for  providing  funds  for 
developing  increased  transit  facilities  or  im- 
proving then  existing  conditions. 

Cincinnati.  In  1915,  plans  for  an  extensive 
rapid  transit  system  involving  a  belt  line  sur- 
rounding the  city  were  adopted,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  a  bond  issue  for  this  purpose  was 
authorized  The  execution  of  the  project  was 
postponed  on  account  of  the  war  until  1021, 
when  the  subway  portion  was  put  under  active 
construction  using  for  part  of  the  route  the 
abandoned  Miami  and  Erie  Canal,  thus  decreas- 
ing construction  costs  materially  The  loop  as 
planned  was  about  16.45  miles  in  length  and 
consisted  of  245  miles  of  subways;  0  miles  in 
the  open  cut  with  bridges  or  subways  at  inter- 
secting streets;  0.2  miles  of  tunnel;  3.4  miles 
of  concrete  trestle,  and  1  4  miles  of  concrete 
elevated  structure.  The  line  begins  at  Fountain 
Square  and  extends  north  in  subway  in  Walnut 
Street,  where  it  joins  the  canal  and  thence  west 
in  subway  to  Plum  Street,  where  the  line  turns 
north  in  subway  to  Brighton  whence  a  circuit  is 
made  returning  to  the  starting-point  Another 
important  development  in  Cincinnati  was  the 
construction  of  a  large  double-decked  terminal 
for  interurban  electric  cars  which  served  also 
as  an  annex  to  a  large  office  building  This 
terminal  was  connected  by  a  viaduct  with  the 
Covington  Bridge  over  the  Ohio  River.  There 
was  also  accommodation  here  for  the  Newport 


cars  which  crossed  on  the  Newport  or  Central 
Bridge  and  running  on  the  surface  entered  the 
first  floor  of  the  terminal. 

San  Francisco.    See  SAN  FBANCISCO. 

St.  Louis.  With  the  development  of  its 
suburbs  and  the  congested  condition  of  traffic  in 
its  business  district,  the  city  of  St.  Louis  was 
forced  to  take  under  consideration  some  plan  in 
which  the  street  railways  would  be  extended 
and  rerouted  and  conditions  relieved  as  by  the 
construction  of  a  subway  loop.  The  City  Plan 
Commission,  the  Department  of  Public  Utilities, 
and  other  organizations  were  considering  this 
problem  in  its  many  bearings  but  no  actual  con- 
struction work  was  started  up  to  1924. 

London.  At  the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  the 
War  in  1914,  the  various  city  and  suburban  rail- 
way lines  in  and  about  London  were  engaged  in 
various  improvements  and  extensions.  The 
suburban  lines  such  as  that  of  the  London  and 
Northwestern  from  Euston  to  Harrow  were 
electrified,  and  the  electrification  of  the  line  be- 
t/ween Hammersmith  and  Earls  Court  of  the 
District  Railway  Company  vastly  increased  the 
daily  number  of  trains  The  general  plan  was 
to  tie  in  as  far  as  possible  the  suburban  lines 
with  the  urban  tubes  and  to  adopt  electrification 
as  rapidly  as  possible  Naturally  the  War  in- 
terfered with  the  immediate  execution  of  many 
of  the  projects  planned,  but  with  the  return  of 
peace  sucli  plans  were  set  on  foot  as  the  connec- 
tion of  the  Central  London  line  with  the  sub- 
urban system  of  the  London  and  Southwestern 
Kailway  so  as  to  afford  an  alternative  route 
from  the  Hammersmith  district  into  the  city 
and  to  extend  it  as  far  as  the  suburban  district 
of  Baling.  The  most  notable  improvement, 
peiliaps,  was  the  reconstruction  of  the  City  and 
South  London  line,  the  first  and  smallest  of 
the  many  tubes  which  had  been  built  in  London 
This  tunnel  was  increased  to  standard  dimen- 
sions so  that  its  traffic  could  be  exchanged  with 
the  Hampstead  line  and  provide  for  through 
traffic  between  the  noithern  and  southern  dis- 
tricts of  London.  The  scheme  of  extension  un- 
dertaken also  involved  a  connection  between  the 
City  and  South  London  Railway  and  the  Char- 
ing Cross,  Euston  and  Hampstead  Railway  ex- 
tending from  Euston  to  Mornington  Crescent, 
and  the  extension  of  the  Hampstead  Railway 
from  Golders  Green  to  Edgeware  In  addition 
to  the  important  passenger  routes,  an  electrically 
operated  underground  rapid  transit  mail  rail- 
way was  built  to  connect  the  chief  post  offices 
and  trunk  line  depots  in  the  London  district. 
The  tubes  have  an  inside  diameter  of  0  feet  and 
contain  a  track  of  2-foot  gauge  over  which 
trains  of  motor  cars  are  operated  by  a  remote- 
control  system. 

Barcelona.  In  1924,  there  was  under  con- 
struction in  Barcelona,  the  commercial  capital 
of  Spain,  a  subway  system  which  was  designed 
to  connect  the  surface  railways  entering  the  city 
from  the  east  and  west  This  work  was  in- 
tended to  be  completed  in  1925,  but  on  Apr.  12, 
1924,  there  was  a  temporary  setback  when  a 
portion  of  the  vault  in  the  centre  of  the  medi- 
arval  city  fell,  causing  a  large  breach  in  the 
street  and  the  footways  above.  This  accident 
caused  the  death  of  five  laborers  who  were 
working  underground,  and  injured  25;  of  the 
surface  crew,  13  were  injured 

Madrid.  In  1919,  the  City  of  Madrid  had 
completed  and  put  into  operation  the  first  3 
miles  of  its  subway  system  extending  from  the 


BAfllCTTSSBN 


xioS 


RAY 


northern  part  of  the  city  to  Puerto  del  Sol,  the 
centre  of  the  business  district.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  construction  carrying  the  line  to  the 
station  of  the  eastern  and  southern  railways. 

Sydney,  Australia.  An  interesting  transit 
scheme  was  being  developed  for  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales,  which  involved  both  underground 
and  elevated  lines  and  a  combination  of  new 
urban  facilities  with  those  of  existing  routes. 
The  urban  and  suburban  railways  were  being 
electrified  and  extended  into  and  around  the  city 
so  as  to  form  a  city  loop,  from  which  railways 
were  to  lead  to  the  western  and  eastern  suburbs 
served  by  a  street  railway  service  system.  This 
new  work  was  being  undertaken  in  connection 
with  the  electrification  of  the  suburban  steam 
railways  terminating  at  the  Central  Railway 
Station  on  the  city  side  of  the  harbor,  and  at 
Milson's  Point.  From  there  passengers  would 
be  brought  into  the  city  and  distributed  over 
four  underground  and  two  open-air  stations  on 
the  city  loon  See  TUNNELS;  BRIDGES. 

BASMTJSSEN,  KNUD  (Jon  AN  VICTOB) 
(1875-  ).  A  Danish  Arctic  explorer  (see 
VOL.  XIX).  His  voyages  in  Polar  regions  and 
acquaintance  with  the  Eskimos  furnished  ma- 
terial for  Borne  unusually  interesting  books 
which  include:  Liv  i  Gronland  (1915);  En 
Oronlands  Drom  (1915);  Min  Rejsedag'bog 
(1915);  Sermerssnakut  Tunnliamilerssomtit 
(1910);  Wye  Mannesker  (1919);  Gronland 
Langs  Polhavet  (1921)  ;  and  Myter  og  8agn  fra 
Gronland  (1921),  which  in  the  English  transla- 
tion is  called  Eskimo  Folktales  (1921).  An- 
other work  which  appeared  in  English  is  In  the 
Borne  of  the  Polar  Eskimos  (1923). 

BASPTJTTHT,  GREGORY.  See  RUSSIA,  His- 
tory. 

BATHENAU,  WALTER  (1867-1922).  A  Ger- 
man political  economist  arid  statesman,  born  in 
Berlin,  Sept.  29,  1807,  and  educated  in  the  Ger- 
man technical  schools.  In  1899  he  established 
the  first  factory  for  electrochemical  specialties 
in  Germany  He  rose  rapidly  as  an  industrial 
organizer  and  leader  and  became  in  1915  presi- 
dent of  the  all-powerful  Allgemeine  Electrische 
Gesellschaft.  During  the  years  1908  and  1909 
he  served  as  an  economic  representative  of  the 
German  government  in  the  East  African  colo- 
nies. When  the  War  broke  out,  he  was  in 
charge  of  official  organization  of  the  food  supply 
but  did  not  remain  in  office  more  than  a  year. 
After  the  German  revolution,  having  identified 
himself  with  the  radical  parties,  Rathenau  was 
appointed  Foreign  Minister  (1921)  He  went 
to  the  Genoa  Conference  with  a  policy  of  con- 
ciliation between  Germany  and  the  Allies.  Al- 
though he  negotiated  a  treaty  of  friendship  with 
the  Russian  Soviet  government  (the  Treaty  of 
Rapallo),  his  Genoa  mission  did  not  accomplish 
its  purpose.  In  June,  1922,  he  was  assassinated 
at  the  instigation  of  reactionary  groups,  who 
could  not  forgive  either  his  radical  policy  or 
his  Jewish  ancestry. 

Rathenau  was  one  of  the  few  German  leaders 
who  combined  a  remarkable  ability  at  industrial 
organization  with  philosophic  grasp  of  the  cul- 
tural needs  of  modern  societies.  His  writings 
range  from  speculative  philosophy  of  the  type 
called  professional  to  the  problems  of  industrial 
efficiency,  and  they  pass  by  the  highly  treacher- 
ous shoals  of  social  and  economic  policy.  His 
Von  Kommenden  Dingen  (1918)  and  Wat  Wird 
Werden,  translated  as  In  Days  to  Come  (1921), 
combine  prophetic  vision  with  a  scientific  un- 


derstanding of  sociological  intricacies.  His 
other  worxs  include  three  volumes  of  Oesam- 
melte  Schriften  (1918)  ;  Nach  der  Flvt  (1019)  ; 
Die  ATcue  Gesellschaft  (1919;  English  transla- 
tion, The  New  Society,  1921);  Autonome  Wirt- 
schaft  (1919);  Der  Kaiser  (1919);  and  Der 
Neue  Staat  (1922). 

RAVEL,  MAURICE  (1875-  ).  A  French 
composer,  born  at  Ciboure,  Basses-Pyrenees. 
He  received  his  musical  training  at  the  Par  in 
Conservatoire  under  C.  de  Be'riot  (piano),  A. 
Ggdalge  (counterpoint  and  fugue),  and  G. 
Faure"  (composition).  In  1901  he  won  the  sec- 
ond Prix  de  Rome  with  a  cantata,  Myrrha.  He 
never  held  any  official  positions  but  lived  in 
Paris  and  devoted  his  entire  time  to  composi- 
tion. In  1920  he  was  made  Chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  As  a  composer  he  is  one  of 
the  most  prominent  of  the  impressionists,  sec- 
ond perhaps  only  to  Debussy.  While  he  does 
not  shrink  from  daring  harmonies,  unresolved 
dissonances,  and  complicated  rhythms,  his 
themes  are  more  pregnant  and  definite  than 
those  of  most  impressionists.  His  talent  ap- 
pears to  best  advantage  in  the  finely  wrought 
details  of  works  in  the  smaller  forms,  especially 
in  the  compositions  for  piano.  He  wrote  the 
operas,  L'Heure  Espagnole  (Paris,  1911;  Chi- 
cago, 1920)  and  La  Cloche  Engloutie  (not  yet 
produced) ;  the  ballets,  Daphnis  et  ChloS,  La 
Mere  VOye,  and  Adelaide  ou  le  Langage  dett 
Flettrs  (all  in  Paris,  1912)  ;  an  overture, 
She'he'razade ;  Rapsodie  Espagnole;  a  choregraph- 
ic  poem,  La  Valse;  a  piano  concerto  on  Basque 
themes;  Trots  Poemes  (Mallarme*)  for  voice, 
piano,  two  flutes,  two  clarinets,  and  string 
quartet;  Shfhe'razade  for  solo  voice  and  orches- 
tra; some  chamber  music;  songs;  and  piano 
pieces,  among  which  the  1'alses  Nobles  et  Senti- 
mentales  are  particularly  fino. 

BAWLINSON,  HENRY  SEYMOUR,  first  BARON 
(1804-1925).  In  1917,  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
War,  he  commanded  the  famous  but  ill-fated  7th 
Division  in  Belgium  in  pursuance  of  the  scheme 
for  holding  back  the  Germans  on  the  line  of  the 
Scheldt  River.  With  the  exception  of  a  mhort 
time  as  a  member  of  the  Allied  War  Council,  he 
remained  in  high  command  during  the  entire 
war.  His  chief  exploit  was  in  the  great  Brit- 
ish offensive  of  1918,  when,  with  the  4th  Army, 
he  drove  the  Germans  over  the  Hindenburg  line 
and  was  thus  instrumental  in  bringing  about 
the  collapse  of  their  defense.  He  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1919. 

BAT,  CHARLES  (1891-  ).  An  American 
actor,  born  in  Jacksonville,  111.  best  known  for 
his  work  in  motion  pictures.  He  began  his 
career  on  the  legitimate  stage  in  small  parts  in 
stock  and  vaudeville.  His  first  film  was  a 
Thomas  Ince  production.  The  Coward,  The 
Deserter,  The  Dividend,  The  Pinch  Hitter,  and 
The  Clodhopper  were  his  best  starring  pieces  up 
to  1920,  when  he  incorporated  his  own  company 
and  produced  George  Cohan's  Forty-five  Minutes 
From  Broadway,  James  Whitcornb  Riley'a  The 
Old  Bwimmin*  Hole,  Charles  Van  Loan's  Scrap 
Iron,  Charles  Hoyt's  A  Midnight  Bell,  and 
others. 

BAY,  GEORGE  JOSEPH  (1876-  ).  An 
American  civil  engineer,  born  at  Metamora,  III., 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Illinois.  He 
entered  the  service  of  the  Illinois  Central  Rail- 
road as  a  roadman.  By  regular  advancements 
he  attained  the  place  of  division  engineer,  which 
he  held  until  1909,  when  he  became  chief  en- 


BSA 


1x07 


RECLAMATION 


gineer  of  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and  West- 
ern Railroad.  His  chief  work  for  this  railroad 
was  the  construction  of  the  Hopatcong-Slateford 
cut-off;  he  also  designed  and  built  the  Tunkhan- 
nock  viaduct  at  Nicholson,  Pa.,  the  largest  con- 
crete bridge  ever  constructed  up  to  that  time. 
During  the  War  he  was  engineering  assistant 
to  the  regional  director  of  the  Eastern  Region 
of  the  United  States  Railroad  Administration 
but  in  1920  returned  to  his  former  position. 

BEA,  SAMTEL  (1855-  ).  American  engi- 
neer and  railroad  president  (see  VOL.  XIX). 
In  1917  the  American  Railway  Association  ap- 
pointed him  a  member  of  the  special  commission 
on  national  defense  of  the  Railroads  War  Board. 
He  was  also  director  of  railroads  under  the 
authority  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  of 
Pennsylvania.  He  gave  his  yacht  to  the  United 
States  government  for  patrol  duty  in  the  At- 
lantic during  the  War. 

BEADING.  A  city  of  Pennsylvania.  The 
population  rose  from  90,071  in  1910  to  107,- 
784  in  1020  and  to  110,917  by  estimate  of  the 
Bureau  of  the  Census  for  1923.  Concrete  via- 
ducts were  built  over  the  Schuylkill  River  and 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  tracks  at  Penn  Street, 
and  at  Schuylkill  Avenue  and  River  Road,  and 
a  concrete  bridge  over  the  river  at  Bingnman 
Street.  A  city  planning  commission  was  ap- 
pointed. Five  million  dollars  was  voted  for  a 
school  building  programme,  and  two  junior  high 
schools  were  built  at  a  cost  of  $1,500,000.  Ad- 
ditions were  made  to  two  hospitals  and  a  third 
was  being  built,  a  Y.  W.  C.  A.  building  was 
completed  in  1921,  and  plans  were  ready  for  the 
erection  of  a  museum  and  art  gallery.  The 
electric,  gas,  city  water,  sewer,  and  trolley  sys- 
tems were  extended.  The  number  of  industrial 
establishments  increased  from  486  in  1914  with 
output  valued  at  $53,232,000,  to  501  in  1924 
with  output  valued  at  $169,030,422. 

BEADING,  (Rupus  ISAACS),  first  EABL  OF 
(1860-  ).  An  English  jurist  (see  VOL. 
XIX),  appointed  in  1913  Lord  Chief  Justice  of 
England.  His  knowledge  of  finance  was  of 
great  service  during  the  War,  and  he  was  sent 
to  the  United  States  on  special  missions,  in- 
cluding those  of  High  Commissioner  and  Special 
Ambassador.  In  1920  he  was  appointed  Viceroy 
of  India. 

RECLAMATION,  LAND.  Reclamation  of 
land  for  agricultural  use  offers  larger  oppor- 
tunity for  increasing  food  production  than  any 
other  single  operation,  since  throughout  the 
world  there  are  large  areas  that  can  be  made 
productive  by  some  one  of  the  processes  em- 
braced by  this  term. 

World-wide  figures  for  the  areas  susceptible 
of  reclamation  are  not  available.  The  x  ear- 
Rook  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture for  1921  gives  the  area  of  arid  land  sus- 
ceptible of  reclamation  as  30,000,000  acres,  and 
the  area  of  wet  land  susceptible  of  drainage  as 
90,000,000,  making  a  total  of  120,000,000  acres, 
or  an  area  equaling  about  25  per  cent  of  the 
area  of  improved  land  in  the  United  States,  or 
about  33  per  cent  of  the  present  crop  area  in 
the  United  States  To  this  can  be  added  a  con- 
siderable but  not  definitely  known  area  of  land 
now  subject  to  overflow  but  capable  of  reclama- 
tion by  dyking.  Probably  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
the  crop  production  of  the  United  States  can 
be  increased  at  least  one-third  by  land  reclama- 
tion. In  the  absence  of  definite  information,  it 
seems  probable  that  the  same  estimate  may 


be  applied  safely  to  the  world  as  a  whole.  For 
the  United  States,  the  Census  of  1920  shows 
the  area  actually  irrigated  in  1919  to  be  19,- 
191,716  acres;  the  area  in  existing  irrigation 
enterprises  35,890,811  acres;  and  the  area 
drained  in  1920  65,495,038  acres,  of  which  44,- 
288,238  acres  were  reported  as  "improved"  land 
according  to  the  Census  definition. 

The  United  States,  about  1850,  granted  the 
swamp  lands  then  belonging  to  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment to  the  States  in  which  they  were  situ- 
ated, in  order  that  the  States  might  provide  for 
their  reclamation.  As  a  consequence  the  Fed- 
eral government  has  not  participated  in  swamp- 
land reclamation,  otherwise  than  by  this  grant 
of  land.  In  the  case  of  irrigation  reclamation, 
the  United  States  government  has  helped  to 
promote  development,  first  by  removing  so  far 
as  possible  the  obstacles  to  development  by  non- 
governmental agencies,  and  later  by  government 
financing  and  construction.  In  1902  the  Rec- 
lamation Law  was  enacted.  This  set  aside  the 
receipts  from  the  sale  of  public  lands  as  a  rec- 
lamation fund  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of 
irrigation  works,  repaid  by  the  water  users,  re- 
placed in  the  fund,  and  used  again.  As  reported 
by  the  Census  of  1920,  the  acreage  irrigated  in 
1919  by  works  built  under  this  law  was  1,254,- 
509  acres,  or  al>out  6.5  per  cent  of  the  total  area 
irrigated  in  that  year.  The  amount  expended 
under  the  law  at  that  time  was  reported  as 
$129,509,819,  which  is  18.6  per  cent  of  the  total 
investment  in  irrigation  for  the  United  States. 
Interest  is  not  charged  on  deferred  payments, 
but  if  added  would  make  the  actual  cost  to  the 
government  greater  than  that  reported,  the  re- 
mission of  interest  being,  in  effect,  a  subsidy  to 
land  reclamation.  Only  a  small  part  of  the 
money  invested  in  this  work  by  the  government 
has  been  repaid,  but  the  receipts  from  other 
sources  have  been  added  to  the  reclamation 
fund,  so  that  the  amount  available  for  the  year 
1923  was  about  $10,000,000.  The  failure  of 
water  users  to  repay  construction  costs  led  to 
the  appointment  of  a  commission  to  investigate 
and  recommend  changes  in  the  law  or  its  ad- 
ministration (1923-24).  It  was  felt  that  the 
relations  between  the  government  and  the  water 
users  should  be  governed  by  contracts  that  can 
and  will  be  carried  out,  rather  than  continue 
under  nominal  obligations  that  are  ignored  Dr. 
Elwood  Mead  of  California  was  appointed  Com- 
missioner of  Reclamation  early  in  1024. 

Drainage  reclamation  in  the  United  States 
has  taken  place  almost  entirely  under  State 
laws  for  the  creation  of  special  improvement 
districts  that  have  the  power  to  issue  bonds  to 
obtain  funds  for  construction,  and  to  levy  and 
collect  assessments  to  meet  payments  of  prin- 
cipal and  interest  on  bonds  and  operating  ex- 
penses. These  districts  are  organized  under 
public  supervision,  but  otherwise  receive  no  pub- 
lic aid.  The  States  containing  arid  land  have 
enacted  similar  laws  for  the  organization  of 
irrigation  districts,  and  have,  in  most  cases, 
attempted  to  aid  in  the  sale  of  bonds  by  cer- 
tifying such  bonds  as  legal  investments  for  pub- 
lic and  trust  funds,  but  they  have  not  assumed 
any  legal  liability  for  the  payment  of  bonds  or 
interest,  except  in  the  case  of  Oregon,  where  the 
State  pays  the  interest  on  the  bonds  of  approved 
districts  for  periods  of  from  two  to  five  years. 
There  have  been  many  proposals  for  extending 
to  drainage  reclamation  the  system  of  Federal 
aid  in  irrigation.  Several  bills  providing  for 


BECLAMATXON  BtTREATT 


1108 


BED  OBOSS 


this  were  introduced  in  Congress,  but  up  to 
1024  none  had  been  passed.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  was  a  growing  objection  to  further  subsidy 
to  land  reclamation. 

For  many  years  in  the  United  States  the  rate 
of  expansion  in  the  area  of  reclaimed  land  used 
for  agriculture  has  been  decreasing.  The  av- 
erage annual  increase  in  tne  area  irrigated  from 
1900-10  was  about  669,000  acres;  while  the  av- 
erage annual  increase  from  1910  to  1920  was 
but  476,000.  Annual  figures  are  available  for 
the  government  projects  only.  On  these  the 
rate  of  increase  had  been  falling  off  sharply, 
even  during  the  boom  years  of  the  War,  and  the 
year  1922  showed  an  actual  decrease  in  acre- 
age as  compared  with  1921.  The  decreasing 
rate  of  expansion  was  due,  to  a  large  extent,  to 
increased  cost  of  water  supply.  The  CenRus  of 
1890  showed  an  average  cost  of  $7.9r>  per  acre; 
that  of  1900,  $9.04;  that  of  1910,  $15.83;  and 
that  of  1920,  $20.81.  These  figures  do  not 
represent  correctly  the  increase  in  cost;  this 
is  shown  by  averages  based  on  increased  total 
cost  and  increased  total  area,  from  one  census 
to  another.  Averages  based  on  such  figures  are 
as  follows:  1890,  $7.95;  1900,  $10.05;  1910, 
$20.05;  1920,  $65.60.  Comparing  these  costs 
with  that  of  1890,  the  percentages  of  increase 
are  1900,  26.4  per  cent;  1910,  152.2;  1920,  725.2. 
In  the  future,  construction  will  be  increasingly 
difficult  and  increasingly  costly  except  for  gen- 
eral changes  in  price  levels. 

Increased  food  supplies  can  be  obtained  in  sev- 
eral ways  other  than  by  reclaiming  lands  largely 
unproductive.  This  increasing  coat  of  reclama- 
tion will  tend  to  force  expansion  into  other  lines. 
Nevertheless,  the  possibility  of  expansion  by  rec- 
lamation exists,  and  such  expansion  will  take 
place  as  the  pressure  of  population  on  food  sup- 
ply becomes  more  intense.  In  the  United  States 
the  policy  was  to  make  reclamation  self-support- 
ing, except  for  the  subsidy  represented  by  relief 
from  interest  on  deferred  payments.  Other  coun- 
tries very  generally  considered  reclamation  of 
sufficient  importance  to  justify  considerable  pub- 
lic subsidies.  Italy  had  provision  for  the  pay- 
ment of  a  part  of  the  cost  by  the  national  govern- 
ment, a  part  by  the  provinces,  a  part  by  those 
who  were  to  use  the  water.  The  British  govern- 
ment, in  India  and  Egypt,  built  and  operated  rec- 
lamation works  without  provision  for  direct  re- 
payment of  cost,  but  secured  its  return  through 
taxation  of  the  products  grown.  In  some  cases 
it  was  expected  that  the  taxes  would  pay  interest 
on  the  cost,  such  projects  being  classed  as  "pro- 
ductive"; while  in  other  cases  such  a  return  is 
not  expected,  and  the  projects  are  classed  as 
"protective,"  or  "famine"  works.  In  either 
case,  the  water  users  were  not  under  contract 
to  pay  any  set  amount  for  their  water  supply, 
but  were  to  pay  according  to  the  products 
grown.  In  Australia,  however,  the  state  gov- 
ernments have  carried  on  reclamation  on  the 
plan  adopted  in  the  United  States,  where  the 
land  reclaimed  is  expected  to  make  a  direct  re- 
payment of  the  cost,  in  addition  to  being  subject 
to  the  same  taxes  as  other  farm  land.  Gen- 
erally, this  plan  of  financing  has  not  been  suc- 
cessful, and  investors  in  reclamation  enterprises 
operating  on  this  basis,  whether  they  were  public 
or  private,  have  lost  heavily,  while  the  eventual 
water  users  have  acquired  a  water  supply  at 
less  than  cost. 

RECLAMATION  BUBEATT,  UNITED 
STATES.  See  DAMS. 


BED  CROSS,  AHEBIOAN  NATIONAL.  The  dec- 
ade 1914-24  was  the  most  important  in  the  his- 
tory of  this  volunteer  reserve  emergency  organ- 
ization, whose  object  was  to  relieve  distress  in 
times  of  peace  and  war.  The  most  important 
functions  were  naturally  those  relating  to  war 
relief.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  the  Red 
Cross  had  a  registered  enrollment  of  5500  nurses 
and  the  necessary  surgeons,  besides  an  equip- 
ment for  the  purchase  and  transportation  of  sup- 
plies. This  enabled  it,  during  the  latter  part 
of  1914  and  through  1915,  to  send  to  Europe 
surgical  and  sanitary  units,  each  compris- 
ing three  surgeons  and  12  nurses,  together 
with  the  necessary  supplies,  for  war  hos- 
pital work  and  the  relief  of  noncombatants ; 
it  thus  rendered  greater  continuous  service 
than  was  ever  given  in  a  foreign  war  by 
any  Red  Cross  of  a  neutral  country.  In 
addition  to  its  services  in  the  War,  the  Red 
Cross  extended  relief  in  1915  to  sufferers  in 
Mexico,  in  Colon,  Panama,  and  in  Haiti.  Re- 
lief was  also  furnished  to  sufferers  from  floods 
in  Texas  and  Arkansas  and  from  other  emer- 
gencies in  the  United  States.  In  1916  the  Red 
Cross  remained  devoted  to  European  war  relief, 
to  some  extent  military,  but  chiefly  civil.  For 
this  purpose  it  received  during  the  year  about 
$700,000.  Important  relief  work  was  carried  on 
in  Serbia,  Lithuania,  Armenia,  and  Syria.  The 
department  of  military  relief  in  this  year  did 
most  efficient  service  in  the  establishment  of  base 
hospitals  and  in  rescuing  wounded  combatants. 
Important  progress  was  made  during  the  year 
in  the  organization  of  Rod  Cross  units  from  the 
staffs  of  physicians  and  nurses  in  civil  hospitals; 
21  base  hospitals  were  created  for  the  United 
States  Army,  and  four  others  were  authorized. 
There  was  created  on  June  1,  1916,  a  national 
committee  on  Red  Cross  medical  service,  com- 
posed of  47  distinguished  American  physicians 
and  surgeons.  With  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  War,  increased  concentration 
was  required  of  all  the  forces  of  administration 
and  relief;  and  the  entire  work  was  placed  on 
a  war  basis.  A  central  committee  was  formed 
in  1917,  with  William  Howard  Taft  as  chair- 
man. Many  important  changes  resulted.  The 
most  important  of  these  was  the  appointment 
of  a  War  Council  of  the  Red  Cross  by  President 
Wilson.  Of  this,  Henry  P.  Davison,  of  J.  P. 
Morgan  and  Company,  was  chairman.  The 
result  of  the  reorganization  was  to  broaden  the 
scope  of  the  American  National  Red  Cross  so  as 
to  include  the  United  States  and  the  Allies. 
Work  was  from  that  time  carried  on  in  two  im- 
portant divisions:  the  service -in  America  and 
that  in  Europe.  Immediately  after  the  organ- 
ization of  this  council,  a  campaign  was  under- 
taken to  raise  $100,000,000  for  the  use  of  the 
organization.  More  than  this  amount  was  soon 
pledged.  For  relief  work  in  foreign  countries 
about  $50,000,000  was  appropriated ;  for  work  in 
the  United  States,  about  $3,000,000.  The  mem- 
bership, which  was  about  5,000,000  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1917,  increased  to  approximately  22,000,- 
000  at  the  end  of  the  year.  By  1918  the  work 
of  the  Red  Cross  had  reached  a  high  point  of 
efficiency.  In  the  United  States,  canteens  and 
rest  stations  were  established  and  maintained 
at  700  railroad  and  embarkation  points,  at  a 
cost  of  nearly  $8,000,000.  Sanitary  conditions 
around  the  camps  were  improved,  and  emer- 
gency supply  hospitals  were  provided.  Fifty 
base  hospitals  were  organized,  of  which  49  were 


BSD  CBOSS 


1x09 


sent  to  Europe;  45  ambulance  companies,  with 
124  men  each,  were  turned  over  to  the  army; 
over  32,000  nurses  were  enrolled,  of  whom  over 
20,000  were  assigned  to  war  duty  with  the  army 
and  navy;  10,000  were  sent  overseas.  Sixty- 
three  homes  for  convalescent  soldiers  were  pro- 
vided. During  the  year  nearly  $40,000,000  was 
spent  in  France  alone,  of  which  $15,000,000  was 
spent  for  relief  of  soldiers,  and  the  remainder 
for  civilian  relief.  Eight  hospitals  for  Amer- 
ican soldiers  only  were  built,  equipped,  and  op- 
erated, besides  many  others  equipped  and  op- 
erated for  French  civilians.  Hospitals  were  also 
built  and  maintained  in  England,  Belgium,  and 
Italy.  In  Serbia,  50,000  destitute  persons  were 
supplied  with  food,  clothing,  and  medical  sup- 
plies. The  Red  Cross  was  obliged  to  leave  Rus- 
sia when  the  Bolshevists  obtained  control. 
Much  work  was  done  by  the  Rumanian  Commis- 
sion following  the  defeat  of  the  Rumanian  Army 
in  1918.  Nearly  $4,000,000  was  contributed  to 
the  American  committee  for  Armenian  and 
Syrian  relief,  and  a  commission  was  sent  to 
Palestine  with  four  medical  units.  Arrange- 
ments were  made  for  the  equipment  of  a  hospital 
in  that  country.  In  addition  to  its  war  work, 
the  Red  Cross  continued  to  give  regular  disaster 
relief  work  in  the  United  States,  China,  Guate- 
mala, and  elsewhere. 

With  the  conclusion  of  the  War,  great  read- 
justments were  necessary  in  the  administration 
of  the  society.  Various  foreign  commissions 
were  successively  closed  out,  and  in  May,  1919, 
a  committee  of  liquidation  began  to  make  re- 
ducing readjustments,  to  sell  off  supplies  no 
longer  needed  in  relief  operations.  Late  in 
1011)  there  were  still  1100  Red  Cross  workers  in 
Kuropc.  A  programme  formulated  for  work  in 
the  United  States  contemplated  the  establish- 
ment of  health  stations  in  communities  without 
adequate  facilities.  The  report  of  the  War 
Council  made  in  1919  disclosed  the  following 
record  of  its  activities.  The  contributions  re- 
ceived in  material  and  money  amounted  to  $400,- 
000,000;  its  members,  including  adults  and  chil- 
dren, 31,000,000;  Red  Cross  workers,  8,100,000; 
tons  of  relief  supplies  shipped  overseas,  101,000; 
foreign  countries  in  which  the  Red  Cross  op- 
erated, 25;  French  hospitals  given  material  aid, 
3780;  refugees  aided  in  France,  1,720,000. 
There  remained  at  the  beginning  of  1919 
a  balance  of  $127,000,000,  of  uhich  $41,- 
000,000  was  in  cash  and  $53,000,000  in  supplies. 
Relief  work  continued  to  be  carried  on  during 
the  year  in  Albania,  Belgium,  Czecho-Slovakia, 
Germany,  Italy,  North  Russia,  Poland,  Rumania, 
Serbia,  and  Siberia.  The  Red  Cross  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  formation  of  the  League  of 
Red  Cross  Societies,  which  with  headquarters 
at  Geneva  and  with  the  National  Red  Cross  or- 
ganizations of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  Italy,  and  Japan  as  founder  members, 
began  in  1919  a  world-wide  fight  for  the  preven- 
tion of  disease  and  the  promotion  of  health. 
The  work  of  the  Red  Cross  in  1920  was  devoted 
chiefly  to  two  major  undertakings,  the  com- 
plete fulfillment  of  its  obligations  to  the  vet- 
erans of  American  participation  in  the  Great 
War  and  to  their  families,  and  to  completion, 
as  far  as  possible,  of  relief  work  among  the 
war-exhausted  peoples  overseas.  To  the  men 
still  in  the  army  the  organization  continued 
to  furnish  recreation  and  assistance.  At  the 
end  of  the  fiscal  ^rear,  1920,  there  were  7,000,000 
instances  in  which  help  had  been  extended  to 


men  or  to  their  families  involving  the  expendi- 
ture of  $20,000,000.  Foreign  relief  work  was 
carried  on  during  1920  in  practically  all  the 
countries  in  which  it  operated  in  1919,  but  by 
the  end  of  the  year,  operations  were  confined  to 
Poland,  Serbia,  Montenegro,  Albania,  Turkey, 
and  southern  Russia.  Its  most  extensive  work 
was  carried  on  in  Poland,  where  it  did  efficient 
work  in  the  fight  against  typhus.  In  western 
Europe  and  the  Baltic  states,  the  distress  of 
over  300,000  civilian  poor  was  relieved.  During 
the  year  the  total  expenditure  for  relief  was 
about  $70,000,000.  During  1921  there  was  a 
marked  expansion  in  peace-time  activities  at 
home  and  a  contraction  in  foreign  fields.  There 
was  a  reduction  of  the  operating  divisions  from 
14  to  9.  Extensive  and  varied  assistance  was 
given  to  American  veterans  of  the  War  There 
was  increased  activity  in  public  health  and 
nursing  service,  and  effective  disaster  relief  was 
furnished  at  home  and  abroad.  In  foreign  coun- 
tries, there  was  a  concentration  of  effort  on 
child  welfare  work,  chiefly  medical  in  character. 
During  the  year  about  $25,000,000  was  ex- 
pended. Foreign  relief  work  was  carried  on  in 
Austria,  South  Russia,  Constantinople,  Poland, 
Italy,  Greece,  and  other  countries.  In  China, 
the  Red  Cross  spent  $1,200,000  for  relief  of 
famine  sufferers,  and  it  was  estimated  that  more 
than  600,000  people  were  thus  saved  from 
starvation.  In  the  United  States,  service  was 
rendered  to  more  than  25,000  disabled  war  vet- 
erans. In  1922  about  $12,500,000  was  expended. 
Of  this,  approximately  $2,000,000  was  for  as- 
sistance to  disabled  ex-service  men  and  women; 
$1,200,000  for  medical  and  hospital  supplies  for 
distribution  by  the  American  Relief  Administra- 
tion in  Russia;  $2,000,000  for  the  completion  of 
the  child  health  programme  in  Europe,  and 
$2,000,000  for  the  completion  and  liquidation 
of  general  relief  operations  abroad.  During  the 
year  assistance  was  given  in  72  disasters,  in- 
cluding floods,  fires,  epidemics,  and  railway  col- 
lisions. Work  was  carried  on  in  seven  foreign 
countries.  The  outstanding  emergency  opera- 
tion of  1923  was  the  relief  work  for  nearly 
900,000  refugees  in  Greece,  comprising  those 
who  had  been  driven  out  of  Asia  Minor.  This 
work  was  closed  on  June  30,  1923.  The  total 
amount  expended  was  over  $2,500,000.  The  Red 
Cross  took  a  most  important  part  in  contribut- 
ing relief  to  the  Japanese  earthquake  sufferers, 
in  September,  1923.  Within  two  weeks,  over 
$5,000,000  was  contributed,  and  10  shiploads  of 
supplies  were  forwarded  to  Japan.  Foreign  op- 
erations included  also  work  for  Russian  refugees 
in  and  around  Constantinople  and  refugees  from 
Siberia,  continued  aid  to  the  American  Relief 
Administration  to  Russia,  and  aid  to  earth- 
quake sufferers  in  Chile  and  Persia.  Work  for 
ex-service  men  continued  on  a  large  scale  during 
the  year  The  total  expenditures  for  the  fiscal 
year'  amounted  tc  $9,738,448.  Special  attention 
was  given  in  1923  to  work  in  widely  scattered 
rural  communities.  The  American  Junior  Red 
Cross,  composed  chiefly  of  pupils  in  schools, 
brought  in  nearly  5,000,000  members  in  1923. 
The  membership  of  the  adult  organization  was 
approximately  3,600,000.  Following  the  death 
of  President  Harding,  President  Coolidge  was 
elected  president  of  the  organization. 

BEDFIELD,  EOWABD  Wnxis  (1869-  ). 
An  American  painter  (see  VOL.  XIX).  He  won 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Carnegie  Institute  in 
1914,  was  on  the  jury  of  awards  of  the  Panama- 


xzxo 


Pacific  Exposition  in  1915,  and  won  the  first 
prize  of  the  Wilmington  (Del.)  Society  of  Fine 
Arts  in  1016,  the  Carnegie  prize  from  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Design  in  1918  and  1922, 
the  Altman  prize  from  the  National  Academy  of 
Design  in  1919,  and  the  Stotesbury  prize  from 
the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1920. 
One  of  his  latest  pictures,  "Sycamore  Hill/'  was 
in  Carnegie  Institute. 

REED,  JAMES  A.  (1861-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can legislator  (see  VOL.  XIX),  United  States 
Senator  from  Missouri.  He  was  first  elected 
for  the  term  beginning  Mar.  4,  1911,  and  was  re- 
elected  in  1916  and  again  in  1922.  He  opposed 
in  the  Senate  many  of  President  Wilson's 
policies,  including  the  League  of  Nations  and 
the  Versailles  Treaty,  and  Wilson  in  effect  repu- 
diated him  as  a  member  of  the  party.  He  was 
a  candidate  for  the  Democratic  nomination  for 
the  presidency  in  the  early  part  of  1924  but 
withdrew  following  his  defeat  in  the  Missouri 
primaries  in  March. 

REED  COLLEGE.  A  coeducational  insti- 
tution of  higher  learning  at  Portland,  Ore., 
founded  in  1911.  The  enrollment  increased 
from  280  in  1916  to  321  in  1923,  the  faculty 
during  the  same  period  from  21  to  32  members 
and  the  library  from  12,000  to  25,834  volumes. 
Various  changes  were  made  in  the  requirements 
for  admission,  and  the  curriculum  of  the  fresh- 
man and  sophomore  years  was  reorganized  in 
1921.  The  Anna -Mann  cottage  for  women  was 
built  in  1920  and  the  Commons-Union  was  com- 
pleted in  1923.  William  Trufant  Foster  re- 
signed from  the  presidency  in  1919,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Richard  Frederick  Scholz. 

REESE,  ALBERT  MOORE  (1872-  ).  An 
American  zoologist,  born  at  Lake  Roland,  Md., 
and  educated  at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
He  was  professor  of  biology  at  Allegheny  Col- 
lege (1901-02);  instructor  (1902-03)  and  as- 
sociate professor  (1903-07)  at  Syracuse  Uni- 
versity; and  professor  of  zoology  (1907-  ) 
at  the  University  of  West  Virginia.  He  pub- 
lished numerous  papers  on  the  habits  and  em- 
bryology of  the  American  alligator  and  Intro- 
duction to  Vertebrate  Embryology  (1910),  The 
Alligator  and  its  Allies  (1915),  Outline  of  Eco- 
nomic Zoology  (1919),  and  Wanderings  in  the 
Orient  (1019). 

REEVES,  IBA  Louis  (1872-  ).  An 
American  educator,  born  at  Jefferson  City,  Mo. 
He  studied  at  Purdue  University  in  1892.  From 
1891  to  1902  he  served  in  the  United  States 
Army,  and  was  retired  with  the  rank  of  captain 
on  account  of  wounds  received  in  action  in  the 
Philippines.  He  was  professor  of  military  sci- 
ence at  Purdue  University  and  the  University 
of  Vermont  until  1915,  when  he  was  appointed 
president  of  Norwich  University.  During  the 
War  he  served  on  the  Mexican  border  and  in 
France  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel  and  ad- 
jutant-general. Tie  served  as  a  member  of  the 
War  Claims  and  War  Credits  Board  in  Wash- 
ington in  1919,  and  then  became  president  of 
the  Reeves  Engineering  Company  of  Tulsa,  Okla. 
He  wrote  Bamboo  Tales  (1901)  ;  A  B  C  of  Rifle, 
Revolver,  and  Pistol  Hhooting,  and  Military 
Education  in  the  United  States. 

REFLEX.    See  ACTION;   ANIMAL  PSTCHOL- 

OOT. 

REFORMED  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH.  In- 
tense discussion  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  1873  culminated  in  the  withdrawal 
of  many  clergymen  and  laymen  under  the  lead- 


ership of  Bishop  David  Cummins,  and  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church. 
In  polity  and  doctrine  it  accords  with  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  except  that  it 
looks  upon  the  episcopacy  as  an  ancient  and 
desirable  form  of  church  government,  rather 
than  as  of  divine  right,  denies  that  Christian 
ministers  are  "priests,"  does  not  demand  the  re- 
ordination  of  clergymen  of  other  denominations 
who  enter  its  ranks,  does  not  organize  its  bish- 
ops in  a  separate  house  in  the  General  Conven- 
tion, and  denies  baptismal  regeneration.  The 
membership  of  the  denomination  increased  by 
27.5  per  cent,  from  10,800  in  1913  to  13,750  in 
1922,  the  number  of  churches  from  80  to  81,  and 
the  number  of  Sunday  school  pupils  from  9496 
in  1918  to  10,075  in  1922.  The  number  of  min- 
isters decreased  from  83  to  81.  Home  mission 
work  was  carried  on  throughout  the  period 
among  the  Negroes  of  the  South;  foreign  mis- 
sion work  in  India  comprised  eight  stations  with 
six  missionaries  and  20  native  helpers,  17  pri- 
mary schools,  two  hospitals  and  one  orphanage. 
The  denomination  supported  a  theological 
seminary  at  Philadelphia. 

REFUSE  DISPOSAL.  See  GABBAGE  AND 
REFUSE  DISPOSAL. 

REGIMENT.  See  ARMIES  AND  ARMY 
ORGANIZATION. 

REGISTRATION  OF  BIRTHS.  See  CHILD 
WELFARE. 

REGULAB  ABMY,  UNITED  STATES.  See 
ARMIES  AND  ARMY  ORGANIZATION. 

REID,  E.  EMMET  (1872-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can chemist,  born  at  Fincastle,  Va.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Richmond  College  and  at  Johns  Hop- 
kins. During  1898-1901  he  was  professor  of 
chemistry  at  the  College  of  Charleston,  S.  C., 
after  which  he  filled  a  similar  chair  at  Baylor 
University,  and  then  during  1908-11  he  was 
again  at  Johns  Hopkins,  for  research  work.  In 
1911  he  became  research  chemist  for  Colgate  and 
Company  but  in  1914  accepted  a  call  to  return 
as  associate  professor  of  chemistry  to  Johns 
Hopkins,  where  in  1916  he  became  professor  of 
organic  chemistry.  During  the  War  he  was  as- 
sociated in  gas  warfare  investigations  under  the 
Bureau  of  Mines  His  original  investigations 
were  almost  entirely  confined  to  organic  chem- 
istry and  relate  to  such  subjects  as  hydrolysis 
and  alcoholysifl  of  acid  amines;  thio  acids  and 
alcohols  and  their  ester  i  ft*  cat  ion ;  organic  sul- 
phur compounds;  and  organic  catalysis.  Be- 
sides many  papers  contributed  to  the  American 
Chemical  Journal  and  similar  publications,  he 
published  a  translation  of  Sabatier's  Catalysis 
in  Organic  Chemistry  (1021). 

EElMS.  See  WAR  IN  EUROPE,  Western 
Front. 

REINER,  FRITZ  (1888-  ).  A  Hunga- 
rian conductor,  born  at  Budapest.  He  studied 
under  Thomann  and  Kifcsler  at  the  LandesmuRik- 
akademie  there  and  in  1900  became  conductor  at 
the  Comic  Opera.  In  1910  he  was  first  conduc- 
tor at  the  La  n  death  eater  in  Laibach  and  in  the 
following  year  at  the  Volksoper  in  Budapest. 
His  appointment  as  principal  conductor  at  the 
Hofoper  in  Dresden,  as  Schuch's  successor 
(1914),  offered  him  the  opportunity  for  the  full 
development  of  his  exceptional  powers,  so  that 
in  a  short  time  he  wan  in  great  demand  as  a 
guest  conductor  and  appeared  also  in  Spain 
and  Italy.  In  1922  he  became  Ysaye's  succes- 
sor as  conductor  of  the  Cincinnati  Symphony 
Orchestra. 


M5INHABDT 


xzzz 


BELIEF  ADMINISTRATION 


REItfHABDT,  MAX  (1873-  ).  A  Ger- 
man theatrical  director  and  manager  (see  VOL. 
XIX).  In  1010  he  founded  the  Grosses  Schaus- 

g'elhaus,  a  theatre  as  large  as  the  New  York 
ippodrome,  specializing  in  impressionistic 
mass  effects.  As  a  master  of  the  new  stagecraft 
Reinhardt  toured  the  United  States  in  1023. 
He  presented  The  Miracle,  one  of  the  largest 
theatrical  pageant-spectacles  ever  produced,  -in 
New  York  City  under  Morris  Gest's  manage- 
ment 

BEISS,  ALBERT  (1870-  ).  A  German 
dramatic  tenor,  born  in  Berlin.  He  had  begun 
a  successful  career  as  an  actor  when  Pollini  dis- 
covered his  voice  and  persuaded  him  to  study 
for  the  operatic  stage.  He  made  his  dc"but  in 
Lortzing's  Zar  und  Zimmermann  at  the  Stadt- 
theater  in  Ktinigsberg  (1807).  He  then  sang 
at  Posen,  Wiesbaden,  and  Munich  In  1001-17 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
Company,  with  which  he  became  specially 
identified  with  the  roles  of  David  (Meifttcr- 
singcr)  and  Mime  (Siegfried).  Tie  also  created 
there  the  principal  tenor  parts  in  the  world 
premieres  of  Puccini's  Fanciulla  del  West 
(1010),  Humperdinek's  Konigskinder  (1010), 
Parker's  Mona  (1012),  Damroscli's  Cyrano  de 
Bercjerac  (1013),  De  Koven's  Canterbury  Pil- 
grims (1017),  and  in  the  American  premiere  of 
Smetana's  Bartered  Bride  (1000).  In  1010  ho 
organized  the  Society  of  American  Singers  for 
the  purpose  of  producing  in  English  the  more 
intimate  operas  which  lose  much  of  their  effec- 
tiveness in  a  large  auditorium.  He  staged  the 
American  premiere  of  Mozart's  Schauftpicl- 
direJJnr  (October  20)  during  its  first  season  in 
New  York ;  in  the  following  year  Pergolesi's  La 
Kerva  Padrona  (May  7),  Donizetti's  II  Campa- 
nello  di  Notte  (May  7),  and  Gounod's  Le  Doc- 
tntr  Miracle  (May  10)  had  their  American 
premieres.  He  resigned  in  1018  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  William  Hinahaw  (q.v.). 

HEJTJVENATION.     See     SECRETIONS,     IN- 

TKRNAL. 

RELATIVITY.  See  ASTRONOMY;  PHILOSO- 
PHY; PHYSICS. 

BELIEF  ADMINISTRATION,  AMERICAN. 
An  organ i/ation  built  up  by  Herbert  Hoover 
shortly  after  the  Armistice  as  an  agency  to  ad- 
minister American  relief  and  assistance  to  coun- 
tries in  Europe  devastated  and  impoverished  by 
the  War.  An  Act  of  Congress,  approved  Feb.  24, 
1010,  appropriated  $100,000,000  for  European 
relief  to  be  used  "as  a  revolving  fund  until 
.rune  30,  1010";  and  Piesident  Wilson  by  Ex- 
ecutive Order  (Feb.  24,  1010)  placed  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  furnishing,  transportation, 
distribution  and  administration  of  supplies  un- 
der this  Act  under  the  direction  of  Hoover  as 
director  general  of  the  American  Relief  Ad- 
ministration. In  this  capacity,  as  director  gen- 
eral of  relief  for  the  Allies  and  as  member  of 
the  Supreme  Economic  Council,  Hoover  coor- 
dinated the  inter-Allied  efforts  for  relief  and 
economic*  reconstruction.  The  object  of  the 
A.R.A.  was  to  assist  new  states  and  governments 
exhausted  by  war  to  help  themselves.  Food 
valued  approximately  at  $400,000,000  was  sup- 
plied to  these  countries  for  gold  or  negotiable 
securities.  For  additional  supplies  which  were 
necessary,  but  for  which  the  governments  con- 
cerned were  unable  at  the  time  to  pay  cash, 
the  American  government  accepted  obligations 
amounting  to  some  $300,000,000.  A  further 
$30,000,000  was  spent  by  the  A.R.A.  during  this 


period  for  the  relief  of  waif  and  undernourished 
children.  The  general  relief  operation  under  the 
Congressional  appropriation  was  completed  in 
the  autumn  of  1010,  but  the  care  of  children  in 
the  Baltic  and  central  European  states  was  con- 
tinued by  the  A.R.A.  Relief  measures  for  the 
year  1019-20,  organized  by  Hoover  and  adminis- 
tered by  the  A.R.A.,  amounted  to  more  than 
$100,000,000,  of  which  about  $50,000,000  came 
from  Congress.  American  supplies  began  to 
reach  Europe  in  great  quantities  early  in  1010 
and  were  distributed  by  representatives  of  the 
A.R.A.  in  Finland,  Esthonia,  Latvia,  Russia, 
Lithuania,  Poland,  Danzig,  Germany,  Czecho- 
slovakia, Austria,  Hungary,  Rumania,  Jugo- 
slavia, Armenia,  Georgia,  and  Bulgaria.  The 
A.R.A.  not  only  delivered  food  to  these  countries 
but  contributed  to  their  rehabilitation  through 
the  control  of  Hhipping,  railways,  arid  mines  in 
eastern  Europe,  the  Peace  Conference  having 
made  Hoover  the  mandatory  in  these  economic 
activities  in  the  territories  of  the  former  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire.  Supplementing  the  general 
relief  programme  was  a  programme  of  child  re- 
lief, in  liberated  and  enemy  countries,  earned 
out  under  the  A.IJ.A.  European  Children's  Fund. 
The  A.R.A.  also  cooperated  in  the  campaigns 
against  typhus  in  Poland  and  Rumania  and  es- 
tablished a  money  exchange  system  to  facilitate 
the  sending  of  aid  from  residents  in  America 
to  relatives  and  friends  in  Europe  from  whom 
they  had  been  cut  off  during  the  War.  An  ad- 
junct of  these  operations  was  the  food  draft 
system,  by  which  persons  in  America  and  else- 
where could  buy  drafts  in  favor  of  designated 
persons  in  cential  Europe  to  whom  the  A  R.A. 
delivered  a  specified  amount  of  food.  This  ar- 
rangement afforded  a  vast  amount  of  direct  rei- 
lief  that  otherwise  would  have  been  unavailable. 
Membeis  of  the  A.R.A.  contributed  to  recon- 
struction by  serving  as  technical  advisers  to  the 
new  governments  In  1020,  under  Hoover's 
leadership,  the  A.R.A.  joined  with  other  Ameri- 
can relief  agencies  in  a  national  appeal  for 
funds  for  the  support  of  European  children ;  this 
resulted  in  the  collection  of  $20,000,000.  The 
A.R.A.,  continuing  its  child-feeding  operations  in 
the  Baltic  and  central  European  states,  reached 
3,500,000  children  in  the  year  1020-21.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  children's  kitchens  and  the  food 
drafts,  the  A.R.A.  delivered  large  quantities  of 
clothing  to  the  needy  and  administered  specially 
contributed  funds  for  the  relief  of  students, 
teachers,  doctors,  and  other  members  of  the  pro- 
fessional and  salaried  classes,  whose  suffering 
was  particularly  acute  because  of  economic  con- 
ditions. On  its  withdrawal  from  these  countries 
in  1021-22  the  A.R.A.  left  in  operation  efficient 
child  welfare  organizations  established  in  the. 
course  of  its  work.  In  1021  the  A.R.A.  an- 
swered the  appeal  of  the  Russian  Soviet  govern- 
ment to  give  aid  in  the  famine,  which,  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  drought  and  the  economic  demoraliz- 
ation of  the  country,  threatened  to  bring  death 
to  millions  through  starvation  or  disease.  On 
the  basis  of  an  agreement  with  the  Soviet  gov- 
ernment, made  at  Riga,  Aug.  20,  1921,  the 
A.R.A.  began  with  a  programme  for  1,000,000 
children,  which  it  rapidly  expanded  as  funds  be- 
came  available  until  it  reached  its  peak  in  Au- 
gust, 1022,  when  nearly  11,000.000  children  and 
adults  were  receiving  a  daily  ration  from  the 
A.R.A.  Side  by  side  with  the  feeding  opera- 
tions, tjie  A.R.A.  conducted  a  food  and  clothing 
remittance  system,  similar  to  the  food  drafts 


KETJTBF  IN  BELGIUM 


xxza 


BELIQIOTTS  CONTROVERSIES 


for  central  Europe;  it  carried  out  a  vast  medi- 
cal relief  programme,  which  included  the  re- 
habilitation of  15,000  hospitals  and  institutions, 
the  vaccination  and  inoculation  of  7,000,000  per- 
sons, and  a  general  campaign  of  sanitation  in 
the  principal  cities  and  towns  of  Russia  The 
A.R.A.  in  Russia,  \\hich  operated  some  20,000 
feeding  stations,  consisted  of  ,an  American  staff 
of  200  with  a  Russian  organization  of  120,000 
workers.  The  funds  for  the  Russian  relief  to- 
taled approximately  $65,000,000,  of  which  $24,- 
000,000  came  from  an  appropriation  by  the 
United  States  Congress,  $12,000000  from  the 
Russian  Soviet  government,  $3,600,000  from  the 
American  Red  Cross,  $4,000,000  from  the  Jew- 
ish Joint  Distribution  Committee,  and  the  re- 
mainder from  gifts  made  directly  to  the  A.R.A. 
or  to  other  relief  organizations  cooperating  in 
this  enterprise.  The  arrival  of  American  sup- 
plies in  Russia  checked  the  famine  in  the  early 
summer  of  1922,  and  by  the  autumn  of  that 
year  the  food  situation  had  sufficiently  improved 
to  permit  the  discontinuance  of  adult  relief. 
The  A.R.A.  continued,  however,  during  the  fol- 
lowing winter,  spring,  and  summer,  to  care  for 
Russian  children  and  to  deliver  medical  relief. 
New  funds  permitted  a  special  programme  of  aid 
to  teachers  in  the  secondary  schools  and  other 
institutions;  this  saved  many  lives  and  kept 
open  a  great  number  of  schools.  Withdrawing 
from  Russia  in  July,  1923,  the  A.R.A.  left  sup- 
plies sufficient  for  the  continuance  of  its  pro- 
gramme until  the  harvest  of  that  year.  All 
Euiopean  offices  of  the  American  Relief  Admin- 
istration were  closed  and  all  personnel  with- 
drawn in  the  autumn  of  1023  The  totals  of 
supplies  handled  from  all  quarters  exceeded  $1,- 
000,000,000;  relief  was  provided,  one  time  or 
another,  to  more  than  200,000,000  persons,  be- 
sides direct  service  to  more  than  11,000,000 
orphan  and  destitute  children. 

Officers  of  the  American  Relief  Administra- 
tion at  the  end  of  its  European  operations 
were:  Herbert  Hoover,  chairman;  Julius  H. 
Barnes,  vice  chairman ;  Edgar  Rickard,  director 
general;  Edward  AJ.  Flesh,  comptroller;  dates 
W.  McGarrah,  treasurer;  George  Barr  Raker, 
director  of  State  organizations;  Walter  Lyman 
Brown,  director  for  Europe;  Col.  William  N. 
Haskell,  director  in  Russia 

BELIEF  IN  BELGIUM,  COMMISSION  FOB. 
See  BELGIUM. 

RELIGION,      PRIMITIVE.     See      ETHNOLOGY. 

BELIGIOTJS  CONTROVERSIES.  The  dec- 
ade 1014-24,  especially  in  its  later  years  follow- 
ing the  War,  was  marked  by  a  remarkable 
revival  of  religious  controversies  in  several  of 
the  larger  Protestant  denominations.  Those 
^chiefly  affected  were  the  Baptist,  Methodist, 
Presbyterian,  and  Protestant  Episcopal.  In  the 
main,  these  dissensions  centred  about  the  old 
differences  between  liberal  and  conservative  in- 
terpretations of  the  Scriptures  and  creeds. 
They  correspond  to  a  large  extent  to  the  struggle 
against  Modernism  which  for  many  years  was 
carried  on  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  In 
connection  with  them  there  emerged  a  new  term, 
Fundamentalism.  Although  this  was  applied 
especially  to  the  controversy  between  the  Liberal 
and  Conservative  elements  in  the  Baptist  de- 
nomination, it  also  described  essentially  the 
character  of  the  disagreements  in  the  other  de- 
nominations. Fundamentalism  is  defined  by  one 
of  its  adherents  as  "merely  an  uprising  of  ortho- 
dox super-naturalism  against  modern  natural- 


ism/1 Those  opposed  to  Fundamentalism  de- 
scribe it  as  a  movement  among  ultraconserva- 
tives  to  keep  religion  in  the  bonds  of  super- 
naturalism. 

It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  conditions 
which  followed  the  War  were  largely  responsible 
for  the  revival  and  development  of  this  struggle 
between  the  liberal  and  conservative  wings. 
Fundamentalism,  however,  is  more  than  a  reac- 
tion. It  is  the  culminating  point  of  a  tendency 
which  has  been  gathering  strength  for  at  least 
30  years.  The  controversy  in  its  widest  sense 
turns  on  the  \iew  held  in  regard  to  the  Scrip- 
tures. The  Fundamentalists  or  conservatives 
assume  an  inerrant  Bible,  literally  inspired  and 
authoritative  throughout,  and  they  view  as  in- 
imical to  Christian  doctrines  any  theory  or 
interpretation  which  contradicts  the  literal 
interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  Thus  they 
come  into  conflict  with  the  doctrine  of  evolution 
or  Darwinism,  and  strong  attacks  were  delivered, 
not  only  in  the  pulpit,  but  in  the  schools,  against 
the  teaching  of  the  theory  of  evolution.  Indeed, 
in  several  States  in  1022  and  1023,  the  Legisla- 
tures adopted  resolutions  prohibiting  the  teach- 
ing of  evolution  in  the  school  systems.  Among 
the  most  ardent  opponents  of  the  evolution 
theory  was  W.  J  Bryan,  who  devoted  much  of 
his  time  to  attacking  the  doctrine  on  the  plat- 
form and  elsewhere 

In  the  Baptist  denomination,  where  the  con- 
troversy was  especially  fierce,  it  was  estimated 
by  Dr.  Shailer  MathewH  of  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago in  11)23  that  the  Fundamentalists  in  that 
year  controlled  about  one-fourth  of  the  evan- 
gelical churches  in  the  East,  about  half  the 
evangelical  churches  in  the  Middle  West  and 
South,  and  about  throe-fourths  of  the  evangelical 
churches  in  the  Far  West.  The  Fundamentalists 
themselves  claimed  in  that  year  to  control  ninc- 
tenths  of  the  laity  of  the  churches.  In  the 
Presbyterian  denomination  the  struggle  took  on 
great  intensity  from  1022  to  1024.  The  Pres- 
byterian, an  important  church  organ,  declared 
that  "Rationalism  and  Evangelic-ism  aie  antago- 
nists that  can  never  be  reconciled;  it  is  vain  to 
try  to  plaster  up  a  union  between  them."  Pro- 
fessor Machen  of  the  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary  stated  that  "modern  Liberalism  is  not 
only  a  different  religion  from  Christianity  but 
belongs  to  a  totally  different  group  of  religions." 
In  New  York  City  a  particularly  bitter  contro- 
versy arose  o\er  the  preaching  of  Dr.  Harry 
Kmerson  Fosdick,  p.  Baptist  clergyman,  at  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church.  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  ad \ocates  of  Liberalism,  and  efforts  were 
made  at  various  times  to  prevent  his  occupying 
a  Presbyterian  pulpit. 

In  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  the  con- 
troversy turned  on  the  interpretation  of  certain 
doctrines,  especially  the  virgin  birth  and  tho 
bodily  resurrection  of  Christ.  In  November, 
1923,  at  a  special  session  of  the  bishops  of  the 
church  held  in  Dallas,  Texas,  a  pastoial  letter 
was  drafted  in  which  the  declaration  was  made 
that  to  deny  or  to  suggest  errors  as  to  the  facts 
stated  in  the  Apostles'  Creed  was  irreconcilable 
with  oaths  taken  by  ministers  of  the  church,  and 
that  objections  to  the  virgin  birth  and  the  bodily 
resurrection  are  contrary  to  the  best  traditions 
and  that  these  doctrines  are  abundantly  proved 
by  scholarship.  This  letter  was  appointed  to  be 
read  in  all  the  churches.  It  at  once  aroused 
opposition  and  hostility  among  the  advocates  of 
liberalism.  Dr.  Leigh  ton  Parks,  rector  of  St. 


EELIQIOUS 


Bartholomew's  Clmrch  in  New  York  City,  after 
reading  the  letter  in  compliance  with  the  direc- 
tion of  the  bishops,  removed  his  robes  and  at- 
tacked their  action  as  cowardly  and  unjustified. 
Bishop  Lawrence  of  Massachusetts  also  strongly 
dissented,  and  so  did  other  prominent  clergymen 
throughout  the  country.  The  Rev.  Lee  W. 
Beaton,  rector  of  a  church  in  Fort  Worth, 
Texas,  who  denied  the  virgin  birth  and  other 
doctrines,  was  threatened  with  trial  for  heresy. 

One  of  the  most  notable  controversies  was  that 
between  Bishop  Manning  of  New  York  arid  Dr. 
Percy  Stickney  Grant,  rector  of  the  Church  of 
the  Ascension.  Dr.  Grant  had  for  many  years 
preached  Liberalism  and  had  several  times  been 
reproved  by  the  bishop,  not  only  for  his  preach- 
ing such  doctrines,  but  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
so-called  Forum  in  his  church,  in  \\hich  oppor- 
tunity was  given  persons  of  all  beliefs  and  theo- 
ries to  explain  and  advocate  their  causes.  Dr. 
Grant,  early  in  1024,  specifically  afl'mned  his 
disbelief  in  the  virgin  birth  and  other  doctrines. 
For  this  ho  was  called  to  account  by  Bishop 
Manning,  and  letters  were  exchanged  between 
them.  Later  he  resigned  on  the  giound  of  ill 
health. 

At  the  annual  conventions  of  the  various 
denominations  held  in  1024,  Fundamental  ism 
as  against  Liberalism  was  an  issue.  At  the 
Northern  Baptists'  Convention  held  in  Mil- 
waukee in  June,  the  Fundamentalists  weie  well 
in  control.  At  tho  annual  assembly  of  the 
Piesbyterian  Church  of  the  United  'states  at 
Grand  Kapids  in  the  same  month,  the  Funda- 
mentalists were  in  the  majority  and  elected  W. 
»J  Bryan  vice  moderator  Dr  William  P.  Mer- 
rill, pastor  of  the  Buck  Presbyterian  Church  in 
New  Yoik  City,  one  of  the  leading  Liberal 
clergymen,  was  removed  from  the  Foreign  Mis- 
hions  Board.  Dr.  Fosdick  was  lequested  to  join 
tho  Presbyterian  Chinch  "if  lie  can  adopt  the 
doctrinal  standards  of  our  church  as  contained 
in  the  Westminster  Confession."  The  Liberals, 
hov\ever,  gained  a  \ictory  in  defeating  a  proposal 
to  pass  live  points  of  doctiine  which  would  have 
bound  all  Presbyterian  clergymen  to  literal  in- 
terpretation of  certain  Bible  passages.  At  tho 
Quadrennial  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Cliuich,  held  in  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  May, 
1024,  an  attempt  to  pass  a  so-called  Declaration 
of  Faith  presented  by  Fundamentalists  was  de- 
feated Fundamentalism,  however,  was  approved 
by  the  delegates.  In  the  opinion  of  many  lead- 
ers on  both  sides,  the  controversy  was  likely  to 
lead  to  the  formation  of  a  new  denomination  in 
which  members  of  older  denominations  who  ad- 
vocate liberal  beliefs  and  freedom  from  literal 
interpretation  of  the  Scriptures  will  be  obliged 
to  take  refuge. 

RELIGIOUS  DENOMINATIONS.  See 
articles  on  the  respective  denominations. 

BEMINGTON,  WILLIAM  PBOCTOR  (1879- 
).  An  American  bishop,  born  at  Phila- 
delphia, and  educated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Theological  Seminary  of 
Virginia  He  was  ordained  to  the  priestliood 
in  the  following  year  and  was  a  curate  and 
rector  of  several  churches  in  Philadelphia  until 
1911,  when  he  became  rector  of  St.  Paul's 
Church,  Minneapolis,  Minn.  In  1018  he  was 
consecrated  suffragan  bishop  of  South  Dakota 
and  served  as  chaplain  in  the  War.  He  was  an 
official  and  trustee  of  several  church  societies. 
RENSSELAER  POLYTECHNIC  INSTI- 
TUTE. A  school  of  engineering  and  science, 


IH3 


REPARATIONS 


at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  established  in  1824,  offering 
graduate  and  undergraduate  courses  in  civil, 
mechanical,  electrical  and  chemical  engineering 
and  in  general  science.  The  institute  expanded 
during  the  decade  between  1914  and  1923-24 
both  in  numbers  and  equipment.  The  registra- 
tion in  1923-24  was  1140,  compared  with  040 
in  1914;  the  faculty  numbered  94  as  compared 
with  63  in  the  earlier  year;  and  the  productive 
funds  increased  from  $1,330,000  to  $2,830,000. 
In  1922,  a  great  radio  broadcasting  station  was 
established  which  claimed  the  record  for  long 
distance,  transmission  from  it  having  been  heard 
for  a  distance  of  10,000  miles.  A  gauging  sta- 
tion to  be  used  by  the  students  under  tlie  direc- 
tion of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  was 
established  in  1923.  During  the  10  years  the 
number  of  endowed  scholarships  carrying  free 
tuition  was  increased  by  four,  and  10*  new  fel- 
lowships for  graduate  students,  each  of  a  value 
of  $750  a  year,  were  created.  In  1014,  the  total 
property  of  the  school  was  valued  at  $2,850,000 
and  in  1924  the  value  was  more  than  $0,000,000. 
President,  Palmer  C.  Ricketts,  E.D.,  LL.D. 

RENT  LAWS.  See  LAW,  PROGRESS  OF  THE; 
HOUSING 

REORGANIZED  CHURCH  OF  JESUS 
CHRIST  OF  LATTER  DAY  SAINTS.  This 
is  the  smaller  of  the  two  bodies  known  as  Latter 
Day  Saints,  bearing  the  distinctive  term  "1'e- 
organized"  as  part  of  its  church  title.  It  was 
founded  in  Wisconsin  in  1852  in  succession  to 
the  original  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter 
Day  Saints  established  at  Fayctte,  New  York 
in  1830  by  Joseph  Smith.  The  Reorganized 
Church  is  identical  in  faith  and  principles  with 
the  original  church,  but,  unlike  the  other  or- 
ganization, has  always  repudiated  plural  mar- 
riage. Its  membership  increased  from  73,899  in 
1915  to  95,3(55  in  1923;  the  number  of  ministers 
increased  to  (5136;  and  the  number  of  Sunday 
Schools  from  637  to  875,  and  pupils  from  33,- 
062  to  60,376.  The  denomination  maintains 
Graceland  College  at  Lamoni,  Iowa,  and  the  In- 
dependence Institute  of  Arts  and  Science  at  In- 
dependence, Mo.,  and  publishes  several  pe- 
riodicals. 

REPARATIONS.  The  subject  of  reparation 
by  Germany  and  her  confederates  for  damages 
done  to  the  Allied  countries  during  the  War  con- 
stituted one  of  the  most  difficult  and  com- 
plicated of  the  multifarious  problems  considered 
at  the  Peace  Conference  of  Palis  m  1919.  Only 
tentatively  and  unsatisfactorily  dealt  with  at 
that  time,  it  subsequently  remained  the  key 
factor  in  the  economic  rehabilitation  of  Europe 
and  a  perennially  potent  menace  to  interna- 
tional peace  and  security.  Inveterate  interna- 
tional practice  had  consecrated  the  right  of  the 
victor  to  recover,  if  possible,  the  costs  of  war 
from  his  defeated  enemy;  the  classic  example 
of  an  indemnity  was  the  $1,000,000,000  penalty 
imposed  by  the  German  allies  on  France  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War  (1870- 
71).  Vac  victis!  The  first  formal  though  se- 
cret reference  known  to  have  been  made  to  this 
subject  by  the  Allied  governments  during  tL<\ 
War  was  in  the  Treaty  of  London  (Apr.  23, 
1915),  which  promised  Italy,  besides  many 
other  things,  "a  share  of  the  war  indemnity. 
In  their  pronouncement  of  Dec.  30,  1916,  the 
Allied  governments  asserted:  "The  disasters 
caused  by  the  German  declaration  of  war  and 
the  innumerable  outrages  committed  by  Ger- 
many and  her  allies  against  both  belligerents 


REPARATIONS 


x«4 


REPAJtATIONB 


and  neutrals,  demand  penalties,  reparation,  and 
guarantees  "  In  their  note  to  President  Wilson, 
Jan.  10,  1917,  they  explained  that  their  war- 
aims,  "with  all  the  compensation  and  equitable 
indemnities  for  harm  suffered,"  would  only  be 
set  out  in  detail  when  the  time  came  for  actual 
negotiations,  although  they  avowedly  included 
"necessarily  and  first  of  all,  the  restoration  of 
Belgium,  Serbia,  and  Montenegro,  with  the  com- 
pensation due  to  them,"  and  the  "evacuation  of 
the  invaded  territories  in  France,  in  Russia, 
and  in  Rumania,  with  just  reparation."  In  his 
war-aims  address  of  Jan.  5,  1018,  Lloyd  George 
reiterated  these  objects,  declaring  that  the  Brit- 
ish government  and  the  Allies  demanded  the 
"complete  restoration  ...  of  the  independence 
of  Belgium  and  such  reparations  as  can  be  made 
for^  the  devastation  of  its  towns  and  provinces. 
This  is  no  demand  for  war  indemnity  as  Was 
imposed  on  France  by  Germany  in  1871.  It  is 
not  an  attempt  to  shift  the  cost  of  warlike  op- 
erations from  one  'belligerent  to  another,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  defensible.  .  .  .  Next  comes 
the  restoration  of  Serbia,  Montenegro,  and  the 
occupied  parts  of  France,  Italy,  and  Rumania. 
.  .  .  Finally  there  must  be  reparation  for  in- 
juries done  in  violation  of  international  laws " 
This  clear-cut  pronouncement,  so  remarkable 
in  the  light  of  the  speaker's  subsequent  vagaries, 
promptly  elicited  (January  6)  a  telegram  from 
Premier*  Clemenceau  congratulating  him  for  hav- 
ing so  felicitously  summarized  "the  actual 
truths."  The  same  specific  aims  were  later  in- 
corporated by  President  Wilson  in  his  famous 
"Fourteen  Points"  address  of  Jan.  8,  1918 
(Points  7,  8,  and  11).  The  President,  however, 
made  no  reference  to  indemnities  for  war  costs, 
and  his  conception  of  reparations  for  damage 
done,  as  therein  expressed,  was  distinctly  lim- 
ited in  scope.  Indeed,  in  his  "Four  Principles" 
address  of  Feb.  11,  1918,  Wilson  categorically 
asserted:  "There  shall  be  no  annexations,  no 
contributions,  no  punitive  damages"  On  Dec. 
4,  1917,  he  had  explained  to  Congress  that  "the 
wrongs,  the  very  deep  wrongs,  committed  in  this 
war,  will  have  to  be  righted.  .  .  .  But  they^  can- 
not and  must  not  be  righted  by  the  commission 
of  similar  wrongs  against  Germany  and  her 
allies "  This  principle  and  purpose  he  reiter- 
ated on  Sept  27,  1918,  in  the  much-quoted 
sentence  that  "the  impartial  justice  meted  out 
must  involve  no  discrimination  between  those 
to  whom  we  wish  to  be  just  and  those  to  whom 
we  do  not  wish  to  be  just."  The  Armistice 
terminating  the  War  was  avowedly  predicated 
on  the  acceptance  both  by  the  Entente  Powers 
and  by  Germany  of  the  principles  enunciated  by 
Wilson  in  his  successive  addresses  of  1918.  The 
Peace  Conference  was  to  discuss  the  practical 
details  of  their  application.  To  be  sure,  one  of 
the  reservations  made  by  the  Supreme  Council 
(Nov  4,  1918)  was  to  the  effect  that  provision 
for  the  evacuation  and  restoration  of  all  in- 
vaded territories  expressly  implied  that  com- 
pensation would  be  made  by  Germany  "for  all 
damage  due  to  the  civilian  population  of  the 
Allies  and  their  property  by  the  aggression  of 
Germany  by  land,  by  sea,  and  from  the  air," 
but  the  exact  force  and  extent  of  the  obliga- 
tions created  by  these  conversations  were  ren- 
dered lamentably  obscure  by  a  qualifying  clause 
in  Article  19  of  the  Armistice  Convention  itself, 
stipulating  that  subsequent  financial  concessions 
and  claims  by  the  Allies  and  the  United  States 
should  remain  unaffected.  Around  the  inter- 


pretation of  these  conditions  a  diplomatic  and 
legal  battle  was  destined  to  rage. 

With  the  emotional  reaction  of  the  post- 
Armistice  period  came  a  significant  realignment 
of  facts  and  forces.  As  the  extent  of  Germany's 
collapse  came  to  be  known,  greater  demands 
were  made  for  her  condign  punishment.  In 
the  parliamentary  election  of  Dec.  14,  1918,  in 
Great  Britain,  Lloyd  George's  coalition  govern- 
ment catered  to  the  popular  demand  for  a  re- 
tributive peace  by  promising  to  recover  the 
whole  cost  of  the  War,  "shilling  for  shilling" 
and  "ton  for  ton."  Lord  Cunliffe,  ex-Governor 
of  the  Bank  of  England,  estimated  Germany's 
liability  to  pay  as  aggregating  the  stupendous 
sum  of  $100,000,000,000,  a  total  which  the 
Premier  shortly  afterward  augmented  to  $120,- 
000,000,000.  In  France,  the  Clemenceau  cabinet 
and  the  overwhelming  majority  of  the  French 
people  were  formulating  equally  extreme  de- 
mands. The  imposition  of  taxes  was  postponed 
in  response  to  popular  claims,  and  by  skillful 
propaganda  the  masses  were  convinced  that 
Germany  could,  should,  and  would  be  made  to 
pay  the  full  costs  of  the  War.  On  Jan.  25, 
1919,  at  the  second  plenary  session  of  the  Peace 
Conference,  a  commission  was  appointed  to  ex- 
amine and  report,  first,  on  the  amount  which 
the  enemy  countries  ought  to  pay  by  way  of 
reparation;  secondly,  on  what  they  were  capa- 
ble of  paying;  and  thirdly,  on  the  method,  form, 
and  time  in  which  payment  should  be  made 
Two  main  controversies  marked  the  discussions 
of  the  ensuing  months:  (1)  that  over  permis- 
sible categories  of  damage;  and  (2)  that  over 
Germany's  real  or  alleged  capacity  to  pay.  Of 
the  31  categories  suggested  to  the  Commission, 
10  were  ultimately  incorporated  in  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles.  It  was  universally  agreed  that 
direct  damage  to  persons  or  property  should  be 
compensated,  and  certain  other  claims  occas- 
sioned  little  conflict,  but  not  so  with  war-costs. 

Mr.  Hughes  and  Lord  Sumner  of  the  British 
delegation  bluntly  argued  that  since  ultimately 
all  war  costs  had  to  be  met  by  general  taxa- 
tion, they  constituted  damage  done  to  civilian 
populations  in  the  Allied  countries  and  might 
therefore  be  legitimately  included  in  the  repara- 
tions bill  This  view  received  the  keen  support 
of  the  French,  whose  interest  in  reparations  was 
subordinate  only  to  their  primary  considera- 
tion of  security.  (See  PEACE  CONFERENCE  AND 
TREATIES.)  So  fearful  were  they  of  a  German 
revival,  so  completely  exasperated  and  antag- 
onized by  the  systematic  and  intentional  de- 
struction of  their  industrial  regions,  that  they 
proved  even  more  anxious  than  the  British  to 
cripple  Germany  economically.  Consequently 
they  favored  assessing  the  entire  cost  of  the 
War  on  the  vanquished  foe  despite  the  fact  that 
although  the  absolute  amount  of  their  claim 
might  be  substantially  increased  thereby,  their 
relative  share  in  the  total  receipts  would  nev- 
ertheless be  greatly  diminished.  The  Bel- 
gians, anxious  for  complete  indemnification  and 
priority  of  payment,  expressed  serious  concern 
lest  the  extension  of  Allied  claims  far  beyond 
the  finite  capacity  of  Germany  to  pay  would 
eventually  deprive  Belgium  of  her  due.  The 
Americans,  renouncing  any  claims  for  them- 
selves, attacked  the  inclusion  of  war-costs  as 
violating  pre-Armistice  pledges.  The  dispute 
was  referred  to  the  Supreme  Council  on  March 
1,  and  the  refusal  of  the  American  experts  to 
accede  to  the  British  and  French  demand  was 


REPARATIONS 


1115 


BEPABATIONS 


subsequently  upheld  by  President  Wilson,  who 
denounced  the  course  contemplated  and  declared 
that  he  would  "dissent  publicly,  if  necessary, 
not  on  the  ground  of  the  intrinsic  injustice  of 
it,  but  on  the  ground  that  it  is  clearly  incon- 
sistent with  what  we  deliberately  led  the  enemy 
to  expect  and  cannot  now  honorably  alter  simply 
because  we  have  the  power." 

This  rejection  of  their  original  demand  im- 
pelled the  British  and  French  to  insist  on  the 
inclusion  of  pensions  and  separation  allowances, 
which  would  serve  the  purpose  not  only  of  mak- 
ing the  total  payment  to  be  demanded  of  Ger- 
many relatively  enormous,  but  also  of  appeasing 
the  British  demand  for  a  more  equitable  remu- 
neration than  the  Empire  would  receive  on  the 
basis  of  reparations  for  damages  alone  The 
Americans  vigorously  combated  this  new  pro- 
posal, which  in  some  measure  vitiated  their 
victory  in  the  war-costs  controversy;  but  the 
necessity  for  compromise  following  the  bitter 
crisis  with  the  French  in  early  April  (see 
PEACE  CONFERENCE  AND  TREATIES)  in  combina- 
tion with  some  rather  illogical  and  sentimental 
arguments  advanced  (Mar.  31,  1919)  by  "the 
ordinarily  liberal-minded"  General  Smuts  of 
South  Africa  finally  convinced  Wilson  of  the 
advisability  of  including  pensions  and  repara- 
tions allowances,  thereby  more  than  doubling  the 
reparations  bill.  The  German  delegation  in  its 
Comments  on  the  Conditions  of  Peace,  of  May 
29,  1919,  expressed  complete  inability  to  recog- 
m?e  these  claims  as  having  "a  legal  title,  as 
they  apply  to  direct  war-costs  and  riot  to  dam- 
ages done  to  the  civilian  population  by  an  act 
of  war";  and  in  this  contention  impartial  legal 
opinion  must  sustain  them. 

Equally  keen  was  the  struggle  waged  from 
January  to  June  over  the  question  of  Germany's 
capacity  to  pay.  The  French  proposals  were 
fantastic,  the  most  extreme  calling  for  a  total 
of  $200,000,000,000  to  l>e  collected  in  some  50 
annual  installments.  British  suggestions  ranged 
from  the  Lloyd  George-Cunliffe  estimate  of  $120,- 
000,000,000  to  the  Liberal  Keynes's  approximate 
$10,000,000,000  The  Americans,  vitally  inter- 
ested in  the  speedy  reestablishment  of  normal 
economic  relations,  labored  indefatigably  for  the 
stipulation  of  a  definite  and  moderate  total  sum, 
for  they  were  of  the  opinion  that  any  reasonable 
though  arbitrary  fixation  would  be  greatly  pref- 
erable to  the  uncertainty  and  consequent  dis- 
organization of  Germany  *s  credit  sure  to  result 
from  postponement,  and  they  argued  that 
France,  the  greatest  creditor  of  Germany, 
"would  benefit  most  by  taking  everything  that 
she  possibly  could,  by  taking  it  quickly  and  writ- 
ing off  the  balance."  Their  extreme  proposal 
was  for  a  capital  sum  of  $58,000,000,000  to  be 
paid  in  30  years,  but  the  basic  figure  which  they 
later  consistently  advocated  was  a  total  of  $25,- 
000,000,000.  Both  the  British  and  French 
premiers  feared  to  accept  the  moderate  propos- 
als of  the  Americans  because  they  fell  so  far  be- 
low the  expectations  of  their  respective  peoples 
Indeed  at  one  juncture  the  seeming  acquiescence 
of  Lloyd  George  in  plans  for  a  reasonable  set- 
tlement evoked  a  telegram  from  370  members 
of  the  newly-elected  "khaki"  Parliament,  warn- 
ing him  that  they  expected  the  fulfillment  of  his 
electoral  pledges.  Had  the  Americans  offered 
to  cancel  outright  or  to  abate  appreciably  the 
enormous  indebtedness  of  the  Allies  to  the 
United  States  as  the  "essential  American  con- 
tribution toward  a  new  cooperative  plan  for 


restoring  Europe  and  the  world,"  they  would 
ipso  facto  have  enjoyed  a  "powerful  trading 
weapon  in  securing  the  settlements  they  desired." 
This,  however,  they  consistently  refused  to  do, 
asseverating  that  these  debts  "had  nothing  to  do 
with  reparations  or  rehabilitation."  A  special 
committee  of  liberal-minded  experts,  British, 
French,  and  American,  appointed  in  March  to 
investigate  the  matter,  concluded  that  "Ger- 
many might  possibly  pay  from  $10,000,000,000 
to  $20,000,000,000  over  a  period  of  20  to  30 
years."  This  sound  conclusion  was  wholly  un- 
acceptable to  the  more  conservative  advisers 
and  plenipotentiaries  The  committee  then 
sought  to  attain  the  definition  of  a  flexible  sum, 
"adjustable  as  to  amount  and  means  of  pay- 
ment, within  certain  maximum  and  minimum 
limits."  For  the  execution  of  this  scheme  they 
proposed  a  Reparation  Commission  endowed 
with  rather  large  powers  and  capable  of  becom- 
ing an  instrument  of  "wisdom  arid  justice." 
The  French,  seeing  a  chance  to  postpone  the  fix- 
ing of  a  definite  sum  of  reparations  and  there- 
by to  keep  Geimany  uncertain  and  to  avoid  do- 
mestic disillusion,  jumped  at  the  suggestion  and 
advocated  a  commission,  but  one  empowered  to 
register  the  claims  of  the  various  countries  un- 
der the  different  legitimate  categories  and  to 
settle  the  figure  of  the  annuities  and  the  period 
of  payment  "The  only  consideration  given  to 
Germany's  capacity  to  make  payments  would 
be  in  the  form  of  lengthening  the  period  given 
her  to  complete  them — which,  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  interest  on  the  unpaid  poition,  might  be 
extended  to  infinity.  It  practically  amounted 
to  a  perpetual  economic  control  of  Germany  by 
an  Allied  Commission/' 

The  whole  question  came  to  a  crisis  late  in 
March.  President  Wilson  and  his  advisers 
fought  the  French  proposition  bitterly.  Lloyd 
Geoige,  guided  by  the  dictates  of  expediency 
alone,  agreed  now  with  one  side,  then  with  the 
other.  Unfortunately  the  definitive  decision  was 
made  by  the  Council  of  Four  during  President 
Wilson's  illness.  His  colleague  Colonel  House, 
representing  the  United  States,  in  a  too  con- 
ciliatoiy  spirit  \ielded  to  the  threats  and  im- 
portunities of  Clemenccau  (Apr.  7,  1919).  The 
problem  of  reparations  affected  not  merely  Ger- 
many, but  the  other  Central  Poweis  as  well.  In 
theii  respective  treaties  Germany,  Austria,  and 
H iingai y  accepted  the  responsibility  for  caus- 
ing "all  the  loss  and  damage"  to  which  the  Al- 
lied and  Associated  Powers  were  subjected;  and 
they  weie  made  jointly  and  severally  liable  for 
the  whole  amount.  Bulgaria,  on  the  other 
hand,  was  obliged  to  acknowledge  that  she  had 
"caused  losses  and  sacrifices  of  all  kinds  for 
which  she  ought  to  make  complete  reparation"; 
in  other  words,  to  assume  separate  responsibility 
for  certain  damages.  On  the  Allies1  side  ar- 
rangements for  dividing  the  receipts  were  neces- 
sary. At  the  Peace  Conference  after  a  pro- 
tracted struggle  between  the  French  and  the 
Italians,  the  general  principle  was  adopted  that 
each  Allied  state  was  to  share  jointly  with  the 
other  Allies  in  damage  payments  by  any  enemy 
nation  for  "all  operations  of  war  by  the  two 
groups  of  belligerents  wherever  arising."  Bel- 
gium received  special  consideration.  In  addi- 
tion to  promised  reimbursement  for  all  her  war- 
costs,  a  just  decision  in  view  of  her  violated 
neutrality,  she  demanded  priority  of  payment. 
Her  representatives  urged  their  most  sweeping 
demands  during  the  French  crisis  in  early  April 


BEPABATIOKB 


xxx6 


UEPABATXOm 


and  again  during  the  period  of  threatened  dis- 
ruption over  the  Italian  and  Japanese  settle- 
ments in  late  April.  Lloyd  George  vehemently 
opposed  granting  any  concessions  to  the  Belgians, 
but  largely  owing  to  American  support  and  the 
eventual  winning  of  French  consent  they  were 
accorded  a  priority  of  $500,000,000  in  addition 
to  compensation  for  the  entire  war  costs. 

In  addition  to  protesting  against  the  inclusion 
of  pensions  and  separation  allowances,  the  Ger- 
man delegation  in  its  comments  on  the  condi- 
tions of  peace  (May  29,  1919)  further  sought 
an  immediate  and  definite  fixation  of  their  lia- 
bility; they  offered,  subject  to  the  modification 
of  certain  economic  terms,  to  make  periodic  pay- 
ments in  the  form  of  annuities  commencing  in 
1927  and  amounting  to  100,000,000,000  gold 
marks,  a  sum  whose  approximate  1919  capital 
value  amounted  to  40,000,000,000*  gold  marks. 
Lloyd  George  made  a  short-lived  and  half- 
hearted attempt  to  moderate  the  reparations 
burden,  but  it  was  eventually  decided  to  reject 
the  German  proposition  outright. 

The  Treaty  of  Versailles  (June  28,  1919)  at- 
tempted to  settle  the  question  of  German  liabil- 
ity by  distinguishing  between  moral  responsi- 
bility and  material  compensation.  "The  Allied 
and  Associated  governments,"  according  to  Ar- 
ticle 231,  "affirm,  and  Germany  accepts,  the  re- 
sponsibility of  Germany  and  her  allies  for  caus- 
ing all  the  loss  and  damage  to  which  the  Allied 
and  Associated  governments  and  their  nationals 
have  been  subjected  as  a  consequence  of  the  war 
imposed  on  them  by  the  aggression  of  Germany 
and  her  allies."  "The  Allied  and  Associated 
governments  recognize  that  the  resources  of  Ger- 
many are  not  adequate  ...  to  make  complete 
reparation  for  all  such  loss  and  damage.  The 
Allied  and  Associated  governments,  however,  re- 
quire, and  Germany  undertakes,  that  she  will 
make  compensation  for  all  damage  done  to  the 
civilian  population  of  the  Allied  and  Associated 
Powers  and  to  their  property  during  the  period 
of  the  belligerency  of  each  as  an  Allied  or  Asso- 
ciated Power  against  Germany  by  such  aggres- 
sion by  land,  by  sea,  and  from  the  air.  and  in 
general  all  damage  as  defined  in  Annex  1  hereto" 
(Article  232).  Annex  1  set  forth  the  10  cate- 
gories alluded  to  above,  including  pensions  and 
separation  allowances.  A  Reparation  Commis- 
sion was  to  be  established  composed  of  five  mem- 
bers, four  of  whom  were  to  be  representatives  oi 
the  United  States,  the  British  Empire,  France, 
and  Italy  respectively,  and  the  fifth  to  represent 
Belgium,  Japan,  or  Jugo-Slavia,  according  to  the 
specific  nature  of  the  business  engaging  the  Com- 
mission's attention.  Most  of  the  important  de- 
cisions had  to  be  unanimous.  After  receiving 
reports  of  the  various  governments  as  to  the  ex- 
tent of  their  claims  under  the  various  categories, 
the  Commission  was  to  calculate  the  sum  total 
of  Germany's  obligations  and  concurrently  draw 
up  a  schedule  of  payments  prescribing  the  time 
and  manner  of  payment  within  a  period  of  30 
years  from  May  1,  1921.  It  was  given  discretion 
to  extend  the  term  and  also  to  modify  the  form 
of  payments  but  not  to  cancel  any  part,  except 
with  the  specific  authority  of  the  several  Allied 
governments  concerned.  In  order  to  enable  the 
Allied  and  Associated  Powers  to  proceed  at  once 
to  the  restoration  of  their  industrial  and  eco- 
nomic life,  pending  the  full  determination  of 
their  claims,  Germany  was  to  pay  in  gold,  com- 
modities, ships,  securities,  or  otherwise,  before 
May  1,  1921,  the  equivalent  of  20,000,000,000 


gold  marks,  from  which  should  be  deducted  the 
cost  of  the  armies  of.  occupation  and  certain  lim- 
ited sums  for  the  purchase  of  food  and  raw 
materials.  Germany  agreed  to  apply  directly 
to  reparations  her  economic  resources,  including 
merchant  shipping,  coal,  dyestuffa,  and  chem- 
icals, and  to  make  restitution  of  cash,  securities, 
animals,  and  objects  of  art  seized  or  seques- 
trated. Provision  was  to  be  made  for  the  issu- 
ance of  several  series  of  gold-bearer  bonds  as 
determined  by  the  Reparation  Commission. 
Other  provisions  of  the  treaty  deprived  Ger- 
many of  territory,  population,  ana  resources, 
thereby  gravely  impairing  her  capacity  to  pay. 
The  German  Lmpire,  "built  more  truly  on  coal 
and  iron  than  by  blood  and  iron,"  had  the  eco- 
nomic foundations  of  its  prosperity  virtually 
swept  away. 

The  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  (Sept.  10,  1919) 
required  Austria  to  pay  "a  reasonable  sum"  on 
account  before  May  1,  1921,  and  to  hand  over  all 
her  merchant  marine,  20  per  cent  of  her  river 
shipping,  and  animals,  machinery,  and  equip- 
ment up  to  the  limit  of  her  capacity.  The  total 
amount  due  from  Austria  for  reparation  was  to 
be  fixed  in  May,  1921,  by  the  Reparation  Com- 
mission. A  special  settlement  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  debt  was  arranged  (see  AUSTRIA). 
In  1921,  due  to  Austria's  distressing  financial 
and  industrial  condition,  the  Allies  decided  to 
waive,  for  the  time  being,  all  their  outstanding 
claims  against  her  on  account  of  reparation. 
The  Treaty  of  Xeuilly  (Nov.  27,  1019)  obligated 
Bulgaria  'to  pay  2,230,000,000  gold  francs  in 
half-yearly  installments  of  37  years.  Up  to 
April,  1922,  Bulgaria  had  paid  790,000,000  gold 
francs,  and  in  the  spring  of  1923,  first  of  all  the 
vanquished  nations,  she  was  able  to  make  definite 
and  satisfactory  arrangements  with  the  victors. 
Hungary,  by  the  Treaty  of  the  Trianon  (June 
4,  1920),  was  to  pay  a  reasonable  sum,  fixed 
by  the  Reparation  Commission,  before  May  1. 
1921,  when  her  total  liability  was  to  be  fixed 
by  the  same  body,  with  provisions"  for  the  dis- 
charge of  the  balance  in  semiannual  installments 
over  a  period  of  30  years  unless  a  respite  or  re- 
mission were  granted  by  the  Allies.  She  had  to 
surrender  all  her  merchant  shipping,  20  per 
cent  of  her  river  fleet,  and  an  indefinite  quantity 
of  live  stock.  Hungary's  payments  were  long 
delayed  by  her  presentation  of  counterclaims 
against  Rumania  for  losses  sustained  during  the 
invasion  of  1919.  By  the  Treaty  of  Sevres 
(Aug.  10,  1920),  the  Allies  waived  their  claims 
for  reparation  from  Turkey,  although  she  was 
obligated  to  pay  the  costs  of  Allied  armies  of 
occupation  and  to  compensate  civilian  nationals 
of  the  Allies  for  loss  or  damage  suffered  in  the 
War  through  the  action  or  negligence  of  the 
Turkish  authorities;  but  even  these  claims  were 
canceled  by  the  later  Treaty  of  Lausanne  (July 
23,  1924).  The  Reparation  Commission,  tenta- 
tively organized  in  June,  1919,  was  put  into 
formal  operation  in  January,  1920.  Although, 
according  to  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  it  was  to 
have  "wide  latitude  as  to  its  control  and  han- 
dling of  the  whole  reparation  problem,"  includ- 
ing the  interpretation  and  administration  of  the 
reparations  sections  of  the  treaty  and  the  receipt 
and  distribution  among  the  Allies  of  the  pay- 
ments made  by  Germany,  it  was  also  provided 
that  members  of  the  Commission  should  be  re- 
sponsible to  their  respective  governments  alone. 
Consequently  the  subsequent  history  of  the  repa- 
rations problem  revolved  not  merely  around  the 


BEPABATIONS 


1117 


BEPABATIONS 


deliberationg  and  decisions  of  the  Reparation 
Commission  but  also  around  intricate  and  inter- 
minable negotiations  between  and  among  the  va- 
rious governments,  with  a  view  to  achieving  a 
settlement  in  consonance  with  seriously  diver- 
gent and  seemingly  irreconcilable  national  inter- 
ests. The  theme  of  reparations  thenceforth  is 
one  of  confusion  and  of  international  maladjust- 
ment, of  stern  economic  realities  obfuscated  by 
political  vagaries  and  extravagances,  of  per- 
sistent French  intransigeance  and  a  ruthless 
determination  to  coerce  Germany  into  paying  or 
to  ruin  her,  of  British  vacillation  and  ultimate 
reversal  of  policy  dictated  by  inexorable  eco- 
nomic considerations,  of  German  official  remiss- 
ness  amounting  to  defiance  and  a  struggle  on  the 
part  of  German  industrialists  to  escape  their 
obligations,  and  of  American  aloofness  and  short- 
sighted pursuit  of  national  economic  advantage 
and  a  mythical  political  isolation. 

Reparations  constituted  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant single  item  on  the  agenda  of  the  long 
Heries  of  Continuation  Conferences  inaugurated 
in  the  spring  of  1920  to  deal  with  the  unliqui- 
dated problems  of  the  peace.  (See  PEACE  CON- 
FERENCE AND  TREATIES.)  The  Supreme  Council 
of  Allied  Premiers  overshadowed  the  Reparation 
Commission  and  usurped  its  functions.  At  San 
Remo  in  April  it  was  decided  to  grant  the  Ger- 
mans a  hearing,  although  Premier  Millerand  of 
France,  by  }  folding  to  Premier  Lloyd  George  on 
Turkey  and  to  Premier  Xitti  of  Italy  on  Russia, 
secured  a  pledge  that  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
would  be  enforced  to  the  letter.  Lloyd  George 
and  Millerand  conferred  at  Hythe  (May  15-10) 
and  at  Boulogne  (June  21-22)  for  a  preliminary 
discussion  of  the  iiieanuips  to  be  taken.  A  spe- 
cial commission  of  experts  being  appointed  to 
gauge  the  capacity  of  Germany  to  pay,  Raymond 
Poincare",  French  member  and  president  of  the 
Reparation  Commission,  resigned  in  protest.  At 
Brussels  on  July  2,  Allied  experts  tentatively  ad- 
vised that  the  German  indemnity  should  be  $00.- 
000,000,000,  including  interest  charges.  No 
agreement  was  then  possible  as  to  the  manner 
of  distribution.  Italy  held  out  for  20  per  cent. 
At  Spa  (July  5-10)  Germany's  request  for  a 
definite  determination  of  the  amount  of  repara- 
tion was  denied.  The  discussion  of  coal  de- 
liveries threatened  to  disrupt  the  conference, 
but  Germany  yielded  to  an  Allied  ultimatum  de- 
manding 2,1)00,000  tons  a  month.  A  protocol 
signed  at  Spa  on  July  10  apportioned  reparation 
receipts  among  the  Allies  as  follows:  France, 
62  per  cent;  British  Empire,  22  per  cent;  Italy, 
10  per  cent;  Belgium,  8  per  cent;  Japan  and 
Portugal,  three-quarters  of  1  per  cent  each ;  the 
remaining  6  Ms  per  cent  was  to  be  resened  for 
Jugo-Slavia,  Greece,  and  Rumania.  In  the  dis- 
position of  Austrian,  Bulgarian,  and  Hungarian 
reparations  a  special  arrangement  was  devised, 
50  per  cent  going  to  the  Powers  in  above-men- 
tioned proportions,  an  additional  20  per  cent  to 
Italy,  and  30  per  cent  to  Greece,  Rumania,  and 
Jugo-Slavia. 

Negotiations  relative  to  reparations,  continu- 
ing throughout  the  year,  saw  the  development  of 
serious  differences  between  France  and  England 
over  this  question  and  also  over  Russia  and 
Turkey.  A  joint  conference  of  Allied  and  Ger- 
man economic  experts  was  held  at  Brussels  (Dec. 
15-22,  1020,  and  Jan.  10,  1021).  Here  it  was 
proposed  that  Germany  should  pay  annual  in- 
stallments of  3,000,000,000  gold  marks  from  1921 
to  1920,  6,000,000,000  from  1926  to  1931  and  7,- 


000,000,000  thereafter  until  1963.  From  Janu- 
ary 25  to  29,  1921,  the  Supreme  Council  met  at 
Paris.  The  French  from  the  outset  objected  to 
a  fixed  sum,  afterward  insisting  that  it  should 
not  be  less  than  400,000,000,000  gold  marks,  in- 
cluding interest.  Lloyd  George,  supported  by 
the  Italians,  vigorously  objected;  and  a  com- 
promise decision  was  reached.  Subject  to  Allied 
sanctions  in  case  of  default,  Germany  was  to 
pay  within  42  years  the  sum  of  226,000,000,000 
marks  or  its  equivalent  on  a  sliding  scale  of 
annuities.  The  German  government,  supported 
by  national  sentiment,  frankly  asserted  that  they 
could  not  accept  the  Allied  terms,  although  they 
consented  to  attend  a  new  conference  at  London 
(Mar.  1-7,  1921),  to  which  they  had  been  sum- 
moned "to  agree  to  the  decisions  of  the  Paris 
Conference."  On  March  1,  the  Germans  offered 
to  pay  50,000,000,000  gold  marks  present  value, 
with  a  deduction  of  20,000,000,000  for  payments 
already  made.  Lloyd  George,  replying  on  March 
3,  rejected  the  German  offer,  insisted  that  Ger- 
many's responsibility  for  the  War  was  decided 
by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  founded  on  that 
fact,  and  delivered  an  ultimatum  requiring  ac- 
ceptance of  the  Allied  reparation  demands  within 
four  days.  Lloyd  George  was  supporting  French 
plans  in  Europe  in  order  to  secure  French  ac- 
quiescence in  British  Near  Eastern  projects 
The  German  reply  being  deemed  unsatisfactory, 
a  force  of  French,  Belgian,  and  British  troops 
occupied  the  cities  of  Dfisseldorf,  Duisberg,  and 
Ruhrort,  in  the  heart  of  one  of  Germany's 
greatest  industrial  regions.  The  results  of  this 
coup  de  force  were  nugatory,  however,  and 
France  threatened  to  occupy  the  whole  Ruhr 
basin.  New  schemes  were  then  propounded,  in- 
cluding a  German  request  for  American  media- 
tion. A  conference  of  the  Entente  Premiers  was 
held  at  Hythe  (April  23-24)  to  formulate  a 
tentative  programme  for  the  enforcement  of 
Allied  terms.  On  April  27,  the  Reparation  Com- 
mission announced  that  it  had  decided  unani- 
mously to  fix  at  132,000,000,000  gold  marks  the 
amount  of  damages  for  which  reparation  was 
due.  Of  this  total,  approximately  45,000,000,- 
000  were  for  material  damage  and  87,000,000,000 
for  pensions  and  separation  allowances.  Ger- 
many \\as  to  pay  this  in  addition  to  Belgium's 
war  debt,  provisionally  estimated  at  4,000,000,- 
000  gold  marks.  Three  series  of  bonds  \\ere  to 
be  issued,  bearing  5  per  cent  interest  and  1  per 
cent  amortization:  series  A,  comprising  12,000,- 
000,000,  and  series  B,  38,000,000,000,  to  be  is- 
sued in  1921;  and  the  third,  series  C,  for  82,- 
000,000,000,  to  be  issued  at  the  discretion  of  the 
Commission.  Payments  were  to  be  made  in  the 
form  of  annuities  supplemented  hv  26  per  cent 
of  the  value  of  German  exports.  The  acceptance 
of  the  Commission's  reduction  of  claims  without 
a  murmur  by  the  Supreme  Council  marked  the 
end  of  the  exclusively  political  period  of  the 
reparations  question.  The  Allied  Conference  of 
London  convened  on  April  30;  on  May  5  it  dis- 
patched to  Germany  an  ultimatum  requiring  ac- 
ceptance of  these  terms.  Confronted  with  the 
threatened  French  occupation  of  the  Ruhr,  Ger- 
many yielded  on  May  10.  The  Fehrenbach  min- 
istry, organized  in  July,  1920,  had  been  super- 
seded during  the  crisis  by  a  new  coalition  cab- 
inet headed  by  Chancellor  Wirth. 

Although  Germany  subsequently  sought  modifi- 
cation of  these  terms,  France  insisted  that  she 
carry  them  out.  The  first  payments  due  were 
paid,  and  on  September  29  Dtisseldorf ,  Duisberg, 


REPABATIONS 


lliB 


BEPAEATIONS 


and  Ruhrort  were  evacuated.  On  Oct.  6,  1921, 
an  economic  pact  was  concluded  at  Wiesbaden  by 
Bathenau  and  Loucheur,  the  German  and  French 
ministers  of  reconstruction;  it  provided  for  more 
effective  reparation  in  kind,  similar  provisions 
in  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  having  been  nullified 
by  the  obstructionist  tactics  of  French  industrial- 
ists and  trade  unionists  France  was  to  receive 
building  materials  from  Germany  in  lieu  of  her 
share  of  the  26  per  cent  export  tax,  and  Germany 
was  to  be  credited  with  not  more  than  1,000,000,- 
000  marks  each  year  for  14  years  to  cover  such 
deliveries  Only  a  few  deliveries  were  made 
under  this  plan,  however,  even  as  revised  in 
1922  Meanwhile  the  German  government  was 
encountering  extraordinary  difficulties  in  financ- 
ing reparations  payments  due  in  part  to  the 
world-wide  business  depression  and  to  the  policy 
of  truculent  opposition  of  German  industrial 
magnates,  led  by  Hugo  Stinnes.  An  economic 
conference  held  at  Brussels  during  September 
under  the  auspices  of  the  League  of  Nations 
deliberated  on  feasible  measures  to  prevent  fi- 
nancial and  economic  chaos  in  Europe,  but  al- 
though its  discussions  proved  illuminating,  its 
activities  were  relatively  fruitless.  Unsound  war 
finance  and  peace-time  burdens  led  to  a  marked 
decline  in  the  value  of  German  currency  A 
serious  flight  of  capital  from  Germany,  effected 
through  the  exchange  of  marks  for  foreign  cur- 
rency, greatly  aggravated  the  situation  The 
fall  of  tax  receipts  to  an  insignificant  value  re- 
sulted in  prodigious  budgetary  deficits  which 
impelled  the  government  to  embark  on  an  in- 
flation «policy,  leading  in  turn  to  still  further 
depreciation  of  the  value  of  the  mark.  (See 
GERMANY.)  All  these  factors  tardily  convinced 
the  Reparation  Commission  that  Germany  needed 
relief  from  cash  payments,  and  at  brief  intervals 
Allied  conferences  were  held,  at  each  of  which 
the  amounts  currently  payable  by  Germany  were 
reduced.  On  Dee  14,  1921,  the  German  govern- 
ment officially  notified  the  Commission  that  it 
would  bo  unable  to  pay  the  installment  due 
Jan  15,  1922,  or  the  other  quarterly  installments 
due  in  1922,  and  in  lieu  thereof  it  proposed  a 
smaller  payment.  This  led  to  an  Allied  in- 
vestigation and  discussion  of  the  problem  at 
Conferences  held  at  London  on  Dec.  22,  1921, 
and  at  Cannes  on  Jan.  4-13,  1922  Lloyd  George 
offered  France  a  defensive,  political,  and  military 
alliance  in  return  for  a  modification  of  its  atti- 
tude toward  Germany,  but  French  public  and 
parliamentary  opinion  was  opposed  to  conces- 
sion. The  conference  was  suddenly  disrupted 
by  a  ministerial  crisis  in  France  which  resulted 
in  the  displacement  of  Premier  Briand  by  ex- 
President  Poincare",  an  ardent  nationalist  and 
implacable  enemy  of  Germany.  This  change  in 
the  French  government  presaged  a  serious  rift 
in  Entente  solidarity  and  definitely  prefigured 
the  military  occupation  of  the  Ruhr.  On  Janu- 
ary 13,  the  Reparation  Commission  granted  a 
provisional  and  partial  moratorium  to  Ger- 
many. On  Jan  28,  1922,  Germany  offered  to 
pay  720,000,000  gold  marks  cash  annually,  dis- 
tributed evenly  throughout  the  year  with  1,- 
450,000,000  gold  marks  annually  in  kind.  On 
March  21,  the  Commission  decided  to  grant  Ger- 
many's request,  although  in  addition  it  stipu- 
lated that  Germany  should  institute  sweeping 
reforms  in  her  financial  administration  and  pre- 
vent further  flight  of  capital  from  the  country. 
Premier  Poineare",  whose  diplomatic  policy  di- 
verged widely  from  that  of  Lloyd  George, 


strongly  advocated  leaving  the  problem  of  repara- 
tion to  the  Reparation  Commission.  But  it  soon 
found  its  way  into  the  agenda  of  the  Supreme 
Council  again.  On  Mar.  11,  1922,  the  Paris 
Conference  requested  the  Commission  to  study 
the  possibility  of  a  German  external  loan.  The 
International  Bankers'  Loan  Committee,  which 
met  between  May  24  and  June  10,  found  such  a 
plan  impracticable  so  long  as  Germany's  ex- 
ternal obligations  were  not  reduced.  Mean- 
while the  34  Power  plenary  conference  held  at 
Genoa  (April  10-May  19),  revealed  even  more 
strikingly  the  grave  impasse  in  international  re- 
construction presented  by  the  reparation  and 
Russian  problems.  (See*  RUSSIA..)  Prospects 
of  a  Russo-German  rapprochement,  signalized 
by  the  Treaty  of  Rapallo  (April  1C),  which  pro- 
vided for  the  reestablishment  of  diplomatic  rela- 
tions and  mutual  renunciation  of  war  claims 
and  financial  obligations,  recemented  the  Anglo- 
French  entente  temporarily,  but  otherwise  the 
deliberations  of  six  weeks  proved  devoid  of  prac- 
tical consequences.  On  July  14,  1922,  the  Ger- 
man government  requested  an  extended  mora- 
torium, and  a  somewhat  reduced  reparation  pay- 
ment was  made  under  evident  duress  on 
July  15.  The  thirteenth  inter-Allied  Continua- 
tion Conference  was  convened  at  London  during 
August,  1922,  to  discuss  reparations  and  war 
debts.  On  August  1,  the  British  foreign  min- 
ister, Balfour,  issued  a  note  offering  to  remit  all 
war  loans  due  Great  Britain  and  to  abandon 
all  further  rights  to  German  reparations  if 
reciprocal  action  were  taken  by  other  nations 
He  offered  to  cancel  the  $12*000,000,000  due 
Great  Britain,  if  the  United  States  would  can- 
cel the  British  obligation  of  $.1,000,000, 000  The 
American  government  refused  to  entertain  any 
such  proposition.  At  the  Ixwdon  Conference  the 
British  and  French  premiers  were  absolutely 
deadlocked  on  the  subject  of  German  reparations, 
although  Berlin  was  granted  a  respite  on  the  Au- 
gust 15  payment  and  it  was  agreed  that  hence- 
forth the  obligation  of  collection  should  rest  on 
the  individual  governments.  Poincare"  favored  im- 
posing stringent  "productive  guarantees"  on  Ger- 
many and  suggested  elaborate  schemes  for  the  con- 
trol of  German  resources.  On  August  31,  a  com- 
promise arrangement  was  devised,  granting  Ger- 
many a  conditional  respite  for  six  months;  simul- 
taneously a  new  agreement  for  delivery  of  re- 
construction supplies  to  France  was  negotiated 
by  Hugo  Stinnes  and  Senator  de  Lubersac.  With 
the  passage  of  months,  however,  the  situation 
grew  worse  and  worse.  A  committee  of  foreign 
financial  experts  reported  that  stabilization  of 
the  mark  was  dependent  on  Germany's  own  ef- 
forts. On  Nov  8,  1922,  the  German  government 
requested  an  indefinite  moratorium  on  all  pay- 
ments and  a  revision  of  the  total  to  be  paid. 
Great  Britain,  more  keenly  desirous  of  stabiliz- 
ing Germany  and  restoring  the  German  market, 
consistently  pursued  a  policy  of  opposing  French 
militarism  and  of  advocating  the  fixation  of  a 
definite  and  reasonable  sum  of  reparation.  Poin- 
care!  adhered  to  his  policy  of  no  concession  and 
ruthless  coercion.  Belgium  was  definitely  allied 
with  France,  while  Italy,  for  business  reasons, 
supported  the  British  until  the  Fascist  coup 
d'e*tat  produced  an  Italian  dictatorship  more 
sympathetically  inclined  toward  French  strong- 
arm  measures  The  autumnal  crisis  in  Near 
Eastern  affairs  (see  PEACE  CONFERENCE  AND 
TREATIES)  exacerbated  Entente  differences.  The 
downfall  of  Italian,  German,  and  British  cab- 


BEPABATIONS 


ing 


SEPARATIONS 


ineta  (see  IT  ALT,  GERMANY,  and  GREAT  BRITAIN) 
failed  to  clarify  or  ameliorate  the  situation. 
Another  Allied  conference,  attended  at  London 
(December  9-11)  by  the  British,  French,  Bel- 
gian, and  Italian  premiers,  accomplished  nothing 
beyond  exchange  of  views.  On  Dec.  26,  1922,  the 
Reparation  Commission,  despite  British  opposi- 
tion, declared  Germany  in  voluntary  default  on 
1922  wood  deliveries.  On  Jan.  9,  1923,  similar 
action  was  taken  in  regard  to  coal  deliveries. 
Meanwhile,  at  an  Allied  conference  in  Paris 
(Jan.  2-4,  1923)  detailed  plans  were  presented 
for  coping  with  the  problems  of  reparations  and 
international  indebtedness.  Great  Britain  and 
France,  although  agreeing  on  a  reduction  of  the 
reparations  total  to  50,000,000,000  gold  marks 
and  the  institution  of  a  comprehensive  financial 
control  over  Germany,  were  diametrically  op- 
posed on  methods  of  guarantee.  Bonar  Law, 
combating  the  punitive  measures  proposed  by 
Poincare",  declared  that  their  execution  would 
not  produce  reparation.  The  French,  whose 
pnme  consideration  was  to  maintain  security  by 
rendering  Germany  impotent,  refused  to  agree 
to  any  practical  programme. 

France  and  England  had  reached  the  parting 
of  the  ways.  On  January  11,  after  preliminary 
warnings,  a  Franco-Belgian  army  occupied  the 
Ruhr  valley,  the  heart  of  industrial  Germany, 
containing  her  principal  coal  and  iron  deposits, 
her  greatest  industrial  establishments,  and  7,- 
000,000  inhabitants.  The  legality  of  this  pro- 
cedure was  denied  by  the  Germans  and  doubted 
by  the  British,  but  the  French  and  Belgians, 
brooking  no  criticism,  announced  that  they  were 
acting  under  the  provisions  of  Paragraphs  17-18 
of  Annex  2  to  Part  VIIT  of  the  Treaty  of  Ver- 
sailles which  authorized  the  respective  Allied 
governments  in  case  of  a  voluntary  default  by 
(Jermnny  to  take  such  measures  as  they  deemed 
necessary.  Although  embarrassed  from  the  out- 
Ret  by  civil  obstruction  and  passive  resistance  on 
the  part  of  the  inhabitants,  including  trade 
unionists  and  industrialists  (see  GERMANY),  the 
French  took  strong  measures  of  repression  and 
retaliation,  and  by  March  they  had  an  un- 
broken military  and  customs  line  stretching 
from  Switzerland  to  Belgium  and  Holland  All 
the  horrors  of  military  rule  were  enacted  in  the 
Ruhr,  thousands  of  Germans  being  intimidated, 
incarcerated,  or  exiled,  and  the  normal  activities 
of  industrial  life  almost  completely  suspended. 
For  months  the  French  and  German  govern- 
ments remained  obdurate  in  their  determination 
not  to  yield,  the  British  seeking  in  vain  to  effect 
a  compromise  settlement.  Gradually  Germany, 
seriously  crippled  by  the  disruption  of  her  eco- 
nomic system,  was  forced  to  recede  from  her  ex- 
treme attitude.  On  May  2  and  June  9,  192.3,  she 
outlined  a  new  proposal  involving  the  mortgaging 
of  her  railway  system,  the  offering  of  guarantees 
on  other  industries,  and  the  pledging  of  certain 
import  and  excise  duties  to  reparation  payments. 
Guaranteed  annuities,  secured  by  these  means, 
and  totaling  1,200,000,000  gold  marks,  were  to 
be  paid  after  July,  1927.  The  Ruhr  was  to  be 
evacuated  and  economic  connections  with  Ger- 
many reestablished.  Germany  also  agreed  to 
submit  to  determination  by  an  international  com- 
mission of  her  capacity  to  make  further  pay- 
ments. On  June  8,  Poinearo'  flatly  refused  to 
iscuss  any  offer  as  long  as  the  German  resistance 
in  the  Ruhr  continued.  He  made  it  perfectly 
clear  that  France  and  Belgium  intended  to  re- 
tain control  of  the  Ruhr  until  Germany  paid  the 

37 


schedule  of  reparations  fixed  in  May,  1921.  By 
degrees  the  French  had  restored  a  semblance  of 
economic  order  in  the  Ruhr  region,  and  partial 
production  was  resumed.  Nevertheless,  Great 
Britain  remained  antagonistic,  the  United  States 
appeared  distinctly  unsympathetic,  Italy  failed 
to  back  the  Ruhr  policy  vigorously,  opposition 
developed  in  Belgian  labor  and  shipping  circles, 
and  protests  were  made  by  Sweden,  Holland, 
and  Switzerland.  In  a  note  of  July  20,  1923, 
the  British  government,  while  pronouncing  the 
German  proposals  unacceptable,  suggested  that 
they  were  at  least  worthy  of  consideration,  and 
to  this  end  it  proposed  an  investigation  of  the 
reparations  situation  by  a  committee  of  im- 
partial experts.  An  exchange  of  notes  during  the 
summer  merely  confirmed  the  French  in  their 
intranaigeant  attitude  of  utilizing  only  the  Rep- 
aration Commission  as  an  administrate  or  in- 
vestigating body  and  of  retaining  the  Ruhr  until 
full  payment  was  made  by  Germany.  By  Sep- 
tember, 1923,  German  passive  resistance  "in  the 
Ruhr  had  definitely  broken  down  and  subse- 
quently her  industrial  magnates  were  forced  to 
come  to  terms  with  the  French.  A  series  of 
short -time  agreements  henceforth  regulated  Ger- 
man deliveries  in  kind. 

On  Oct.  5,  1923,  the  Reparation  Commission 
announced  that  up  to  June  30,  1923,  reparation 
payments  bad  totaled  8,213,670,000  gold  marks, 
of  %u  Inch  3.250,000,000  was  in  merchandise,  1,- 
900,000,000  in  cash,  and  the  remainder  in  the 
form  of  credits  for  shippings,  cables,  Raar  Valley 
mines,  and  ceded  territories  Of  this  total,  5,- 
494,782,000  gold  marks  had  already  been  allo- 
cated to  Allied  recipients:  1,255,339,000  to 
Great  Britain,  1,803,967.000  to  France,  1,730,120 
to  Belgium,  338,621  to  Italy,  204,368  to  Serbia, 
438,368  to  Japan,  and  lesser  amounts  to  other 
countries.  Germany,  however,  contended  that 
«he  had  paid  gold  and  cash  to  a  value  of  more 
than  45,000,000,000  gold  marks.  The  most  ex- 
haustive nonpartisan  study  made  up  to  1924 
woiild  indicate  that  Germany  had  paid  from 
20,000.000,000  to  26,000,000,000  gold  maiks  The 
advancing  months  of  1923  saw  a  slightly  more 
cooperative  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  American 
goveinment.  While  the  United  States  had  main- 
tained continuous  unofficial  relations  with  the 
Reparation  Commission  through  "observers,"  she, 
had  consistently  refused  to  be  represented  at 
any  international  economic  conference.  (See 
UNITED  STATES.)  In  October,  1923,  in  response 
to  British  inquiries,  the  American  government 
expressed  the  opinion  that  "competent  American 
citizens  would  be  willing  to  participate  in  an 
economic  inquiry  .  .  .  through  an  advisory  body 
by  the  Reparation  Commission " 


Prance,  while  emphasizing  her  continued  opposi- 
tion to  reduction  of  the  German  obligation, 
eventually  consented  to  the  inquiry.  The  Rep- 
aration Commission  voted  (Nov.  23,  1923)  to 
appoint  two  committees  of  experts,  one  to  in- 
quire into  means  of  balancing  the  German  budget 
and  of  stabilizing  German  currency,  and  the 
other  to  examine  and  report  on  the  extent  and 
methods  of  the  export  of  German  capital  to 
avoid  reparation  payments.  On  December  27, 
the  personnel  of  the  committees  was  announced, 
the  first  comprising  10  members,  including 
Brigadier-General  Dawes  and  Owen  D.  Young, 
prominent  American  financiers  and  businessmen, 
and  the  second  five  members  including  H.  M. 
Robinson,  an  American  banker.  All  the  experts 
were  men  of  large  experience  in  the  fields  of 


UBPABATXON8 


zzao 


BEPABATIOK8 


public  or  private  finance.  The  first  committee 
met  at  Paris  on  January  14,  with  General  Dawes 
as  its  chairman,  and  the  second  on  January  21, 
with  Reginald  McKenna  of  Great  Britain  as 
president. 

After  three  months  of  exhaustive  investigation 
and  deliberation,  the  Dawes  Committee  made  a 
unanimous  report  to  the  Reparation  Commission 
on  Apr.  9,  1924.  In  essence  this  report  pro- 
vided: (1)  Germany  must  meet  to  the  full 
extent  of  its  capacity  its  external  obligations  as 
imposed  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles;  (2)  the 
payments  should  be  made  on  a  sliding  scale 
beginning  with  1,000,000,000  gold  marks  for  the 
first  year,  to  be  increased  after  four  years  to 
2,500,000,000  gold  marks  annually;  (3)  these 
charges  should  be  defrayed  from  taxation,  the 
railways,  and  industrial  debentures,  and  a  mort- 
gage for  this  purpose  should  be  placed  on  'the 
industries  of  the  country;  (4)  an  index  of  pros- 
perity should  be  devised  and  utilized,  as  more 
reliable  than  an  index  of  export  statistics  in  de- 
termining Germany's  ability  to  pay  more  than 
2,500,000,000  gold  marks  annually  after  the 
first  five  years;  (5)  a  foreign  loan  of  800,000,- 
000  gold  marks  should  be  obtained,  so  as  to 
satisfy  the  requirements  of  the  gold  reserve  and 
to  aid  in  the  payment  of  immediate  obligations; 
(6)  a  bank  of  issue  should  be  created  to  pro- 
mote  the  stabilization  of  German  currency,  as  a 
fundamental  economic  prerequisite;  (7)  an  in- 
ternational organization  of  control  should  be  set 
up,  to  consist  of  a  trustee  for  railway  and  in- 
dustrial bonds,  three  commissioners  of  railways, 
the  bank,  and  revenues,  and  an  agent  in  charge 
of  the  actual  payment  of  reparation;  and  (8) 
Prance  and  Belgium  should  relinquish  economic 
control  of  the  occupied  territories.  The  Mc- 
Kenna report  (Apr.  5,  1924)  estimated  that  6,- 
750,000,000  gold  marks  had  been  exported  from 
Germany  and  pointed  out  that  the  total  foreign 
money  lost  through  investment  in  German  marks 
equaled  the  total  sum  of  reparation  cash  pay- 
ments made  by  Germany  to  date.  The  expert's 
reports  elicited  widespread  commendation  in 
Allied  and  neutral  countries  and  in  Germany,  al- 
though some  complaint  was  made  that  the  Dawes 
committee  had  not  been  able  to  fix  the  total  of 
German  obligations.  The  Reparation  Commis- 
sion on  April  11  approved  the  reports  as  offer- 
ing a  practical  basis  for  rapid  solution  of  the 
reparations  problem,  and  by  the  middle  of  April 
the  several  Allied  governments  as  well  as  Ger- 
many accepted  them  in  principle.  The  Germans 
announced,  however,  that  the  evacuation  of  the 
Ruhr  was  indispensable  for  Germany's  complete 
cooperation.  The  French,  just  recovering  from 
a  serious  financial  crisis  due  to  the  fall  of  the 
franc  (see  FRANCE),  expressed  satisfaction  with 
the  Dawes  plan  though  reviving  the  old  question 
of  guarantees. 

The  situation  was  somewhat  clarified  by  the 
outcome  of  the  Franco-German  elections  of  early 
May.  In  Germany,  parties  pledged  to  acceptance 
of  the  plan  won  a  majority  in  the  Reichstag,  al- 
though not  the  two-thirds  required  for  the  aliena- 
tion of  control  over  the  national  railway  system 
contemplated  by  Dawes  and  hra  associates.  In 
France  Premier  Poincare*'*  Woe  nationale  was  de- 
feated, and  in  June  the  Radical  Socialist  leader, 
Edouard  Herriot,  became  Premier.  He  imme- 
diately relaxed  the  coercive  control  over  the 
Ruhr  and  permitted  the  return  of  some  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  German  exiles.  During 
June  and  early  July  he  cooperated  cordially 


with  Ramsay  Macdonald,  the  Labor  Premier  of 
Great  Britain,  in  endeavoring  to  ensure  Entente 
solidarity  in  putting  the  Dawes  plan  into  opera- 
tion. A  new  Allied  conference  on  reparations, 
the  first  since  January.  1923,  was  called  to  meet 
in  London  on  July  10,  1924.  The  Republican 
administration  jn  the  United  States,  gratified  by 
the  report  of  the  Dawes  committee,  promised  to 
send  a  representative — a  long-hoped-for  act  of  co- 
operation in  the  economic  rehabilitation  of  Eu- 
rope. Equally  auspicious  was  the  nomination 
of  General  Dnwes  as  the  vice  presidential  candi- 
date on  the  Republican  ticket.  Preliminary  con- 
versations between  Herriot  and  Macdonald,  how- 
ever, while  producing  cordial  personal  relations, 
revealed  in  all  their  grim  significance  the  time- 
honored  obstacles  to  a  complete  and  harmonious 
settlement;  namely,  French  insistence  on  ade- 
quate sanctions  and  security  and  full  payment, 
together  with  opposition  to  any  British  attempt 
to  supersede  the  Reparation  Commission  by  any 
other  international  agency 

The  London  Conference  lasted  from  July  10 
to  Aug.  16,  1924.  Ten  countries  were  repre- 
sented: the  British  Empire,  France,  Italy,  Japan, 
the  United  States,  Belgium,  Portugal,  Greece, 
Rumania,  and  Jugo-Slavia.  Among  the  promi- 
nent personages  who  participated  in  the  delibera- 
tions were  Prime  Minister  Macdonald  of  Great 
Britain  as  presiding  officer,  Premier  Herriot  of 
France,  Premier  Theunis  of  Belgium,  Frank  B. 
Kellogg,  the  American  Ambassador  to  Great 
Britain,  and  later  on,  Chancellor  Marx  and  For- 
eign Minister  Stresemann  of  the  German  Reich. 

In  its  initial  stages  the  Conference  was  con- 
fined to  the  endeavor  of  the  Allied  delegations 
to  agree  on  a  common  programme  before  negotiat- 
ing with  the  Germans.  Three  committees  were 
constituted,  the  first  to  deal  with  the  matter  of 
German  defaults  in  reparations  payments  and 
the  sanctions  to  be  applied  in  cases  of  willful 
defaults,  the  second  to  piepare  recommendations 
on  the  restoration  of  German  fiscal  and  economic 
unity  as  postulated  by  the  Dawes  Committee, 
and  the  third  to  perfect  arrangements  regarding 
the  transfer  of  payments  from  the  receiving 
agency  in  Berlin  to  creditor  countries.  Premier 
Herriot  and  his  French  associates,  in  compliance 
with  pledges  previously  exacted  by  ex -Premier 
PoincarC*  not  to  surrender  any  French  rights 
under  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  or  to  relinquish 
control  of  the  Ruhr,  accepted  in  principle  the 
view  that  it  was  unnecessary  if  not  impossible 
to  define  exactly  the  penalties  to  be  imposed  on 
Germanv  in  contingencies  such  as  that  which 
preceded  the  occupation  of  the  Ruhr,  and  it  was 
undoubtedly  as  a  concession  to  these  French 
susceptibilities  that  on  July  19,  Committee  One 
unanimously  agreed  that  all  rights  enjoyed  by 
nations  under  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  were  to 
be  preserved  intact.  At  the  same  time  it  was 
further  unanimously  agreed  that  investors  in 
the  projected  loan  of  800,000,000  gold  marks  to 
Germany  were  to  be  guaranteed  a  prior  lien  on 
German  resources  in  event  of  willful  German  de- 
fault. The  decision  as  to  whether  any  default 
was  willful  or  not  was  to  rest  with  the  original 
Reparation  Commission,  but  it  was  obligated  to 
consult  the  new  Agent  General  of  Reparations. 

A  grave  crisis  immediately  developed  regard- 
ing the  loan  formula.  This  deadlocked  proceed- 
ings for  a  week,  severely  strained  the  Conference 
atmosphere,  and  threatened  to  disrupt  negoti- 
ations altogether.  The  American  and  British 
bankers  who  were  depended  on  to  underwrite  the 


BBPABATIOH8 


nai 


BEPABATIONB 


loan  objected  that  the  potential  application  of 
sanctions  by  one  or  more  powers,  acting  not  in 
consonance  with  all  the  other  Allies  but  separ- 
ately, would  seriously  jeopardize  the  interests 
of  investors  and  render  the  floating  of  a  large 
loan  virtually  impossible.  Nevertheless,  there 
was  a  strong  resurgence  of  extreme  French  na- 
tionalism in  the  Paris  press  and' political  circles 
of  opposition,  where  bitter  criticism  was  leveled 
at  Anglo-American  financiers,  and  there  was  al- 
so manifest  tension  at  London  between  British 
and  French  delegates  Matters  were  smoothed 
over  by  the  friendly  intervention  of  the  Ameri- 
can representatives  A  less  unyielding  attitude 
was  adopted  by  the  naturally  conciliatory  Iler- 
riot.  He  and  his  colleagues  busied  themselves 
in  devising  a  formula  which  would  safeguard 
vital  French  interests  at  the  same  time  that  it 
would  satisfy  the  demands  of  the  bankers  for 
reasonable  safety  for  their  investments.  In  re- 
sponse to  friendly  but  firm  pressure  by  Macdon- 
ald,  Herriot  decided  to  defy  Poincare  and  to  con- 
sider an  early  evacuation  of  the  Ruhr.  Several 
critical  days  "elapsed  before  a  gradually  evolved 
French  plan  for  a  special  arbitration  committee 
to  decide  on  defaults,  together  with  an  offer  to 
withdraw  completely  from  the  Ruhr  within  two 
years,  gained  ground  in  the  Conference  despite 
the  reluctance  of  the  British.  On  August  1  the 
deadlock  was  broken  when  Committee  One  ac- 
cepted Herriot's  arbitral  scheme,  and  on  Au- 
gust 2  full  accord  uas  reached  by  the  Conference 
on  all  outstanding  points 

The  second  phase  of  the  Conference  opened  on 
August  5  when  the  report  as  adopted  in  plen- 
ary session  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Marx  and 
Stresemann,  the  German  representatives  dis- 
patched to  London.  The  Herman  chancellor 
praised  the  Daves  Report  and  expressed  the  de- 
sire of  his  government  to  carry  out  its  precisions 
in  good  faith.  He  emphasized  Germany's  concern 
on  two  points,  first,  the  complete  economic  evacu- 
ation of  the  Ruhr;  and  secondly,  the  early  aban- 
donment of  French  military  occupation  of  the 
region.  On  August  7  the  Germans  accepted  the 
Allied  default  arrangement  without  amendment. 
On  August  8  Herriot  left  for  Paris,  where  at  a 
ministerial  council  (August  10)  he  secured  the 
approval  of  his  colleagues  for  his  actions  and  an 
authorization  from  President  Doumergue  and 
Marshal  Foch  to  settle  the  Ruhr  occupation  sole- 
ly with  regard  to  reparations,  thereby  tempo- 
rarily subordinating  the  question  of  security. 
The  French  simultaneously  declared  in  favor  of 
disarmament  control  over  Germany  by  the 
League  of  Nations.  Meanwhile  affairs  pro- 
gressed rapidly  at  London,  through  a  promising 
spirit  of  mutual  conciliation  and  cooperation. 
On  August  10,  the  Reparation  Commission  sit- 
ting at  London  and  the  German  representatives 
signed  a  protocol  for  setting  the  Dawes  Report 
into  operation,  and  on  August  10  a  general  pro- 
tocol with  four  annexes  was  adopted  incorpo- 
rating this  and  all  other  agreements  of  the  Con- 
ference. This  protocol  was  to  become  valid  only 
when  the  representatives  of  the  states  participat- 
ing in  the  Conference  should  signify  the  formal 
assent  of  their  governments  and  affix  their  signa- 
tures in  London  on  August  31. 

Briefly,  the  agreements  were  as  follows: 
Germany  was  to  promulgate  and  enforce  the 
laws  required  to  carry  out  the  Dawes  Report, 
especially  those  provisions  relating  to  the  bank, 
railways,  and  industrial  debentures,  and  to  ap- 
ply certain  provisions  regarding  the  control  of 


the  revenues  assigned  as  security  for  the  annu- 
ities. The  Reparation  Commission  on  its  part 
undertook  to  help  execute  the  recommendations 
of  the  Dawes  Report,  especially  in  the  way  of 
facilitating  the  projected  loan  and  making  an 
accounting  of  necessary  adjustments.  Disagree- 
ments between  the  German  government  and  the 
Reparation  Commission  as  to  the  interpretation 
of  this  agreement  and  of  the  German  legisla- 
tion involved  were  to  he  resolved  by  a  special 
committee  of  three  arbitrators  appointed  one 
each  by  the  Commission  and  the  government, 
and  a  third,  an  American  as  presiding  officer, 
to  be  appointed  by  joint  action,  or,  failing  agree- 
ment, by  the  President  of  the  Permanent  Court 
of  International  Justice.  Germany  further 
agreed  to  facilitate  in  all  ways  possible  the  mak- 
ing of  deliveries  contemplated  under  either  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  or  the  Dawes  Report,  the 
programme  of  such  deliveries,  in  case  of  non- 
agreement  either  between  members  of  the  Repa- 
ration Commission  or  between  the  Reparation 
Commission  acting  unanimously  and  the  Ger- 
man government,  was  to  be  determined  by  a  com- 
mittee of  three  independent  and  impartial  arbi- 
trators, whose  chairman  should  be  an  American 
citizen.  A  mixed  committee  of  Allied  and  Ger- 
man representatives  was  to  determine  procedure 
for  deliveries  in  kind.  Differences  in  opinion 
between  the  German  government  and  the  Trans- 
fer Committee  contemplated  under  the  Dawes 
Report  were  to  he  settled  by  reference  to  an  ar- 
bitrator chosen  by  the  President  of  the  Court 
of  International  Justice.  Provision  was  made 
for  dealing  with  ''concerted  financial  manoeu- 
vres." Technical  improvements  in  reparations 
proceedings  might  be  made  through  submission  of 
any  disputed  points  to  an  impartial  arbitral 
committee.  The  Allied  governments  engaged 
with  Germany  to  assist  in  the  speedy  restoration 
of  a  large  measure  of  Germany's  fiscal  and  eco- 
nomic unity.  The  French  were  to  evacuate  the 
Ruhr  completely  within  one  year.  Furthermore, 
"in  order  to  bring  about  mutual  conciliation  and 
in  order  to  wipe  out  the  past  to  the  utmost 
extent  possible,"  the  Allied  governments  and  the 
German  government  exchanged  reciprocal  assur- 
ances of  general  amnesty  for  nationals  having 
committed  political  offenses  in  the  occupied  ter- 
ritory since  Jan.  11,  1923.  Such  modifications 
in  Annex  II  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  as  were 
made  necessary  by  the  Dawes  Report  and  the 
London  Compact  were  specifically  sanctioned  by 
an  inter-Allied  agreement  constituting  Annex 
IV  of  the  London  Protocol.  The  Allied  govern- 
ments agreed  to  safeguard  specific  securities 
pledged  to  the  service  of  the  800,000.000  gold 
marks  loan  and  granted  investors  a  prior  claim 
on  any  resources  of  Germany,  subject  to  a  gen- 
eral charge  in  favor  of  the  loan. 

The  London  Conference  was  undoubtedly  a 
success.  It  was  made  so  by  the  supervention  of 
economic  realities  hitherto  obfuscated  by  politi- 
cal vagaries  and  extravagances,  and  it  was  al- 
so helped  along  by  the  astute  hut  frank  diplo- 
macy of  the  liberal-minded  Premiers  Macdonald 
and  Herriot,  by  the  friendly  counsel  of  Ameri- 
can representatives,  and  by  a  sympathetic  at- 
titude on  the  part  of  the  German  delegates. 
The  vital  issue  of  security  for  France,  tempo- 
rarily subordinated  at  London,  was  to  receive 
attention  at  the  coming  September  meeting  of 
the  League  of  Nations  Assembly.  The  question 
of  inter-Allied  debts,  so  inextricably  intertwined 
with  the  reparations  problem  both  historically 


RESEARCH  COUNCIL 


XX19 


BHBNIBH  BEPTTBLIC 


and  in  actual  fact,  but  inflexibly  debarred  from 
discussion  at  London,  was  to  be  dealt  with  at  a 
conference  to  be  held  in  Paris  in  the  near  fu- 
ture, Macdonald  having  promised  a  liberal  at- 
titude in  the  matter. 

BBSBABCH  COUNCIL,  NATIONAL.  A  scien- 
tific organization  established  in  1916  by  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  at  the  request  of 
the  President  of  the  United  States  and  continued 
under  the  charter  of  the  Academy  by  an  execu- 
tive order  of  the  President  in  1918.  Its  purpose 
is  the  encouragement  of  research  in  the  biologi- 
cal and  physical  sciences.  It  is  organized  in  11 
divisions,  four  of  general  relations  and  seven 
covering  the  major  fields  of  science  and  tech- 
nology. The  membership  of  these  divisions  is 
composed  of  representatives  of  more  than  70 
scientific  and  technical  societies  of  the  United 
States,  who  are  in  majority,  together  with  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Federal  government  and  a 
limited  number  of  member  s-at -large.  Since 
the  close  of  the  War  the  Council  and  its 
activities  have  been  supported  wholly  by 
private  funds,  principally  by  the  income 
from  an  appropriation  of  $5,000,000  made 
by  the  Carnegie  Corporation  of  New  York. 
Other  funds  have  been  appropriated  by  various 
agencies,  including  the  Rockefeller  Founda- 
tion, General  Education  Board,  and  many  indus- 
trial corporations  and  individuals.  Part  of  the 
appropriation  from  the  Carnegie  Corporation 
was  used  for  the  erection  of  a  building  for  the 
joint  use  of  the  National  Research  Council  and 
the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  located  at  B 
and  21st  Streets,  N.W.,  Washington,  and  com- 
pleted in  1924.  The  Council  maintains  two  reg- 
ular series  of  publications:  Bulletins,  of  which 
46  were  issued  up  to  Sept.  1,  1924,  and  the 
Reprint  and  Circular  Series,  in  which  55  titles 
had  appeared  up  to  the  same  date.  In  addition, 
the  Council  issues  various  miscellaneous  publi- 
cations. The  chairman  of  the  Council  for  the 
operating  year  1923-24  was  Gano  Dunn;  the 
permanent  secretary,  Dr.  Vernon  Kellogg.  The 
same  officers  remained  in  power  for  1924-25. 

BESEBVES,  ORGANIZED.  See  ARMIES  AND 
ARMY  ORGANIZATION. 

BESEBVOIBS.     See  DAMS. 

BESPIGHI,  OTTORINO  (1879-  ).  An 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Bologna.  He  received 
his  musical  education  there  at  the  Liceo  Musi- 
cale  under  F  Sarti  (violin)  and  G.  Martucci 
(composition)  and  was  professor  of  composition 
there  from  1913  to  1919.  He  later  filled  a 
similar  position  at  the  Liceo  in  Rome.  His 
works  comprise  the  operas,  Re  Enzo  (Bologna, 
1905),  Semirama  (ib.,  1910),  and  Belfagor 
(Milan,  1923);  a  puppet-piny,  La  Bella  Dor- 
mente  nel  Bosco  (Rome,  1922)  ;  for  orchestra, 
Kinfonia  Drammatica,  Danza  delle  Gnomidi, 
Notturno,  Burlesca,  and  a  symphonic  poem, 
Fontane  di  Roma;  Concerto  Gregoriano  for  violin 
and  orchestra;  a  piano  concerto;  a  cantata, 
Aretusa;  two  string  quartets;  a  violin  sonata; 
and  pieces  for  piano,  for  organ,  and  for  violin. 
He  brought  out  a  critical  edition  of  Montever- 
de's  Lamento  d'Arianna. 

BETJNTON.  An  island  possession  of  France 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  420  miles  east  of  Mada- 
gascar. Area,  970  square  miles;  population 
(1921),  173,190,  made  up  as  follows:  167,789 
of  French  origin,  2903  British  Indians,  1052 
Chinese,  and  several  hundred  Africans  and 
Arabians.  Chief  towns  are:  St.  Denis,  the 
capital,  21,538  inhabitants;  St.  Pierre,  27,895; 


St.  Paul,  19,456.  Chief  products  continued  to 
be  sugar,  rum,  coffee,  manioc,  tapioca,  vanilla, 
and  spices.  Chief  exports  were  sugar  (55,564 
metric  tons  in  1921)  and  rum  (975,820  gallons). 
The  advances  made  by  the  colony  may  be  gauged 
from  the  following  trade  figures:  exports  for 
1913  and  1921,  16,592,000  francs  and  78,654,500 
francs;  imports  for  same  years,  24,935,000  and 
71,269,555.  Chief  imports  were  food-stuffs  and 
cotton  goods.  The  1922  budget  balanced  at  14,- 
501,770  francs.  In  1912  the  figure  was  6,071,- 
980  francs. 

BETJTEB,  QABRIELE  (1859-  ).  A  Ger- 
man novelist  and  essayist  (see  VOL.  XIX).  The 
success  of  her  early  novel,  A  us  Outer  Familie,  an 
eloquent  plea  for  a  broader  life  for  the  unmar- 
ried daughters  of  the  German  middle  class, 
gave  her  a  prominent  rank  among  women  writers 
of  her  country.  She  resided  for  some  years  in 
Switzerland  but  later  returned  to  Berlin  and 
published  Das  Neue  Land  (1916);  Die  Jugend 
einer  Idealistin  (1917);  Die  Herrin  (1918); 
Grossstadtmadel  (1919);  and  the  autobiograph- 
ical Vom  Kinde  sum  Menschen  (1921). 

BEVENTLOW,  ERNST,  COUNT  (1869-  ). 
A  German  journalist  (see  VOL.  XIX),  who  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  war  literature  of  his 
country.  Among  his  Ikter  works  were:  Der 
Vampyr  des  Festlandes  (1914);  Hcucheleien 
Britischer  Minister  (1915);  Der  Einfluss  dcr 
Seemacht  im  Grossen  Knege  (1917)  ;  Die  PoUti- 
sche  Vorgeschichte  des  Grossen  Krieges  (1918)  ; 
and  Das  Diplomatische  Vorspiel  dcs  Grossen 
Krieges  (1920). 

REVERSION.     See  HEREDITY. 

BEY,  ABET.  (1873-  ).  A  French  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy,  born  at  dialon-sur-Safine, 
and  educated  at  the  Sorbonne.  He  taught 
philosophy  at  the  Lyce"es  of  Bourget  and  Beau- 
vais,  with  the  Faculty  of  Letters  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Dijon,  and  finally  at  Paris.  He  is  best 
known  as  a  philosopher*  of  natural  science  and 
as  the  author  of  La  Theoric  de  la  Physique  chez 
lea  Physiciens  Contemporains  et  le  Mecanisme. 
His  other  works  include  a  manual  of  Lemons  de 
Psychologic  et  de  Philosophic;  La  Philosophic 
Aloderne ;  and  Les  Sciences  Philosophiques,  leur 
Etat  Actuel. 

BHEN£-BATON    (isro-      ).  A   French 

conductor  and  composer,  born  at  Courseullea- 
sur-Mer  in  Calvados  Having  studied  piano 
with  private  teachers,  he  attended  for  two  years 
the  advanced  class  of  C.  de  BeYiot  at  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  and  then  studied  composition  as  a 
private  pupil  of  A.  GCdalge  After  one  year 
as  chorus-master  at  the  Ope*ra  Comique  he  be- 
came conductor  of  the  Concerts  Populaires 
d'Angers,  then  of  the  Concerts  Durand,  and 
later  of  the  Socie*te"  Rainte-Cecile  at  Bordeaux. 
He  directed  the  concerts  at  the  Kursaal  in  Sohc- 
veningen  in  1914-19  and  in  1919  became  conduct- 
or of  the  Concerts  Pasdeloup  in  Paris.  Tn  1910 
he  conducted  a  festival  of  French  music  in 
Munich  and  in  1915  a  similar  festival  in  Rome. 
In  the  spring  of  1914  he  was  conductor  of  a 
season  of  Russian  opera  in  London.  His  com- 
positions include  Variations  for  piano  and  or- 
chestra; the  orchestral  works  Prelude  et  Fugue, 
Menuet  pour  Monsieur,  and  Frrre  du  Roy;  a 
suite,  Fresques  Antiques;  a  violin  sonata;  and 
interesting  piano  pieces  and  songs.  A  ballet 
and  an  opera  were  still  in  manuscript  and  not 
yet  produced  in  1924. 

BHENISH  BEPUBLIO.  See  GEBMANYJ 
RHINELAND. 


RHEUMATISM 

EHEUMATISM,  CHBONIO.  Within  the  10 
years  1914-24,  the  doctrine  that  chronic  affec- 
tions of  the  joints,  muscles,  tendons,  ligaments, 
etc.,  and  painful  affections  of  the  nerves  are 
most  frequently  due  to  absorption  of  poisonous 
matter  from  small  deposits  of  pus  in  various 
localities  attained  wide  diffusion  and  inciden- 
tally brought  the  physician  and  dentist  into  close 
relations;  since  in  perhaps  a  majority  of  these 
cases  the  deposits  of  pus  are  believed  to  be  of 
dental  origin  The  theory,  which  originated 
largely  in  the  United  States,  has  also  been  ac- 
cepted in  Great  Britain,  but  the  Continent  of 
Kurope  is  still  skeptical,  the  result  probably  of 
lack  of  communication  between  Europe  and 
America  during  and  after  the  War.  This  view 
has  led  to  much  upsetting  of  values  and  the  ex- 
treme practice  of  conservative  dentistry  with 
the  universal  use  of  crowns  and  bridges  is  now 
largely  regarded  as  mistaken,  and  has  given 
way  in  turn  to  a  movement  for  the  extraction  of 
all  infected  teeth,  followed  by  a  renewed  swing 
towards  conservatism. 

No  one  can  foresee  what  will  be  the  prevalent 
view  in  the  future,  but  in  1024  the  Mayo  Foun- 
dation was  one  of  the  most  active  advocates  of 
extirpation  of  all  foci  of  pus,  however  minute 
and  at  whatever  cost  This  institution  seemed 
also  to  have  supplied  the  proof  that  infected 
teeth  do  cause  the  most  serious  of  maladies,  not 
only  those  just  enumerated  but  a  good  deal  of 
the  chronic  heart  and  kidney  disease  of  middle 
life,  to  say  nothing  of  ulcer  of  the  stomach, 
gallstones,  appendicitis,  etc.  Moreover,  the  re- 
moval of  these  foci  does  more  than  prevent  and 
arrest,  for  in  many  cases  men  with  serious  or- 
ganic disease  appear  to  make  a  relative  recov- 
ery. 

It  was  still  a  mystery  how  so  many  individ- 
uals with  infected  teeth  escape  all  of  these 
diseases  and  some  immunity  must  exist  although 
it  cannot  be  visualized  The  field  here  is  far 
too  large  to  be  summed  up  as  chronic  rheuma- 
tism, and  the  term  "medical  sepsis"  is  some- 
times used,  which  also  differentiates  this  group 
of  diseases  from  surgical  sepsis.  The  latter  is 
more  violent,  more  of  an  immediate  menace  to 
life,  and  due  to  different  forms  of  bacteria  See 
also  INSANITY. 

RHINELAND.  The  French  policy  at  the 
Peace  Conference,  as  represented  by  Premier 
Clemenceau  and  Marshal  Foch,  was  to  make  the 
Rhine  the  western  frontier  of  Germany  and 
either  to  annex  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  i  e., 
the  greater  part  of  the  Prussian  Rhine  Province, 
all  of  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  and  part  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  or  to  set  up  this  territory  as  a  nom- 
inally independent  but  actually  French -controlled 
republic,  on  the  ground  that  such  action  was  es- 
sential to  the  safety  of  France  and  Belgium. 
When  this  plan  was  wrecked  by  the  opposition 
of  Premier  Lloyd  George  and  President  Wilson, 
a  compromise  was  arranged  whereby  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  was  to  be  occupied  for  15 
years  by  the  Allied  Powers;  evacuation  on  the 
expiration  of  this  term  was  to  be  dependent  on 
two  conditions,  the  complete  fulfillment  of  the 
treaty  by  Germany,  and  the  agreement  among 
the  Allies  that  "the  guarantees  against  unpro- 
voked aggression  b.y  Germany  are  considered  suf- 
ficient by  the  Allied  and  Associated  Powers " 
That  these  two  clauses  nullified  the  15-year  pro- 
vision and  left  it  to  France's  discretion  to  de- 
cide when  the  occupation  should  terminate  has 
been  sufficiently  demonstrated  by  the  declara- 


tions of  the  successive  French  governments  from 
Clemenceau  to  Herriot  that  France  did  not  con- 
Bid  r  the  15-year  provision  as  having  begun  to 
go  into  operation.  Having  failed  to  obtain  se- 
curity in  the  form  of  an  alliance  with  England 
and  the  United  States  and  having  been  tem- 
porarily thwarted  in  the  attempt  to  separate 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  from  the  Reich, 
France  endeavored  to  attain  this  latter  aim 
by  means  of  its  army  of  occupation.  Among  the 
divers  methods  employed  in  this  direction  were 
the  consistent  attempts  to  wear  out  through 
harsh  military  rule  the  spirit  of  the  Rhenish 
people.  Thus  a  policy  of  vexatious  and  arbi- 
trary methods  in  the  administration  of  justice 
was  used.  Whenever  it  suited  French  interests, 
the  military  authorities  interfered  with  the 
civil  administration  by  German  functionaries. 
An  economic  barrier  was  established  between  the 
Rhineland  and  the  Reich,  and  freedom  of 
thought,  of  speech,  and  of  the  press  was  ruth- 
lessly stamped  out.  In  many  districts  white 
French  soldiers  were  replaced  by  colored  troops 
of  occupation  who  were  persistently  reported  to 
have  committed  acts  of  brutality  against  the 
Rhenish  people.  At  the  same  time  the  French 
were  accused  by  the  Rhinelanders  of  conducting 
an  energetic  Fiench  propaganda  by  employing 
the  educational  facilities  to  instill  the  young 
Rhenish  generation  with  French  spirit  and 
French  culture  In  many  respects  fliia  policy 
was  a  failure  and  resulted  only  in  arousing  and 
fanning  a  spirit  of  extreme  German  nationalism 
among  the  Hhinelanders,  even  among  such  per- 
sons as  otheiwise  looked  on  a  democratic  Ger- 
man republic  as  the  German  ideal.  The  obvious 
contrast  between  the  just  and  impartial  admin- 
istration of  the  Americans  and  the  English  in 
their  respective  areas  and  the  arbitrary  conduct 
of  the  French  and  Belgians  created  among  the 
Rhinelanders  a  feeling  of  respect  and  sympathy 
for  the  Americans  and  the  English,  and  all  the 
more  deepened  the  antagonism  against  the 
French  and  the  Belgians  In  their  utter  help- 
lessness the  Rhenish  people  saw  with  sincere 
regret  the  final  withdrawal  of  the  Americans 
and  the  prospective  leaving  of  the  British 
forces. 

The  main  effort  of  the  French  army  of  occupa- 
tion was  directed  toward  the  creation  and  the 
fostering  of  a  Rhenish  Separatist  movement. 
Due  to  the  wide  temperamental  differences  be- 
tween the  Rhinelanders  and  the  Prussians  in 
eastern  Germany  there  had  always  existed  in 
the  Rhineland  a  certain  particularistic  attitude 
which  resented  the  inclusion  of  the  Rhineland  in 
Prussia  and  would  have  welcomed  Rhenish 
autonomy  within  the  German  Reich  At  no 
time  did  this  attitude  develop  into  open  oppo- 
sition to  Prussia  or  did  the  Rhenish  people 
harbor  any  thoughts  of  separation  from  Ger- 
many. It  stands  to  reason  that  with  the  pres- 
sure of  the  occupation  weighing  on  the  Rhenish 
population  and  with  the  great  gains,  economic 
and  otherwise,  to  be  obtained  from  separation 
from  Germany,  there  should  have  been  elements, 
as  in  any  other  country  under  parallel  condi- 
tions, which  desired  to  break  loose  from  the 
bankrupt  and  seemingly  doomed  German  state. 
These  elements,  which  numerically  were  very 
insignificant  and  whose  views  were  regarded  as 
treasonable  and  contemptible  by  the  overwhelm- 
ing majority  of  the  Rhinelanders,  were  used  by 
the  French  as  a  welcome  means  to  undermine  the 
connection  which  bound  the  Rhineland  to  the 


BHINELAND 


1124 


BHODE  ISLAND 


Reich.  These  Separatists,  as  they  came  to  be 
called,  received  thinly  veiled  encouragement  and 
secret  financial  and  other  assistance  from  the 
French  and  Belgian  armies  of  occupation,  while 
at  the  same  time  they  were  looked  at  askance 
by  the  American  and  British  forces.  In  the 
spring  of  1020  the  Separatists,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Dr.  Dor  ten,  proclaimed  a  provisional 
government  and  a  separate  Rhenish  republic  in 
Wiesbaden,  which  belonged  to  the  Mayenre 
bridgehead  area  Notwithstanding  the  *most 
active  French  assistance  this  coup  d'etat  fell 
flat,  chiefly  because  of  the  hostility  to  the  move- 
ment of  the  Rhenish  people,  who  had  been 
aroused  by  revelations  of  French  influence  be- 
hind the  Separatists.  The  German  government 
was  prevented  from  taking  strong  measures 
against  the  Separatists  by  the  well-grounded 
fear  of  becoming  involved  "in  serious  complica- 
tions with  the  French;  it  was  therefore  com- 
pelled to  look  on  while  attempts  were  made  to 
disrupt  the  unity  of  the  Reich.  The  Rhenish 
people  were  left  to  flounder  helplessly  between 
the  weakness  of  their  own  government  and  the 
machinations  of  the  Separatists,  who,  although 
weakened  by  their  failure,  continued  their  activi- 
ties with  secret  French  assistance.  When  their 
meetings  were  upset  by  the  loyal  Rhinelanders, 
the  French  and  Belgian  armies  went  so  far  as 
to  interfere  openly  in  their  favor  and  to  as- 
sure them  of  military  protection.  With  the 
growing  helplessness  of  the  German  situation, 
the  ever-tightening  hold  of  the  armies  of  occupa- 
tion, the  economic  separation  of  the  Rhineland 
from  the  Reich,  and  the  dependence  of  the  peo- 
ple on  the  armies  of  occupation,  the  fervent 
activities  of  the  Separatists  became  bolder,  and 
their  movement  grew  in  strength,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  Rhinelanders  were  discouraged, 
so  that  even  people  who  at  heart  were  loyal  to 
Germany  turned  to  Separatism  in  utter  despair 
as  a  temporary  way  out  of  their  miseries  and 
sufferings. 

The  occupation  and  all  its  dismal  consequences 
for  Germany  brought  the  Separatist  movement 
to  a  head.  While  the  French  endeavored  by 
economic  pressure  to  reduce  the  inhabitants  to 
a  condition  in  which  they  would  consent  to  the 
creation  of  an  independent  Rhenish  state  under 
French  control,  a  design  which  came  more  and 
more  to  be  regarded  in  neutral  circles  as  the 
true  political  object  of  the  French  in  western 
Germany,  the  Separatists  used  the  Ruhr  situ- 
ation and  the  coercive  French  measures  in  the 
Rhineland  to  their  best  advantage  and  struck 
again.  After  some  preludes  during  the  early 
part  of  the  year,  the  Rhenish  Republic  was 
again  proclaimed  on  Oct.  21,  1023,  this  time  in 
Aix-la-Chapelle  When  the  people  resisted,  a 
struggle  ensued  in  which  the  Separatists  were 
sustained  by  the  Belgian  troops  of  occupation. 
The  same  occurred  in  a  number  of  other  places 
in  the  Rhineland  and  a  short  time  later  in  the 
Palatinate.  In  each  ^instance  the  Separatists 
were  only  able  to  maintain  themselves  because 
they  were  openly  assisted  by  the  French  and 
Belgian  troops  or  because  the  German  police 
and  the  loyal  inhabitants  were  disarmed  by  the 
troops  of  occupation,  while  the  Separatists  were 
permitted  to  retain  their  arms.  In  the  northern 
sections  of  the  Rhineland  the  movement  col- 
lapsed quickly  because  the  hostility  of  the  peo- 
ple was  too  pronounced  and  because  first  the 
Belgians  and  later  the  French,  under  pressure 
from  the  British  and  from  international  public 


opinion,  withdrew  their  support.  The  unsavory 
character  of  the  Separatists,  many  of  whom  had 
police  records  or  were  imported  foreign  mercen- 
aries, discredited  the  movement  throughout  the 
world  and  made  the  French  and  the  Belgians 
feel  ashamed  of  being  connected  with  it.  The 
movement  endured  longer  in  the  southern  sec- 
tions of  the  Rhineland  and  in  the  Palatinate, 
but  only  because  French  connivance  was  more 
outspoken  here  than  elsewhere.  Finally  the 
movement  came  to  an  inglorious  end  there  also, 
but  only  after  the  British  had  intervened  against 
Separatism.  When  the  French  thereupon  with- 
drew their  support  at  the  end  of  1023,  the  peo- 
ple of  the  Palatinate  rose  and  killed  a  number  of 
the  Separatists  in  retaliation  for  the  cruelties 
committed  by  them.  In  order  to  counteract 
Separatism  a  number  of  leading  Rhinelanders 
set  afoot,  with  permission  of  the  central  gov- 
ernment in  Berlin,  a  movement  for  an  autono- 
mous Rhineland  within  the  Reich.  Regardless 
of  what  would  have  been  the  attitude  of  the 
Rhenibh  people  toward  such  a  possibility  in 
times  of  peace,  Separatism  had  made  them  look 
with  distrust  on  any  change  in  their  political 
status  while  their  soil  was  occupied  by  the 
French  and  the  Belgians.  Thus  Separatism  in 
the  last  analysis  had  strengthened  German  na- 
tionalism in  the  Rhineland. 

BHODE  ISLAND.  Rhode  Island  is  the 
forty-eighth  State  in  size  (1248  square  miles), 
and  the  thirty-eighth  in  population;  capital, 
Providence.  The  population  increased  from 
542,610  in  1010  to  604,307  in  1020,  a  gain  of 
11.4  per  cent.  The  white  population  increased 
fiom  532,402  to  503,080;  Negro,  from  0320  to 
10,036;  native  white,  from  354,467  to  420,481. 
The  foreign-born  white  population  decreased 
from  170,025  to  173,400.  The  urban  popula- 
tion of  the  State  mounted  from  524,654  to  580,- 
180,  uhile  the  rural  decreased  from  17,056  to 
15,217.  The  growth  of  the  principal  cities  was 
as  follows:  Providence  (q.v.),  from  224,326  in 
1010  to  237,505  in  1020;  Pawtucket,  51,622  to 
64,248;  Woonsocket,  38,125  to  43,306;  Newport, 
27,140  to  30,255. 

Agriculture.  Rhode  Island,  in  common  with 
most  of  the  eastern  States,  showed  a  consider- 
able decrease  in  all  phases  of  agriculture,  in 
the  decade  1910-20.  While  the  population  in- 
creased 11.4  per  cent  in  the  decade,  the  num- 
ber of  farms  decreased  22.8  per  cent  (from  5202 
in  1010  to  4083  in  1020);  the  total  acreage  in 
farms  decreased  from  443,308  to  331,600,  or 
25.2  per  cent;  and  the  improved  land  in  farms 
from  178,344  acres  to  132,855,  or  25.5  per  cent. 
The  percentage  of  the  total  land  area  used  for 
agricultural  purposes  decreased  from  64.0  in 
1010  to  486  in  1020;  the  percentage  of  farm 
land  improved,  from  40.2  to  40.1.  The  total 
value  of  farm  property  showed  an  apparent  in- 
crease of  from  $32,000,730  in  1010  to  $33,636,- 
766  in  1020,  or  2  per  cent;  the  average  value 
per  farm,  from  $6234  to  $8238,  or  32.1  per  cent 
In  interpreting  these  values  and  all  compar- 
ative values  in  the  decade  1014-24,  the  inflation 
of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of  that  period 
is  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  index 
number  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of  farm 
products  in  the  United  States  was  104  in  1010 
and  216  in  1020.  Of  the  total  of  4083  farms  in 
1020,  3245  were  operated  by  owners,  205  by 
managers,  and  633  by  tenants.  The  correspond- 
ing figures  for  1010  were  4087,  251,  and  954. 
White  farmers  in  1920  numbered  4063,  of  whom 


BHODE  ISLAND 

3123  were  native  and  940  were  foreign-born. 
There  were  19  Negro  farmers  and  one  Indian 
farmer  in  1920.  Farms  free  from  mortgage  in 
1920  numbered  1971,  compared  with  2811  in 
1910;  those  under  mortgage  numbered  949, 
compared  with  1180.  In  1920  there  were  24,914 
dairy  cows,  compared  with  23,329  in  1910; 
"beef  cows,"  1001  compared  with  2525:  sheep, 
2736  compared  with  4206.  The  estimated  pro- 
duction of  the  principal  farm  crops  in  1023  was 
as  follows:  corn,  508,000  bushels:  potatoes,  383,- 
000  bushels;  hay,  55,000  tons;  and  apples,  328,- 
000  bushels.  Comparative  figures,  for  1913, 
are:  corn,  402,000  bushels;  potatoes,  650,000 
bushels;  hay,  68,000  tons. 

Manufactures.  Rhode  Island,  although  one 
of  the  smallest  States  in  area  and  population, 
is  important  industriallv.  There  were  11  cities 
with  more  than  10,000  inhabitants  in  1920,  and 
these  formed  83  per  cent  of  the  total  popula- 
tion of  the  State.  In  1919,  they  reported  82.7 
per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  State's  manufac- 
tured products.  There  were  in  the  State  1951 
manufacturing  establishments  in  1909;  2190  in 
1914;  and  2466  in  1919  Persons  engaged  in 
manufacturing  numbered  122.641,  124,109,  and 
150,012;  and  the  capital  invested  amounted  to 
$290,901,270,  $308,444,563,  and  $594,337,448,  in 
those  years.  The  value  of  the  products,  in  1909, 
was  $280,343,797;  in  1914,  $270,545,873;  and  in 
1919,  $747,322,858.  The  increase  in  value  of 
products  from  1914  to  1919  was  in  great  meas- 
ure due  to  changes  in  industrial  conditions 
brought  about  by  the  War;  but  the  increase  in 
average  number  'of  persons  employed  clearly  in- 
dicates a  growth  in  the  manufacturing  activities 
of  the  State.  The  principal  industry  in  point  of 
value  of  products  is  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods.  This,  in  1909,  was  valued  at  $50,313,000; 
in  1914,  at  $49,719,000,  and  in  1919  at  $177,- 
423,000.  The  manufacture  of  woolen  and  wor- 
sted goods  ranks  second-  in  1909,  $74,000,000; 
1914,  $60,889,000;  and  1919.  $175,312,000.  The 
manufacture  of  jewelry,  in  third  place,  amount- 
ed, in  1909,  to  $20,685,000;  in  1914  to  $21,522.- 
000;  and  in  1919,  to  $48,596,000.  The  princi- 
pal manufacturing  cities  are  Providence,  Paw- 
tucket  and  Woonsocket.  In  Providence,  in  1909, 
there  were  1080  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  a  product  valued  at  $120,241,000;  1207 
in  1914,  with  $115.335,000;  and  1274  in  1919, 
with  $267,629,000.  Pawtucket  had  217  manu- 
facturing establishments  in  1909,  with  a  prod- 
uct valued  at  $37,696,000;  235  in  1914,  with 
$42,029,000;  and  284  in  1919,  with  $135,518.000. 
Similar  figures  for  Woonsocket  are:  130  in 
1909,  with  $28,219,000;  157  in  1914,  with  $28,- 
115,000;  and  190  in  1919,  with  $93,547,000. 
Other  important  manufacturing  cities  are  New- 
port, Central  Falls,  Cranston,  Cumberland,  and 
East  Providence. 

Education.  Educational  progress  in  Rhode 
Island  was  constant  in  the  decade  1913-23. 
The  public  school  system  includes  elementary 
and  secondary  schools,  established,  maintained 
and  supported  by  towns  and  cities;  and  two 
colleges,  Rhode  Island  State  College,  supported 
by  the  Federal  government  and  by  the  State, 
and  Rhode  Island  College  of  Education,  the 
principal  function  of  which  is  the  training  of 
teachers.  The  State  also  provides  free  State 
scholarships  for  vocational  courses  at  the  Rhode 
Island  School  of  Design  and  the  Rhode  Island 
College  of  Pharmacy,  and  for  teachers'  training 
in  the  Graduate  Department  of  Education  at 


BHODE  ISLAND 

Brown  University.  Rhode  Island  has  for  many 
years  emphasized  training  for  teachers.  The 
Rhode  Island  College  of  Education  is  a  model 
institution  which  hundreds  of  visitors  from 
other  States  and  countries  visit  annually  for 
observation.  Nearly  90  per  cent  of  Rhode  Is- 
land teachers  are  normal  school  or  college  grad- 
uates. In  1922-23,  nearly  half  the  teachers 
were  enrolled  in  summer  schools  or  extension 
courses.  The  State  maintains  or  supports  with- 
out contributions  or  assessments  of  any  kind,  a 
pension  system  for  teachers,  to  \\liich  all  em- 
ployed in  public  education  are  eligible.  Prog- 
ress was  made  in  the  decade  in  the  establish- 
ment of  evening  schools  maintained  by  towns 
and  cities.  Vocational  instruction  in  these 
schools  had  an  intensive  development,  the  work 
being  very  closely  related  to  the  predominant 
State  industries.  The  total  enrollment  in  public 
and  private  schools  in  1914  uas  117,163;  in 
1924  it  was  129,096.  The  number  in  elementary 
schools  had  increased  from  79,193  to  89719;  in 
high  schools,  from  7372  to  12,158.  The  per- 
centage of  illiteracy  in  the  State  decreased  from 
9.2  per  cent  in  1910  to  8.2  per  cent  in  1920: 
among  the  native  white  population  from  0.9  per 
cent  to  0.6  per  cent;  among  the  foreign-born 
white,  from  18.1  to  17.5.  Among  the  Negroes 
illiteracy  increased  from  11.4  to  12.5  per  cent. 

Finance.     For  ilnance,  see  STATF  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  During  the 
decade  1914-24  the  Democratic  and  Republican 
parties  shared  political  control  in  Rhode  Island. 
In  1914  R.  L.  Beeckman,  the  Republican  nom- 
inee, was  elected  governor.  The  Democrats 
elected  a  Representative  to  Congress  in  one  dis- 
trict and  the  Republicans  in  two.  Charges  of 
corruption  and  bribery  in  this  election  were 
made  and  investigations  were  carried  on  in  1915 
by  the  Federal  Department  of  Justice.  For  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  the  State,  the  United 
States  Senator,  in  1016,  was  elected  by  a  direct 
vote  of  the  people.  The  Democratic  nominee, 
Peter  G.  Gerry,  defeated  Senator  Henry  F.  Lip- 
pitt,  Republican,  -who  was  a  candidate  for  re- 
election. The  Republicans,  howe\cr.  reelected 
Governor  Beeckman.  In  the  piesidcntial  voting 
of  this  year,  Chailes  K.  Hughes  received  44,- 
858  votes;  President  Wilson,  40,394  votes.  In 
1918  the  Republicans  were  general Iv  successful, 
reolecting  Governor  Beeckman  and  Senator  Le 
Baron  B.  Colt,  together  with  the  entire  State 
ticket,  as  well  as  three  Representatives  in  Con- 
press.  The  Republicans  in  lc)20  were  again  suc- 
cessful, electing  their  candidate  for  governor, 
Emery  J.  San  Souci,  and  the  other  State  of- 
ficers. In  the  presidential  voting,  W.  G.  Hard- 
ing received  107,463  votes;  ,T.  M.  Cox,  55,062. 
In  1022  the  Democrats  made  practically  a  clean 
sweep  of  State  offices;  the  Secretary  of  State 
was  the  only  Republican  survivor.  William 
S.  Flynn,  Democrat,  headed  the  Democratic 
State "  ticket.  Senator  Gerry,  Democrat,  de- 
feated former  Governor  Beeckman  for  the  Unit- 
ed States  Senate. 

Legislation.  The  Legislature  in  Rhode  Is- 
land meets  annually.  The  most  important  acts 
in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted  below.  The 
Legislature  of  1916  authorized  the  organization 
of  cooperative  agricultural  associations.  The 
laws  relating  to  taxation  were  amended,  and  so 
were  the  banking  laws.  In  1919  the  Legisla- 
ture amended  the  corporation  franchise  tax.  It 
changed  the  title  of  the  Commissioner  of  Indus- 
trial Statistics  to  the  Commissioner  of  Labor 


BHODES 


1X36 


RHONDDA 


and  made  provisions  for  a  State  Board  of  Labor. 
It  passed  measures  for  protection  against  an- 
archy and  incitement  to  violence.  The  work- 
men's compensation  law  of  1912  was  amended 
and  provision  was  made  for  the  promotion  of 
Americanism  by  the  establishment  of  night 
schools,  etc.  In  1020  the  Legislature  ratified 
the  suffrage  amendment,  revised  the  State  cor- 
poration law,  and  authorized  a  bonus  of  $100 
each  for  those  who  had  served  in  the  War.  In 
1921  the  Legislature  amended  the  corporation 
laws  and  the  laws  relating  to  the  administra- 
tion of  the  State,  provided  for  vocational  re- 
habilitation, made  appropriations  for  the  aid  of 
discharged  soldiers  and  sailors  out  of  employ- 
ment, disbarred  women  from  serving  on  juries, 
increased  the  benefits  to  employees  under  the 
workmen's  compensation  law.  adopted  "blue  sky" 
laws  to  prevent  the  sale  of  fraudulent  securities 
and  the  promotion  of  wildcat  stock  schemes, 
made  all  women  subject  to  the  poll  tax  of  $1 
per  annum.  A  prohibition  enforcement  act  was 
passed  in  1922.  The  Legislature  of  1923  cre- 
ated a  measure  regulating  the  sale  of  coal, 
created  a  system  of  mothers'  pensions,  amended 
the  child  labor  laws,  and  passed  a  measure  for- 
bidding anonymous  publications  of  paid  matter 
designed  to  defeat  a  candidate  for  office  or  a 
question  to  be  submitted  to  the  electors.  In 
1924,  the  Legislature,  limited  to  CO  days'  pay, 
had  been  in  session  for  seven  months,  during 
which,  because  of  a  filibuster  by  Senate  Demo- 
crats, no  legislation  was  enacted"  The  filibuster 
by  the  Democrats,  who  were  the  minority  but 
were  aided  by  the  Democratic  presiding  officer, 
Lieut  -Gov.  Felix  A.  Toupin,  was  being  main- 
tained with  the  aim  of  forcing  the  Republicans 
of  both  Senate  and  House  to  pass  a  resolution 
providing  for  submission  to  the  people  of  a 
proposal  to  hold  a  convention  to  revise  the  State 
constitution. 

BHODES.     See  DODECANESE. 

RHODESIA,  NORTHERN.  A  British  African 
protectorate,  under  the  administration  of  the 
British  South  African  Company  until  1924. 
It  has  an  area  of  291,000  square  miles  and  an 
estimated  native  population  of  928,000.  Whites 
in  1920  numbered  3500  (in  1911,  1947)  The 
leading  activities  were  stock  raising,  cereal  cul- 
ture, and  lead  mining.  Exports  in  1922  were 
£616,083  as  compared  with  £107,000  in  1911. 
Imports  in  1922  were  £500,321,  chiefly  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  Southern  Rhodesia,  and  the 
Union  of  South  Africa.  From  the  United 
States,  imports  were  £32,303.  In  1911  total 
imports  were  £168,000.  Revenues  increased 
from  £116.000  in  1911-12  to  £279,000  in  1921- 
22;  expenditures  from  £190,000  to  £339,000. 
On  Apr.  1,  1924,  the  protectorate  was  taken  over 
by  the  British  authorities  and  the  typical  gov- 
ernment of  a  crown  colony  established  with  a 
governor,  executive  council,  and  legislative 
council. 

RHODESIA,  SOUTHERN.  A  British  South 
African  protectorate,  up  to  1923  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  British  South  Africa  com- 
pany, but  since  then  a  self-governing  colony  un- 
der the  British  crown.  It  has  an  area  of  149,- 
000  square  miles  and  a  native  population  of  770,- 
000  (in  1921).  Europeans  numbered  33,620  in 
1921  against  2912  in  1911.  Chief  towns,  with 
white  populations  in  1921:  Salisbury  (5654), 
Bulawayo  (6830),  Gwelo  (1148),  Umtali 
(1874).  Minerals  continued  to  occupy  the  most 
important  place  in  the  colony's  economic  scheme. 


The  gold  yield  in  1923  was  valued  at  £2,000,159. 
(The  high  point  of  the  period  was  reached  in 
1916  with  £3,895,000.)  Silver  in  1923  yielded 
£24,526;  coal,  £225,345;  copper,  £201,022; 
chrome  ore,  £302,880;  asbestos,  £577,699.  The 
total  1923  mineral  output  was  valued  at  £4,- 
300,652.  To  the  end  of  1923  total  mineral  out- 
put was  valued  at  £69,660,418.  Agriculture 
flourished,  with  186,246  acres  under  maize  in 
1921.  Tobacco  and  fruit  orchards  were  being 
developed.  In  1920,  an  important  dam  capable 
of  holding  4,000,000.000  gallons,  was  completed 
across  the  Mazoe  River.  Cattle  raising  was 
taken  up  by  the  Europeans  during  the  period 
1912-22  and  by  1920  their  herds  outnumbered 
the  native  stocks.  Exports  in  1922  were  valued 
at  £4,627,693,  as  compared  with  £2,812,000  in 
1910.  The  United  Kingdom  and  South  Africa 
were  the  chief  countries  of  destination,  while 
the  United  States  received  £572,338.  Leading 
exports  were  gold,  copper,  asbestos,  chrome 
ore,  tobacco,  live  stock.  Imports  in  1922  were 
valued  at  £3,879,111  as  compared  with  £2,786,- 
000  in  1910.  Most  of  the  imports  came  from  the 
United  Kingdom  and  the  Union  of  South  Africa, 
while  the  United  States  sent  £321,356.  For 
administrative  purposes  revenues  were  £773,000 
in  1910-11,  and  in  1921-22,  £1,532,000.  No 
railway  building  took  place  during  1914-24. 
In  1916  the  lands  reserved  for  natives  were 
mapped  out,  and  some  20,000,000  acres  were  set 
aside. 

History.  During  the  period  1910-22  the 
British  South  Africa  Company's  sovereignty  was 
continually  challenged  by  the  white  settlers 
The  Company  was  compelled  to  enlarge  the 
number  of  elective  members  of  the  Legislative 
Council,  so  that  by  1922,  13  members  were  be- 
ing elected  and  6  appointed  by  the  Company. 
Two  bodies  of  opinion  arose  out  of  the  War,  one 
favoring  incorporation  in  the  Union  of  South 
Africa,  and  the  other  self-government  under  the 
crown.  The  latter  was  victorious  in  the  general 
election  of  1920  and  was  reaffirmed  by  the  voters 
in  a  referendum  held  in  October,  1922.  Union 
with  South  Africa  was  rejected  principally  be- 
cause of  the  ascendancy  of  the  Dutch  Nation- 
alists in  the  Union,  the  Rhodesians  fearing  sub- 
mergence at  the  hands  of  a  non-British  popula- 
tion. One  of  the  leading  points  of  contention 
during  the  period  was  the  ownership  of  the  un- 
alienated  lands.  In  1918  possession  of  these 
lands  was  denied  the  South  Africa  Company,  al- 
though it  was  admitted  the  Company  had  to  be 
compensated  for  the  deficits  it  had  met  in  the 
territory's  expenditures.  In  1920  a  commission 
fixed  this  sum  at  some  £4,000,000  for  Southern 
Rhodesia.  In  Northern  Rhodesia  the  deficit 
was  about  £1,250,000.  The  Company,  however, 
was  recognized  in  its  exclusive  rights  to  the 
mineral  lands  On  July  28,  1923,  the  rule  of 
the  chartered  Company  terminated  when  the 
Legislative  Council  sat  for  the  last  time  and  the 
Company's  claims  were  settled.  On  Sept.  12, 
1923,  it  was  announced  that  Southern  Rhodesia's 
status  was  that  of  a  self-governing  colony. 

RHONDDA,  DAVID  ALFRED  THOMAS,  VIS- 
COUNT (1856-1918).  British  colliery  owner 
and  food  controller  in  the  World  War,  born  in 
Aberdare,  Wales,  graduated  at  Cambridge  in 
1880.  Soon  after  leaving  college  he  became 
prominent  in  the  Welsh  coal  fields  and  also  in 
Liberal  politics.  He  was  elected  to  Parliament 
in  1888,  and  remained  a  member  for  twenty- 
two  years.  His  sympathy  with  the  miners  and 


BHONE  CANAL 


1127 


RICKETS 


his  extraordinary  ability  made  him  a  leader  in 
industrial  circles  in  South  Wales.  Shortly 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  he  went  to 
America  to  negotiate  war  contracts  for  the 
British  government.  In  1917,  at  Lloyd  George's 
urgent  request  he  accepted  the  post  of  Food 
Controller,  and  administered  that  office  with  con- 
spicuous success,  and  was  created  a  viscount  in 
recognition  of  bis  services. 

BHONE  CANAL.     See  CANALS. 

BICE,  ELMER  L.  (1802-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can playwright,  born  in  New  York  City,  who 
graduated  cum  laude  from  the  New  York  Law 
School  He  wrote,  among  other  successful 
plays,  On  Trial  (1914)  ;  The  Iron  Cross  (1917)  ; 
For  the  Defense  (1919);  Wake  Up  Jonathan, 
\\ith  Hatche  Hughes  (1921),  It  is  the  Law 
(1022);  and  The  Adding  Machine  (1923) 

BICE  INSTITUTE.  An  institution  of  the 
higher  education  at  Houston,  Texas,  founded  in 
1912  The  enrollment  between  1914  and  1924 
practically  trebled,  with  384  students  in  the 
former  year  as  compared  with  1050  in  the  lat- 
ter, and  a  faculty  of  40  as  compared  with  65. 
Kleven  scholarships  were  endowed  and  a  resi- 
dent lectureship  in  civics  and  philanthropy  es- 
tablished in  1918  through  private  support.  In 
1920  and  1922,  similar  provision  was  made  for 
annual  lectureships  in  public  affairs  and  music 
The  construction  of  a  new  chemistry  labora- 
tory to  cost  in  excess  of  $600,000  was  begun  in 
1923.  President,  Edgar  Odell  Lovett,  Ph.D., 
LL.D. 

BICHABDS,  THEODORE  WILLIAM  (1808-  ). 
An  American  chemist  (see  VOL  XIX)  During 
the  War  be  was  a  member  of  the  National  Re- 
search Council  and  served  as  consulting  chemist 
to  the  War  Department  and  Bureau  of  Mines. 
In  recognition  of  his  later  achievements  in  chem- 
istry he  was  awarded  the  Franklin  medal  (1916) 
and  the  Nobel  prize  in  chemistry  (1916).  He 
became  president  of  the  American  Chemical 
Society  (1914),  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  (1917),  and  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  ( 1919- 
21). 

BICHABDSON,  ERNEST  GLADSTONE  (1874- 
).  An  American  bishop,  horn  at  St.  Vin- 
cent, W.  TM  and  educated  at  Dickinson  Col- 
lege and  Yale  University.  In  1896  he  was  or- 
dained to  the  Methodist  "Episcopal  ministry  and 
was  a  pastor  of  chuichcs  in  Wallingford,  Conn., 
and  New  York  City  until  1920,  when  he  was 
elected  bishop  Bisliop  Richardson  was  trustee 
of  Clark  University  and  several  other  educa- 
tional institutions 

BICHABDSON,  ROLAND  GEORGE  DWIOHT 
(1&78-  )  An  American  mathematician, 
born  at  Dartmouth  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  edu- 
cated at  Yale  University  and  at  Gottingen. 
During  1904-07  he  was  instructor  in  mathe- 
matics at  Yale  and  then  transferred  to  Brown, 
where  he  became  professor  (1915)  and  head  of 
the  department  of  mathematics.  In  1918  he  also 
served  as  a  lecturer  at  the  summer  school  of 
Chicago  University.  His  specialty  was  mathe- 
matical analysis;  he  contributed  results  of  his 
researches  to  mathematical  journals. 

BICHET,  CHARLES  (1H50-  ).  A  French 
physiologist  (see  VOL  XIX).  Professor  Bichet 
published  the  following  works  after  1914:  War 
Nursing,  English  translation  (1918):  ]/ffomme 
Stupide  (1919):  TrnitS  fie  Physiologic  Mfdico- 
chirurgicate,  with  diaries  Richet,  Jr.  (1921); 
Traite  de  Metapsychique,  an  important  work  on 


the  occult  (1022),  translated  into  English  as 
Thirty  Years  of  Psychical  Research  (1923). 

BICHMOND.  The  capital  and  largest  city 
of  Virginia.  The  population  rose  from  130,833 
in  1910  to  171,667  in  1920  and  to  188,833  by  esti- 
mate of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for  Apr.  1, 
1924.  The  city  charter  was  changed  in  1919. 
The  mayor,  instead  of  the  bicameral  council, 
was  authorized  to  appoint  the  heads  of  six  de- 
partments— law,  finance,  works,  welfare,  utili- 
ties, and  safety—- while  the  voters  were  to  elect 
the  city  comptroller  and  city  attorney.  An  ad- 
visory board  was  created.  During  the  10  years, 
a  bridge  2278  feet  long  was  built  over  the  James 
ttiver  at  a  cost  of  $477,774.  The  fire  depart- 
ment was  reorganized  and  zoning  regulations 
were  adopted.  Capital  invested  in  manufactur- 
ing rose  from  $37,000,000  in  1914  to  $97,690,000 
in  1923,  and  the  value  of  the  output  from  $98,- 
177,000  to  $250,000,000.  Bank  clearings  in- 
creased from  $420,000,000  in  1914  to  $2,607,- 
658,000  in  1923. 

BICKENBACKEB,  EDWARD  VERNON 
(1890-  ).  An  American  aviator,  born  at 
Columbus,  Ohio.  He  was  for  many  years  well 
known  as  an  automobile  racer  and  won  many 
championships.  In  1917  he  went  to  France  as 
a  member  of  the  motor  car  staff  of  the  army 
and  in  the  same  year  was  transferred  to  the  Air 
Service,  with  which  he  served  for  a  time  as 
engineering  officer.  He  was  appointed  command- 
ing officer  of  the  94th  Aero  Pursuit  Squadron, 
the  first  American  unit  active  on  the  western 
front,  and  in  this  service  he  destroyed  26  enemy 
planes.  He  was  the  first  commanding  officer  to 
conduct  his  own  squadron  into  Coblenz  and  at 
the  end  of  the  War  retired  with  the  rank  of 
major.  He  recened  the  Distinguished  Service 
Cross,  the  Croix  de  Guerre,  and  other  decora- 
tions. Following  his  military  career  he  or- 
ganized and  was  vice  president  of  the  TJicken- 
backer  Motor  Company.  He  wrote  Fighting  the 
Flying  Circus  (1919). 

BICKETS.  Within  the  10-year  period  1914- 
24,  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  this  af- 
fection has  undeigonp  many  changes.  To  quote 
Dr.  A.  F.  Hess  of  New  York,  more  has  been 
learned  during  this  period  than  in  the  pieced- 
ing  250  years  We  know  that  it  may  attack  the 
well-nourished  as  well  as  the  scantily  fed  child; 
and  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  entire  subject  of  diet 
is  now  known  to  be  of  much  less  significance 
than  the  absence  of  fresh  air,  sunshine  and 
exercise.  It  is  not  too  ranch  io  prophesy  that 
complete  child  hygiene  can  eradicate  the  disease 
which  flourishes 'in  the  most  civilized  lands,  but 
chiefly  in  the  industrial  centres,  where  child  hy- 
giene* is  so  unsatisfactory,  as  a  result  largely  of 
the  necessity  of  families  to  huddle  in  close 
quarters. 

With  the  discovery  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine 
it  was  hastily  assumed  that  rickets  was  a  de- 
ficiency disease  due  to  the  absence  of  this  growth 
agent,  but  this  view  has  been  disproved  in  va- 
rious ways  Thus  during  the  state  of  under- 
nourishment in  some  of  the  warring  states, 
where  fats  were  almost  lacking  in  the  diet,  there 
was  no  notable  increase  in  rickets  and,  more- 
over, as  stated,  the  latter  sometimes  develops  in 
the  well-nourished  child  Nevertheless  it  is 
probable  that  some  growth  agent  is  absent  from 
the  diet  and  that  this  absence  is  one  of  the  fac- 
tors in  the  production  of  rickets,  but  by  no 
means  the  sole  one.  Professor  McCollum  has 
even  isolated  his  so-called  vitamine  D,  which  he 


RIDDELL 


1 1 28 


RIVERA 


regards  as  the  missing  growth  agent,  and  which 
is  quite  distinct  from  the  fat-soluble  vitamine. 
This  principle  appears  to  be  concerned  in  the 
calcium  and  phosphorus  metabolism,  the  irregu- 
larity of  which  is  responsible  for  rickets.  With 
ideal  child  hygiene  the  need  of  a  vitamine  re- 
cedes to  the  background.  These  newer  teach- 
ings were  finding  corroboration  from  a  study  of 
rickets  in  Hindus  and  other  remote  peoples  and 
in  animals  The  Hindu  high-caste  child  with 
plenty  of  food  but  little  sun  and  exercise  de- 
velops much  more  rickets  than  the  low-cable 
child  who  gets  plenty  of  the  latter  but  scanty 
food.  Young  puppies  easily  develop  rickets  if 
confined  in  dark  barrels,  even  if  well  fed. 

BIDDELL,  GEORGE  ALLARDICE,  first  BARON 
(1865-  ).  An  English  newspaper  proprietor. 
He  acquired  large  newspaper  properties  in  Lon- 
don and  was  director  of  George  Newnes,  Ltd.; 
C.  Arthur  Pearson,  Ltd.,  and  several  other  cor- 
porations. He  represented  the  British  press  at 
the  Paris  Peace  Conference  in  1010-22  and  at 
the  Disarmament  Conference  in  Washington  in 
1921-22.  He  was  made  a  knight  in  1000  and 
baron  in  1020.  He  wrote  Rome  Things  That 
Matter  (1022). 

KIDDLE,  OSCAR  (1877-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can zoologist,  born  at  Cincinnati,  Ind.,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Indiana  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago.  He  was  a  teacher  of  biology 
at  the  Training  School  in  San  Juan,  Porto  Rico 
(1800-1001),  physiology  in  Central  High 
School,  St.  Louis  (1003-05);  assistant  (1004- 
07),  associate  ( 1907-08),  and  instructor  (1008- 
10)  in  physiology  at  the  University  of  Chicago; 
investigator  in  Europe  (1010-11);  research  as- 
sociate of  the  Carnegie  Institution  (1012-15); 
and  investigator  at  the  Carnegie  Station  for  Ex- 
perimental Evolution  (1914-  ).  He  prepared 
for  publication  the  results  of  extended  observa- 
tions on  the  genetics  of  pigeons  made  by  Pro- 
fessor Whitman  and  continued  these  researches 
especially  along  the  line  of  the  control  of  sex. 

RIFLES.     See  SMALL  ARMS. 

RIGA,  PEACE  OP.  See  G ALICIA;  POLAND; 
RUSSIA;  VILNA. 

RINDERPEST.  See  PHILIPPINES,  Agricul- 
ture; VETERINARY  MEDICINE. 

RINEHART,  MART  ROBERTS  (1870-  ). 
An  American  novelist  (see  VOL.  XX).  Her 
later  stories  include:  Tish  (1016)  ;  The  Altar  of 
Freedom.  (1017)  ;  Long1  lAve  the  King!  (1017)  : 
Bab,  a  Sub-Deb ;  The  Amazing  Interlude  (1018)  : 
Dangerous  Days  (1019)  :  More  Tish  (1021)  ;  and 
The  Breaking  Point  (1022).  She  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  very  successful  plays,  including  Tish 
(produced  in  Chicago,  1910)  ;  Bab  (New  York 
City,  1020)  ;  Spanish  Love  (produced  by  Maxinc 
Elliott,  1020)  and  The  Bat,  both  in  eollaJbora- 
tion  with  Avery  Hopwood  (New  York  City, 
1920)  ;  and  The  Breaking  Point  (1923). 

RIO  DE  ORO.  A  Spanish  pos-easion  and 
protectorate  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Africa. 
Area,  approximately  109,000  square  miles;  popu- 
lation (estimate),  100,000.  The  population, 
largely  Berber  and  nomadic,  was  as  yet  uncon- 
trolled in  1024.  Fishing  was  the  chief  economic 
resource. 

RIFLE  Y,  WILLIAM  ZEBINA  (1867-  ). 
An  American  economist  (see  VOL.  XX).  He 
was  made  director  of  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island, 
and  Pacific  Railway  (1917)  and  administrator 
of  labor  standards  for  the  War  Department 
(1918).  He  was  chairman  of  the  National  Ad- 
justment Commission  of  the  United  States  Ship- 


ping Board  (1910*20)  and  special  examiner  on 
consolidation  of  railways  for  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  (1920*22). 

RIPLEY  PLAN.     See  RAILWAYS. 

RIPON  COLLEGE.  A  coeducational,  un- 
denominational institution  at  Ripon,  Wis.,  found- 
ed in  1851.  The  enrollment  increased  from  249 
in  1016  to  about  401  (including  music)  in  1024; 
the  faculty  increased  from  22  to  32  members, 
and  the  library  from  22,000  to  27,467  volumes. 
The  student  enrollment  was  limited  by  act  of 
the  trustees  in  1023  to  500.  In  1024,  a  cam- 
paign was  started  to  raise  $600,000;  of  this 
sum  $100,000  was  to  pay  off  the  indebtedness  of 
the  college,  and  $500,000  was  to  be  used  an  a 
permanent  endowment.  President,  Silas  Evans, 
LL.D.,  D.D. 

BISLEB,  EOOUARR  (1873-  ).  A  French 
pianist,  born  at  Baden-Baden  in  Germany.  In 
1874  his  parents  settled  in  Paris,  where  he 
studied  at  the  Conservatory  under  Dimmer 
(piano)  and  Chabrier  (composition),  taking  the 
first  prize  for  piano  in  both  the  elementary  and 
the  advanced  class.  After  further  study  under 
Klindworth,  Stavenhagen,  and  d' Albert  he  made 
a  very  successful  de"but  in  Paris  (1804).  He 
later  'toured  all  Europe.  He  made  his  first 
American  tour  in  1023-24.  In  1006  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Conseil  Supe"rieur  of  the  Paris 
Conservatoire.  He  is  considered  one  of  the  very 
greatest  of  contemporary  pianists,  a  player  in 
the  grand  style,  withal  very  poetic,  with  a  tre- 
7nendous  technic  reverently  subordinated  to  the 
requirements  of  artistic  expression.  His  enor- 
mous repertoire  enables  him  to  give  complete 
cycles  of  various  composers'  works  (Beethoven, 
Bach,  Chopin,  Schumann). 

RITCHIE,  ALBERT  CABELL  (1876-  ).  An 
American  lawyer,  born  at  Richmond,  Va.,  and 
educated  at  Johns  Hopkins  University  and  in 
law  at  the  University  of  Maryland.  In  1808  he 
began  the  practice  of  law  in  Baltimore.  He  was 
city  solicitor  (1003-10)  ;  assistant  general  coun- 
sel of  the  Public  Service  Commission  of  Balti- 
more HOlO-13)  ;  Attorney  General  of  the  State 
(1016-20),  and  Governor  (1020-24).  From 
1007  to  1020  he  \\as  also  professor  of  law  at 
the  University  of  Maryland  Law  School.  During 
the  War  he  served  for  a  time  as  general  counsel 
for  the  War  Industries  Board.  He  was  the 
author  of  Municipal  Condemnation  in  Maryland 
(1004). 

RITSCHEL,  WILIIELM  (1864-  ).  An 
American  marine  painter  (see  VOL.  XX).  He 
was  elected  a  full  member  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy in  1014.  He  won  a  gold  medal  from  the 
National  Arts  Club  (1014)  and  a  gold  medal 
from  the  Panama-Pacific  International  Exposi- 
tion (1015).  During  the  next  year  he  was 
awarded  the  gold  medal  of  the  State  Fair  at 
Sacramento,  Cal.,  and  in  1918  the  gold  medal 
of  the  Philadelphia  Art  Club.  In  1021  he  won 
the  Ranger  Purchase  prize  from  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  and  the  Isidor  medal  from 
the  Salmagundi  Club  in  1023. 

RIVERA,  FERDINAND  PRIMO  DE,  MARQUIS  DE 
ESTELLA  (1871-  ).  A  Spanish  general  and 
dictator.  He  served  for  many  years  in  the  army 
and  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  members  of 
the  officers'  juntas.  He  served  for  a  time  as 
Minister  of  War,  resigning  in  1017  on  account  of 
differences  with  the  government  in  regard  to 
civilian  controllers  in  the  army.  He  undertook 
to  establish  a  National  Committee  of  Defense 
whose  programme  was  to  end  the  war  in  Mo- 


BIZA  KHAN 


1x29 


BOADS  AND  PAVEMENTS 


rocco  and  to  institute  a  searching  investigation 
into  charges  of  corruption  and  incompetency  in 
the  conduct  of  the  Moroccan  campaign.  He  was 
appointed  military  governor  of  Barcelona,  where 
he  took  effective  steps  against  the  syndicalists. 
He  made  effective  efforts  to  organize  the  leading 
officers  of  the  army,  and  in  September,  1023, 
declared  a  dictatorship  and  took  practical  pos- 
session of  the  government.  With  the  support  of 
the  King,  he  began  extensive  reforms,  but  hie 
failure  to  carry  on  effectively  the  campaign  in 
Morocco  threatened  his  downfall  in  the  latter 
part  of  1024  See  SPAIN. 

BIZA  KHAN  (SARD A R  SEPATI)  (  ?-  ). 
A  Persian  public  official  and  statesman.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  farmer  and  became  a  private 
soldier  in  the  Shah's  Cossack  bodyguard,  rising 
to  the  post  of  commander-in -chief  of  the  army 
in  February,  1021.  On  February  20  of  that 
year  the  military  forces  under  Riza  Khan  over- 
threw the  existing  ministry  and  set  up  a  new 
cabinet.  The  British  troops  left  the  capital  on 
May  10,  1921,  and  it  was  thought  that  the 
Bolsheviks  would  soon  overrun  the  country. 
Riza  Khan  and  bis  army  stood  in  the  way,  and 
the  invaders  were  expelled.  By  the  end  of  1022 
Riza  Khan  was  in  complete  control  of  the  gov- 
ernment and  strongly  supported  the  American 
finance  director,  Dr.  Millspaugb  (qv.).  The 
Sheik  of  Mohommerch  was  induced  to  pay  $100,- 
000  arrears  of  taxes,  to  arrange  the  payment  of 
$400,000  additional,  and  to  promise  to  contribute 
$150,000  a  year  regularly  Riza  Khan  has  been 
called  the  "strong  man"  of  Persia 

ROADS  AND  PAVEMENTS.  In  the  Unit- 
ed States,  the  Federal  Aid  Road  Act  of  1916, 
the  growth  of  automobile  and  motor  truck 
traffic,  and  railroad  conditions  during  and  after 
the  War  combined  in  the  interval  between  1014 
and  1024  to  make  the  building  of  improved  high- 
ways a  major  feature  of  engineering  and  public 
works  construction,  while  more  or  less  similar 
conditions  in  other  of  tbe  civilized  countries  of 
the  world  had  the  same  general  effect.  State 
highway  construction,  which  began  in  a  small 
way  in  Massachusetts  and  New  Jersey  in  the 
early  nineties,  had  by  1014  and  1015  attained 
large  proportions  in  some  parts  of  the  Union. 
These  activities  were  largely  increased  with 
the  modest  beginning  and  subsequent  large  ex- 
tension of  Federal  aid  through  tbe  appropria- 
tion of  money  from  the  United  States  Treasury 
and  the  large  degree  of  assistance  and  control 
in  road  design  and  the  supervision  of  road  con- 
struction under  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  in  the  Bureau  of  Public  Roads. 
Counties  as  well  as  States,  and  in  much  lesser 
degree  rural  towns  and  townships,  have  engaged 
in  highway  construction. 

As  early  as  1006,  New  York  State,  by  popular 
vote,  authorized  a  bond  issue  of  $50,000,000  for 


the  construction  of  a  State  highway  system  and 
in  1912  another  $50,000,000  was  authorized,  al- 
though the  latter  was  in  part  for  maintenance. 
In  1918,  the  voters  of  Illinois  authorized  a  $60,- 
000,000  bond  issue  to  provide  for  a  carefully 
laid  out  State  system  of  highways  In  the  same 
year,  Pennsylvania  provided  for  a  $50,000,000 
road  bond  issue.  In  1019,  California  voted  a 
$40,000,000  bond  issue  for  roads,  making  the 
third  issue  for  this  purpose,  with  a  total  of 
$73,000,000.  In  1920,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  and 
West  Virginia  voted  $75,000,000,  $60,000,000, 
and  $50,000,000.  respectively.  Since  that  date 
a  number  of  other  large  bond  issues  have  been 
voted  in  different  States,  including  $60,000,000 
in  Arkansas  in  1023.  In  November,  1024,  Illi- 
nois will  vote  on  an  additional  road  bond  issue, 
this  time  of  $100,000,000.  To  a  large  extent  the 
State  bond  issues  go  to  meet  the  Federal-aid 
requirement  that  the  States  provide  at  least  half 
the  cost  of  roads  toward  which  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment contributes.  In  addition,  the  States 
must  take  the  initiative  as  to  routes  and  other 
planning,  let  and  supervise  contract  work,  and 
after  construction  maintain  the  roads  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  government  or  else  subject 
themselves  to  denial  of  Federal  aid  in  the  future. 

All  the  State  work  done  under  the  Federal 
AU  Act  is  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Public  Roads  acting  for  the 
Department  of  Agriculture.  The  Federal  Aid 
Road  Act  of  Nov.  9,  1021.  which  has  been  the 
basic  act  for  Federal  aid,  requires  each  and 
every  State  receiving  Federal  aid  to  lay  out,  in 
conjunction  with  agents  for  the  Federal  govern- 
ment, a  State  highway  system  which  must  be  so 
planned  as  to  provide  for  interstate  connection. 
The  Federal  aid  roads  in  each  State  must  not 
exceed  7  per  cent  of  the  total  highway  mileage 
of  the  State  and  upon  these  roads  all  Federal  aid 
apportionments  must  be  expended.  The  State 
highway  systems  so  laid  out  are  divided  into 
primary  and  secondary  roads,  the  primary  not 
to  exceed  three-sevenths  of  the  total. 

The  act  of  1021  provided  that  the  several 
States  must  certify  the  mileage  of  their  high- 
ways as  of  Nov  1,  1021 — which  proved  to  be  a 
total  of  2,866,061  miles.  After  coordination  by 
means  of  conferences  between  the  Bureau  of  Pub- 
lic Roads  and  groups  of  ad,  a  cent  States,  the 
bureau  named  recommended  a  road  map  of  the 
United  States  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
This  map  was  published  Nov  1,  1923,  and  in- 
cluded 168,881  miles,  which  is  5.0  per  cent  of 
the  mileage  certified  as  of  Nov.  9,  1921. 

According  to  a  statement  submitted  to  a  con- 
gressional committee  bv  Thomas  H.  MacDonald, 
chief  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Public 
Roads,  up  to  Mar.  1,  1024,  there  had  been  com- 
pleted, since  the  Federal  Aid  Road  Act  of  1010 
went  into  effect,  a  total  of  33,036  miles  of  road 


MILEAGE  AND  AVERAGE  COST  PER  MILE    OF  FEDERAL  AID   ROADS  COMPLETED  TO 

MAR.  1,   1924  • 

Average 

Miles  Total  cost      Per  mile 

Types  Number       Percent         Amount        Percent 


Graded   and  drained                            .    . 

6,677 
3,507 

20.2 
10  6 

$7  hr-R 
7  Ii47 

90 
4,5 

Gravel     .        .  .          ... 

13,019 

39  4 

0  h-IJ 

22.6 

.    .  .       .           8Rf> 

2  7 

1H  248 

29 

Bituminous  macadam    

1.546 
939 

4.7 
2.8 

:tO,OH3 
33  872 

8.2 
5  6 

5,909 

17  9 

:?8  842 

40  4 

505 

1  5 

44  212 

3.9 

Rridren     

49 

0.2 

2.9 

TVrtftl      

38,086 

100  0 

190,034 

100.0 

•Fiffarea  compiled  by  United  States  Bureau  of  Public  Roads. 


ROADS  AND  PAVEMENTS 


2x30 


BOADS  AND  PAVEMENTS 


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BOADS  AND  PAY] 


under  the  Act  and  on  the  same  date  13,800  miles 
additional  were  under  construction  and  reported 
as  59  per  cent  complete.  This  made  a  total  of 
46,836  miles  completed  or  being  built  on  Mar.  1, 
1924  Estimates  of  the  mileage  of  improved 
highways  built  without  Federal  aid  indicate 
that  these  roads,  combined  with  the  Federal  road 
mileage  improved  or  under  construction,  would 
bring  the  total  up  to  60,000  miles  of  surfaced 
roads,  leaving  about  110,000  miles  of  the  Federal- 
State  system  yet  to  be  surfaced.  The  total  esti- 
mated cost  of  the  mileage  completed  and  under 
construction  is  $844,489,300,  of  which  $372,721,- 
900  is  from  the  Federal  aid  fund  The  table  on 
page  1128  shows  the  distribution  of  the  33,- 
036  miles  of  road  actually  completed  by  types  of 
surfacing  and  also  gives  the  average  total  cost 
per  mile  for  each  type. 

The  original  Federal  Aid  Road  Act  approved 
July  11,  1916,  authorized  Federal  aid  to  the 
extent  of  $5,000,000  for  the  fiscal  year  1917, 
with  increases  of  $5,000,000  a  year  for  the  next 
four  years,  when  the  amount  authorized  was 
$25,000,000.  The  second  Federal  Aid  Act  (Feb. 
28,  1919)  provided  an  additional  sura  of  $50,000,- 
000  for  the  fiscal  year  1918-19  and  $75,000,000 
eacli  for  the  next  two  fiscal  years,  thus  increas- 
ing the  total  authorized  Federal  contribution  to 
$65,000,000  for  1918-19;  $95,000,000  for  1919- 
20,  and  $100,000,000  for  1920-21.  The  revised 
programme  for  Federal  aid,  which  became  a  law 
Nov.  9,  1921,  provided  $75,000,000  for  the  fiscal 
year  1921-22  The  Federal  aid  programme  was 
continued  by  legislation  of  1922  so  as  to  author- 
ize Federal  aid  to  the  extent  of  $50,000,000  for 
1922-23;  $05,000,000  for  1923-24,  and  $75,000,- 


1x31 


BOADS  AND  PAVEMENTS 


ways  in  the  United  States  since  1904  was  set 
forth  in  a  statement  by  Mr.  MacDonald  before  a 
congressional  committee  on  Mar.  1,  1924.  The 
figures  available  before  tnose  for  the  year  1921 
were  scanty  and  apparently  were  largely  esti- 
mated. From  1904  to  1914,  the  "total  income 
for  all  rural  road  purposes"  increased  from 
about  $79,500,000  to  $240,250,000,  or  202  per 
cent.  The  earlier  total  includes  an  estimated 
value  of  about  $20,000,000  in  "statute  labor" 
("working  out  the  road  tax").  Mr.  MacDonald 
believed  that  in  1914  "statute  labor"  was  negli- 
gible, the  inefficiency  of  this  system  of  road  con- 
struction having  become  generally  recognized  by 
that  time.  The  total  disbursements  in  1921  for 
highway  purposes  by  States,  counties,  town- 
ships, and  districts  amounted  to  $1,036,588,000, 
of  which  $623,346,110,  or  60  per  cent,  were  local, 
and  $413,241,662,  or  40  per  cent,  State  contribu- 
tions The  total  sum  regardless  of  origin  was 
distributed  as  follows:  for  "construction,"  $626,- 
965,000,  or  605  per  cent;  "maintenance,"  24 
per  cent,  and  payment  of  principal  and  interest 
on  highway  bonds,  8.6  per  cent.  Complete  data 
for  1922  were  not  available,  but  indicated  a  cor- 
responding total  expenditure  of  $1,011,000,000. 
At  the  beginning  of  1923  the  various  States  re- 
ported that  $943,340,000  was  available  for  high- 
way work  during  the  year.  The  figures  thus 
far  given  in  this  paragraph  do  not  take  into 
account  Federal  aid.  Taking  Federal  aid  into 
account  the  total  income  for  all  rural  road  pur- 
poses from  Federal,  State,  county,  township,  and 
district  governments  for  the  year  ending  Dec. 
31,  1921,  was  $1,149,437,896,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows: 


Bonds    .  .                 .  .       .        

Amount 

Per  cent 
381 

Federal  and  forest  road  aid  .... 

79  333  °26 

R  o 

Motor  vehicles     fees                   $118,942,706     

gasoline    tax          3,683,460     

122  G26  166 

10  6 

415  080  010 

36  2 

All  other  sources   .       ... 

...               93  (,89  221 

8  ° 

Total                     .       .                

....            .         $1  149  437  H96 

100  0 

000  for  1924-25.  The  sums  authorized  and 
actually  becoming  available  by  allotment  vary 
materially  year  by  year  owing  to  a  variety  of 
conditions,  the  essential  one  of  which  is  that 
the  States  ha\e  to  meet  certain  conditions  of  the 
Federal  Aid  Koad  Act  before  money  can 
be  allotted  to  them  by  the  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture under  the  recommendation  of  the  Bureau 
of  Public  Heads  The  actual  sums  available  for 
new  construction,  the  cost  of  the  Federal  aid 
road  work  put  under  construction  and  the  mile- 
age of  road  built  during  the  several  fiscal  years 
since  Federal  aid  was  established  are  shown  by 
the  accompanying  table. 


(For  distribution  of  Federal  aid  funds  by  States, 
mileage  built  by  States  under  Federal  aid,  and 
many  other  details,  see  various  annual  reports 
of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Public  Roads.) 
How  far  the  expenditures  on  rural  roads  exceed 
those  for  city  streets  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  figures  given  by  Mr.  MacDonald  show  that 
against  the  $1,037,000,000  expended  on  rural 
roads  during  the  year  1921,  for  streets  in  urban 
places  of  a  population  of  2500  and  over  that  re- 
ported (2207  out  of  a  total  of  2788)  there  was 
spent  slightly  over  $332,000,000  (presumably  for 
construction  and  general  maintenance)  and  $51,- 
000,000  on  street  cleaning  and  lighting. 


FEDERAL  AID  AVAILABLE,  COST  OP  WORK  UNDER  CX)NSTRUCTION  AND  MILES  OF  ROAD  BUILT0 


Year 

Available  for          Put  Under  Construction 
Ntw  Construction           During  Fiscal  Year 

Miles  of 
Road  Built 

July 

1     1917                                                   .             .... 

$  4,850,000                         

'l3 
177 
1,493 
5,787 
10,247 
8,820 
6,500 

0 

1918             .                                              

14,550,000                     $  3,144,387 
74,456,000                        19,344,675 
147,261,000                       81,436,032 
162,825,000                       81,366,057 
154,584,000                       56,777,810 
146,556,000                        77,492,872 
132,438,000                       91,000.000  * 
114,563,000                       94,000,000  » 

1919        .                            .                 

1920    ...             .  .           

1921                                                          .           ... 

1922    

1923                                                                       .... 

1924                                      .                .         

1925                        .                                    .... 

*  Ofticial  Statement  by  Bureau  of   Public  Roads,  Mar.    1,   1924. 
» Estimated.     °  First  8  months  of  the  year  only. 


Expenditures  for   Bural   Highways.    The 
immense  increase  in  expenditures  for  rural  high- 


British  Isles.     The   total  mileage  of   roads 
and  streets  in  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland,  ac- 


BOAD8  AND  PAVEMENTS 


1x3* 


BOBIK 


cording  to  a  "revised  classification,  1923-24,"  is 
given  as  177,321  in  The  Empire  Municipal  Di- 
rectory and  Year  Book,  1924-25  (London).  Of 
these  23,230  miles  are  listed  as  Class  I  and  14,- 
739  miles  as  Class  II,  a  distinction  not  defined. 
For  England  and  Wales  the  total  road  mileage 
is  152,410,  thus  divided:  County  Council  (a) 
main  roads,  28,764  miles,  and  (b)  district  roads, 
110,928,  making  a  combined  total  of  139,693 
miles;  County  Boroughs,  10,560  miles;  Metro- 
politan Boroughs  and  London  County  Council, 
2158  miles.  The  Scottish  total  of  24,911.6  miles 
is  divided  into  23,948.4  in  counties  and  963.2 
in  burghs. 

Canadian  Boad  Construction.  Canada,  in 
1921,  authorized  $20,000,000  of  Dominion  aid  to 
provincial  road  construction,  available  during 
five  years.  The  Dominion  Commissioner  of 
Highways  reported  that  in  1922  there  had  been 
put  under  construction  5786  miles  of  improved 
roads  in  Canada  at  a  cost  of  $40,000,000  to  the 
Dominion  and  provinces. 

Materials  and  Design.  The  leading 
materials  used  in  the  construction  of  both  rural 
improved  road  surfaces  and  city  pavements  did 
not  change  much  in  the  interval  between  1914 
and  1924,  but  there  have  been  marked  changes  in 
the  relative  extent  to  which  the  various  types  of 
pavement  are  employed  as  well  as  in  the  various 
elements  of  design,  both  to  meet  changes  in 
burden  upon  roaa  surfaces  and  pavements  due 
to  the  shift  from  horsedrawn  to  motor  vehicles, 
the  rapidly  increasing  number  and  weights  car- 
ried by  the  latter.  A  world-wide  view  would 
show  that  many  large  and  important  countries 
of  the  world  still  have  practically  nothing  but 
dht  roads  and  rude  trails  Even* in  the  United 
States  and  some  other  highly  civilized  countries, 
by  far  the  larger  percentage  of  the  total  mileage 
of  highways  still  remain  with  only  the  natural 
earth  as  the  surface  over  which  the  vehicles 
pass  or  at  best  have  been  improved  with  gravel 
surfacing. 

In  the  cities  of  the  United  States  and  many 
other  civilized  countries  there  is  still  a  consider- 
able percentage  of  dirt  streets  and  much  gravel 
or  waterbound  macadam  surfacing,  neither  of 
these  surfacings  being  fit  to  stand  heavy  traffic. 
For  both  rural  highways  and  city  streets  where 
macadam  is  still  being  put  down,  the  water- 
bound  macadam  is  being  superseded  by  bitumi- 
nous-bound. Concrete  in  both  country  and  city 
is  being  used  more  and  more  extensively  for 
pavements  and  rural  highway  surfaces,  with 
steel  reinforcement  under  the  heaviest  loading 
in  some  cases.  Such  surfacing  is  used  quite  ex- 
tensively in  some  parts  of  the  country,  for  both 
rural  roads  and  city  streets,  the  degree  of  use 
depending  considerably  upon  proximity  to 
paving-brick  centres  of  manufacture.  Sheet  as- 
phalt surfacing  is  still  in  high  favor  for  city 
streets  in  some  sections  of  the  country.  For 
very  heavy  traffic  citv  streets  granite  blocks  are 
still  extensively  used,  but  their  greater  rough- 
ness as  compared  with  other  readily  available 
pavements  is  against  them.  Creosoted  wood- 
block pavement  has  not  made  the  progress  indi- 
cated some  vears  ago,  owing  in  part  to  diffi- 
culties experienced  with  swelling  and  heaving 
under  some  conditions  and  also  to  the  increased 
cost  of  the  best  classes  of  material  for  wood- 
block pavement. 

Standardization.  Standardization  in  paving 
material  and  construction  has  made  marked 
progress.  Standard  specifications  for  various 


kinds  of  paving  have  been  framed  by  committees 
of  the  American  Society  of  Municipal  Improve- 
ments and  adopted  by  the  society  on  letter 
ballot.  Through  the  cooperation  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Commerce,  road  and  pav- 
ing engineers  and  manufacturers  of  the  varieties 
of  paving  brick  were  reduced  from  66  to  7  in 
1922,  then  to  6  in  1923  and  to  5  early  in  1924. 
Likewise  grades  of  asphalt,  used  for  paving,  were 
reduced  in  number  from  88  to  9  in  1923,  as  based 
on  the  penetration  test  used  to  show  relative 
hardness. 

Cleaning  and  Snow  Removal.  For  machine 
cleaning  of  streets,  motor-driven  vehicles  with 
or  without  pick-up  attachments  are  increasing 
in  degree  of  use.  Hand  cleaning  is  still  con- 
sidered to  have  material  advantages  but  lessens 
in  importance  with  the  diminishing  extent  of 
use  of  horses.  Snow  removal  both  from  city 
streets  and  from  long  stretches  of  rural  high- 
way is  becoming  increasingly  common  to  meet 
the  demands  of  motor-vehicle  traffic.  Snow 
plows  and  sweepers  are  employed,  together  with 
mechanical  means  of  loading  the  snow  into 
motor  or  other  vehicles  for  being  carted  away. 

Bibliography.  Recent  new  books  or  revised 
editions  of  important  old  ones  include:  Harper 
and  Bonney,  Handbook  for  Highway  Engineers 
(New  York)  ;  Blanchard,  American  Highway 
Engineers9  Handbook  (New  York)  ;  Harger,  Lo- 
cation, Grading  and  Drainage  of  Highuays  and 
also  Rural  Highways  (New  York)  ;  Agg,  Con- 
struction of  Roads  and  Pavements  and  also 
American  Rural  Highways  (New  York)  ;  Baker, 
Roads  and  Pavements  (New  York);  Boulnois, 
Modern  Roads  ( London )  ;  Beason,  City  Pave- 
ments (New  York)  ;  Chatburn,  Highuiays  ant! 
Highway  Transportation  (New  York)  ;  White, 
Motor  Transportation  of  Merchandise  and  Pas- 
sengers (New  York)  ;  Holt,  The  Ituieau  of  Pub- 
lic Roads  (Washington) ,  No.  26  of  Service  Mono- 
graphs of  the  United  States  government.  See 
also  CITY  PLANNING. 

BOBEBTS,  KENNETH  LEWIS  (1885-  ). 
An  American  writer,  born  at  Kennebunk,  Me., 
and  educated  at  Cornell  University  From  1909 
to  1917  he  was  a  reporter  and  special  writer  on 
the  Boston  Post.  In  1915-18  he  was  a  member 
of  the  staff  of  Life  (New  York).  In  the  War 
he  served  as  captain  of  the  Intelligence  Section 
of  the  Siberian  Expeditionary  Force  and  from 
1919  to  1921  was  foreign  correspondent  in  Cen- 
tral Europe  and  the  Balkans  for  the  Saturday 
Evening  Post,  and  Washington  correspondent  for 
the  same  magazine  from  1921.  He  wrote  Eu- 
rope's Morning  After  (1921);  Why  Europe 
Leaves  Home  (1922)  ;  and  other  books. 

BOBEBTSON,  SIB  WILLIAM  ROBKRT 
(1860-  ).  A  British  soldier.  He  was  quar- 
termaster-general at  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
War  and  in  that  office  did  efficient  service  in 
outfitting  troops  sent  to  France.  In  1915  he 
was  appointed  Chief  of  the  General  Staff  of  the 
British  Expeditionary  Force  and  from  1915  to 
1918  was  Chief  of  the  Imperial  General  Staff 
In  February,  1919,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
eastern  command  and  became  general  officer  in 
June  of  that  year,  with  command  of  troops  in 
Great  Britain.  In  1919-20  he  commanded  the 
Rhine  Army  in  Germany.  He  was  created  a 
baronet  in  1919  and  became  a  field-marshal  in 
1920.  He  received  many  decorations  and  hon- 
ors. In  1922  he  published  a  volume  of  remi- 
niscences. 

BOBIN,     LftoN      (1866-        ).    A     French 


ROBINS 


philosopher  and  classical  scholar,  born  at  Nantes, 
and  educated  at  the  Sorbonne.  He  taught  at  the 
College  de  Compiegne  and  the  Lycees  of  Ven- 
ddme  and  Angers  and  was  made  professor  at 
the  Sorbonne  in  1918.  His  first  publication  on 
the  Platonic  theory  of  ideas  and  numbers,  ac- 
cording to  Aristotelian  sources,  gave  him  an 
international  reputation.  His  other  works  in- 
clude La  Thcorie  Platonicienne  de  V  Amour 
M908)  and  Etude  sur  la  Signi/iancc  et  sur  la 
Place  de  la  Physique  dans  la  Philosophic  de 
Platon  (1919).  He  was  also  the  author  of 
studies  published  in  the  Revue  Philosophique, 
the  Revue  de  Mttaphysique  and  the  Revue  des 
Etudes  Crecqites. 

ROBINS,  RAYMOND  ( 1873-  ) .  An  Ameri- 
can social  economist  (see  VOL.  XX)  In  1916 
he  was  chairman  of  the  Progressive  National 
Convention  and  also  leader  of  the  national 
Christian  evangelistic  social  campaign  in  Ameri- 
can universities  and  colleges  (1915-16).  He 
was  Commander  of  the  Red  Cross  Mission  to 
Russia  in  1917  and  1918. 

ROBINSON,  EDWIN  ARLINGTON  (1869-  ). 
An  American  poet  (see  VOL  XX).  He  con- 
tinued to  produce  poetry  of  high  merit  during 
the  decade  1914-24.  His  later  books  include 
t\\o  plnvH,  Van  Zorn  (1914)  and  The  Porcupine 
(1910).*  He  wrote  also  The  Man  Against  the 
Sky,  poems  (1915);  Launcelot,  a  poem  (1920); 
The  Thr(c  Taverns,  poems  (1920);  Avon's 
llaricst,  poems  (1921);  and  Collected  Poems 
(1021) 

ROBINSON,  JAMIS  HAK\EY  (1863-  ). 
An  American  educator  and  author  (see  VOL. 
XX).  He  was  professor  of  history  at  Columbia 
from  189r»  to  1919,  when  he  resigned  to  organ- 
ize and  lecture  at  the  New  School  of  Social  Re- 
search in  New  York  City  From  1911  to  1920 
he  was  associate  editor  of  The  American  His- 
torical Itcvieu.  His  later  books  include  Afe- 
dia'ial  and  Modern  Times  (1915);  and  The 
Mind  in  the  Making,  (1921).  The  latter,  a  re- 
markable study  of  the  development  of  the  hu- 
man intellect,  contained  many  radical  theories 
vhioli  caused  much  discussion.  It  was  one  of 
the  most  widely  read  nonfiction  books  published 
in  many  years. 

ROBISON,  SAMTEI,  SIIKLBURNE  (18C7-  ). 
An  American  naval  officer,  who  graduated  from 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1888.  He 
served  during  the  Spanish-American  War  and 
filled  many  important  posts  on  land  and  at  sea. 
He  was  with  the  Bureau  of  Equipment  in  1909- 
10  and  with  the  Bureau  of  Steam  Engineering 
in  11)10-11.  Tn  1917-18  he  was  commander  of 
the  submarine  force  of  the  Atlantic  Fleet  and 
in  191K-19  a  member  of  the  Naval  Armistice 
Commission.  In  1919  he  was  commandant  of 
the  Navy  Yard  in  Boston ,  and  from  1920  military 
governor  of  San  Domingo.  He  was  promoted  to 
be  i  ear-admiral  in  1918. 

ROBISON,  WILLIAM  FERKETTI  (1871-  ). 
An  American  clergyman  and  educator,  born  at 
St.  Louis,  and  educated  at  the  University  of 
St.  Louia  and  at  St.  Stanislaus  Seminary.  He 
joined  the  Society  of  the  Jesuits  in  1887  arid 
was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1902  He 
taught  in  several  institutions  and  in  1906-09 
was  vice  president  of  the  University  of  Detroit. 
President  Robison  was  appointed  professor  of 
ethics  and  natural  law  at  St.  Louis  University 
in  1009  and  became  its  president  in  1920.  Be- 
sides being  the  author  of  Christ's  Masterpiece 
(1918),  His  Only  Son  (1918),  and  The  Undying 


1X33 


ROCKEFELLER 


Tragedy  (1919),  he  was  widely  known  as  a  pul- 
pit orator  and  lecturer. 

ROCHESTER.  The  third  city  in  size  in 
New  York  State.  The  population  increased  34.4 
per  cent  from  220,087  in  1910  to  295,750  in  1920 
and  to  317,867  by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census  for  1923.  Work  was  begun  in  1922  on 
transforming  the  dry  bed  of  the  Erie  Canal  into 
a  freight  and  passenger  subway  carrying  trolley 
tracks  and  railroad  tracks  connecting  lines  for- 
merly quite  distinct.  Eight  and  one-half  miles 
of  the  canal  were  laid  with  track;  of  this,  one 
mile  in  the  heart  of  the  city  was  covered  over 
and  a  street  built  above  it,  parallel  to  and  re- 
lieving the  congestion  of  Main  Street.  The  old 
aqueduct  which  formerly  carried  the  canal  over 
the  Genesee  River  was  reconstructed  to  carry 
both  the  subway  and  the  street.  The  completed 
work  was  to  cost  about  $6,000,000.  A  city  plan- 
ning bureau  was  created  in  the  office  of  the  city 
engineer  in  1917  The  superintendent  in  charge, 
who  was  appointed  by  the  city  engineer,  had 
power  to  make  a  city  plan,  to  pass  on  all  plot- 
ting for  the  opening,  widening,  or  extension  of 
streets,  and  to  establish  building  zones.  In 
1922,  the  Eastman  theatre,  the  third  largest  in 
the  United  States,  was  built  on  a  bequest  from 
Mr.  George  Eastman,  for  public  use  under  the 
management  of  the  Eastman  School  of  Music  of 
the  University  of  Rochester.  The  number  of 
manufacturing  establishments  increased  from 
1400  in  1915  to  1700  in  1924,  and  the  wages  paid 
from  $29,252,000  to  $110,000,000.  The  total 
capital  invested  increased  from  $95,708,000  in 
1915  to  $200,000,000  in  1924.  The  customs  re- 
ceipts rose  from  $321,914  in  1914  to  $786,505  in 
1922.  In  the  latter  year  imports  were  valued  at 
$5,413,338  and  exports  at  $8,176,443. 

ROCHESTER,  UwntRSiTY  OF.  A  coeduca- 
tional, nonsectarian  institution  at  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  founded  in  1850.  The  student  enrollment 
increased  from  531  in  1915  to  783  in  the  year 
1923-24.  The  faculty  increased  from  45  to  69 
in  the  same  period,  and  the  library  from  66,000 
to  100,000  volumes.  Mr.  George  Eastman  gave 
$4,500,000  to  found  the  Eastman  School  of 
Music  which  was  opened  in  1921  with  an  endow- 
ment of  $2,234,509.  In  1921,  he  gave  $4,000,000 
to  found  a  School  of  Medicine  and  Dentistry,  and 
the  General  Education  Board  gave  $5,000,000 
for  the  same  purpose.  Tiie  school  was  in  process 
of  organization  in  1924,  and  was  expected  to  be 
opened  to  students  in  the  fall  of  1925.  The 
university  received  $673,350  from  the  estate  of 
L.  P.  Ross  in  1917  to  found  the  department  of 
vital  economics.  It  conducted  a  campaign  in 
1919  for  $1,000,000  additional  endowment  to 
be  used  to  cancel  indebtedness  contracted  during 
the  war  years  to  the  amount  of  $60,000,  to  add 
$100,000 'to  the  library  fund,  and  to  increase 
the  salaries  of  professors.  Friends  of  the  uni- 
versity proposed  to  conduct  a  campaign  in  1924 
to  secure  $10,000,000  to  provide  for  building  a 
new  college  for  men  on  a  site  adjacent  to  the 
new  Medical  School  property  arid  to  provide  for 
$5,000,000  additional  endowment.  The  old 
campus  was  to  be  used  for  a  women's  college. 
President,  Rush  Rhees,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

ROCKEFELLER,  JOHN  DAVISON,  JB. 
(1874-  ).  An  American  capitalist  (see  VOL. 
XX).  He  continued  active  in  business  and 
philanthropy  during  the  decade  1914-24.  As 
director  of  the  Colorado  Fuel  and  Iron  Company, 
he  encountered  labor  troubles  in  its  mines.  He 
had  a  careful  investigation  made  in  the  in- 


BOCKEFELLEB  FOUNDATION 


"34 


BOGEBS 


dustrial  troubles  there,  and  largely  as  a  result 
of  his  efforts  peace  was  restored.  He  con- 
tributed large  sums  of  money  to  various  causes 
and  was  especially  active  in  church  and  Sunday 
school  activities 

BOCKEFELLEB  FOUNDATION.  An  or- 
ganization chartered  by  special  act  of  the 
New  York  Legislature  on  May  14,  1913.  While 
the  chartered  purpose  is  broadly  stated  as  ''the 
well-being  of  mankind  throughout  the  world," 
the  work  of  the  Foundation  has  bec6me  chiefly 
centred  on  public  health  and  medical  education. 
The  expenditures  during  the  first  decade,  1913 
through  1022,  have  amounted  to  $76,757,040, 
roughly  divided  as  follows:  public  health,  $18,- 
188,838;  medical  education,  $24,716,839;  war 
relief,  $22,298,541;  all  other  philanthropic  work, 
$10,445,628;  administration,  $1,107,174.  In 
carrying  on  its  various  activities,  the  Founda- 
tion expended  all  its  income  from  year  to  year, 
and  in  addition  $17,500,000  of  its  general  fund 
or  principal.  A  further  sum  of  $15,500,000, 
payable  in  future  years,  was  pledged  to  various 
medical  schools  and  public  health  projects.  Con- 
tributions outside  the  field  of  public  health  and 
medical  education  were  made,  for  the  most  part, 
during  the  War  and  in  the  earlier  years  of  the 
Foundation's  \\ork  befoic  its  policies  and  pro- 
gramme had  become  clearly  defined.  The  chief 
item  in  this  group  is  the  sum  of  $5,678,599  given 
to  various  charities  designated  by  the  founder 
before  lie  relinquished  on  July  19,  1917,  the 
right  which  he  had  originally  reserved  to  direct 
personally  the  use  of  a  part  of  the  income.  A 
million  dollars  was  given  to  Herbert  Hoover's 
relief  work  in  Europe  and  another  million  to 
make  possible  the  Palisades  Interstate  Park. 

The  International  Health  Board,  established 
as  a  department  of  the  Foundation  in  1913, 
sought  to  promote  public  health  throughout  the 
world  by  demonstrating  methods  and  costs  of 
controlling  certain  diseases,  notably  hookworm 
disease,  malaria,  and  yellow  fever;  by  fostering 
the  growth  of  governmental  health  agencies ;  and 
by  encouraging  the  formation  of  schools  of  hy- 
giene. In  carrying  out  this  programme,  the 
Board  cooperated  with  27  American  States  and 
50  foreign  governments.  Its  annual  expenditures 
increased  from  $133,237  in  1914  to  $1,842,249  in 
1922.  In  medical  education  a  special  feature 
was  the  work  of  the  China  Medical  Board,  in 
building,  equipping,  and  maintaining  a  modern 
medical  centre  in  Peking.  The  Board  made  ap- 
propriations to  other  medical  schools  and  to  32 
hospitals,  as  well  as  to  the  fostering  of  scientific 
education  in  China.  Substantial  contributions 
were  more  recently  made  to  centres  of  medical 
teaching  in  London  and  Brussels.  The  Founda- 
tion has  also  cooperated  in  the  development  of 
medical  education  in  North  and  South  America, 
western  and  central  Europe,  the  Philippines, 
Hong  Kong,  and  Bangkok.  See  MALABIA;  YEL- 
LOW FEVER. 

BOCKEFELLEB  INDUSTRIAL  BEPBE- 
SENTATION  FLAN.  See  LABOR  ARBITRA- 
TION. 

BOCKFOBD  COLLEGE.  A  nonsectarian 
college  for  women,  founded  in  1849  at  Rockford, 
111.  The  student  enrollment  increased  from  242 
in  1914  to  372  in  1923-24,  plus  121  students  in 
the  afternoon  and  evening  courses,  the  faculty 
was  increased  from  39  to  45  members,  and  the 
annual  income  from  all  sources  from  $109,391 
to  $225,000.  In  1920,  a  system  of  afternoon 
and  evening  courses  for  non-matriculated  adult 


students,  especially  teachers,  was  inaugurated; 
and  in  1923,  a  department  of  religious  education 
was  established.  The  salaries  of  the  instructors 
rose  from  $35,000  in  1919  to  $95,000  in  1923-24. 
In  1923,  the  Hobart  W.  Williams  Student  Aid 
Trust  Fund  of  $200,000  and  the  Beattie  Student 
Aid  Fund  were  received  by  the  college.  It  was 
also  engaged  in  raising  $100,000  in  1924  to 
satisfy  the  conditions  of  a  gift  of  $135,000  from 
the  General  Education  Board;  the  completed  en- 
dowment was  to  be  $850,000.  A  new  dormitory 
with  swimming  pool  was  built.  William  Arthur 
Maddox,  Pn.D.,  was  inaugurated  as  President  in 
1919. 

BOCKS.     See  GEOLOGY. 

BODIN,   AUGUSTE.     See  SCULPTURE,   France. 

RODMAN,  Hroii  (1859-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can naval  ollicer,  born  in  Frankfort,  Ky.,  and 
graduated  from  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy in  1880.  He  served  in  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can War  and  afterward  performed  many  im- 
portant services  on  snore  and  afloat.  In  1910 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  General 
Board  of  the  Navy  Department,  and  in  the  year 
following  commanded  the  3d  Division  of  the  At- 
lantic Fleet.  In  November,  1917.  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  9th  Division  of  the 
battleship  force  and  with  it  seived  in  the  Brit- 
ish Grand  Fleet.  For  a  year  he  was  commander 
of  the  6th  Battle  Squadron  of  the  British  (irand 
Fleet  in  the  North  Sea.  In  1919  he  was  com- 
missioned admiral  and  commnnder-in-chief  of  the 
Pacific  Fleet.  He  received  decorations  and  hon- 
ors from  several  foreign  governments. 

BOGEB-DUCASSE,  JEAN-.JILFS  (1875-  ). 
A  French  composer,  born  at  Bordeaux.  He 
studied  composition  under  G.  Fan  re"  at  the  Paris 
Conservatoire  and  won  the  second  Prix  de  Rome 
in  1902.  After  1909  his  works  figiued  pi  emi- 
nently in  concerts  in  Paris  and  won  fa\or  out- 
side of  France.  He  is  one  of  the  neoclassicists 
whose  works  rest  on  the  solid  foundations  of  the 
classic  masters,  with  slight  impressionistic  color- 
ing. He  wrote  a  ballet,  Orphee  (Paris,  1913); 
for  orchestra,  Variations  Plaisantes  sur  un 
Theme  Grave,  Ruite  Fran^aise,  Prelude,  Petite 
*S'w?fr,  Preclude  d'un  Ballet,  Le  Joli  Jen  de  Furet 
(scherzo),  and  the  symphonic  poems  Karabande 
(with  solo  \oice),  Au  Jardin  <lc  Marguerite 
(with  soli  and  chorus),  Nocturne  de  Printemps 
and  Epithalame;  Hur  Quelques  Vers  de  J  ergilc 
for  chorus  and  orchestra;  a  stiing  quartet  and 
a  piano  quartet;  several  motets;  and  piano 
pieces. 

BOGEBS,  ROBERT  WILLIAM  (1864-  ). 
An  American  Orientalist  (see  VOL.  XX).  He 
was  instructor  at  Columbia  University  summer 
sessions  (1915-21)  and  professor  at 'Princeton 
and  Drew  Theological  Seminary.  His  later 
works  are:  History  and  Literature  of  the  He- 
brew People  (1917);  Oreat  Characters  of  the 
Old  Testament  (1920)  ;  and  Old  Testament  Les- 
son* (1921). 

ROGERS,  WILL  (1879-  ).  An  American 
actor,  orator,  and  writer,  educated  at  the 
Kemper  Military  School  at  Boonville,  Mo.  He 
made  his  first  appearance  on  the  stage  at  Keith's 
Union  Square  Theatre  in  New  York  City  in 
1905.  His  principal  successes  were  made  with 
the  Ziegfeld  Follies,  with  which  he  became  asso- 
ciated in  1907.  He  is  also  well-known  as  an 
after-dinner  speaker  and  journalist.  In  1924 
he  covered  the  meetings  of  the  Democratic  na- 
tional convention  very  cleverly  for  the  New 
York  Times. 


BOHLPS 

BOHLFS,  ROLAND  (1802-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can airplane  pilot,  born  in  Buffalo,  N  Y  He 
was  taught  to  fly  by  Victor  Carlsrom.  He  was 
in  charge  of  Curtiss  Field  in  Buffalo  for  a  year 
and  experimental  test  pilot  for  four  years  In 
1022  ho  held  the  seaplane  speed  record  and  that 
of  climbing  20,000  feet  in  10  minutes.  He  made 
many  altitude  flights  almost  equaling  the  world's 
record. 

BOHBBACH,  PAUL  (1860-  ).  A  Gor- 
man writer  (see  VOL.  XX).  Among  his  works 
published  in  the  decade  1014-24  are:  Die  Ce- 
sehiehle  der  Mcnachheit  (1014);  Russland  und 
Wir  (1015);  Weltpohtisches  Wanderluch 
(1015)  ;  Das  Baltenbuch  (1017)  ;  Woher  Kit  Kam 
(1010);  Pohtische  Ersiehung  (1010);  Die  lie- 
weise  fur  die  Verant'itvrtlichkeit  der  Entente  am 
Weltkrieg  (1020);  and  Gottes  Herrschaft  auf 
Erden  (1021) 

HOLLAND,  ROMATN  (I860-  ).  A  French 
writer  (see  VOL.  XX).  lie  received  one-fourth 
of  the  Nobel  Prize  in  literature  in  1015,  follow- 
ing the  completion  of  his  great  novel,  Jean- 
Christophc.  During  the  War  his  pacifism,  ex- 
pressed in  Au-dessus  dc  la  Melee  (19ir>),  in- 
curred the  displeasure  of  the  French  people,  and 
he  withdrew  to  Switzerland.  His  popularity  re- 
turned after  the  War,  and  he  published  several 
novels  which  further  increased  his  reputation. 
Other  writings  included  articles  on  Gandhi,  the 
Hindu  Nationalist  leader,  for  The  Century  Maga- 
zine. 

BOLSHOVEN,  JULIUS  (18r>8  )  A 

painter  and  teacher,  born  at  Detroit,  and  edu- 
cated at  Cooper  Union  and  the  Plassman  Acad- 
emy in  New  York  City.  He  also  studied  \\ith 
Hugo  Crola  at  Diisseldorf  Academy,  with  LoefTtz 
at  Munich,  in  Frank  Diueneck's  class  at  Flor- 
ence, and  in  the  Atolier  Toney  in  Paris;  Robert 
Floury  and  Bouguereau  were  among  his  teachers 
in  Paris.  He  founded  the  Rolshoven  life  classes 
in  Paris  and  London  with  international  at- 
tendance and  was  awarded  honors  and  medals 
in  Munich,  Paris,  Brussels,  Chicago,  Berlin, 
Buffalo,  St  Louis,  and  Florence  "The  Chioggia 
Fishing  Girl"  and  two  of  his  etchings  aie  in  the 
Cincinnati  Museum,  and  "The  Refectory  of  San 
Damaino,  Assisi,"  is  on  exhibition  at  the  Detroit 
Institute 

BOMAINS,  JULES  ("Louis  FARIGOULE") 
(1885-  ).  A  French  man  of  letters,  edu- 
cated in  the  French  universities.  He  became 
professor  of  rhetoric  at  a  provincial  lyce"e.  In 
the  meantime,  under  his  literary  pseudonym,  he 
acquired  a  reputation  as  one  of  the  most  vigor- 
ous writers  of  the  younger  generation  He  ac- 
cepted the  label  Unanimtsie  to  denote  the  school 
of  writing  which  he  championed.  This  appel- 
lation implied  an  all-pervading  sympathy  and 
participation  in  the  "collective  consciousness"  of 
the  sociologists.  Remains  is  the  author  of  the 
following  volumes  of  poetry:  Europe;  Le 
Voyage  des  Amants;  Amour,  Couleur  de  Paris; 
Vn  Etre  en  Marohe;  Odes  et  Pricres;  La  Vie 
Vnanime;  and  VArmce  dans  la  Ville.  His 
prose  works  and  novels  include:  Les  Copains; 
Donogoo-Tonfra,  ou  les  Miraeles  de  la  Science; 
Le  Jlourg  Rfgenerf;  Puissances  de  Paris;  Lu- 
cienne ;  I/or*  de  Quelqu'itne;  and  Sous  les  Quais 
de  la  Villette.  In  addition  he  wrote  two  plays, 
Cromedeyre-le-Vieil,  and  M.  Le  Trouhadec  Saisi 
par  la  Dtbauche. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHUBCH.  Three 
Popes  reigned  in  the  decade  1014-24.  The  gen- 
tle, spiritual,  peasant  pontiff,  Joseph  Sarto, 


1135 


BOM  AN  CATHOLIC  CHUBCH 


whose  aim  was  "to  restore  all  things  in  Christ," 
died  of  a  broken  heart  in  August,  1914,  when  the 
War  brought  international  chaos.  Giacorao 
Delia  Chiesa,  "the  Peacemaker,"  was  elected  his 
successor  on  Sept.  3,  1914;  he  combined  the 
grace  of  IUH  predecessor  with  the  (statesmanship 
of  the  great  Leo  XIII  and  adopted  the  ideals  and 
policies  of  both  Almost  immediately  he  began 
a  series  of  encyclicals  and  appeals  to  the  warring 
powers  to  end  their  strife,  and  during  the  seven 
years  of  his  administration  he  never  relaxed  his 
efforts  to  restore  peace  and  concord  among  the 
nations.  His  Christmas  address  to  the  cardi- 
nals in  1921  on  the  five  great  social  plaguoR  of 
the  world  gained  immediate  and  universal  at- 
tention and  praise.  His  success  in  renewing 
diplomatic  relations  between  the  Vatican  and 
England,  France,  Holland,  Portugal,  Poland, 
Finland,  Luxemburg,  Serbia,  and  Monaco,  and 
the  advances  for  the  healing  of  the  breach  be- 
tween the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  wero 
notable.  The  internal  affairs  of  the  Church  re- 
ceived his  constant  attention.  Among  the 
special  results  were  the  promulgation  of  the  new 
Code  of  Canon  Law  (June  28,  1917)  and  the 
encyclicals  on  preaching;  True  Family  Life;  the 
Bible;  Dante;  and  Social  Welfare  Work.  The 
revocation  of  the  rule  in  regard  to  visits  of 
foreign  officials  to  the  Quirinal,  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  ceremonial  calls  at  the  Vatican  of 
the  rulers  of  Spain  and  England  (1923)  and 
President  Wilson  (Jan.  4,  1911*)  ;  the  promotion 
of  the  canonization  of  Joan  of  Arc,  Louise  de 
Gras,  Margaret  Mary  Alocoque,  Gabrielle  doll' 
Addolorata,  Oliver  Plunkett,  and  others  of  the 
beatified;  and  measures  for  the  reorganixation 
of  the  demoralized  church  in  Poland,  Austria, 
Germany,  and  Russia,  and  the  missions  of  tho 
Far  East  were  other  accomplishments.  HIH  of- 
ficial acts  followed  each  other  so  swiftly  that 
their  full  influence  and  significance  were 
barely  appreciated  when  he  died  on  Jan.  21, 
1922. 

The  American  cardinals  were  too  late  to  vote 
at  the  conclave  that  elected  Cardinal  Achilo  Rat- 
ti  his  successor  as  Pius  XI.  Cardinal  Failey 
by  accident  was  in  Europe  when  Benedict  XV 
was  elected  and  so  was  the  only  American  car- 
dinal who  ever  voted  for  a  Pope.  This,  however, 
will  not  happen  again,  for  by  order  of  Pius  XI, 
the  time  limit  for  the  opening  of  the  conclave  has 
boon  extended  to  15  days  to  enable  the  foreign 
cardinals  to  arrive  in '  Rome.  The  new  Pope, 
understanding  English  and  having  intimate 
family  and  social  connections  with  America,  and 
having  lived  in  England  and  acted  as  a  diplomat 
in  central  Europe,  was  especially  well  equipped 
to  take  up  the  renewed  appeal  for  a  peaceful 
adjustment  of  the  discord  of  the  nations  on  a 
basis  of  justice,  not  force.  His  wide  experience 
as  a  student  and  critical  historian  was  frequent- 
ly shown  in  his  discourses  and  encyclicals,  no- 
tably those  on  St.  Francis  de  Sales  (Jan.  30, 
1923);  St.  Thomas  (June  29);  St.  Bernard, 
(August  20)  ;  St.  Columbanus  (August  4)  ; 
Sopur  The'rese,  "the  Little  Flower'*  (February 
11);  the  Jesuit  Robert  Bellarmine  (May  19); 
and  the  letter  of  thanks  to  the  American  hier- 
archy (September  8)  for  their  aid  to  the  Papal 
Relief  Expedition  to  Russia.  This  expedition 
he  put  in  charge  of  tho  American  Jesuit,  tho 
Rev.  Edmund  A.  Walsh,  Regent  of  the  School  of 
Foreign  Service  at  Georgetown  University.  It 
distributed  more  than  $1,000,000  until  its  oper- 
ations ceased  because  of  the  attempt  of  the 


BOMAN  CATHOLIC  CHTJBCH 


1x36 


BOMAN  CATHOLIC  CHUBOH 


Bolsheviks  to  use  it  to  force  the  Vatican  to 
recognize  the  Soviet  government  (November 
1923).  Pius  XI  took  occasion  on  November  14 
and  Dec.,  10,  1923,  to  reaffirm  his  great  interest 
in  the  reconciliation  of  the  churches  of  the 
Eastern  rites,  and  officially  announced  a  pro- 
jected reopening  of  the  Vatican  Council  of  1869 
and  that  the  Holy  Year  would  be  proclaimed  on 
Dec.  30,  1924,  as  the  twenty-second  general  jubi- 
lee. The  year  closed  with  the  encyclical  permit- 
ting the  acquiescence  of  the  French  Episcopate 
in  the  new  association  laws  which  make  the 
position  of  the  church  in  France  more  stable  in 
the  eyes  of  the  law  and  therefore  more  satis- 
factory. 

In  August,  1917,  the  Catholic  hierarchy  organ- 
ized the  National  Catholic  War  Council  to  pro- 
mote the  spiritual  and  material  welfare  of  Cath- 
olics in  the  service  of  the  government  and  to 
direct  and  assist  all  Catholic  activities  in- 
cidental to  the  War.  It  coordinated  the  efforts 
of  9714  Catholic  men's  and  4959  Catholic 
women's  organizations  for  this  purpose.  When 
hostilities  ceased,  this  body  was  continued  as 
the  National  Catholic-  Welfare  Council,  at  a 
meeting  of  the  hierarchy  held  on  Sept.  24-25, 
1919,  from  which  was  issued  a  pastoral  letter 
setting  forth  the  problems  of  necessary  social 
reconstruction  As  the  name  chosen  for  the 
body  was  open  to  a  misinterpretation  in  a 
strictly  canonical  sense  it  was  changed  in  the 
following  year,  "on  ad\ice  from  Rome,  to  the 
National  Catholic  Welfare  Conference,  under 
which  title  it  continued  its  work  for  social  ac- 
tion, education,  immigration  welfare,  and  the 
proper  and  advantageous  solution  of  other  in- 
dustrial and  economic  problems  affecting  the 
Catholic  population,  and  which  are  discussed 
at  annual  meetings  of  the  bishops  held  in  Wash- 
ington. On  Nov.  27,  1917,  Cardinal  Hayes,  then 
bishop  auxiliary  of  New  York,  was  appointed  by 
the  Pope  chaplain  bishop  of  all  the  United 
States  forces  and  so  served  during  the  War.  He 
had  under  his  jurisdiction,  when  the  Armistice 
was  signed,  1023  chaplains  in  active  service  and 
500  approved  in  the  reserve  list.  The  Catholic 
quota  allowed  by  the  government  was  37.8  per 
cent  of  the  whole  corps. 

The  welfare  work  in  the  camps  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Knights  of  Columbus  who  were 
given  funds  for  war  service  work  to  the  amount 
of  $43,000,000,  and  expended  in  this  cause,  from 
June  16,  1917,  to  Oct.  7,  1923,  a  total  of  $37,- 
250,000.  The  balance  was  being  devoted  to 
social  reconstruction  work  and  education  and 
care  for  disabled  service  men.  The  membership 
of  the  Knights  of  Columbus  grew  to  770,324, 
organized  into  2399  separate  councils  (1923- 
24). 

The  Hierarchy.  The  official  data  of  the 
Catholic  hierarchy  given  in  the  Annuario  Pon- 
tifico  for  January,  1924,  states  that  there  were 
then  65  cardinals,  8  patriarchs,  335  archbishops, 
1354  bishops  (of  whom  480  were  titulars),  18 
delegates  apostolic,  191  vicars  apostolic,  and 
68  apostolic  prefects.  All  these  were  of  the 
Latin  rite.  Belonging  to  the  various  Oriental 
rites  were  6  patriarchs,  22  archbishops,  49  bish- 
ops, and  6  vicars  apostolic.  The  increases  since 
the  election  of  Pope  Pius  XI  were  2  archbish- 
oprics, 7  episcopal  sees,  23  apostolic  prefectures, 
20  apostolic  vicariates,  and  I  apostolic  delega- 
tion. Of  the  cardinals,  34  were  Italians  and  33 
of  other  nationalities.  Eight  countries  had  am- 
bassadors at  the  Vatican,  and  26  were  diplo- 


matically represented  there.  In  1913  there  had 
been  only  13  so  represented.  Sixty  cardinals 
died  during  the  decade  1914-24;  the  list  in- 
cludes such  familiar  names  as  Gibbons,  Farley, 
Falconio,  Martinelli,  Serafino  Vannutelli,  Fer- 
lati,  Van  Kopp,  Gotti,  Netto,  Amette,  Ferrari, 
Dubourg,  and  Agliardi.  The  new  creations  were 
49,  among  them  Dougherty  of  Philadelphia, 
Sbaretti,  Schulte,  Ratti  (Pope  Pius  XI),  Du- 
bois,  Begin  of  Quebec,  and  Laurenti. 

In  the  United  States  54  new  bishops  were  ap- 
pointed, and  46  died.  Five  new  dioceses,  El 
Paso,  Grand  Island,  Kearney,  Lafayette,  and 
Springfield  (111.)  were  organized.  The  older 
generation  of  the  hierarchy  disappeared  in  the 
passing  away  of  Cardinals  Gibbons  and  Farley; 
Archbishops  Riordan,  Quigley,  Spalding,  Blenk, 
Prendergast,  Keane,  and  Kennedy,  rector  of  the 
American  College;  and  Bishops  McFaul,  Chatard, 
Hennessy,  Beaven,  Fole-,  Harkins,  McDonald, 
O'Gorman,  Kudelka,  Donahue,  Burke,  Gabriels, 
Ryan,  and  Byrne.  Most  of  the  new  bishops  were 
comparatively  young  men.  A  radical  departure 
in  the  selection  of  candidates  for  vacant  Amer- 
ican sees  was  enacted  by  the  Pope  (1910).  The 
old  procedure  of  voting  for  three  names  at 
diocesan  convocations  was  abolished;  a  per- 
manent list  of  eligibles  was  to  be  filed  in  Rome 
every  two  years,  made  up  of  names  submitted 
by  the  bishops  of  the  United  States  of  those 
they  regard  as  most  worthy  to  be  their  suc- 
cessors. 

Archbishop  Fumasoni-Biondi  assumed  tho  of- 
fice of  apostolic  delegate  at  Washington  (Mar. 
6,  1923),  in  succession  to  Mgr.  Bonzano,  who 
was  created  a  cardinal,  and  Archbishops 
Dougherty,  Shaw,  Mundelein,  Hayes,  Curley,  and 
Daeger  were  added  to  the  Metropolitans. 

Statistics.  The  Official  Cat  hoi  w  Directory 
for  1924  gives  these  statistical  totals  for  the 
United  States:  17  archbishops  of  whom  2  arc 
cardinals  (2  more  cardinals  have  since  been 
added);  98  bishops;  23,159  churches  with  17,- 
146  priests;  105  seminaries  with  O'fciS  students; 
934  colleges  and  academies;  6388  parish 
schools,  with  1,988,370  children  cared  for;  310 
orphan  asylums  with  48,97C  inmates;  and  a 
grand  total  for  the  Catholic  population  of  18,- 
559,787. 

These  figures,  compared  with  those  for  the 
year  1914,  indicate  a  decennial  increase  of  2,250,- 
477  in  population;  9151  priests;  2185  churches; 
900  parish  schools,  with  532,170  children  cared 
for;  20  seminaries  and  2558  students;  25  col- 
leges and  academies;  and  32  orphanages,  with 
3234  inmates. 

Frequent  complaint  was  made  that  owing  to 
faulty  and  unscientific  methods  of  computation, 
this  total  of  the  Catholic  population  is  an  un- 
der estimate.  Archbishop  Canevin  of  Pitts- 
burgh, who  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
subject  in  1922,  contended  that  the  total  should 
be  22,733,254.  Other  authoritative  statisticians 
who  have  since  analyzed  the  table  which  he 
made  out  agree  with  him.  Seventy  per  cent  of 
the  Catholic  population  is  in  12  States,  and  the 
remaining  30  per  cent  is  widely  scattered  over 
the  others.  There  are  2230  congregations  made 
up  of  non -English -speak ing  people. 

The  Catholic  Directory  for  England  for  1924 
gives  the  Catholic  population  of  the  world  as 
324,328,408.  In  1914  it  was  estimated  as  301,172,- 
712.  The  Catholics  of  the  British  Empire  num- 
ber 14,827,312,  and  the  grand  total  for  English- 
speaking  countries  is  42,856,094. 


COPYRIGHT     BY     PACH     BROS..     NEW     YORK 


THEODORE   ROOSEVELT 


BtfNTGEN  BATS  1137 

BttNTCtEN  BAYS.  See  ALBEBS-SCHON- 
BERQ,  HEINBICH  ERXST. 

BOO8EVELT,  FRANKLIN  D(ELANO)  (1882- 
).  An  American  lawyer  and  public  of- 
ficial, born  at  Hyde  Park,  N.  Y.,  and  educated 
at  Harvard  University  and  the  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Law  School.  In  1007  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  He  was  active  in  Democratic  poli- 
tics and  a  member  of  the  State  Senate  in  1910 
but  resigned  in  1013  on  his  appointment  as  As- 
sistant Secretary  of  the  Navy,  which  he  held 
until  1920.  In  that  year  he  was  Democratic 
nominee  for  vice  president.  During  the  War 
he  acted  as  inspector  of  the  United  States  naval 
forces  in  European  waters  and  was  in  charge 
of  demobilization  in  Europe  in  1019.  Although 
not  an  active  candidate  in  the  Democratic  con- 
vention of  1924,  he  was  prominent  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  that  body. 

BOOSEVELT,  THEODORE  ( 1 858-1910 ) .  A 
former  President  of  the  United  States  (see  VOL. 
XX).  In  1914  he  conducted  an  exploring  ex- 
pedition in  Brazil,  where  he  endured  many  hard- 
ships. The  moat  spectacular  episode  of  this 
journey  was  the  descent  of  the  so-called  River 
of  Doubt,  which  had  hitherto  been  practically 
unexplored.  This  river  was  renamed  for  him 
(he  Kio  Teodoro.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  War 
his  sympathies  with  the  Allies  were  emphatical- 
ly and  repeatedly  expressed.  lie  strongly  de- 
nounced the  policy  of  strict  neutrality  laid  down 
by  President  Wilson  and  pointed  out  the  danger 
to  the  United  States  if  Germany  won.  In  191fi 
he  supported  Charles  E.  Hughes  for  President 
As  soon  as  the  United  States  had  declared  \sar, 
lie  offered  to  raise  a  division  and  to  lead  it  into 
France.  President  Wilson  refused  this  offer 
on  the  ground  that  it  would  be  inexpedient  to 
give  a  civilian  practically  inexperienced  in  large 
military  operations  such  an  important  com- 
mand. All  of  his  four  sons  served  during  the 
War.  Theodore,  Jr.,  with  the  infantry  in 
France,  rose  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel. 
Kermit  served  with  the  British  Royal  Artillery 
in  Mesopotamia  until  lie  was  transferred  in 
July,  1918,  to  the  American  artillery  in  France 
Archibald  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  Queri- 
tin,  the  youngest,  entered  the  Air  Force  and  was 
killed  in  an  air  fight  in  July,  1918.  After  a 
short  illness,  Theodore  Roosevelt  died  in  his 
sleep,  on  Jaii.  0,  1919  Following  his  death, 
many  books  i dating  to  him  were  published. 
These  included  his  letters  to  his  children  and 
to  others  and  many  reminiscences.  He  pub- 
lished in  19 1C  A  Root-lover**  Holiday  in  the 
Open.  

BOOSEVELT,  THEODORE,  JR.  (1887-  ) 
An  American  public  official,  born  at  Oyster  Bay, 
N.  Y.,  the  son  of  Theodore  Roosevelt.  He  was 
educated  at  Harvard  University.  He  was  for 
several  years  engaged  in  business  but  at  the  out- 
break of  the  War  was  commissioned  major  of 
the  26th  Infantry,  United  States  Army.  He 
was  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-colonel  in  Sep- 
tember, 19l8.  He  took  an  active  Dart  with  his 
regiment  in  campaigns  in  France,  including  the 
Meuse-Argonne  and  the  St.  Mihiel  offensives. 
He  received  the  Distinguished  Service  Cross  and 
the  Croix  de  Guerre.  In  1010  he  was  active  in 
the  organization  of  the  American  Legion.  He 
was  elected  to  the  New  York  Assembly  in  1919 
and  served  for  one  year.  In  1021  he  was  ap- 
pointed 'Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Navy. 

BOOT,  EIIHU  (1845-  ).  An  American 
statesman  (see  VOL.  XX).  In  1017  he  headed  a 


BOSE  POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE 

special  diplomatic  commission  sent  by  President 
Wilson  to  Russia.  He  formulated  the  plan  for 
the  Permanent  Court  of  International  Justice, 
established  in  1921  He  was  Commissioner 
Plenipotentiary  for  the  United  States  at  the 
Disarmament  Conference.  In  1018  he  became 
chairman  of  the  United  States  Government  War 
Savings  Investment  Society.  His  later  writing*, 
include:  Addresses  on  International  Subjects 
(1916);  Addresses  on  Government  and  Citizen- 
ship (1916);  Military  and  Colonial  Policy  of 
the  United  States  (191C);  Latin- imerica  and 
the  United  States  (1917)  ;  Russia,  and  tte  Uni- 
ted States  (1917)  ;  and  Miscellaneous  Addresses 

BOOTS.     See  BOTANY. 

BOPSHIN,  V.  ("Boms  SAVINKOV") 
(?  -  ).  A  Russian  novelist.  He  was 
formerly  a  Terrorist  and  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Social-revolutionary  party  but  afterward  be- 
gan a  bitter  fight  against  the  Bolsheviks.  He 
wrote  two  problem  novels  on  the  Terror  which 
are  interesting  both  in  material  and  style  They 
are  better  finished  than  most  of  the*no\els  of 
that  sort  written  during  the  period  of  the  Ter- 
ror. His  style  has  been  compaied  to  that  of 
Tolstoy.  His  no\cls  include  The  rale  Horse 
(1909)  and  What  \fi-er  Happened  (1912). 

ROSENATJ,  MILTON  JOSEPH  (1869-  ). 
An  American  physician  and  sanitarian,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  and  educated  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Hygienic  Institute*  in 
Berlin,  the  Pasteur  Institute  in  Paris,  and  the 
Pathological  Institute  in  Vienna.  Returning,  he 
entered  the  United  States  Public  Health  and 
Marine  Hospital  Sen  ice,  from  which  he  resigned 
in  1909  to  take  the  chair  of  preventive  medicine 
and  hygiene  at  Harvard  University.  In  11)11  he 
became  director  of  the  School  of  Public  Health 
of  Harvard  University  and  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  and  in  1914  uas  made 
director  of  the  antitoxin  and  vaccine  Laborato- 
ries of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health. 
His  principal  writings  comprise  Disinfection  and 
Disinfectants  (  1902)  and  Preventive  Medicine 
and  Hygiene  (1913). 

BOSENOW,  EimABii  CARL  (1875-  ).  An 
American  pathologist  and  bacteriologist,  born  at 
Alma,  Wis.,  and  educated  at  Rush  Medical  Col- 
lege. He  became  a  member  of  the  teaching  body 
in  the  department  of  internal  medicine  at  Rush 
and  was  made  an  assistant  professor  of  medicine 
as  well  as  a  member  of  the  icsearch  staff  of  the 
Institute  of  Infectious  Diseases.  These  positions 
he  left  in  1914  to  fill  the  chair  of  experimental 
bacteriology  in  the  Mayo  Foundation  at  Roches- 
ter, Minn.  In  Chicago  he  had  played  a  notable 
role  in  the  study  of  focal  infection  and  especially 
of  the  selective*  action  of  bacteria  in  attacking 
certain  tissues  to  the  exclusion  of  others.  This 
line  of  research  he  also  followed  with  great  suc- 
cess at  the  Mayo  clinic  and  has  made  it  increas- 
ingly apparent  that  infection  from  slight  de- 
posits of  pus  is  responsible  for  a  very  large 
amount  of  chronic  ailments  formerly  attributed 
to  natural  regressive  change  in  the  vital  organs. 
The  writings  of  Dr.  Rosenow  are  scattered 
throughout  periodical  literature.  

BOSE  POLYTECHNIC  INSTITUTE.  A 
school  of  engineering,  founded  in  1874  at  Terre 
Haute,  Ind.,  opened  for  students  in  1883.  The 
student  enrollment  increased  from  192  in  1914 
to  253  in  1924,  the  faculty  from  14  to  16  mem- 
bers, and  the  productive  funds  from  $800,000  to 
$1,100,000.  In  September,  1922,  the  institute 


BOSS 


1x38 


RUBBER 


moved  to  a  site  3  miles  outside  the  city  with 
new  buildings  and  greatly  improved  equipment 
in  shops  and  laboratories  President,  Frank  C. 
Wagner. 

BOSS,  EDWABD  ALRWOBTH  (1866-  ).  An 
American  sociologist  (see  VOL.  XX).  During 
the  decade  he  continued  as  professor  of  sociology 
at  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  His  later  books 
include  The  Old  World  in  the  Xew  (1914); 
South  of  Panama  (1915);  Russia  t/i  Upheaval 
(1918);  What  is  Americaf  (1919);  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Sociology  (1920);  and  The  Russian 
Bolshevik  Revolution  (1921). 

BOSS,  SIB  RONALD  (1837-  ).  A  British 
physician  (see  VOL.  XX).  In  1918  Dr.  HOBS 
was  knighted.  His  experience  with  malaria  dur- 
ing the  War  in  Europe  and  on  the  eastern  front 
is  summed  up  in  a  work  which  he  edited,  Ob- 
servations on  Malaria  by  Medical  Officers  uith 
the  Army  (1919).  His  Memoirs  of  /Sir  Ronald 
Ross  (1923)  gives  the  entire  summary  of  his 
experiences  in  fighting  malaria. 

BOSS  DEPENDENCY.  Following  its  pol- 
icy of  extending  the  power  and  extent  of  the 
Empire,  Great  Britain  added  an  Antarctic  do- 
main, the  Ross  Dependency.  An  Order  of  the 
King  in  Council,  of  July  30,  1923,  constituted 
the  Ross  Sea  sector  of  Antarctica,  as  a  British 
dependency,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  gov- 
ernor-general of  the  Dominion  of  New  Zealand. 
The  order  states  that  'That  part  of  His  Maj- 
esty's Dominions  in  the  Antarctic  Seas,  which 
comprises  all  the  islands  and  teriitoiies  between 
the  160th  degree  of  East  Longitude  and  the  150th 
degree  of  West  Longitude  which  are  situated 
south  of  the  60th  degree  of  South  I-atitude  shall 
be  named  the  Ross  Dependency/'  It  further  ap- 
points the  governor -geneial  of  Xew  Zealand  to 
be  the  governor  of  the  Ross  Dependency,  with 
power  to  make  rules  and  regulations,  and  grants 
and  dispositions  of  any  lands  which  may  law- 
fully be  granted  or  disposed  of  by  His  Majesty. 
With  the  Falkland  Islands  Dependency,  Great 
Britain  in  1924  possessed  practically  one-third 
of  the  Antarctic  regions  to  the  south  of  the 
W)th  degree  of  south  latitude  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  the  greater  part  of  South  Victoria  Land, 
which  was  the  first  made  known  through  the  dis- 
coveries of  Wilkes  and  later  by  D'Urville,  are 
not  included  in  Ross  Dependency.  Presumably 
the  new  possession  v\as  created  with  a  view  to 
its  utility  as  a  breeding  and  hunting  region  of 
marine  animals. 

ROSTAND,  EDMOND  ( 1 869- 1 920 ) .  A  French 
dramatist  and  poet,  born  at  Marseilles  (see 
VOL.  XX).  During  the  War  he  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  the  writing  of  patriotic  verse. 
Among  his  volumes  of  verse  are  Musardises  and 
Le  Vol  de  la  Marseillaise.  His  masterpiece  in 
drama,  Cyrano  de  Bergerac,  was  played  with  im- 
mense success  in  New  York  during  1923-24  by 
Walter  Hampden. 

ROSYTH.  The  chief  British  naval  base  on 
the  North  Sea.  It  is  situated  on  the  Firth  of 
Forth  near  the  city  of  Dunfermline,  where  the 
great  bridge  crosses  the  Firth,  and  is  about  10 
miles  above  Leith,  the  port  of  Edinburgh.  It 
was  begun  in  1903  and  was  ready  for  use  in 
1914,  but  the  development  of  the  submarine 
made  the  outer  anchorage  too  insecure  against 
torpedo  attack.  In  consequence  of  this,  the 
main  operating  base  of  the  Grand  Fleet  was 
transferred  to  Scapa  Flow  (q.v.),  leaving 
Rosyth  as  a  secondary  and  repairing  base.  On 
account  of  its  greater  proximity  to  their  ordi- 


nary area  of  operations  it  was  much  used  by  the 
battle  cruisers.  The  dockyards,  dry  docks,  wet 
docks,  etc.,  have  been  constructed  on  the  very 
largest  scale  and  are  ample  to  take  care  of  the 
Grand  Fleet.  The  selection  of  the  site  was 
partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  proposed  Mid- 
Scotland  Canal  would  connect  the  Firth  of 
Forth  and  the  Clyde  with  all  the  latter's  great 
shipbuilding  works.  See  WAR  IN  EUROPE,  Naval 
Operations. 

ROTHERMERE,  HAROLD  SIDNEY  HARMS- 
WORTH,  first  VISCOUNT,  (1868-  ).  An  Eng- 
lish newspaper  proprietor,  brother  of  Viscount 
Northcliffe  He  was  associated  with  the  latter 
in  his  newspaper  enterprises  and  in  1916-17  was 
director  general  of  the  Royal  Army  Cothing  De- 
partment. He  was  Air  Minister  in  1917-18. 
He  endowed  a  chair  of  English  literature  at 
Cambridge  University.  Following  the  death  of 
his  brother,  he  succeeded  to  the  management  of 
the  great  newspaper  properties 

ROVE   TUNNEL.     See   TUNNELS. 

ROWE,  LEO  S(TANTON)  (1871-  ).  An 
American  economist  (see  VOL.  XX).  He  was 
general  secretary  of  the  International  High  Com- 
mission (1915-17)  and  delegate  to  several  Cen- 
tral and  South  American  conferences.  He  was 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  (1917-19) 
and  chief  of  the  Latin-American  Division  of  the 
State  Department  in  Washington  (1919-20). 
In  September,  1920,  he  became  director  general 
of  the  Pan-American  Union. 

ROWING.     See  SPORTS 

ROYCE,  JOSIAH  (1855-1916).  An  American 
philosopher  (see  VOL.  XX).  During  the  early- 
years  of  the  War  he  was  active  in  his  denunci- 
ation of  the  German  cause  and  delivered  a  ring- 
ing address  after  the  sinking  of  the  Lusitama, 
in  May,  1915.  He  was  honored  on  his  sixtieth 
birthday  by  a  testimonial  volume  of  philosophic 
essays  written  by  his  former  students  Of  his 
works  published  after  1914,  The  Hope  of  a  Great 
Community  appeared  during  his  lifetime  (1915). 
It  dealt  with  one  of  his  favorite  themes,  com- 
munity loyalty.  Lectures  on  Modern  Idealism 
was  published  posthumously  (1919)  under  the 
editorship  of  Professor  Lowenberg. 

RUBBER.  With  the  universal  use  of  the 
motor  vehicle  with  its  pneumatic  or  solid  rub- 
ber tires,  the  rubber  industry  has  developed  into 
one  of  the  important  manufacturing  activities 
of  the  United  States,  which  by  1022,  so  far  as 
its  product  was  concerned,  exceeded  the  rubber 
manufacturing  industries  of  all  other  countries 
in  the  world  combined,  and  consumed  nearly  75 
per  cent  of  the  world's  crude  rubber  production 
in  that  year,  \\ith  80  per  cent  of  the  world's 
motor  vehicles  in  the  United  States,  it  was  in- 
evitable that  the  United  States  should  occupy 
a  leading  position  in  rubber  manufacturing,  and 
when  to  this  is  added  the  production  of  rubber 
footwear  as  well  as  rubber  hose  and  packing,  it 
can  be  appreciated  how  important  the  American 
industry  really  is.  Germany,  England  and 
France  were  said  to  exceed  the  United  States  in 
the  manufacture  of  bicycle  tires,  and  while  Eng- 
land produces  more  waterproof  fabric  she  comes 
second  to  the  United  States  in  the  production  of 
rubber  hose  and  packing. 

The  world's  production  and  consumption  be- 
tween 1910  and  1920  had  increased  roughly  from 
70,500  tons  to  about  350,000  tons  in  1920. 
There  was  overproduction  in  that  year,  so  that 
in  1921  there  was  a  decline  in  the  output  and 
the  lowest  prices  since  1913  were  recorded.  Low 


BXTBBBB 


prices  due  to  overproduction  continued  notwith- 
standing the  increased  consumption  in  the  Uni- 
ted States,  and  it  was  realized  that  many  of 
the  plantations  were  either  operating  at  a  loss 
or  their  future  was  seriously  threatened. 

In  view  of  this  situation  an  important  event 
in  the  world  rubber  industry  was  the  coming 
into  effect  of  a  plan  devised  by  Sir  James  Steven- 
son and  a  committee  known  by  the  name  of  its 
chairman  as  the  Stevenson  plan.  This  was  ac- 
cepted by  the  British  government  and  was  put 
into  effect  Nov.  1,  1022.  This  plan  involved  a 
restriction  of  production  in  the  Far  East  with 
the  object  of  increasing  or  at  least  stabilizing 
the  price  of  crude  rubber  from  the  plantations. 
In  1023,  British-  and  Dutch-owned  plantations 
produced  approximately  03%  per  cent  of  the 
world's  rubber,  and  of  this  somewhat  more  than 
33  per  cent  was  controlled  by  companies  owned 
or  managed  in  the  Netherlands.  Therefore  for 
the  complete  suiccess  of  any  restriction  scheme 
the  cooperation  of  Dutch  interests  and  planta- 
tions was  essential.  The  original  plan  devel- 
oped in  1022  by  the  British  Colonial  Office  and 
rubber  producers,  provided  that  GO  per  cent  of 
the  estimated  normal  crop  of  rubber  \vould  l>o 
exported  at  the  minimum  duty,  while  exports  in 
excess  of  that  amount  would  be  taxed  heavily, 
the  greater  the  excess  the  heavier  the  tax.  The 
normal  output  of  each  plantation  was  computed 
and  each  producer  was  allotted  a  certain  amount 
over  which  he  would  be  taxed.  There  was  no  re- 
striction on  production,  and  the  producer  could 
hoard  his  supply  if  he  so  desired  The  growers 
in  the  Dutch  East  Indies  were  urged  to  cooper- 
ate and  to  vu>rk  on  the  same  basis  as  the  Brit- 
ish-owned plantations  of  Malaya  and  Ceylon, 
but  they  almoht  unanimously*  declined.  The 
first  effect  of  the  plan  was  an  improvement  in 
pi  ices  in  which  naturally  the  Dutch  shared,  and 
the  membeis  of  the  Rubber  (Growers'  Associa- 
tion, the  British  controlling  agency,  believed 
that  the  plan  would  be  effective  without  the  co- 
operation of  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Naturally 
there,  were  disturbances  in  the  rubber  industry 
of  both  Europe  and  America  but  these  were 
calmed  as  prices  soon  declined.  Those  behind 
the  scheme  were  doomed  to  disappointment  as 
American  buyers  cut  down  their  purchases,  and 
prices  fell  below  a  point  where  it  was  believed 
they  could  be  held  by  the  Stevenson  scheme.  In 
the  meantime  the  Dutch  East  Indies  benefited, 
as  their  production  and  exports  increased,  while 
those  of  Malaya  and  Ceylon  were  cut  down  in 
accordance  with  the  restriction  plan.  Thus  the 
British  Malayan  exports  in  1023  were  about 
184,000  tons  as  compared  with  212,005  tons  in 
1022  and  those  from  Ceylon  about  30,000  tons 
as  compared  with  40,604  tons  in  1022,  but  the 
Dutch  shipped  about  30,000  tons  more  in  1023 
than  in  1022,  so  that  the  Far  Eastern  supply 
was  cut  only  about  0000  tons.  Obviously  such 
a  small  reduction  had  but  little  effect  on  prices, 
which  fell  during  the  year,  and  was  not  satisfac- 
tory to  the  advocates  of  restriction,  who,  still 
confident  of  its  efficacy,  continued  to  urge  that 
the  Dutch  should  join  with  them  notwithstand- 
ing that  they  had' made  some  $70,000,000  more 
on  rubber  in  the  year  ended  Oct.  31,  1023,  than 
in  the  year  before.  The  British  advocates  tried 
to  persuade  the  Dutch  not  to  export  more  than 
100,000  tons  in  1024  and  they  argued  that  such 
a  restriction  would  be  good  not  only  for  the  in- 
dustry but  would  improve  the  plantations  by 
preventing  the  trees  from  deteriorating  under 


1x39 


BUBBEB 


overtapping.  The  Dutch  claimed  that  they  had 
not  overtapped  their  trees,  and  that  the  great 
increase  in  rubber  output  of  the  Dutch  colonies 
was  accounted  for  not  so  much  by  larger  pro- 
duction from  the  estate  plantations,  possibly 
some  5000  tons  over  1922,  but  by  an  extra- 
ordinary production  of  wild  or  native  rubber, 
which  was  estimated  at  over  22,000  tons  more 
than  in  1922.  The  Dutch  planters  also  claimed 
that  the  complete  cessation  of  tapping  for  some 
such  period  as  three  months  would  be  more  ad- 
vantageous than  a  policy  of  restricting. 

The  United  States  rubber  industry  began  to 
develop  in  a  remarkable  fashion  about  1910  and 
its  progress  since  that  time  has  coincided  with 
that  of  the  motor  vehicle  for  which  it  is  called 
upon  to  supply  tires.  Ihe  United  States  Census 
of  Manufactures  for  1014  reported  for  the 
American  rubber  industry  342  establishments 
giving  employment  to  an  average  number  of  74,- 
022  wage  earners  and  with  a  production  valued 
at  $300,093,796  Of  this  production  rubber 
belting  accounted  for  $7,089,405,  hose  for  $16,- 
853,603,  rubber  boots  for  $12,647,034,  rubber 
shoes  for  $37,858,222,  and  tires  for  $146,421,- 
560.  At  that  time  the  export  business  was  not 
important,  amounting  to  about  4  per  cent  of 
the  total  production,  England,  Germany  and 
France  occupying  the  export  markets  of  the 
world.  From  1013  to  1015,  American  exports  of 
rubber  manufacturers  averaged  about  $12,500,- 
000  annually,  but  with  the  War  there  was  a 
growing  demand  from  Europe  and  elsewhere  for 
American  rubber  goods,  so  that  the  exports  in 
1010  amounted  to  over  $53,000,000.  Tn  1020, 
the  rubber  industry,  in  common  with  other  busi- 
ness in  the  United  States,  experienced  a  decline 
and  rubber  goods  were  shipped  abroad  at  an 
average  of  almost  $7,000,000  monthly.  This 
average  inevitably  fell,  and  in  1021  the  monthly 
exports  averaged  about  $2,500,000,  though  by 
this  time  Continental  manufacturers  were  get- 
ting reestablished  and  France  in  1021  regained 
her  lead  in  the  world  markets  for  the  sale  of 
tires  which  the  United  States  had  taken  in 
1020  with  38  per  cent  of  the  total,  a  proportion 
that  declined  in  1021  to  25  per  cent,  while 
France  increased  her  percentage  from  27  to  40. 

The  further  progress  of  the  rubber  manufac- 
turing industry  was  indicated  by  the  United 
States  Census  of  Manufactures  for  1021  and 
for  the  main  divisions  may  be  summarized  as 
follows  • 


RUBBER  MANUFACTURES 
Wage 
No  of        earneis 
establish-   (Average 
ments      numbers) 
Belting  and  hose   .  .      18            3,007            $ 
Boots   and  shoes      .      24         23,888 
Tires  and  inner  tubes   178          55,496 
Rubber  goods  not  else- 
where specified     .    276          20.882 

Value 
of 
product 
14,880,277 
94,032,524 
496,123,335 

99,866,997 

In  1023,  the  total  exports  of  rubber  from  the 
United  States  were  valued  at  $36,072,170,  motor 
vehicle  tires  forming  the  largest  item,  followed 
by  rubber  boots  and  shoes  including  canvas  shoes 
with  rubber  soles.  The  pneumatic  casings  for 
automobiles  exported  in  1023  totaled  1,302,745 
valued  at  $15,203,143,  the  United  Kingdom  be- 
ing the  largest  customer.  In  1023,  06,849  solid 
tires  valued  at  $2,376,280  were  exported.  The 
United  States  ranked  second  to  France  in  the 
world's  export  trade  in  tires  amounting  to  about 
$80,000,000.  Of  this  amount  France  enjoyed 


BUSIES 


1x40 


RUMANIA 


some  40  per  cent,  the  United  States  25  per  cent, 
and  Great  Britain  12  per  cent. 

The  American  tire  industry,  which  is  said  to 
account  for  80  per  cent  of  the  rubber  used  in 
the  United  States  had  a  year  of  active  produc- 
tion, manufacturing  45,000,000  tires  in  1023 
representing  total  sales  of  over  half  a  billion 
dollars.  In  1923  there  was  successfully  in- 
troduced the  new  balloon  or  low  pressure  tire 
(see  MOTOR  VEHICLES)  which  met  with  consider- 
able favor.  The  cord  tire,  the  use  of  which  had 
become  general,  also  had  been  improved  and 
perfected.  Likewise  better  and  larger  solid 
tires  of  rubber  for  motor  trucks  were  made. 

RUBIES,  ARTIFICIAL.    See  MINERALOGY. 

BT7BLEE,  GEOBGE  (1868-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can lawyer,  born  at  Madison,  Wis.,  and  educated 
at  Harvard  University  and  its  law  school.  In 
1897-08  he  practiced  law  in  Chicago,  remov- 
ing in  the  latter  year  to  New  York  City.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Federal  Trade  Commis- 
sion (1915-16)  and  was  appointed  by  President 
Wilson  to  report  on  the  Adamson  *  Eight-hour 
Law  in  the  latter  year.  During  the  \Var  he 
served  as  a  member  of  the  Economic  Board  of 
the  Council  of  National  Defense  anil  as  special 
counsel  of  the  Treasury  Department.  In  1918- 
19  he  was  American  delegate  to  the  Allied  Mari- 
time Council  in  London. 

RUDDER,   FLETTNEB.    See  NAVIGATION. 

BUFFO,  TITTA  (1878-  ).  An  Italian 
dramatic  baritone,  born  at  Pisa.  He  studied 
under  Persichini  at  the  Accademia  Santa  Cecilia 
in  Rome  and  then  under  Cassini  in  Milan.  In 
1898  he  made  his  debut  at  the  Teatro  Costanzi 
in  Rome  as  the  Herald  in  Lohengrin.  It  was 
not  until  the  following  year,  in  Rio  de  Janeiro 
that  he  had  the  opportunity  of  appearing  in 
principal  parts;  his  unusual  gifts  both  as  a 
singer  and  actor  were  quickly  recognized.  Af- 
ter his  return  he  sang  at  the  principal  Italian 
opera  houses  and  also  won  triumphs  in  Paris 
and  Vienna.  His  American  de*but  as  Rigoletto 
with  the  Chicago  Opera  Association  (Nov.  4, 
1912)  caused  a  veritable  sensation.  He  later  re- 
visited the  United  States  several  times,  and  al- 
ways appeared  with  the  same  success,  both  in 
opera  and  in  concert. 

RUHR   OCCUPATION.     See   REPARATIONS. 

RULE  OF  REASON.     See  LAW,  PROGRESS 

OF  THE. 

RUMANIA.  An  eastern  European  coun- 
try, with  an  area  of  122.282  square  miles,  as 
compared  with  53,489  square  miles  before  the 
War.  The  cession  of  the  following  provinces  ac- 
counted for  the  increase:  Bessarabia  (17,146 
square  miles),  Bukovina  (4030),  Transyl- 
vania (22,312),  Crisana  (8038),  Maramuresh 
(6258),  BanAt  (11,009).  The  population  in 
1914  numbered  7,768,341;  in  1920  it  was 
16,262,177.  Of  the  latter,  3,348,860  lived  in 
urban  communities  and  12,913,317  in  rural. 
Cities  of  over  50,000  in  order  were:  Bucharest, 
the  capital  (308,987  inhabitants  in  1917), 
Chisinau,  Czemawitz,  Ismail,  Jessy,  Galatz, 
Temesvar,  Braila. 

Education;  Religion;  Race.  Elementary 
education,  though  free  and  compulsory,  was  still 
in  a  rudimentary  state.  In  1918*19,  5764  ele- 
mentary schools  with  692,986  pupils,  76  sec- 
ondary schools  for  boys  with  44,983  pupils,  and 
66  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  9584  pupils 
were  reported.  Besides  the  universities  at 
Bucharest  and  Jassy,  two  additional  were 
opened,  at  Cluj  in  Transylvania  in  1919  (1980 


students  in  1920)  and  at  Czernawitz  in  Buko- 
vina in  1920.  In  1918,  9,695,714  communicants 
belonged  to  the  National  Orthodox  Church,  1,- 
456,147  to  the  Greek  Catholic,  1,483,929  to  the 
Roman  Catholic.  Besides,  there  were  1,344,970 
Protestants,  834,344  Jews,  and  44,098  Moham- 
medans. Though  figures  were  not  available,  a 
consideration  of  ethnographic  surveys  indicated 
that  Rumania's  problem  of  racial  groups  was 
one  of  great  importance.  There  were  large  num- 
bers of  Magyars  in  Central  Moldavia  and  East 
Transylvania,  Saxons  and  Swabians  in  South 
Transylvania  and  the  Banut,  Germans  and  Ru- 
thenians  in  Bukovina  and  Bessarabia,  Bulga- 
rians, and  Serbs  along  the  Danube  Bulgars,  Rus- 
sians, Germans,  Turks,  and  Tatars  in  the 
Dobrudja,  and  Russians  in  Bessarabia.  By  the 
Minorities  Treaty  signed  with  the  Allies  in 

1919,  Rumania    pledged    herself    to   respect   all 
racial,  linguistic,  and  religious  differences  and 
to  permit  the  establishment  of  churches,  schools, 
and    eleemosynary    institutions.     These    pledges 
were  repeated  in   the  new  constitution  of   1923. 

Industry.  Agriculture,  as  in  Old  Rumania, 
was  the  main  resource  of  the  population  of 
Greater  Rumania.  The  total  acreage  planted 
to  the  principal  cereals  in  1922  was  about 
seven-eighths  as  great  as  that  in  the  same  ter- 
ritories liefore  the  War;  the  yield  was  much 
lower.  For  Old  Rumania  alone,  the  average 
acreage  under  wheat,  coin,  barley,  oats,  and 
rye  for  1911-15  was  12,586,000;  in' 1922,  it  was 
only  10,730,000.  For  Greater  Rumania,  the 
average  acreage  of  ceical  crops  in  pre-war  years 
was  24,879,000;  in  1922,  22,303,000;  in  1923, 
23,767.000.  The  greatest  change  was  in  the 
shift  from  the  cultivation  of  wheat  to  that  of 
barley  and  oats.  Besides  the  cereals,  there 
were  11,250  acres  under  tobacco  in  11)20  and 
704,000  acres  of  vineyards  and  orchards.  The 
depredations  of  the  War  accounted  for  great 
fallings-off  in  live  stock.  There  were  in  Greater 
Rumania,  in  1922,  1,802,051  horses  (824,714  in 
Old  Rumania  in  1911),  5,932,210  cattle  (2,666,- 
900  in  1911),  12,872,281  sheep  and  goats  (r>,456,- 
000  in  1911).  3,146.806  swine  (1,021,465  in 
1911).  The  export  of  grain,  hitherto  so  im- 
portant, was  only  1,267,000  tons  for  Greater 
Rumania  in  1922,  as  compared  with  2,905,000 
tons  for  Old  Rumania  in  1913.  The  most  im- 
portant mining  activity  was  that  of  petroleum. 
In  1913,  1,885.000  metric  tons  were  extracted; 
in  1922,  only  1,364,000  tons.  Refining  was  done 
in  the  country  and  most  of  the  product  was  ex- 
ported. In  1922  there  were  426  wells  and  1375 
miles  of  pipe  lines.  Principal  wells  were  lo- 
cated at  Prahova,  Dambovitza,  Bacau,  and 
Buzau.  The  wells  and  refineries  were  destroyed 
in  1916  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  enemy's 
hands,  but  during  the  German  occupation  ex- 
tensive restorations  took  place.  Natural  gas 
production,  a  new  development,  reached  1,500,- 
000,000  cubic  meters  in  1922.  Coal,  salt,  and 
other  minerals  were  produced  in  small  quanti- 
ties. Aside  from  petroleum  refining,  grain  mill- 
ing, and  lumbering,  manufactures  were  little  de- 
veloped. Plants  were  devoted  to  textiles, 
leather,  iron  and  ceramic  products.  In  1919, 
2747  establishments  employed  157,423  workers, 
as  compared  with  1149  establishments  and  58,- 
871  workers  in  1915. 

Trade  and  Communications.  Trade  after 
the  War  continued  to  languish.  In  1914,  im- 
ports into  Old  Rumania  totaled  $97,319,000;  in 

1920,  imports  were  $138,463,000    (at  exchange 


BTTMANIA 


1141 


RUMANIA 


rate  for  the  year) .  The  export  trade  showed  the 
real  state  of  affairs.  In  191 3  exports  were 
valued  at  $120,446,000;  in  1921,  at  $100,807,000; 
in  1922,  at  $84,763,000  (the  latter  two  figures  at 
exchange  rates  for  the  year)  The  decline  was 
particularly  prominent  in  the  cereal  and  petro- 
leum products.  The  only  articles  to  gain  con- 
spicuously over  the  period  were  barley,  oats,  and 
lumber  Exports  to  the  United  States,  in  1913, 
were  $146,000;  1922,  $500,000,  1923,  $336,440. 
Imports  from  the  United  States,  1913,  $3,237,- 
000;  1922,  $2,436,000;  1923,  $1,177,758.  Noth- 
ing more  graphically  indicates  the  decline  than 
the  figures  for  the  carrying  trade.  In  1912,  36,- 
968  vessels  of  10,807,213  tons  entered  the  coun- 
try's ports,  in  1919,  10,546  vessels  of  2,991,095 
tons  entered.  The  merchant  marine  in  1912  con- 
sisted of  649  vessels  of  198,159  tons;  in  1919  it 
was  158  vessels  of  71,158  tons.  The  country's 
principal  seaports  were  Constan/a,  Galatz, 
Braila  In  1920  the  total  railway  mileage  was 
7246,  of  which  60  per  cent  was  state-owned. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Veisaillea  the  Danube  Commis- 
sion was  reconstiucted  to  consist  only  of  repre- 
sentatives of  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and 
Rumania 

Finance  and  Economic  Conditions.  For 
1913-14  the  budget  balanced  at  600,232,900  lei 
($115,H44,9.~>0)  ;  the  budget  for  1922-23  pro- 
vided for  expenditures  of  10.498,000,000  lei 
($85,000,000  at  the  rate  of  exchange  then  pre- 
vailing). Chief  sources  of  revenue  for  1922-23 
were  enumerated  as  direct  taxes,  630,000,000 
lei;  indirect  taxeH  and  customs,  3,310,000,000; 
stamp  taxes,  571,000,000;  state  monopolies,  1,- 
626,000,000  The  public  debt  on  Oct.  1,  1913, 
amounted  to  $341,455,000;  in  1922  the  total  for- 
eign debt,  exclusive  of  the  share  in  the  obliga- 
tions of  tho  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy, 
amounted  to  $1,025,000,000  at  par  of  exchange. 
Included  in  the  latter  were  debts  to  the  Allies 
and  the  United  States  aggregating  $396,000,000. 
The  internal  debt  consisted  of  obligations  given 
to  the  National  Bank  against  paper  money  is- 
sues. In  1923,  15,390,824,000  lei  in  paper  cur- 
rency were  in  circulation,  as  compared  with  678,- 
000,000  in  1914.  The  budget  for  1924  was  the  first 
bince  the  War  to  contain  a  service  for  the  internal 
and  external  funded  debts.  The  failure  to  fund  a 
large  part  of  the  debt,  and  the  inability  of  mer- 
chants to  meet  their  foreign  obligations  incurred 
after  the  War  and  the  continued  currency  de- 
pi  eciation  contributed  to  the  commercial  stagna- 
tion In  1923  a  temporary  moratorium  was  de- 
clared. The  exchange  value  of  the  leu  for  typ- 
iral  years  was:  1914,  $0.193  (par);  1920, 
$0.02;  1921,  $0012;  May  1,  1923,  $0005.  The 
cost  of  living  index  was-  100,  Aug.  1,  1916; 
January,  1922.  1858,  January,  1923,  2494;  De- 
cember, 1923,  3552.  The  wage  index,  based  on 
100  for  1914,  was  1548  in  1922. 

History.  From  the  opening  of  the  War  to 
Aug.  28,  1916,  Rumanian  politicians  watched  the 
straws  to  detect  the  direction  of  the  wind.  Al- 
though bound  to  the  Central  Powers  by  a  secret 
alliance  based  on  traditional  dread  of  Russian 
aggrandizement,  Rumania  refused  to  join  her 
confederates  when  the  War  broke  out,  and  dur- 
ing the  early  years  of  the  struggle  conversa- 
tions were  continually  being  carried  on  with 
Allied  representatives  in  an  attempt  to  strike 
a  favorable  bargain.  Rumania  sought  expan- 
sion in  all  directions:  to  the  north  where  the 
Bukovina  (Austrian)  lay,  to  the  northeast  for 
Bessarabia  (Russian),  to  the  west  for  Transyl- 


vania and  the  Banat  (Hungarian).  The  Teu- 
tonic successes  against  Russia  in  1915  and  the 
subsequent  conquest  of  Serbia  cooled  the  Ru- 
manian ardor  for  a  time,  but  the  successful  Rus- 
sian offensive  of  the  summer  of  1916  against 
Austria,  giving  rise  to  a  fear  lest  Russia  con- 
quer for  herself  Bukovina  and  Transylvania, 
together  with  Allied  victories  on  the  Somme  and 
at  Gorizia,  and  the  preparations  at  Saloniki, 
strengthened  the  hand  of  the  interventionists. 
In  the  summer  of  1916  Rumania  secretly  ob- 
tained from  the  Allies  a  promise  of  the  Buko- 
vina (in  part),  Transylvania  and  border  re- 
gions to  the  west,  and  all  the  BftnAt  (qq.v.),  as 
the  price  of  Rumanian  intervention;  the  Allies 
further  agreed  to  support  Rumania  by  pressing 
military  offensives  in  Oalicia  and  Macedonia. 
On  Aug  28,  1916,  therefore,  Rumania  confidently 
declared  war  on  Austria,  and  Rumanian  troops 
enthusiastically  marched  through  the  defiles  of 
the  Transylvanian  Alps  to  liberate  their  kinsmen 
from  Hungary  Then,  swiftly,  disaster  over- 
took the  Rumanian  cause.  From  the  south,  a 
Bulgarian  army  swept  into  the  Dobrudja  to  stay 
until  the  end  of  the  War,  while  from  the  north 
General  Falkenhayn  pursued  the  shattered  Ru- 
manian a? my  back  across  the  frontier,  across  the 
Wallachian  plain,  and  into  Moldavia  On  Nov. 
27,  1916,  Bucharest,  the  capital,  was  abandoned 
by  the  King  and  Parliament,  and  Ja«sy  was 
made  the  seat  of  government  Wallachia  was 
overrun,  the  large  stores  of  grain  captured  and 
transported  to  Germany,  and  the  oil  fields  oper- 
ated by  the  invader  for  his  own  purposes.  A 
counteroffensive  was  prepared  for  1917,  but  the 
gradual  disintegration  of  the  Russian  army  de- 
prived the  Rumanians  of  effective  Russian  aid, 
and  the  defeat  of  Marasesti  completely  crushed 
Rumania.  Some  months  later  Rumania  was 
compelled  to  accept  an  armistice  dictated  by 
Germany.  Meanwhile  internal  unrest  hastened 
a  group  of  long-agitated  reforms.  Under  the 
shadow  of  a  complete  German  occupation,  the 
parliament  passed  a  radical  agrarian  law,  fixing 
the  maximum  holding  at  50  hectares  and  pro- 
viding for  distribution  of  some  2,000,000  hectares 
among  the  peasantry. 

Hope  based  on  further  popular  resistance  was 
illusory,  for  the  Rumanians  \\ere  compelled  to 
accede  to  a  humiliating  peace  in  March,  1918 
(Treaty  of  Bucharest),  by  which  they  were  de- 
prived of  the  Dobrudja  and  control  over  the 
Danube,  as  well  as  the  possession  of  their  rail- 
ways, wheat  crops,  and  petroleum  wells,  for  an 
indefinite  period  It  was  inevitable  that  the 
Rumanians  should  suffer  all  the  tribulations  of 
a  conquered  people,  eg.  forced  labor,  requisitions 
of  foodstuffs  and  supplies,  a  constantly  depre- 
ciating foreign  currency,  etc.  The  Marghiloman 
government,  i  e.  the  Rumanian  ministry  during 
the  occupation,  in  its  endeavor  to  satisfy  all 
factions,  naturally  could  please  none.  With  the 
fall,  therefore,  of  the  Central  Powers  and  the 
triumphal  ree'ntry  of  the  King  into  Bucharest 
on  Dec.  3,  1918,  the  militant  nationalists,  flushed 
by  a  victory  in  which  they  considered  themselves 
participants,  assumed  control  of  the  go\ eminent 
without  waiting  for  a  parliamentary  mandate 
and  took  a  threatening  posture  towaid  their 
late  enemies.  The  annexation  of  Bessarabia 
(q.v.)  was  declared  a  fait  accompli,  an  army 
was  sent  into  Transylvania  to  support  the  move- 
ment for  independence  and  union  with  Greater 
Rumania.  In  1919,  when  food  scarcity,  indus- 
trial unrest,  and  political  propaganda  all  threat- 


RUMANIA 


1143 


RUMANIAN  LITEBATTTBB 


ened  an  internal  upheaval,  the  government  at- 
tempted a  diversion  by  sending  an  army  into 
Soviet  Hungary.  It  was  feared  of  course  that 
radical  ideas  might  infect  the  Rumanians  and 
that  Soviet  Hungary  might  also  become  aggres- 
sive. At  the  same  time  it  no  doubt  occurred 
to  leading  Rumanians  that  a  show  of  force  must 
impress  the  Peace  Conference,  then  sitting  at 
Paris  By  August  3,  Rumanian  troops  were  en- 
camped in  the  suburbs  of  Budapest.  Jn  spite  of 
the  protests  and  even  threats  of  the  Allies,  the 
Rumanians  entered  Budapest  and  proceeded  to 
confiscate  foodstuffs,  farm  animals,  tools,  and 
rolling-stock.  Not  until  Admiral  Horthy  was 
safely  installed  in  Hungary  as  regent  did  the 
Rumanians  consent  to  quit  the  country.  By  the 
peace  treaties  of  St.  Germain  (Austria)  and 
the  Trianon  (Hungary),  the  Bucharest  "peace'* 
(above)  was  canceled*  and  Rumania  was  given 
sovereignty  over  most  of  Bukovina,  all  Transyl- 
vania, together  with  a  strip  of  the  Hungarian 
plain  west  of  the  Tranaylvanian  uplands,  and 
the  northeastern  half  of  the  Btin&t  of  Temesvar. 
The  Treaty  of  Neuilly  (Bulgaria)  confirmed 
Rumania  in  possession  of  the  Dobrudja  More- 
over, by  a  treaty  signed  with  the  Allies  in 
October,  1020,  Rumania  was  authorized  to  retain 
Bessarabia.  A  minority  treaty  (Dec  9,  1919) 
dictated  by  the  Allies  guaranteed  liberal  treat- 
ment of  minoiities  in  the  annexed  as  well  as  in 
the  pre-war  territories  of  Rumania.  The  com- 
bined result  of  the  peace  treaties  was  to  more 
than  double  Rumania's  area  and  population,  de- 
spite the  distinctly  inglorious  role  which  the  na- 
tion had  played  in  the  War. 

The  years  following  wero  concerned  with  the 
vexing  internal  problems  of  constitutional  re- 
form, the  agrarian  question,  and  the  general  un- 
rest brought  on  by  tardy  reconstruction  meas- 
ures. Ministries  fell  rapidly.  In  1919-20  an 
agrarian  minorities  bloc  tried  to  form  a  govern- 
ment, but  it  soon  gave  way  to  the  ministry  of 
General  Averescu,  supported  by  Take  Jonescu, 
which  was  strongly  nationalistic  in  temper.  The 
minorities  in  Bukovina,  Transylvania,  and  Bes- 
sarabia, were  antagonized  by  the  dissolution  of 
their  national  councils;  the  failure  to  hasten  the 
land  reform  measures  aroused  the  hostility  of 
the  peasants.  Meanwhile  the  prisons  were  be- 
ing filled  with  political  prisoners.  In  1921, 
Jonoscu  headed  a  ministry,  in  1922,  Jon  Bra- 
tiano  succeeded  him.  On  Oct.  15,  1922,  the 
coronation  of  King  Ferdinand  and  Queen  Mane 
as  rulers  of  Greater  Rumania  was  celebrated. 
The  year  marked  a  heightening  participation  of 
Rumania  in  foreign  affairs.  The  Rumanian  gov- 
ernment renewed  its  adhesion  to  the  Little  En- 
tente (qv.),  which  it  had  formed  together  with 
Czecho-Slovakia  and  Jugo-Slavia  in  1920,  and 
by  its  firmness  it  forced  the  Russians  tem- 
porarily to  accede  to  the  annexation  of  Bessa- 
rabia. The  goings  and  comings  of  Queen  Marie 
over  Europe,  and  her  success  in  marrying  her 
daughters  to  the  Kings  of  Greece  and  of  Jugo- 
slavia, gave  Rumania  a  certain  conspicuousness 
perhaps  hardly  justified  by  its  internal  condi- 
tion or  its  potential  development.  The  year 
1923  saw  no  further  advance  toward  stability. 
Ant  i  Bern  it  ism,  that  barometer  of  the  morale  of  a 
people,  was  rife  and  led  to  frequent  attacks  on 
the  Jews  and  on  the  government  for  being  pre- 
sumably sympathetic  toward  Jewish  aspirations. 
Fascism,  inspired  by  Italian  success,  seized  the 
country  with  the  result  that  100,000  Black  Shirts 
were  soon  enrolled.  Even  the  promulgation  of 


the  National  Constitution  (Mar.  28,  1029), 
which  in  some  senses  was  an  advanced  docu- 
ment, did  not  serve  to  quiet  the  unrest.  By  it, 
minority  representation  \\as  provided  and  full 
rights  of  citizenship  were  granted  to  Rumanian 
Jews;  the  State  claimed  for  itself  all  mineral 
wealth,  including  oil,  to  be  found  in  the  sub- 
soil, as  well  as  water-power  properties,  etc. ;  con- 
stitutional guarantees  were  set  up  for  the  free- 
dom of  the  press  and  against  the  imposition  of  a 
censorship,  for  the  freedom  of  association,  public 
assembly,  etc.  The  failure  to  satisfy  the  peas- 
ants by  a  land  division,  the  repeal  of  the  more 
liberal  declarations  of  Bessarabia  and  Transyl- 
vania of  1918  which  established  land  and  elec- 
toral reforms,  and  the  recognition  of  the  Greek 
Orthodox  Church  as  the  dominant  ecclesiastical 
body  to  the  neglect  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Mag- 
yars, resulted  in  the  strengthening  of  an  opposi- 
tion whose  character  presaged  future  diHicul- 
ties. 

The  year  1924  hardly  saw  an  alleviation  of 
Rumania's  difficult  position  Threatened  by 
Russia  on  one  side,  rebuffed  by  the  Great  Pow- 
ers consistently,  with  the  possibility  of  internal 
dissension  hanging  over  the  country  like  a  lilack 
cloud,  the  government's  deportment  plainly 
showed  its  uneasy  frame  of  mind.  Russia  ab- 
ruptly terminated  the  Ruaso-Rumanian  confer- 
ence at  Vienna  in  March  because  of  the  Bes- 
sarabian  question.  There  was  continual  talk  of 
Russian  desire  to  establish  a  Moldavian  republic 
centring  in  Bessarabia  and  including  Kherson 
and  Podolia.  Whether  Russia  meant  to  attack 
or  not,  the  Rumanian  official  attitude  certainly 
favored  preparedness,  for  a  steady  stream  of 
munitions  was  proceeding  from  France  into  the 
country.  In  April  and  May  the  Rumanian  royal 
family  completed  a  round  of  visits  to  Paris, 
Brussels,  and  London.  Rome  and  Madrid  were, 
significantly  enough,  dropped  from  the  itinerary 
at  the  request  of  Mussolini  and  Rivera.  But 
the  financial  and  diplomatic  purposes  behind 
the  visits  ended  in  flat  failure:  Rumania  re- 
ceived neither  promises  oT  military  aid  nor  the 
proffer  of  funds  to  relieve  her  economic  dis- 
tress. Foreign  governments  were  further  antag- 
onized by  the  mining  law  of  July,  1924,  which 
ordered  all  foreign -owned  corporations  to  sell 
60  per  cent  of  their  shares  in  Rumania,  at,  of 
course,  Rumanian  prices.  This  was  in  ^reality 
interpreted  as  a  move  on  the  foreign  oil  com- 
panies, whose  properties  \\cre  valued  at  $150,- 
000,000.  To  further  complicate  the  domestic 
situation,  protests  were  frequent  against  the  vir- 
tual dictatorship  of  the  Bratiano  brothers,  while 
the  communists  continued  active  In  short,  from 
the  economic  and  political  points  of  view,  Ru- 
mania's situation,  in  spite  of  the  country's  lofty 
pretensions,  was  as  critical  as  that  of  her  neigh- 
bors, Bulgaria,  Greece,  and  Hungary,  whom  she 
affected  to  despise.  See  also  TRANSYLVANIA; 
WAR,  DIPLOMACY  or  THE. 

RUMANIAN  LITERATURE.  War  in- 
vaded the  heart  of  Rumania;  the  flames  of  revo- 
lution were  spreading  at  her  very  gates.  The 
decade  in  Rumanian  literature  exhibits  the  scars 
of  the  tragedy.  Moreover,  the  toll  of  death 
among  the  coryphei  was  exceedingly  heavy  dur- 
ing this  period. 

Prof.  Paul  Bujor  relates  the  exodus  of  Alex- 
andru  Vlahuta  (1859-1920)  from  Wallachia,  in 
the  winter  of  1916  under  the  fire  of  the  enemy, 
in  an  ox  cart  in  the  midst  of  the  unfortunate 
people  who  were  fleeing  from  the  invaders. 


RUMANIAN  LITERATURE 


"43 


BUSBY 


When  kings  have  shared  the  same  fate,  what 
matter  if  a  dreamer  remained  among  his 
brethren  in  want  and  despair?  Barlm  Dela- 
vrancea  (1858-1918),  the  author  of  Trubadurul 
and  rarazifii,  and  George  Coabuc  (1850-1018), 
the  bard  of  the  peasantry,  died  in  this  period  of 
stress.  Titu  Maiorescu  (1840-1917)  and  C. 
Dohrogeanu-Gherea  (1856-1920),  the  fathers  of 
Rumanian  criticism,  left  almost  bare  this  field 
of  letters,  closing  with  their  eyelids  tbe  epoch  of 
Mihail  Eminescu  (1850-1889),  the  greatest  Ru- 
manian poet,  under  whose  influence  the  language 
and  inspiration  of  the  Rumanians  reached  the 
highest  peaks.  Of  this  generation  survives  only 
loan  Slavici  (born  in  1848),  novelist,  as  I.  L. 
Caragiale  (1852-1912)  and  Ronetti  Roman 
(1S52-1908),  the  pillars  of  the  Rumanian  the- 
atre, Alexandru  Macedonschi  (1853-1921)  and 
Duiliu  Zamfirescu  (1858-1922),  the  two  subtle 
poets,  have  also  passed  on.  And  here  we  must 
add  the  early  death  of  the  most  original  poet 
after  Eminescu,  Dimitrie  Anghcl  (1H73-1914), 
delicate,  penetrating,  endowed  with  a  rare  color- 
ful fantasy,  lover  of  flowers  and  their  magic 
troubadour;  and  the  untimely  deaths  of  P.  Ceina 
(1877-1913),  the  profound ;'St  O  losif  (1875- 
1913),  the  patriarchal;  A.  Steuerman-Rodion, 
the  revolted  one;  B.  Nemfeanu  (1K88-1919),  in- 
timate and  sincere;  Haralamb  Lecca,  the  select; 
Emil  GArleanu  (1878-1914),  short  story  writer; 
Tlarie  Chendi  (1874-1913),  the  caustic  critic. 
Finally,  the  young  and  promising  Mihail  Sanl- 
escu,  poet  of  the  undefined,  I  Chiru-Nanov,  prose 
writer,  and  Ion  Trivale,  critic,  who  paid  the 
tribute  of  Mars  with  their  li\es. 

Yet  from  the  ruins  and  ashes  of  old  Rumania 
a  new  and  greater  Rumania  arose,  and,  as  her 
people  were  gaining  more  and  more  liberties, 
life  and  work  were  blooming  a^ain. 

In  poetry  the  new  generation  boldly  rivaled  its 
elders-  Octavian  Goga,  born  in  18SI,  who  once 
sang  of  the  downtrodden ;  Ion  Miinilescu,  builder 
of  sonoiitiea  and  symbols;  Ovid  Dcnsusianu, 
scholar  and  thinker,  discreet  and  deep;  Tudor 
Arghezi,  new  and  daring;  N.  Davidescu,  aristo- 
cratic but  warm,  Enric  Furtunn,  to  whom  only 
Cerna  can  be  compared;  Mihail  Codreanu,  the 
suave;  A.  T.  Stamatiad:  Artur  Stavri;  Barbu 
Lazareanu;  Adrian  Verca;  Leon  Feraru,  born 
in  1K87,  Doiinr  Muntennu;  Vasile  Militant; 
George  Gregorian;  G.  Topflrceanu;  Corneliu 
Moldovanu;  Eugeniu  Speranta;  Radii  IX  Ro- 
setti,  still  young;  Pan  Hnlippa;  A.  Toma;  A. 
Axelrad;  Elena  Farngo:  Natalia  Negru;  Alice 
Calug&ru;  Maria  Cuntan;  G.  Murnu;  G.  V. 
Bacovia,  the  strange  and  secluded;  O.  Carp; 
Ion  Ruzdugan.  The  new  generation  has  given 
Ion  Pillat,  many-hued,  poet  of  the  old  manner 
and  editor  of  Antologia  Toamwt"i ;  Emil  Isac, 
warm,  dashing;  Lucian  Blaga ;  I.  M.  Rascu; 
Dragon  Protopopescu ;  Kugen  Relgis,  passionate 
lover  of  freedom;  Virgiliu  Moscovici,  Biblical; 
A.  Dominic;  Adrian  Marihi;  A.  Philippide;  l)e- 
mostenc  Botez;  M.  Cruceanu:  Em  Cerbu;  Ema- 
noil  Bucut£;  Perspessicius ;  Mia  Frollo;  leronim 
Laurian;  Ion  Barbu;  Camil  Petrcsru;  Nichifor 
Crainic;  Horia  Fortunfi;  Camil  Baltazai  ; 
Claudia  Millian;  Alfred  Mosoiu;  George  Voe- 
vidca.  The  sway  of  Anghel  left  a  deep  im- 
print in  the  poetry  of  the  later  years.  What 
characterizes  it  is  the  graceful  blending  of  the 
native  popular  and  the  European. 

In  the  short  story  and  novel  the  leader  was 
Mihail  Sadoveanu  (born  in  1880),  in  whose  work 
Moldavia,  his  native  province,  appears  in  all 


her  glory.  Gala  Galaction  is  the  moat  artistic 
and  sophisticated.  V.  Demetrius  and  Liviu  Re- 
breanu  succeeded  in  the  novel.  Others  are :  Ion 
AgArbiceanu  (born  in  1882),  Jean  Bart-Botez, 
Ion  Gorun,  Sandu-Aldea,  D  D.  P£tra*scanu,  I. 
Bassarabescu,  I.  Bratescu-Voinesti,  Victor  Cras- 
escu,  A.  Cazaban,  Vasile  Pop,  Ion  Dragoslav, 
Hortensia  Papadat-Bengeseu,  M.  Beza,  the  Mace- 
donian story  teller,  N.  Batzaria,  N.  Ciotori;  as 
well  as  the  young  Ce?ar  Petrescu,  Ion  el  Teo- 
doreanu,  F.  Aderca,  Ion  Pas,  Sarina  Cassvan- 
Pas. 

To  the  theatre  contributed :  A.  Davila,  Victor 
Eftimiu,  whose  plays  are  being  produced  in  sev- 
eral European  theatres,  A.  de  Herz,  Mihail  Sor- 
bul,  Cathon  Theodorian,  Cora  Irineu  (died  in 
1924),  B.  Luca  and  Dr.  A.  Stern,  the  translator 
of  Shakespeare. 

In  criticism  Ovid  Densusianu,  the  poet,  also 
the  editor  of  Yieafa  A*ot/d,  continued  consistent 
in  his  principles  laid  down  20  years  earlier. 
There  were  also:  N.  lorga,  the  learned  his- 
torian, M.  Dragomirescu,  Eugen  Lovinescu,  G. 
Ibraileanu,  H.  Sanielevici,  A.  Spiru-Bacau. 

Political  writers  of  fine  calibre  were  Dr.  N. 
Lupu,  the  statesman  and  leader  of  the  peasant 
party,  Constantin  Graur,  Constantin  Stere, 
Eugen  Filotti,  Dem.  Thcodorescu,  £.  Labm,  Emil 
D.  Fagure,  B.  Brftnisteanu,  losif  Nadejde,  Dela- 
fias,  P.  Musoiu,  N.  IX  Cocea,  Tudor  Theodores- 
cu-Braniste,  M.  Sara^eanu,  M.  Schwarzfeld,  M. 
vSchweig,  1.  Rosenthal,  H.  St  Streitman,  author 
of  Rcri?uiri 

Profs.  C.  Radulescu-Mortu,  S.  Mehedinti,  I. 
Petrovici,  Vasile  PArvan,  G  Valsan,  A.  Candrea, 
Gh.  Adamescu,  G.  Bogdan-Duica,  etc.,  were  aim- 
ing, like  almost  all  the  writers  mentioned  here, 
at  bringing  Rumanian  culture  nearer  to  the  west- 
ern standards.  Europism  is  the  new  word  they 
coined,  and  its  tendency  was  toward  the  over- 
throwing of  old  barriers. 

BUMBOLD,  SIR  HORACE  GEORGE  MONTAGU 
(18C9-  ).  A  British  diplomat.  In  1890  he 
became  British  Attache*  at  The  Hague.  After 
passing  a  competitive  examination  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  Cairo  in  1891,  and  after  serving  at 
many  other  places,  Vienna,  Madrid,  Tokio,  etc., 
he  was  Charge"  d*  Affaires  at  Berlin,  .luly  1-27, 
1914.  On  the  declaration  of  war  he  left  Berlin 
and  was  employed  in  the  Foreign  Office  in  Lori- 
don.  He  \\iis  British  Minister  to  Switzerland 
from  1910  to  1919  and  to  th3  Republic  of  Poland 
in  1919-20.  He  was  British  High  Commissioner 
at  Constantinople  and  as  deputy  for  Lord  Curzon 
was  head  of  the  British  delegation  at  the  Lau- 
sanne Conference  in  November,  1922. 

KUPPBECHT,  CROWN  PRINCE  OF  BAVARIA 
(1869-  ).  (See  VOL.  XX).  He  commanded 
the  Ba\arian  troops  which  won  the  battles  in 
Lorraine  in  August,  1914.  He  commanded  the 
German  front  at  Artois  and  southern  Flanders, 
was  made  field  marshal  and  given  the  chief  com- 
mand of  the  northern  group  of  armies  on  the 
western  fiont.  He  renounced  his  claim  to  the 
Bavarian  throne  at  the  time  of  his  father's  abdi- 
cation in  1918,  and  was  said  to  have  privately 
stated  his  disapproval  of  the  German  foreign 
and  military  policy  in  the  War. 

BUBAL  CBEDIT.  See  AGRICULTURAL 
CREDIT. 

BUSBY,  HENRY  HURD  (1865-  ).  An 
American  botanist  and  physician  (see  VOL.  XX). 
In  1917  Professor  Rushy  led  an  exploring  party 
to  the  mountains  of  Colombia,  in  a  search  for 
sources  of  quinine.  In  1921-22  he  made  a  sec- 


BTJBSELL 


"44 


BUSSIA 


ond  trip,  partly  in  the  interest  of  identification 
of  the  so-called  "courage  plant," 

RUSSELL,  BEBTHAND  (ARTHUR  WILLIAM) 
(1872-  ).  A  British  philosopher  (see  VOL 
XX).  During  the  War  he  was  a  propagandist 
for  pacifism  and  was  imprisoned  for  six  months 
for  attacking  the  reputation  of  the  American 
army.  He  was  also  forced  out  from  his  chair 
at  Cambridge  University.  He  thus  identified 
himself  more  and  more  with  radical  movements, 
and  when  a  delegation  from  the  British  Labor 
party  sailed  to  investigate  conditions  in  Soviet 
Russia,  he  accompanied  them.  He  came  away 
disillusioned  with  communism  and  wrote  up  his 
dissatisfaction  in  The  Practice  and  Theory  of 
Bolshevism  (1020).  Sailing  for  China  in  1020, 
Russell  found  amid  the  ruins  of  the  Celestial 
Empire  a  greater  promise  of  freedom  than  that 
of  the  Occident.  In  China  he  composed  a  work 
on  The  Analysis  of  Mind  (1022),  in  which  he  ac- 
cepted the  principal  tenets  of  behavioristic  psy- 
chology. In  1024  he  visited  the  United  States 
as  a  professional  lecturer.  Half  flatteringly, 
half  in  the  manner  of  Cassandra,  the  eminent 
philosopher  predicted  the  gradual  enslavement  of 
impoverished  Europe  to  the  mechanical  civiliza- 
tion of  America.  In  addition  to  the  works  men- 
tioned, Russell  published  after  1014:  Principles 
of  Social  Reconstruction  (1017)  ;  Mysticism  and 
Logic  (1018)  ;  Roads  to  Freedom  (1018)  ;  Intro- 
duction to  Mathematical  Philosophy  (1010); 
The  Problem  of  China  (1022)  ;  The  A  B  C  of 
Atoms  (1023);  Icarus  (1024). 

RUSSELL,  HENRY  NORRIS  (1877-  ).  An 
American  astronomer,  born  at  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y., 
and  educated  at  Princeton  University.  lie  was 
a  Carnegie  research  assistant  at  the  Cambridge 
Observatory  in  England  in  1003-05.  In  1005  he 
became  an  assistant  in  astronomy  at  Princeton: 
in  1011,  professor;  and  in  1012,  director  of  the 
Observatory  there.  The  stars  were  the  subject 
of  his  researches.  He  published  papers  on  stel- 
lar parallax,  stellar  evolution,  and  stellar  sta- 
tistics, as  well  as  on  binary  stars  and  eclipsing 
variables.  He  was  an  engineer  in  the  Air  Serv- 
ice of  the  United  States  Army  in  1018  as  well  as 
a  member  of  the  National  Research  Council. 
Professor  Russell  became  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society,  whose  gold  medal  he  won 
in  1021.  In  the  same  year  he  became  a  research 
associate  of  Mt.  Wilson  Observatory. 

RUSSELL,  JOHN  (1885-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can journalist  and  author,  born  at  Davenport, 
Iowa,  and  educated  at  Northwestern  University 
( 1003-05) .  For  several  years  he  traveled  widely 
in  various  parts  of  the  world.  He  was  special 
correspondent  and  staff  writer  for  several  papers 
and  magazines  and  contributed  many  articles 
and  short  stories  to  periodicals.  During  the 
War  he  was  in  charge  of  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment propaganda  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. He  wrote  The  Society  Wolf  (1010)  ;  The 
Red  Mark  (1010);  Where  the  Pavement  Ends 
(1021),  and  In  Dark  Places  (1024). 

RUSSELL,  WTILLIAM  FLETCHER  (1800-  ). 
An  American  educator,  born  at  Delhi,  N.  Y.,  and 
educated  at  Cornell  University.  After  teaching 
for  several  years  in  Greeley,  Colo.,  he  became 
assistant  professor  in  history  and  sociology  at 
the  State  Teachers'  College,  and  after  studying 
at  Columbia  University  and  serving  as  assistant 
in  the  philosophy  of  education  there,  he  was  ap- 
pointed associate  professor  of  secondary  educa- 
tion at  the  George  Peabody  College  for  Teachers 
in  Nashville,  Tenn.  From  1010  to  1917  he  was 


professor  of  that  subject.  In  1017  he  was  dean 
of  the  College  of  Education  at  the  State  Uni- 
versity of  Iowa.  Professor  Russell  wrote  The 
Early  Teaching  of  History  in  A7eu?  York  and 
Massachusetts  (1015);  Economy  in  Secondary 
Education  (1010);  Education  in  the  United 
States  (1017);  Schools  in  Siberia  (1010),  etc. 

BUSSELL  SAGE  FOUNDATION.  An  or- 
ganization incorporated  in  1007  for  the  im- 
provement of  social  and  living  conditions  in 
the  United  States.  Its  work,  which  gives  large 
place  to  research  and  publication,  is  carried  on 
by  a  staff  of  men  and  women  trained  in  special 
lines  of  investigation  and  social  welfare.  The 
direct  activities  of  the  Foundation  are  carried 
on  through  the  following  eight  departments: 
Charity  Organization;  Child  Helping;  Indus- 
trial Studies;  Publications  and  Library; 
Recreation;  Remedial  Loans;  Statistics;  and 
Surveys  and  Exhibits.  In  the  decade  1014- 
1024,  36  books  and  more  than  125  pamph- 
lets and  monographs  were  published.  A  num- 
ber of  investigations  are  now  in  process,  among 
them,  present-day  administration  of  marriage 
laws  in  the  United  States;  schools  for  juvenile 
delinquents;  a  series  on  various  important  ex- 
periments in  employees'  representation  and 
other  developments  in  industrial  relations;  pub- 
lic recreation  in  New  York  City,  summer 
camps;  the  small  loan  business;  employment 
statistics;  social  publicity  methods;  and  arts 
and  crafts  of  immigrant  peoples.  The  library 
of  the  Foundation  has  developed  steadily  and 
now  contains  some  23,723  bound  volumes  and 
70,014  pamphlets;  its  attendance  in  1024  num- 
bered 21.810.  In  1017,  when  the  United  States 
entered  the  World  War,  the  services  of  the  staff 
were  offered  to  the  government.  Five  new 
Federal  bureaus  or  divisions  grew  out  of  war- 
time activities  with  which  members  of  the  staff 
of  the  Foundation  were  associated  in  an  or- 
ganizing or  administrative  capacity:  the  Divi- 
sion of  Statistics,  a  branch  of  the  General  Staff; 
a  Woman  in  Industry  Service,  under  the  De- 
partment of  Labor;  an  Education-Recreation 
Division  of  the  Army  and  a  similar  division  in 
the  Bureau  of  Navigation;  and  a  Savings 
Division  in  the  Treasury.  In  1010,  the  Southern 
Highland  Department  of  the  Foundation  was 
discontinued  and  in  1020,  the  Department  of 
Education  was  given  up.  In  1023  a  new  division 
of  child  welfare  legislation  was  organ i/ed  and 
in  1024  a  consultation  service  in  penology  and 
delinquency  was  opened.  The  Foundation  has 
continued  its  work  of  conference  and  consulta- 
tion in  the  field  of  its  activities.  Besides  tho 
regular  work,  a  number  of  grants  to  social 
agencies  engaged  in  similar  work  have  been 
made.  In  1022,  through  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  Foundation,  a  Regional  Plan  of  New 
York  and  Its  Environs  was  inaugurated,  to  bo 
assisted  financially  for  a  five  year  period  and 
housed  by  the  Foundation  in  the  Foundation 
building.  General  director,  John  M.  Glenn; 
president  of  the  board  of  trustees,  Robert  W. 
de  Forest. 

BTJSSIA.  A  federal  republic  comprising  the 
greater  part  of  the  former  Russian  Empire  and 
officially  entitled  the  Union  of  Socialist  Soviet 
Republics,  more  familiarly  known  as  Soviet 
Russia.  It  stretches  over  a  vast  expanse  of 
territory  in  eastern  Europe  and  northern  Asia. 
Capital,  Moscow. 

Political  Divisions.  The  Union  of  Socialist 
Soviet  Republics  consists  of  six  Socialist  Fed- 


BTJ8SIA 


"45 


BUBSIA 


erated  Soviet  Republics,  which  are  further  sub- 
divided into  autonomous  republics  and  autono- 
mous provinces.  The  principal  federations  are: 
(1)  the  Russian  Socialist  Federated  Soviet 
Republic  (capital,  Moscow),  embracing  the  prin- 
cipal Great  Russian  "governments"  or  states  of 
Russia  in  Europe  and  Western  Siberia;  (2)  the 
Ukrainian  Socialist  Federated  Soviet  Republic 
(capital,  Kharkov)  ;  (3)  the  White  Russian  So- 
cialist Soviet  Republic  (Minsk);  (4)  the  Fed- 
eration of  Transcaucasian  Soviet  Republics  (Tif- 
lis);  (5)  the  Far  Eastern  Republic  (Vladivos- 
tok) ;  and  (6)  the  Bokhara  People's  Soviet  Re- 
public (Bokhara).  The  Republic  of  Khoresma 
(Khiva)  is  affiliated  with  the  Union  but  not  a 
member  of  it.  The  Russian  Socialist  Federated 
Soviet  Republic  is  composed  of  the  following 
autonomous  republics  and  autonomous  terri- 
tories (administrative  centres  in  parentheses)  : 
Crimean  Republic  (Simferopol),  Bashkir  Re- 
public (Ufa),  Tartar  Republic  (Kazan),  Kir- 
ghiz Republic  (Orenburg),  Turkestan  Republic 
( Tashkent ) ,  Daghestaii  Republic  ( Makhatch- 
Kala),  Mountain  Republic  (Vladikavkaz),  Ya- 
kutsk Republic  (Yakutsk),  Carelian  Republic 
(Petrozavodsk),  Buriat-Mongolian  Republic  (Ir- 
kutsk), Chuvash  Autonomous  Territory  (Che- 
boksary), Kalmyk  Autonomous  Territory  (As- 
trakhan), Mariisk  Autonomous  Territory  (Kras- 
nnKokshaisk ) ,  Votyak  Autonomous  Territory 
(Izhevsk),  Kabardin-Balkar  Autonomous  Terri- 
tory (Nalchik),  Zyriany  Autonomous  Territory 
( Ust-Sysolsk ) ,  Karachaef-Oherkass  Autonomous 
Territory  (Batalpashtchinsk),  Oiratski  Autono- 
mous Territory  (Oolala),  Adiglieiski-Circassian 
Autonomous  Territory  (Krasnodar),  Volga  Ger- 
man's Territory  (Pokrovsk),  Chechen  Territory 
(Grozny). 

The  Transcaucasiai!  Federation  consists  of 
three  principal  republics,  namely,  Azerbaijan 
(principal  to\\n,  Baku);  Armenia  (Erivan)  ; 
and  Georgia  (Tiflis).  Tiflis  is  the  capital  of 
the  federation.  Besides  these,  there  are  also 
incorporated  in  the  federation  the  minor  re- 
publics of  Abkhaz  (principal  town,  Sukhum) 
and  Adjar  (Batum).  By  the  Treaty  of  Brest- 
Litovak  (Mar.  3,  IttlS)  the  Ukrainian  Republic 
was  detached  from  Russia  and  placed  under 
German  control  but  subsequently  became  re- 
united with  Soviet  Russia.  (See  UKRAINE.) 
The  provinces  of  Volhynia,  Vilna,  Kovno,  and 
(Jrodrio  were  separated  from  Russia  and  became 
part  of  Poland,  while  the  provinces  of  Erivan 
and  Kars  passed  to  Turkey.  The  border  prov- 
inces of  Latvia,  Ksthonia,  and  Lithuania  (qq.v.) 
became  established  as  independent  states,  and  so 
did  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Finland  (q.v.),  while 
the  province  of  Bessarabia  (q.v.)  was  annexed  to 
Rumania. 

Area  and  Population.  Russia  in  Europe, 
total  pre-war  area,  1,090,039  square  miles,  less 


less  Kars,  7700,  leaves  an  area  of  87,834 ;  Asiatic 
Russia,  6,207,067;  total  Soviet  Russia,  9,116,254 
square  miles;  pre-war  Russian  Empire,  8,302,- 
540  square  miles.  The  population  of  present 
Soviet  Russia  is  shown  in  the  following  table: 


Russia  in  Europe 
Asiatic  Russia    .  .  .  . 

Soviet  census 
Sept.  1,   1920 
.      102,207,800 
23  407  500 

Official  estimates 
End  of  1914 
120,560,000 
21  615  000 

Transcaucasia     .  . 

5,683,700 

6,985,000 

Total          .  .      . 

,     .    131,299,000 

149,160,000 

The  figures  for  19i4  are  about  10  pei  cent 
higher  than  those  given  for  that  year  in  the 
Soviet  Statistical  Annual,  which  expresses  the 
opinion  that  pre-war  estimates  were  exagger- 
ated to  that  extent.  No  official  census  was 
taken  by  the  old  Russian  government  after  1807, 
but  the  changes  in  population  were  estimated 
each  year  by  comparing  the  statistics  of  births, 
deaths,  and  migration.  Difficulty  in  comparing 
these  pre-war  estimates  with  the  recent  census 
also  arises  from  boundary  readjustments,  for  it 
is  impossible  from  available  information  to  dis- 
tinguish exactly  the  pre-war  (estimated)  popu- 
lation of  certain  Russian  districts  which  have 
been  divided  between  Soviet  Russia  and  other 
countries.  Assuming,  however,  that  both  sets 
of  figures  cited  in  the  table  above  are  correct, 
it  Mould  appear  that  there  has  been  a  decrease 
of  some  18,000,000  in  th?  population  since  the 
beginning  of  the  War.  In  view  of  the  fact  that 
prior  to  the  War  the  population  was  rapidly  in- 
creasing (for  pre-war  Russia  as  a  whole  from 
128,024,000  in  1897  to  182,183.000  in  1914),  this 
decrease  is  striking.  Of  the  total  population  of 
European  Russia  in  1020,  the  Ukraine  had  25,- 
(505,000.  The  population  of  Asiatic  Russia  was 
distributed  between  Siberia,  11,160,300;  Kir- 
ghizia, 5,04.r),700;  and  Turkestan,  7,201,500.  Of 
the  total  population.  61,040,200  were  males  and 
70,252,800  females,  (hi  Mar.  15,  1023,  a  census 
of  the  urban  population  revealed  that  the  popu- 
lation of  Russian  cities  and  towns  in  general 
had  declined  by  1.8  per  cent  compaicd  with  the 
census  of  1020.  The  total  urban  population 
\\as  found  to  number  about  21,700,000,  exclusive 
of  army  gairisons  A  comparison  of  1772  cities 
and  towns  showed  an  increase  of  population  from 
17,600,000  in  1JI20  to  18,230,000,  or  3.6  per  cent. 
An  increase  of  858,000  in  the  population  of  the 
two  capitals,  Moscow  and  Petrograd,  during  this 
period,  was  somewhat  offset  by  a  decrease  of 
225,000  in  all  the  rest  of  the  townships.  Elimi- 
nating Moscow  and  Petrograd,  as  well  as  East- 
ern Siberia,  Turkestan,  Transcaucasia,  and  four 
pro\  hires  where  no  census  was  held  in  1920 
(Volhynia,  Podolia,  White  Russia,  and  the 
Crimea),  the  results  of  the  census  of  Mar.  15, 
1923,  were  as  follows: 


Regions 

Number 
of  towns 

Inhabi- 
tants, 1920 

Inhabi- 
tants, 1923 

Percentage 
of  shift 

Russian  Soviet  Republic* 

459 

2,665,178 

3,061,830 

-f!4.9 

408 

4,687,554 

4,407,798 

-   67 

Ukraine 

818 

4,212,452 

3,907,572 

-    76 

Southeastern  region 

49 

1,262,258 

1.210,728 

-   4.1 

21 

363,373 

871,445 

+   2.2 

Western  Siberia      

.    .         65 

865,195 

837,222 

3.2 

Total        

.       .       .        1,310 

-    18 

lost  territory,  178,580,  leaves  a  present  area  of 
1,821,353   square  miles;    Transcaucasia,  95.534, 


The  growth  of  industrial  production   in   cer- 
tain  localities  and   the   famine  of   1021    in  the 


BTTSSIA 


1x46 


BTTS8IA 


agricultural  belt  greatly  affected  the  movement 
of  population.  In  the  so-called  consuming  dis- 
tricts, outside  of  the  agricultural  belt,  all  of  the 
17  provinces  comprising  the  northwestern  sec- 
tion of  Soviet  Russia  showed  an  increase  of 
urban  population.  The  five  great  textile  dis- 
tricts have  shown  the  highest  accretions.  Of  the 
19  provinces  comprising  the  so-called  food-pro- 
ducing belt,  those  four  adjacent  to  the  indus- 
trial area  showed  increases  of  urban  population, 
while  the  remaining  15  showed  decreases  ranging 
from  20.8  per  cent  in  Samara  down  to  .4  per 
cent  in  Astrakhan.  Of  the  nine  provinces  of  the 
Ukraine,  the  four  northern  showed  increases. 
In  the  four  southern  provinces  heavy  declines 
were  registered:  Volhynia,  11.2  per  cent; 
Donets,  12.1;  Ekaterinoslav,  165;  and  Odessa, 
23  8  per  cent.  The  estimated  decrease  in  Po- 
dolia  was  .8  per  cent.  The  population  of  the 
city  of  Odessa  dropped  from  454,187  to  316,740, 
or  303  per  cent;  Nikolaiev,  from  108,777  to  81,- 
366,  or  25.2  per  cent;  Kherson,  from  74,703  to 
40,796,  or  47.5  per  cent — the  heaviest  percentage 
of  decline  in  Russia.  The  population  of  the 
principal  cities  of  Russia  (ahove  50,000)  in 
1917,  1920,  and  1923  was  as  follows  (the  figures 
of  1897  are  not  comparable  as  regards  the  male 
population,  since  the  latter  included  the  military 
garrisons,  which  were  eliminated  in  the  census 
of  subsequent  years)  : 


and  ratified  in  February,  1924,  sovereign  power 
is  vested  in  the  supreme  organs  of  the  Federa- 
tion, i.e.  the  Union  Congress  of  Soviets,  the  Cen- 
tral Executive  Committee  of  that  Congress,  and 
its  Presidium.  The  Congress  of  Soviets,  of 
about  2000  members,  is  elected  by  the  various 
congresses  of  the  federated  republics  and  meets 
for  a  week  once  a  year.  The  Central  Executive 
Committee  is  composed  of  two  houses,  known  re- 
spectively as  the  Federal  Council  and  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nationalities,  the  former  consisting  of 
371  members  elected  by  the  Federal  Congress  of 
Soviets  according  to  population,  and  the  latter 
of  some  98  members,  five  elected  by  each  fed- 
erated member  state  and  one  by  each  of  the 
autonomous  republics  or  districts.  Each  of 
these  two  houses  elects  its  own  Presidium,  or 
standing  committee,  of  sevtn  members.  Between 
sessions  of  the  Federal  Congress  of  Soviets,  the 
Central  Executive  Committee  is  the  supreme  or- 
gan. It  meets  three  times  a  year  and  is  re- 
placed during  recesses  by  a  presidium  of  21. 
The  Central  Executive  Committee  jointly  elects 
federal  commissars  (or  ministers)  on  the  follow- 
ing basis:  (A)  five  federal  commissariats,  all 
regional  representatives  of  which  in  the  partici- 
pating states  are  appointed  by  and  responsible  to 
the  Union  commissars,  viz.:  (1)  foieign  affairs; 
(2)  army  and  navy;  (3)  foreign  trade;  (4) 
transport;  (5)  post  and  telegiaphs;  (B)  five 


1917 

1920 

1923 

Total 

Female 

Total 

Female 

Total 

Female 

Archangel    

45,278 

22,420 

53,532 

26,520 

Astrakhan   

116,094 

65,197 

133,181 

70,759 

Chelyabinsk     

46,918 

23,947 

57,476 

30,475 

54,166 

28,827 

Ekatcnnburg    

90,011 

47,188 

96.771 

51,210 

Gomel    

64,756 

34,880 

61,069 

32,554 

75,939 

39,325 

85,203 

49,074 

58/203 

U3.G29 

71.R79 

:io.:ior> 

Kazan             

192,659 

103,412 

147,678 

81.215 

158,208 

85.3H2 

64,644 

36,940 

49,978 

28,392 

59,486 

32,724 

Kursk    

90,502 

49,920 

79,807 

44,153 

85,732 

45,659 

Moscow    

1,701.264 

934,019 

952,255 

526,246 

1,490,048 

769,268 

Nijni-Novgorod    

148,130 

82,486 

105,918 

50,499 

133,919 

69,457 

Orel        

90,058 

47,588 

63,832 

34,735 

71,519 

37,773 

Penza     

105,050 

57,862 

85,070 

4fi,390 

79,560 

42,477 

Perm   

68,038 

35,956 

67,986 

36,560 

Petrogi  ad  °  

•  « 

722,229 

420,618 

1,043,631 

564,021 

Rybin&k   

58,813 

29,058 

39.835 

20,567 

48,844 

25,079 

227,951 

125,132 

175,806 

94,444 

150,192 

80,1(>9 

Saratov    

223,414 

120,311 

189,242 

102,559 

183,145 

98,535 

Simbirsk        

74,278 

38,065 

79,048 

42,159 

68,967 

36,934 

Smolensk   

72,559 

36,934 

57,224 

30,049 

66,812 

34,016 

Svzran     

50,983 

28,704 

50,387 

28,084 

43,359 

23,325 

Tambov    

76,434 

42,024 

72,695 

39,626 

70,312 

37,669 

Tula           

156,583 

77,596 

128,408 

62,809 

123,443 

62,783 

Tsantsyn           

132,673 

6«,173 

90,396 

48,686 

106,783 

56,714 

Tver     

101,132 

56,267 

66,095 

36,193 

83,348 

44,945 

Ufa    

104,691 

58,450 

92,766 

50,494 

84,272 

45,283 

Viatka   

40,908 

22,894 

40,769 

20,503 

53,198 

2f>,167 

Vitebsk    

100,172 

56,438 

80,003 

44,127 

87,726 

40,302 

Vologda   

69,664 

37,254 

46,981 

23,952 

52,935 

27,497 

Voronezh   

126,942 

72,220 

90,382 

49,045 

94,185 

50,760 

Yaroslav    

125,194 

68,564 

76,372 

41,276 

89,881 

47,749 

•  Renamed  Leningrad  on  the  death  of  Lenme,  in  J 
In  1920  the  proportion  of  male  population  to 
female  in  the  towns  and  cities  was  455  males  to 
555  females;  in  1023  it  was  470  males  to  530  fe- 
males. In  all  cities  and  towns  the  number  of 
men  increased  by  566,000,  or  7  per  cent;  the 
number  of  women  by  67,000,  or  .6  per  cent. 
With  the  elimination  of  Moscow  and  Petrograd, 
however,  the  number  of  men  increased  by  only 
93,000,  or  1.2  per  cent,  while  the  number  of 
women  decreased  by  318,000,  or  3.7  per  cent. 
The  above  shifts  were  chiefly  the  results  of  the 
demobilization  of  the  Bed  Army. 

Government.  The  form  of  government  of 
the  Union  of  Socialist  Soviet  Republics  (U.S.- 
S.R.)  may  be  described  as  an  oligarchy  in  the 
guise  of  a  federated  republic.  According  to  the 
new  Soviet  constitution  drafted  in  July,  1923, 


inuary,  1924. 

"combined"  commissariats,  each  of  which  has 
parallel  commissariats  in  the  various  partici- 
pating states,  chosen  by  the  latter  but  approved 
by  the  federal  commissars,  whose  authority  is 
shared  by  them,  viz.:  (1)  supreme  council  of 
national  economy;  (2)  food;  (3)  labor;  (4) 
finance;  and  (5)  workers'  and  peasants'  inspec- 
tion. The  10  commissars  at  the  head  of  these 
commissariats,  together  with  a  president  and 
vice  president,  form  the  Union  Council  of  Peo- 
ple's Commissars.  This  body  enjoys  legislative 
and  executive  powers  subject  to  higher  author- 
ity. The  whole  country  is  under  a  single  sys- 
tem of  law  and  a  single  Supreme  Court  sub- 
ordinated to  the  Central  Executive  Committee, 
whose  presidium  appoints  7  of  the  11  mem- 
bers of  the  bench,  and  to  which  body  the  public 


BUSSIA 


1147 


EXJSSIA 


prosecutor  may  appeal  cases  for  final  decision. 
One  of  the  members  of  the  court  is  a  representa- 
tive of  the  United  State  Political  Administra- 
tion (O.G.P.U.).  Under  the  constitution,  each 
federated  republic  is  required  to  function 
on  a  soviet  basis,  with  a  central  executive  com- 
mittee and  council  of  people's  commissars.  The 
Federation  has  exclusive  control  of  foreign  rela- 
tions and  alone  may  alter  the  external  bounda- 
ries of  the  Federation ;  settle  boundary  disputes 
between  participating  republics;  conclude  trea- 
ties for  admission  of  new  members;  declare  war 
and  conclude  peace;  negotiate  foreign  and  in- 
ternal loans  for  the  Union,  as  well  as  give  per- 
mission for  such  loans  to  the  federated  repub- 
lics; regulate  foreign  and  domestic  trade;  in- 
augurate the  general  economic  policy  of  the 
Union,  control  industry  and  grant  concessions 
in  the  name  of  the  Union  and  of  the  separate 
republics;  manage  transportation,  posts,  and 
telegraphs;  organize  and  command  the  armed 
forces  of  the  Union;  approve  the  budget  and 
levy  taxes;  establish  a  monetary  system;  direct 
the  use  of  land  and  all  natural  resources;  con- 
trol migration :  shape  civil  and  criminal  legisla- 
tion, labor  laws,  and  educational  and  sanitary 
legislation  for  the  Union;  establish  a  system 
of  weights  and  measures;  issue  federal  statis- 
tics; promulgate  legislation  concerning  the  rights 
of  citizens  and  foreigners;  and  grant  amnesty 
throughout  the  Union.  It  has  the  power  to 
annul  any  unconstitutional  measure  of  the  fed- 
erated republics,  and  to  settle  any  dispute  be- 
tween them.  The  federated  republics  retain  the 
meagre  rights  of  sovereignty  and  autonomy  not 
withdrawn  by  the  constitution  Each  may 
amend  its  constitution  within  the  limits  set  by 
the  federal  constitution.  No  boundary  of  a  re- 
public may  be  altered  without  its  consent.  Any 
republic  may  withdraw  at  will  from  the  Union. 
In  short,  the  participating  republics  are  given 
n  semblance  of  sovereignty  within  their  respec- 
tive territories,  while  the  absolute  and  final 
control  of  all  important  affairs,  both  foreign 
and  internal,  rests  in  the  hands  of  the  federal 
government  in  Moscow. 

The  Communist  party  with  its  600,000  dis- 
ciplined adheients  is  the  ruling  group  in  a  na- 
tion of  131  000,000  people.  Needless  to  say, 
there  is  no  democracy  in  Russia.  Suppression 
of  the  press  and  of  free  speech,  drastic  limita- 
tion of  the  suffrage,  and  terrorist  methods  are 
some  of  the  means  by  which  the  present  regime 
is  maintained.  The  oligarchical  control  of  the 
Communists  is  facilitated  by  a  singularly  effec- 
tive indirect  system  of  election.  The  electoral 
system  of  the  Soviets  is  ultimately  based  not  on 
a  territorial  unit,  such  as  a  State,  county,  or 
township,  but  on  an  association  unit,  such  as  a 
factory,  a  soviet  institution,  a  regiment,  or  ship, 
each  body  being  dominated  by  a  so-called  nu- 
cleus of  Communist  party  members,  so  that  the 
perpetuation  of  the  power  of  the  Communist 
party  is  assured.  Because  of  the  impractica- 
bility, of  the  economic  unit  system  in  rural  com- 
munities, where  each  farmstead  represents  a 
unit,  delegates  are  there  elected  from  administra- 
tive units,  i.e.  the  village  or  volost  (group  of 
villages) ;  but  due  to  the  system  of  graduated 
elections  in  the  case  of  rural  communities,  pass- 
ing through  several  successive  stages  before 
members  of  the  central  congress  (of  a  federated 
republic)  are  finally  elected,  whereas  the  cities 
and  the  larger  industrial  corporations  send  their 
representatives  direct  to  the  congress,  the  votes 


of  the  masses  of  peasantry  are  effectively  sub- 
merged. Although  a  large  or  eveii  overwhelm- 
ing majority  of  the  delegates  elected  on  the 
primary  ballots  in  any  one  province  or  district 
may  be  non-Communist,  the  final  ballots  turn 
out  100  per  cent  Communist  representation  in 
the  supreme  legislative  body,  the  Central  Execu- 
tive Committee  of  the  Congress  of  Soviets.  At 
its  annual  meeting  the  Communist  party  elects 
a  central  committee  of  40  members,  which  in 
turn  elects  a  political  bureau  consisting  of  seven 
members  and  four  alternates.  Through  this 
body  the  Communist  party  directs  and  controls 
tne  policy  of  the  soviet  government.  Once  a 
policy  is  decided  on  by  the  Political  Bureau,  it 
is  referred  to  the  Central  Committee  of  the 
Communist  party,  which  passes  it  as  a  matter 
of  course  and  has  it  approved  by  the  Central 
Executive  Committee  of  the  Union,  which  it 
controls  absolutely.  To  prevent  friction  be- 
tween the  various  important  organs  of  party 
and  state,  tin  same  Communists  hold  offices 
in  a  number  of  organs,  thus  creating  a  political 
intei  locking  directorate.  In  the  last  analysis, 
therefore,  the  real  governing  power  in  Russia 
is  the  Communist  party. 

Education  According  to  the  census  of  1020 
only  32  per  cent  of  the  entire  population  of 
I'liRsia  is  literate.  If  children  under  eight  be 
excluded,  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  still 
amounts  to  60.  As  in  the  case  of  all 
backward  countries,  the  female  population  lags 
behind  the  male;  there  are  520  literate  men  to 
every  300  literate  women.  By  locality,  illiteracy 
increases  centrifugally  from  Moscow  toward  out- 
lying parts  of  Russia,  particularly  eastward  to- 
ward Siberia,  the  Caucasus,  and  the  Trans-Cas- 
pian Republics.  Thus,  in  the  Samarkand  prov- 
ince of  Turkestan  the  illiterate  population  con- 
stitutes 94y2  per  cent  of  the  total.  In  Russia 
proper  were"  registered  27,500,000  totally  illit- 
erate persons  above  the  age  of  eight;  in  the 
Ukraine,  12,000,000;  in  the  autonomous  feder- 
ated Republics,  6,000,000;  with  other  districts, 
this  makes  a  grand  total  of  54,000,000  above 
school  age.  By  profession  or  occupation  the 
highest  standard  of  literacy  was  found  in  the 
soviet  army,  826  per  1000,  and  in  the  navy,  942 
per  1000.  Taking  the  entire  able-bodied  work- 
ing population  of  Soviet  Russia  between  the 
ages  of  16  and  50,  there  were  73  per  cent 
of  males  and  36  per  cent  of  females  who 
could  either  read  or  write  or  both.  A  compar- 
ison between  the  returns  of  the  literacy  cen- 
sus of  Russia  in  1897  and  1920  shows  up  as 
follows : 


(Per  1000) 

Male  Female 

1897  1920  1897  1920 

European     Russia     326  422  136  225 

Northern    Caucasus        .    ...    241  357  5d  215 

Western    Siberia    170  807  46  134 

General 818  409  l.'il  214 


The  number  of  elementary  schools,  number  of 
pupils,  and  percentage  of  girls,  show  the  fol- 
lowing developments  since  pre-war  years: 


School 
Year 
1910-11 

Schools  open 
January  1 
,  .  .  .    55  000 

Pupils       F 
Attending 
8  5V>  000 

'ercentage 
of  Girls 
82.4 

1914-15 

64,000 

4*2H  i'000 

85.0 

1920-21 

,  .  .  .    70  000 

6  060  000 

42  0 

1921-22      ... 

...    58.000 

4*915,000 

42.1 

1922-28     .  .  , 

....   58,000 

41400.000 

87.1 

BUSSIA 


1148 


BUSSIA 


Following  the  Bolshevik  revolution,  the  So- 
viet authorities  inaugurated  an  ambitious  pro- 
gramme of  popular  education,  but  after  1921  all 
appropriations  were  curtailed  to  the  minimum, 
and  the  number  of  schools  as  well  as  of  pupils 
attending  shrank  in  many  cases  far  below  pre- 
war levels.  In  1913,  the  proportion  of  the  ap- 
propriations for  the  Ministry  of  Education  and 
the  general  state  budget  amounted  to  6.1  per 
cent,  which  rose  as  high  as  7.5  per  <*jnt  in  1910. 
These  appropriations,  however,  covered  only 
state-maintained  colleges  and  primary  schools 
but  did  not  concern  the  great  number  of  private 
educational  institutions.  Under  the  Soviet  re*- 
ginie,  no  private  schools  are  permitted  except  of 
the  narrowly  specialized  type  such  as  account- 
ancy, shorthand,  etc.  It  is  part  of  the  Com- 
munist platform  that  all  Russian  schools  must 
remain  in  the  hands  of  the  state.  In  1920,  the 
appropriations  for  the  Commissariat  of  Educa- 
tion amounted  to  10.4  per  cent  of  the  total 
budget,  but  in  1921  they  fell  to  8  per  cent,  in 
1922  to  4.2  per  cent,  and  in  1923  to  3.4  per 
cent.  The  number  of  high  schools  or  secondary 
schools  likewise  declined  greatly.  There  were 
in  the  1921-22  school  year  1470  high  schools 
with  199,67(5  pupils,  but  the  number  fell  to  963 
schools  with  16S,350  pupils  in  the  year  follow- 
ing. This  change  was  partly  accounted  for  by 
the  transfer  of  a  number  of  high  schools  into 
the  category  of  combination  primary  and  high 
schools,  of  which  there  were  in  the  1922-23 
school  year  572  with  211,574  pupils.  The  num- 
ber of  these  schools  which  have  a  seven-year  cur- 
riculum is  increasing.  The  number  of  kinder- 
gartens fell  by  t\\o-thirdH  in  1922-23  compared 
with  1920,  from  2256  with  Ii4,270  children  to 
839  with  40,450  children. 

Higher  Education.  The  number  of  colleges 
and  speciali/ed  educational  institutions  in  Soviet 
Russia  in  1922-23  was  202  with  166,274  stu- 
dents. These  were  distributed  as  follows,  by 
categories : 

Category  Percentage  of  Percentage 

Colleges  of  Students 

Universities    and    colleges     .      . .    14  4  37  8 

Medical    and    veterinary    schools       5.6  65 

Normal   schools    .  25  5  83 

Agricultural  colleges 14  4  13  1 

Technological      188  20.3 

Arts  and  music 13.1  6.4 

Economic    and    industrial    5.6  5  8 

All   other*         26  27 

The  great  majority  of  colleges  are  located  in  the 
two  capitals,  Moscow  and  Petrograd,  with  44.4 
per  cent  of  all  students  in  Moscow  and  30.8  per 
cent  in  Petrograd.  The  number  of  colleges  and 
students  increased  in  the  two  capitals  but  de- 
clined sharply  throughout  the  rest  of  the  coun- 
try. Tn  both  the  capitals,  the  number  of  col- 
lege students  amounted  to  4  per  cent  of  the 
population.  The  percentage  of  women  students 
in  colleges  of  general  academic  character  was 
52.4  (excepting  the  universities,  where  it  was 
45.3)  ;  in  art  schools  and  conservatories,  50.2; 
in  medical  colleges,  53.5;  and  as  high  as  09.2 
in  normal  schools;  in  agricultural  colleges, 
25.9.  The  lowest  proportion  was  in  techno- 
logical schools,  9  2  per  cent.  In  addition  to  uni- 
versities and  colleges  of  the  general  type,  there 
exist  in  Soviet  Russia  so-called  "workmen's 
faculties"  in  which  only  Communists  may  en- 
roll; the  students  are  supported  by  a  govern- 
ment stipend.  On  Jan.  1,  1923,  81  such  "facul- 
ties" were  open  with  30,557  students.  Of  this 


number,  60  schools  with  24,455  students  were 
in  the  European  part  of  the  Russian  Republic 
proper,  of  which  25  per  cent  were  women. 
There  were  20  such  schools  in  Moscow  and  9 
in  Petrograd,  with  a  total  of  14,867  students. 
Of  a  lower  type  than  the  academic  and  polytech- 
nic institutes  are  the  technicians,  specialized  in- 
stitutions or  courses  giving  an  essentially  prac- 
tical training  with  greatly  condensed  theoret- 
ical background.  These  institutions  are  found 
mostly  in  provincial  cities  and  like  the  work- 
men's faculties  did  not  exist  before  the  Revolu- 
tion. In  1923  such  schools  numbered  359  with 
49,580  students  attending.  The  highest  propor- 
tion were  normal  schools,  32. 6  per  cent,  with 
27.9  per  cent  of  students,  followed  by  manual 
training  schools,  23.3  per  cent  of  total  number, 
with  26.7  per  cent  of  the  students;  art  and 
music,  with  14.3  per  cent  of  schools  and  17.9 
per  cent  of  students.  These  institutions  were 
the  only  ones  whose  number  increased  during 
the  three  years  preceding.  Their  number  grew 
•from  255  in  the  27  principal  governments  of 
Russia,  with  an  average  number  of  127  students, 
to  272  in  1022-23,  with  an  average  number  of 
145  students.  The  percentage  of  women  in- 
creased from  37.2  per  cent  to  42  per  cent. 

National  Defense.  The  Soviet  military 
establishment  is  directly  under  the  Commissar 
of  War  and  Navy,  Leon  Trotsky,  and  is  con- 
trolled by  the  Supreme  Revolutionary  \\  ar 
Council  (Revvoen soviet),  which  consists  of  15 
members  and  is  attached  to  the  Commissariat 
of  War  and  Navy.  It  decides  all  military 
questions  but  delegates  to  one  of  its  organs,  the 
Political  Administration  of  the  HcvvooiiHoviet 
(P.U.R.),  independent  decision  over  political 
matlers.  Befoie  promulgation,  eveiy  deciee 
covering  military  affairs  munt  bo  confirmed  by 
the  Council  of  *  People's  Commissars.  Declar- 
ations of  war  are  made  by  the  Union  Central 
Executive  Committee.  The  general  ptaflf  of  the 
Red  Army  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev- 
voenROviet,  the  chief  of  the  general  staff  desig- 
nated by  the  Council  of  People's  Commissars  be- 
ing an  additional  member  of  the  Rewoensoviet. 
The  commanding  general  of  the  army  is  under 
the  direction  of  the  Commissar  of  \Yar  and 
Navy,  but  he  has  complete  power  over  military 
training  and  field  operations.  The  strength  of 
the  regular  standing  army  was  550,000,  com- 
posed of  300,000  infantry,  60.000  cavalry,  95,- 
000  technical  troops,  25,000  artillery,  30,000 
naval,  and  40,000  various  auxiliary  troops.  In 
addition  to  the  above  there  were  under  arms 
150,000  of  the  State  Political  Department 
(O.P.IT.)  troops,  60,000  in  borrler  units  and  90,- 
000  in  interior  units.  Together  with  the  four 
classes  in  the  "changing  personnel"  of  terri- 
torial divisions  with  1,200,000,  the  total  or- 
ganized forces  in  1924  numbered  1,900,000. 
Together  with  unorganized  trained  reserves,  the 
total  military  man  power  amounted  to  13,000,- 
000.  The  proportion  of  the  population  trained 
for  war  service  is  4.3  per  cent.  The  most  im- 
portant positions  in  the  army  are  held  by  mem- 
bers of  the  Communist  party.  In  the  cavalry 
55  per  cent  of  the  regimental  commanders  are 
Communists;  in  the  infantry  48  per  cent;  divi- 
sion and  corps  commanders,  66  per  cent. 
Among  the  regimental  and  higher  commanders, 
22  per  cent  are  old  officers,  60  per  cent  officers 
commissioned  during  the  War,  9  per  cent 
graduates  of  red  military  schools,  and  9  per  cent 
of  no  special  military  education.  Of  the  general 


BTTSSIA 


1X49 


BITSfilA 


staff  four-fifths  of  the  members  are  old  general 
staff  officers  who  served  during  the  War.  Each 
unit  of  the  army  has  its  commissar,  who  must 
remain  at  least  one  year  with  his  command. 
Each  section  has  its  club,  and  the  regiment  is 
provided  with  moving-pictures.  Every  squad- 
ron, battery,  company,  etc.,  has  a  nucleus  of 
Communist  soldiers,  at  the  head  of  which  is  a 
political  leader.  The  entire  army  is  youthful; 
the  average  of  officers  commanding  divisions 
is  30  years. 

Kaval     See  NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Aeronautic.  In  1924  there  were  432  planes 
in  the  Russian  air  service  and  30  balloons,  of 
which  20  were  attached  to  the  field  artillery,  10 
to  the  coast  artillery,  and  0  to  armored-train 
units.  The  air  forces  were  divided  into  12 
squadrons,  each  of  two  groups  of  escadrilles. 
Each  group  was  subdivided  into  3  detach- 
ments of  6  planes  each.  There  were  42  aero- 
dromes, the  chief  one  near  Moscow,  the  centre  of 
air  activities  The  Russian  air  programme  was 
most  ambitious  and  planned  to  cover  an  increase 
to  5000  planes  by  1926. 

Agriculture.  Approximately  five-sixths  of 
the  population  of  Russia  are  classed  as  rural, 
and  the  problem  of  adjusting  the  theories  of  the 
Russian  Revolution  to  meet  the  interests  of  this 
great  class  has  been  a  source  of  much  concern 
to  the  Soviet  authorities.  (See  History.)  The 
land  expropriation  which  accompanied  the  Bol- 
shevist uprising  and  its  redistribution  resulted 
in  an  increase  in  the  landboldings  of  the  peas- 
antry from  70  per  cent  of  the  total  cultivated 
acreage  to  96  per  cent  in  European  Russia  and 
from  r>5  per  cent  to  96  per  cent  in  the  Ukraine. 
In  some  districts  of  European  Russia  the  dis- 
solution of  large  holdings  \\as  still  more  drastic. 
For  instance,  in  36  provinces,  according  to  data 
of  <he  Central  Land  Administration  for  Nov. 
1,  1920,  out  of  a  total  of  22,800,000  dessiatines 
(1  dessiatine  ~  2  7  acres)  of  land  not  formerly 
tilled  by  the  owners  themselves,  21,400,000  des- 
siatines  were  distributed  among  the  peasants, 
thus  increasing  their  landholding  (exclusive  of 
forests)  from  80  per  cent  of  total  to  99  per  cent. 
On  the  average,  the  landholdings  of  the  peasants 
increased  from  1.87  dessiatines  (5  acres)  per 
capita  of  consumers  ("mouths")  to  2.26  des- 
siatines  (6  acres),  although  in  some  districts 
this  accretion  is  much  smaller,  down  to  fractions 
of  a  dessiatine.  There  remained  in  1922  the  fol- 
lowing larger  land  units-  (1)  5918  Soviet 
state  farms,  of  a  total  area  of  3,918,000  des- 


erative  communes,  with  an  average  holding  of 
2.4  dessiatines  per  "mouth"  and  3.7  dessiatines 
per  worker.  In  the  process  of  redistribution 
of  land,  not  only  had  all  the  large  landed  estates 
been  wiped  out  but  larger  peasant  holdings  dis- 
appeared as  well.  Between  1016  and  1919  the 
number  of  farm  units  of  over  8  dessiatines 
(21  6  acres)  declined  from  8  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  of  farms  to  3  per  cent,  and  the 
group  of  farms  comprising  4  to  8  dessiatines 
declined  from  21.6  per  cent  to  16.4  per  cent  of 
the  total.  The  percentage  of  pasture  lands  also 
declined  from  11.4  per  cent  to  6.5  per  cent.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  percentage  of  small  units 
under  4  dessiatines  (10.8  acres)  increased  from 
59  to  74  per  cent  of  the  total.  As  a  result, 
small  farms  of  less  than  8  dessiatines  comprise 
at  present  90  per  cent  of  the  total  farm  hold- 
ings in  the  country. 

Sown  Area  and  Crops.  Sot  over  one-third 
of  the  total  area  of  Russia,  including  Asiatic 
territory,  is  capable  of  agriculture,  and  much 
less  is  used.  In  European  Russia  most  of  the 
land  suitable  for  use  is  occupied,  much  of  it 
with  very  dense  population.  Owing  to  changes 
of  boundaries,  pre-war  statistics  cannot  be  com- 
pared directly  with  more  recent  statistics 
Eliminating  lost  territory  and  also  Turkestan 
and  Transcaucasia,  an  approximate  comparison 
for  all  principal  cereals  and  potatoes  shows,  for 
1913,  245,700,000  acres;  1916,  223,020,000; 
1920,  173,716,000;  1921,  161,811,000;  1922,  136,- 
609,000;  and  1923,  162,070,000.  In  calculating 
the  yield  per  acre  from  local  reports,  which  are 
made  up  according  to  the  five-mark  system 
( 1  =  poor ;  2  =  unsatisfactory ;  3  =  medium ;  4  a 
good;  5=  excellent),  the  Central  Statistical  Bu- 
reau admitted  an  underestimation  about  6  per 
cent,  on  the  strength  of  the  actual  crop  data  for 
a  number  of  years,  as  compared  with  the  totals 
figured  out  by  the  five-mark  system.  Moreover, 
it  was  found  "that  certain  corrections  were  need- 
ed for  local  reports  of  sown  acreage,  because  of 
the  tendency  of  the  peasant  taxpayers  to  under- 
state the  extent  of  acreage  planted  by  them. 
These  corrections  were  found  to  range  between 
5  and  10  per  cent,  or  an  average  increase  for 
the  entire  country  of  7  per  cent.  The  evolution 
of  the  total  soun  area  of  Soviet  Russia,  exclu- 
sive of  Turkestan,  and  of  the  Ukraine,  inclusive 
of  field  crops  and  potato  crops  converted  into 
grain  equivalents  at  the  rate  of  4  poods  to  1, 
from  1920  to  1923,  is  shown  in  the  following 
table: 


Russia  in  Europe  

1920 
37,495,300 

1921                        1922 
(Dessiatines) 
35,422,400             31,446,600 

1923 
37,941,500 

3  273,  GOO 

2,385,800 
4,307,800 

1  822,000 
3,074,200 

1,697,900 
3,677.000 

Siberia   

5,756,300 

Total  Asiatic  Russia   

,  9,029,900 

6,093,600 

4  896,200 

5.374,900 

Total    Soviet    Russia     

46,525,200 

42.116,000 

36,342,800 

43,316,400 

17,814,100* 

17,814,100 

59,930,100 
161,811,000 

14,253,000 

50  595,800 
136,609,000 

16,709,500 

60,025,900 
162,070,000 

Total  Soviet  Union: 

64,339,300 

In  acres  

,  173,716,000 

«  Estimated. 


siatines,  including  2,079,000  dessiatines  in  Eu-  After  introducing  corrections  as  mentioned 
ronean  Soviet  Russia  and  1,03S,000  in  Siberia  above,  the  1923  sown  area  of  Soviet  Russia  and 
and  the  distant  border  provinces,  of  which  1,-  the  Ukraine  uould  be  represented  at  05,590,300 


l.r>8,000  dessiatines  represent  arable   land;    (2) 
4,233,000  dessiatines  controlled  by  16,121  coop- 


dessiatines  or   177,094,000  acres,  of  which  41,- 
629,100  dessiatines  are  in  European  Russia;  17,- 


KTJSSIA 


1x50 


BXTSSIA 


303,400  in  the  Ukraine;  and  5,997,800  in  Asiatic 
Russia  Compared  with  pre-uar  area,  the  re- 
vised 1923  estimates  of  the  Central  Statistical 
Bureau  amount  to  73  per  cent  of  the  official  es- 
timates of  the  1913  area.  The  ratio  of  ambages 
planted  in  1923,  as  revised  by  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  (increased  by  20  per  cent),  to 
official  data  of  1913  (increased  by  10  per  cent), 
taken  as  100,  are  as  follows:  rye,  95;  winter 
wheat,  72.7 ;  spring  wheat.  3S.9 ,  oats,  58.4 ;  bar- 
ley, 69.6;  buckwheat,  120;  millet,  163.6;  corn, 
177.8.  The  gross  crop  of  the  seven  principal 
cereals,  rye,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  buckwheat, 
millet  and  corn,  is  estimated  for  1023  according 
to  the  basic  data  of  the  Central  Statistical  Bu- 
reau at  2,153,000,000  poods,  and  with  the  above 
corrections  for  yields  per  acre  and  for  sown 
acreage  at  2,432,000,000  poods;  with  the  ad- 
dition of  all  other  crops,  including  potatoes,  in 
grain  equivalents  (1  pood  for  4),  at  2.79r>,000,- 
000  poods  without  correction,  and  3,147,000,000 
poods,  corrected  as  above.  In  the  following 
table  the  gross  crops  of  principal  cereals  are 
compared  for  the  four  years  1920-23,  without 
correction : 

1920        1921      10'J2       1923 
(In  millions  of  poods) 

European    Russia    1,075         842     1,263      1,178 

Asiatic     Russia     .  .         254         214         103         1G5 

Ukraine    .  .  .  779         633         755         808 

Total  2.108      1689     2211      2,151 

It  is  thus  found  that  agriculture  in  Russia 
was  being  rapidly  restored,  and  with  three  or 
four  years  of  fairly  satisfactory  crop*,  it  might 
be  expected  to  reach  pre-war  proportions.  It  is 
the  one  line  of  production  \\hero  human  enter- 
prise and  endeavor  have  been  practically  unaf- 
fected by  the  Communist  regime  from  the  start 
and  given  more  freedom  and  opportunity  to 
dispose  of  their  output  and  to  export  the  sur- 
plus production  of  grain,  the  peasantry  would 
attain  greater  prosperity  than  they  ever  en- 
joyed in  the  past  and  would  thus  enhance  the 
general  level  of  prosperity  of  the  entire  nation. 


and  the  Far  Eastern  "Republic  (about  227,000,- 
000),  or  a  total  of  5,205,000,000  rubles.  Thus 
the  gross  value  of  the  1923  agricultural  pro- 
duction amounted  to  67  per  cent  of  the  pre-war. 
Compared  with  the  production  for  1922,  it  repre- 
sents an  increase  of  11  per  cent.  Up  to  1924, 
under  the  monopoly  of  foreign  trade,  the  Soviet 
state  institutions  wore  the  ultimate  purchasers 
of  all  grain  for  export,  and  the  exports  of 
cereals,  resumed  tentatively  in  1922  for  the  first 
time  since  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  had  at- 
tained considerable  proportions  in  1923.  The 
exports  of  cereals  in  1913,  in  bushels,  were: 
wheat,  122.124,420;  rye,  25,418,400;  barley, 
179,886,350;  oats,  41,187,500;  all  cereals,  11,- 
728,000  tons.  In  1922  the  grain  exports  were 
practically  nil;  the  imports  for  famine  relief 
were  considerable.  Tn  1923  the  exports  of  rye 
were  47,440,2f>0  bushels;  \\heat,  12,192,000; 
barley,  10,053,000;  oats,  7,048,400:  all  cereals, 
2,191,080  short  tons.  Exports  of  tobacco,  1913, 
28,480  short  tons;  1923,  2380;  ilax  fibre  and 
tow,  1913,  6060;  1923,  37,200;  hemp,  1913,  74,- 
340:  1023,  4S40.  The  total  \alue  of  grain  ex- 
ports alone,  in  1923,  was  estimated  at  107,127,- 
000  rubles  (at  1913  prices),  as  against  602,- 
684.000  in  1913  (including  flour  not  exported 
in  1923)  ;  these  were  the  chief  factor  in  restor- 
ing the  favorable  trade  balance  for  Soviet  Rus- 
sia, especially  during  the  last  quarter  of  1923. 
They  indeed  comprised  52  per  cent  of  the  total 
exports  for  the  year. 

Live  Stock.  The  ravages  of  famine  and  civil 
war  greatly  decimated  the  working  live  stock 
and  dairy  herds  of  Russia  Energetic  measures 
\\ero  taken  by  the  Soviet  authorities  to  a^crt 
the  peril  to  agriculture  result  inj;  from  a  short- 
age of  horses  and  working  cattle,  with  the  re- 
sult that  the  year  1923  showed  an  imjmneiiieiit 
for  the  first  time  since  1914  It  must  be  point- 
ed out  that  the  herds  of  cattle,  and  espe- 
cially the  hordes,  had  been  considerably  le- 
duced  even  prior  to  the  Bolshevist  Revolution, 
due  to  war  conditions.  The  movement  of  stocks 
during  the  decade  from  1914  is  illustrated  in 
the  following  table: 


Horses 

Cattle 

Sheep   and  goats 

Swine 


Russian  Empire 

within  present  Sunic,  excluding  E.istpin  Sibon.i  Turke- 

Soviet  boundaries  titan,   and  Transcaucasia  a 

1914  1921  192  5                          1923 

.     .31,312,172  23,670,000  18,977,000               19700,000 

447(«.f>70  38,132,000  32,977,000                UK, 000,000 

.  .     .78.721,038  47,157,000  41,298,000               50,500,100 

.  i:)..r>o0846  13,501,000  7,058,000                  9,100,000 


0 Turkestan  and  Azerbaijan,   according  to  the  rensus  of   1920,   contained   830,000   horses,   2,048,000   cattle,   16- 
408,000    shoe])   and   goals,    and    102.000   swine 


The  total  value  of  agricultural  production  in 
1923  is  estimated  by  Soviet  statisticians  at  4,- 
772.000,000  rubles.  *  The  average  pre-war  pro- 
duction for  the  years  1011-13  vas  estimated  at 
9,500,000,000  rubles  for  the  Russian  Empire,  and 
deducting  18  per  cent  for  the  Succession  States 
separated  from  Russia,  at  7,800,000,000  rubles. 
The  total  value  of  1923  production  is  distributed 
as  follows:  cereals,  2,191,000,000  rubles;  po- 
tatoes and  sugar  beets,  220,000,000 :  fibre  plants, 
flax,  hemp,  etc.  95,000,000;  oil  seeds,  177,000,- 
000;  tobacco  and  vegetable  truck,  440,000,000; 
cattle  and  poultry,  1.325,000,000;  fodder  grasses, 
202,000,000;  orchards  and  vineyards,  116,000,- 
000;  total,  4,772,000.000  rubles.  To  this  must 
be  added  the  value  of  gross  production  of 
Transcaucasia  (about  150,000,000),  Turkestan 


Forest  Area.  According  to  the  Infest  data, 
compiled  in  the  summer  of  1923  by  the  Com- 
missariat of  Agriculture,  the  area  under  timber 
in  Soviet  Russia  is  represented  as  follows: 
Russia  in  Europe,  398,024,585  acres;  Western 
Siberia,  992,383,988  acres;  Far  Eastern  terri- 
tory, 313,537,835  acres;  a  total  of  1.703,940,408 
acres.  Of  this  amount  1,107,296,203  acres  are 
estimated  as  exploitable  forest.  Due  to  the  un- 
even distribution  of  forest  land  over  the  entire 
territory,  timberland  available  for  normal  con- 
sumption of  the  population  varies  widely  in  dif- 
ferent sections.  The  timber  resources  available 
for  felling  amount  annually  in  Siheria  to  120, 
508,000,000  board  feet,  and  in  the  Far  Eastern 
territory  to  31,374,000  acres,  while  for  the  en- 
tire Russian  territory  they  are  estimated  at 


BUSSIA 


xxsx 


BUSSIA 


265,130,000,000  board  feet.  Only  a  email  por- 
tion of  timberland  had  been  properly  surveyed 
up  to  1024. 

Fisheries.  Prior  to  the  War  the  Russian 
fishing  industry  occupied,  in  volume  of  produc- 
tion, the  second  place  in  the  world.  In  1913  the 
year's  catch  of  Great  Britain  amounted  to  12,- 
330,000  long  tons,  Russia  coming  next  with  73,- 
215,000  poods  or  11,840,000  tons  (62  poods  =  1 
long  ton).  In  addition  to  its  domestic  catch, 
Russia  imported  annually  about  25,000,000 
poods  of  fish,  bringing  the  total  yearly  consump- 
tion to  about  100,000,000  poods.  Following  the 
Bolshevist  Revolution,  the  catch  in  1018  dropped 
to  5,000,000  poods,  but  subsequently  increased 
year  by  year  and  amounted  to  7,000,000  poods 
in  191!),  b,000,000  in  1920,  11,000,000  in  1921, 
and  18,000,000  in  1P22.  The  last  figure  repre- 
sents the  output  of  the  state  fisheries  only. 
Adding  to  this  total  about  8,000,000  poods,  repre- 
senting the  output  of  the  fisheries  operated  by 
private  concerns  under  lease  from  the  state  and 
that  of  independent  fishermen,  the  total  output 
for  1022  amounted  to  about  26,000,000  poods  or 
35  per  cent  of  the  pre-war  figures  The  total 
value  of  exports  of  fish  and  caviar  in  1914 
amounted  to  2,512,000  rubles;  that  of  imports, 
27,419,000  rubles.  In  1922  imports  of  fish 
amounted  to  11,384,000  rubles,  at  pre-war 
prices;  exports  of  caviar,  925,000.  The  improve- 
ment \\as  especially  marked  in  the  fishing  in- 
dustry of  the  Lower  Volga  and  the  Caspian  Sea, 
whence  comes  practically  all  the  fall  catch  and 
whore  are  found  the  most  valuable  species  of 
red  fiah,  i  P.  sturgeon  and  salmon,  and  white 
fish,  and  whore  the  great  caviar  industry  of 
Russia  was  concentrated.  The  average  output 
of  tho  district  for  the  five  years  1908-13  amount- 
ed to  about  3,000,000  poods.  The  catch  of  1919, 
under  conditions  of  conscription  of  the  fisher- 
men and  fisheries'  employees,  amounted  to  about 
500,000  poods,  which  increased  in  1920  to 
1,050,000  poods.  Under  the  Soviet  decree  of 
May  31,  1921,  the  so-called  "new  economic 
policy1'  was  introduced  in  regard  to  the  As- 
trakhan fisheries:  the  management  was  freed 
from  interference  of  any  kind  from  administra- 
tive bodies,  which  thitherto  had  exercised  con- 
trol in  one  form  or  another  over  the  activities 
of  the  fisheries,  with  the  result  that  both  the 
number  of  fishermen  and  their  output  showed 
a  sharp  increase ,  thus,  the  number  of  fishermen 
registered  in  the  fall  of  1921  amounted  to  27,- 
000,  against  0000  in  the  fall  of  1919,  and  10,- 
000  in  1920.  The  average  output  of  the  fisher- 
men increased  from  36  poods  in  1919  to  88  poods 
in  1921.  Along  with  the  independent  fisher- 
men, the  employees  of  the  fisheries  were  likewise 
removed  from  universal  labor  duty  and  put  on 
straight  output  pay.  The  results  were  shown 
in  the  per  capita  output  of  the  men  and  the 
output  per  net.  In  the  fall  of  1920,  18,000 
fishery  employees  handled  1,650,000  poods  of 
raw  fish,  or  about  90  poods  apiece,  while  in  the 
fall  of  1921  approximately  10,000  fishery  em- 
ployees handled  2,783,000  poods,  or  about  278.6 
poods  apiece.  The  Astrakhan  catch  of  1922 
amounted  to  3,400,000  poods,  thus  exceeding  the 
pre-war  average  Of  this  quantity,  68  per  cent 
represented  the  output  of  state-operated  and 
state-leased  fisheries ;  the  remainder  was  brought 
in  by  independent  fishermen. 

Industry.  In  proportion  as  the  fundamental 
communistic  principles  of  compulsory  service, 
subsistence  rationing,  and  productive  work  "for 


the  good  of  the  commonwealth  and  not  for 
profit"  were  discarded  (see  History),  an  ever 
closer  approximation  was  sought  to  "business 
management  methods"  and  industrial  efficiency 
in  state-operated  enterprises.  As  the  load  fac- 
tor of  now  one  and  now  another  of  the  national- 
ized industries  fell  to  the  danger  point,  threat- 
ening complete  breakdown,  heroic  measures  wore 
resorted  to  in  order  to  stimulate  production  by 
throwing  all  available  resources  in  that  direc- 
tion, generally  at  the  expense  of  other  national- 
ized industries.  This  policy  of  spasmodic  forced 
stimulation  of  output  of  separate  works,  or 
groups  of  plants,  led  inevitably  to  perpetual 
breaks  and  slumps,  and  to  forced  cmtailment 
of  the  number  of  state  employees;  to  the  cutting 
down,  again  and  again,  of  minimum  wage  scales, 
and  finally  to  the  transfer  of  practically  all  the 
industries  from  direct  state  management  to  that 
of  "trusts"  and  "syndicates'*  specially  organized 
by  the  government  and  left  to  shift  foi  them- 
selves in  the  matters  of  providing  operating 
funds  and  marketing  their  product.  The  Bol- 
shevist contention  is,  however,  tbat  while  the 
socialistic  basis  of  production  "for  tbe  good  of 
the  commonwealth"  han  been  abandoned  for  the 
capitalistic  system  of  operation  for  "profit," 
the  distinction  between  state  capitalism  in  So- 
viet Russia  and  the  individualistic  capitalism  of 
tbe  rest  of  the  world  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
profits  accruing  from  the  operation  of  tbe  trusts, 
at  the  expense  of  labor,  are  in  the  case  of  the 
Soviet  republics  supposed  ultimately  to  return 
to  the  proletariat,  which  controls  tbe  state, 
and  through  it,  the  state  trusts.  Since  tbe  in- 
ception of  the  "new  economic  policy"  (see  Uislo- 
ry)  two  contrary  developments  have  manifested 
themselves  in  the  trend  of  industrial  produc- 
tion :  on  the  one  hand,  the  continued  process  of 
exhausting  the  means  of  production  in  industry; 
on  the  other,  the  improvement  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  industrial  processes  and  of  exchange. 
This  improvement  is  expressed  in  increasing  pro- 
ductivity of  labor,  concentration  of  production, 
and  gradual  organization  of  the  processes  for 
disposing  of  output;  better  organization  of  trans- 
port services;  embryonic  appearance  of  credit; 
improvement  in  the  financial  apparatus  for  col- 
lecting taxes;  and  the  decreased  share  of  paper 
currency  in  the  national  budget 

Of  the  factors  contributing  to  the  increased 
output,  the  chief  is  found  in  the  satisfactory 
crops  of  1922  and  1923,  and  low  prices  for 
bread  and  fodder;  these  enabled  wages  almost  to 
double  in  the  course  of  1922  and  tbeieby  en- 
hanced the  productivity  of  labor.  The  improve- 
ment in  the  supply  of  foodstuffs  in  the  cities 
checked  the  migration  of  urban  population  to  the 
country  and  started  a  new  movement  of  popula- 
tion from  the  villages  cityward  Another  fac- 
tor is  found  in  the  curtailment  of  importation 
of  foreign  goods  since  the  fall  of  1922,  owing  to 
the  systematic  policy  of  the  Soviet  government 
Tn  addition,  the  industries  were  supported  by 
state  contracts:  but  above  all,  the  state  issued 
considerable  subsidies  to  the  industries  The 
sum  total  of  subsidies  thus  appropriated  and 
issued  during  the  fiscal  year  1921-22  amounted 
to  160,000,000  gold  rubles,  and  in  1922-23  to 
175,350.000  rubles,  to  which  must  be  added  the 
indebtedness  to  the  state-controlled  banks,  which 
amounted  at  the  close  of  the  operating  year 
(Oct.  1,  1923)  to  some  186,500,000  rubles.  Not- 
withstanding the  increased  output  and  the  great 
dearth  of  manufactured  goods  in  the  home  mar- 


BU88XA 


1152 


BUSSIA 


kets,  the  anomalous  costs  of  production,  espe- 
cially in  overhead  costs,  rendered  the  prices  pro- 
hibitive to  the  great  mass  of  the  population,  and 
all  industries  continued  operating  at  heavy  def- 
icits. In  order  to  reduce  the  burden  of  sup- 
port by  the  state  for  the  basic  industries,  cur- 
tailment and  concentration  were  resorted  to  pe- 
riodically; production  in  every  industry  was 
centralized  as  far  as  possible  at  a  few  of  the 
higher  plants,  which  retained  the  besi  equipment 
and  were  most  advantageously  situated  as  to 
supply  of  raw  materials,  transportation,  and 
marketing  facilities.  An  increase  of  output  and 
greater  productivity  per  unit  compared  with 
previous  years  resulted  from  more  efficient  man- 
agement and  the  concentration  of  production, 


are  used  over  again  in  further  manufacturing, 
the  gross  value  of  commodities  in  1021*22  and 
1922-23,  as  comparable  with  1913,  is  shown  in 
the  following  summary.  These  totals,  expressed 
in  pre-war  gold  rubles,  do  not  cover  the  entire 
field  of  industrial  production  but  only  that  part 
of  it  for  which  more  or  less  closely  comparable 
data  can  be  presented  for  the  three  years  under 
survey  Thus,  the  total  value  of  production  of 
major  industries  for  1922-23  is  calculated  at 
1,077,710,600  pre-war  gold  rubles,  while,  accord- 
ing to  the  data  of  the  Statistical  Rvllrtin  of  the 
Council  of  National  Economy,  which  purports  to 
cover  approximately  HO  per  cent  of  the  industrial 
enterprises,  the  value  of  production  is  estimated 
at  1,196,347,000  rubles. 


1913 

1921-22 

1922-23 

Branch  of  Industry 

(In  gold  rubles) 

Fuel   (coal,  oil)    

410,551,400 

180,396,400 

202,576,600 

Ore  mining   

133.54b.800 

11,790,600 

18,928,500 

Silicate    (glass,  cement)    

87,598,000 

9,ftH2,200 

17,296,700 

MeUlB    

726,700,000 

8(>,«98,200 

148,594,000 

Electro-technical     

32,166,700 

14,918,400 

25,880,700 

Electric  power  plant   

14,055,700 

18,415,000 

Textile     

825,900,000 

215,560,800 

327,625,700 

Leather   and    shoes    

68,214,900 

55,145,300 

56,032,900 

Chemical,   including  rubber  and  dyes   

185,973,100 

54,617,200 

80,189,100 

Foodstuffs      

720,539,100 

55,8122,000 

96,200,500 

Woodworking    

135.70b.000 

21,470,000 

56,101,  t>00 

Paper     

57,250,600 

10,925,700 

23,870,300 

Total    

3,384,146,600 

731,648,300 

1,077,717,000 

Percentage    

100 

216 

31.8 

in  spite  of  the  heavy  deficits  incurred  and  the 
accumulation  of  unsold  stocks. 

Volume  of  Later  Industrial  Production.  The 
volume  of  production  of  the  basic  industries  in 
1922-23,  as  compared  with  the  preceding  year 
and  the  pre-war  output,  can  be  summarized  as 
follows  : 


1922-23       1921-22 


Items  Short  tons  (2000  Ibs.) 

Coal   .......  11,642,600  10,613,720 

Iron    ore     ...  470,700  299,750 

Manganese     ore  78,700  30,290 

Petroleum    .  .  5,635,500  4,940,430 

Pig    iron  332,380  187,960 
Open  hearth  steel 

ingots          .  647  .1  10  350,340 

Cotton  >arn    .  .  76,930  54,130 

Linen    yarn    .  .  30,200  17,790 

Woolen   yarn    .  15,580  12,460 

Paper             .  75,500  29,230 

Basic  chemicals'1  221,400  132,700 

Sugar              .     .  410,430  227,140 


Per  cent  Per  cent 

of  of 

increase    1913 
371 
46 
5  7 
55.4 
7  2 


10 

57 

160 

14 

75 


84 
42 
73 
25 
160 
67 
80 


138 
26  0 
80  0 
360 
46  0 
400 
275 


0  Acids,    alkalies,    gaits,    and    fertilizers. 

While  substantial  gains  in  varied  measure  are 
thus  seen  to  have  boon  made  in  the  quant  itv  out- 
put for  1922-23  as  compared  with  the  preceding 
year,  and  in  respect  of  pre-war  levels,  a  compre- 
hensive estimate  of  the  degree  of  aproximation 
to  the  production  of  wealth  in  1013  can  bp  ar- 
rived at  by  summing  up  the  values  of  commodi- 
ties produced  during  the  years  1021-22  and 
1922-23  in  relation  to  the  aggregate  value  of  pre- 
war production. 

Value  of  Later  Industrial  Production.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  the  net  production,  or  in- 
crement of  wealth,  in  1913  by  the  major  indus- 
tries, after  deducting  the/  cost  of  raw  materials 
and  of  fuel  consumed,  amounted  to  2,657,000,000 
gold  rubles.  Taking  the  production  of  the  en- 
tire manufacturing  industry,  including  all  enter- 
prises employing  16  workers  and  over,  with 
mechanical  equipment,  and  excluding  the  value 
of  semifinished  goods,  representing  the  output 
of  certain  of  the  units,  when  these  materials 


These  parallel  data  show  a  gain  in  the  value  of 
the  last  year's  production  of  more  than  40  per 
cent  as  compared  with  the  previous  year,  and  a 
close  approach  to  one-third  of  the  pre-war  total. 
Leased  Enterprises.  With  the  inauguration 
of  the  "new  economic  policy"  a  certain  number 
of  enterprises  of  minor  importance  were  set  aside 
for  leasing  to  private  interests.  Up  to  Oct.  1, 

1923,  a  total  of  5241  plants,  or  72  per  cent  of 
the   total    originally    listed    for    leaning,    passed 
from    direct    State    control.     The    leased    enter- 
prises  belonged    exclusively   to    the   rategoiy    of 
small   workshops,  with   an   average  employment 
of    10   persons      Only   30   per   cent  of   the   tot.il 
leased  were  taken  over  by  fonner  owners  and  2*1 
per  cent  by  other  private  parties,  11  pei  cent  are 
operated  by  various  State  organizations  aw  side 
lines;    23   per  cent  by  cooperative   associations, 
and  14  per  cent  hy  labor  associations      fly  groups 
of  industries  the  loused  shops  are  divided  as  fol- 
lows:  production  of  foodstuffs,    J770,   tanneries 
and    leather    woikshops,    1550;     metal-working, 
C02;    textiles,    330;    printing   trades,    317.     The 
total  output  of  the  leased  enterprises  in  1923  was 
negligible,   amounting   in   value   to   less   than   4 
per  cent   of  that  of   the   state-controlled   enter- 
prises.    This  does  not  include,  however,  the  un- 
organized handicrafts  and  home  industries,  which 
competed  successfully  with  the  state  industries, 
and  whose  output  reached  consideiable  propor- 
tions. 

Labor  and  Wages.  In  1917  the  total  number 
of  workers  employed  in  all  industries  amounted 
to  3,308,000.  Hy  1921  it  shrank  to  1,614,370. 
It  continued  falling  until  the  end  of  1922  and 
reached  in  October  a  total  of  only  887,500.  After 
that  the  number  of  workmen  began  increasing, 
and  a  total  of  1,037,500  were  registered  in  Sep- 
tember, 1923.  While  this  increase  was  recorded, 
the  number  of  unemployed  in  the  cities  kept 
growing  at  an  even  faster  rate,  and  by  Jan.  1, 

1924,  was  reported  at  about  1,250,000,  from  a 
little  more  than  one-third  of  that  number  re- 


BUSSIA 


corded  at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  This  ap 
parent  paradoxical  condition  is  accounted  for 
by  the  growth  of  industries  during  1023.  In- 


1x53 


BUSSIA 


were  authorized  to  carry  on  the  foreign  trade 
within  certain  limitations  as  to  the  nature  and 
the  outside  amount  of  imports  permissible  and 

a««Vt«f»4      ±r*.      AM       A^..~.l       J! •      • _.*       _  1*  _/Sj__ «j_«_ 


creasing  industrial  activity  created  a  returning  subject  to  an  equal  division  of  all  profits  -with 
tide  of  skilled  workers,  which  ebbed  away  dur-  the  Soviet  government.  Until  the  year  1923, 
ing  the  communistic  regime  and  became  scat-  the  trade  balance  was  heavily  adverse,  due  to 

' 


tered  among  the  home  handicrafts,  the  villages, 
peddling  (the  so-called  "bagmen"),  etc.  The 
hea\y  slump  in  the  pi  ices  of  agricultural  pro- 
duce on  the  one  hand,  and  the  rise  in  wages  of 
factory  workers  on  the  other,  all  stimulated 
the  drift  of  labor  to  the  cities.  From  an  average 
wage,  of  the  Russian  worker  amounting  to  33 
rubles  in  11)13,  the  monthly  wage  fell  to  9 
rubles  in  11)18,  and  as  low  as  0.7  rubles  per 
month  in  1019.  This  rate  of  wages  was  ob- 
viously insufficient  for  subsistence.  During  these 
years  the  workmen  systematically  expended 
more  than  they  earned,  eking  out  their  wages 
by  all  manner  of  illegal  practices,  petty  pilfer- 
age, speculation,  outside  worK,  etc.  By  Septem- 
ber, 1923,  accoiding  to  the  data  of  the  Central 
Statistical  Bureau,  the  average  wage  of  the 
Russian  worker  in  the  manufacturing  industry 
reached  11  rubles  per  month,  of  which  1.80  rubles 
\\eie  received  in  kind  In  all  the  mining  and 
metallurgical  industries  the  average  wage  rate 
in  Septeml'pi.  1923,  was  8.90  rubles,  with  2.20 
rubles  in  kind  In  the  coal-mining  industiy  spe- 
cifically the  average  wage  was  8..r>0  rubles.  Com- 
paied  vuth  pre  war  earnings  the  average  monthly 
wage  rates  in  October,  1922,  and  September, 
1923,  in  percentages  of  the  average  rates  of 
1913,  in  various  industiies,  are  represented  as 
follows: 


J'hBCENTUSE    OK    1913    \\AGF    RATES 

Industiy  OtluU.'!,    1922      September,   1922 


Mi-tal  voikiiis: 

fila^s,  rliin.'i,  (omrnt 
C'lu  IUH  ul 
l-'ood'-tuiTs 


l*n  I  >rr 

l*i lining    li:i<les 

Avoinpo,     manufacturing 


30  1 

at  8 

30  1 
53  6 
79  0 
50  8 
32.8 
51.1 
58  9 

36  7 


48  7 
58.0 
5ft  8 
93  2 
158,6 
76.6 
65.5 
93  8 
89.5 

G7.9 


Thus  in  nil  the  branches  of  the  manufacturing 
industries  a  substantial  increase  in  wage  rates 
was  recoided  during  1923.  Actual  wage  re- 
ceipts, ho\\e\er,  fell  about  25  per  cent  short  on 
the  average  of  payments  due.  In  the  coal-min- 
ing industiy,  on  the  other  hand,  the  wages  de- 
ci  cased  from  an  average  of  9., 10  rubles  per 
month  in  October,  1922,  to  8.50  rubles  in  Sep- 
tember, 1923. 

Foreign  Trade.  Foreign  trade  in  Soviet 
Russia  is  a  state  monopoty  and  is  carried  on 
by  the  Commissariat  of  Foreign  Trade  through 
various  official  institutions  and  branches  within 
the  Soviet  Union,  which  are  repieseuted  by 
foieign  trade  delegations  abroad,  chiefly  at 
Herlin  and  London,  and  by  corporations  organ- 
ivert  under  the  laws  of  the  respective  countries  in 
the  form  of  commercial  companies,  whose  entire 
stock,  however,  is  held  by  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment. With  the  expansion  and  ramification  of 
foreign  trade  operations,  it  became  impossible 
for  the  central  Commissariat  to  handle  the 
entile  volume  of  trade,  and  a  system  of  licensing 
the  largest  commercial  and  industrial  bodies  to 
carry  on  their  trading  operations  independently 
of  the  Commissariat  was  resorted  to.  During 
the  year  1923,  several  private  concerns  also 


Russia's  inability  to  produce  sufficient  surplus 
for  export,  especially  of  grain,  which  formed 
the  bulk  of  pre-war  exports.  With  the  satis- 
factory crops  of  1922  and  1923,  however,  ex- 
ports of  grain  were  resumed,  and  along  with  the 
severe  restrictions  of  imports  they  enabled  the 
government  to  close  1923  with  a  favorable  bal- 
ance. In  the  following  table,  tracing  the  vol- 
ume of  imports  and  exports  during  pre-war  years 
and  since  1920  (foreign  trade  was  practically 
suspended  during  the  years  immediately  follow- 
ing the  Devolution),  the  entire  volume  of  trade  is 
figured  in  gold  rubles  at  1913  pi  ices.  This  fig- 
uring is  rendered  necessary  by  the  failure  of  the 
rapidly  depreciating  Soviet  currency  to  furnish 
a  stable  medium  for  calculating  a  comparison. 


Years 
Average  1909-13 
1913    . 
1920    

Imports 
.  .     1,139,654,000 
.      1,  £74,034.  000 
28  000  000 

Exports 
1,501.421,000 
1,520,135,000 
2  400  000 

1921               
1922  
1023 

210,00.1.000 
269,799,000 
141,056,000 

20,195,000 
81,620,000 
205,818.000 

Tims  the  favorable  balance  of  trade  obtained 
in  1923,  the  first  under  the  Soviet  regime, 
amounted  to  61,072,000  rubles.  On  the  basis 
of  approximate  current  prices  instead  of  1913 
prices,  the  exports  totaled  307.300,000  rubles 
and  the  imports  200,100,000  rubles;  this  made 
the  favorable  balance,  on  a  contemporary  basis, 
equal  roughly  to  107,200,000  rubles.  In  addi- 
tion to  commercial  imports,  famine  relief  sup- 
plies to  the  value  of  34,400,000  rubles  were  im- 
ported during  the  calendar  year,  ns  against  simi- 
lar imports  of  183,800,000  rubles  during  the 
calendar  year  1922.  The  imports  underwent  a 
change  in  composition.  Whereas  over  one-third 
of  the  imports  of  1922  consisted  of  foodstuffs, 
exclusive  of  contributed  famine  relief  supplies, 
the  imports  of  foodstuffs  in  1923  amounted  to 
but  7.4  per  cent  of  the  total.  In  1922  the  im 
ports  of  raw  materials  and  semimanufactured 
products  represented  only  140  per  cent  of  the 
total,  whereas  in  1923  this  group  accounted  for 
44.2  per  cent  of  the  total  At  the  same  time 
exports  showed  a  COT  responding  shift:  for  the 
group  of  foodstuffs,  from  5  3  pel  cent  in  1922  to 
56.8  per  cent  in  1923;  for  raw  materials  and 
semifinished  goods,  from  908  per  cent  to  424 
per  cent  of  total.  The  general  distribution  of 
Russian  exports  in  1923  by  groups  of  commodi- 
ties is  thus  found  to  be  closely  appioaehing  that 
of  1913,  \\hen  foodstuffs  accounted  for  52.2  per 
cent  of  total  exports,  and  raw  materials  and 
semifinished  goods  accounted  for  30  !)  per  cent, 
these  t\\o  groups  comprising  the  bulk  of  Rus- 
sian ex-ports.  The  similarity  is  extended  further 
to  the  two  principal  markets  of  Russian  for- 
eign trade,  Germany  and  the  United  Kingdom. 
In  1913  these  two  countries  accounted  for  60.1 
per  cent  of  total  Russian  imports,  aiul  47  4  per 
cent  of  total  exports;  in  1923.  their  share  was 
60  and  44.2  per  cent,  respectively.  The  govern- 
ment monopoly  of  foreign  tiade  was  firmly  main- 
tained. According  to  data  for  the  operating 
year  1922-23,  Soviet  state  institutions,  incmd- 
ing  government  organizations  and  mixed  com- 
panies controlled  by  the  Soviet  government,  ac- 


BU88IA 


"54 


BU8SIA 


counted  for  €8.7  per  cent  of  all  exports  and  for 
97.3  per  cent  of  all  imports;  the  rest  repre- 
sented the  part  played  by  purely  private  initia- 
tive in  the  foreign  trade  of  Soviet  Russia. 

Finance  and  Currency.  The  process  of  cur- 
rency inflation  and  depletion  of  the  gold  stock  in 
Russia  started  soon  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
War.  The  Imperial  regime,  however,  increased 
the  outstanding  notes  only  moderately  and  did 
not  differ  in  this  respect  from  the  inflation  policy 
prevailing  in  almost  all  belligerent  countries. 
Shortly  after  the  outbreak  of  war,  the  stat- 
utory restriction  which  provided  that  the  paper 
money  issued  by  the  Imperial  Russian  Bank 
should  not  exceed  its  gold  reserve  by  more  than 
3,000,000,000  rubles  was  abolished,  and  the 
right  to  convert  paper  rubles  freely  into  gold 
was  abrogated.  On  July  27,  1914,  the  out- 
standing notes  amounted  to  1,633,000,000  gold 
rubles  and  were  covered  by  1,744,000,000  gold 
rubles,  a  reserve  of  107.4  per  cent.  During  the 
three  years  and  four  months  between  the  out- 
break of  war  and  the  inauguration  of  the  Soviet 
regime,  the  paper  in  circulation  increased  over 
elevenfold.  Uhe  Soviet  decree  of  July  25,  1918, 
made  "the  purchase,  sale,  or  possession  of  pre- 
cious metals  in  bullion  or  gold  punishable  by 
imprisonment  of  not  less  than  10  years  in  hard 
labor  and  the  confiscation  of  the  entire  property 
of  the  culprit."  The  only  currency  authorized 
was  the  Soviet  paper  ruble,  not  backed  by  any 
reserve  or  security  but  circulating  by  virtue  of 
its  acceptance  by  all  government  institutions, 
trusts,  and  trading-stores.  With  the  inaugura- 
tion of  the  "new  economic  policy"  and  the  legal- 
ization of  private  trading,  the  Soviet  ruble  began 
to  depreciate  rapidly.  When  trade  with  the  out- 
side world  was  resumed,  involving  purchases  on 
a  large  scale  from  the  peasantry  and  the  con- 
comitant exhaustion  of  the  gold  reserve  appro- 
priated by  the  Soviet  government,  heavy  budget 
deficits  began  piling  up;  these  were  met  by  more 
issues  of  paper  money,  and  inflation  assumed 
gigantic  proportions. 

The  decree  of  Oct.  17,  1920,  designated  the 
possession  of  gold,  silver,  platinum,  foreign  ex- 
change, etc.,  as  legal,  but  subject  to  compulsory 
delivery  to  the  state  against  a  compensation 
fixed  by  the  Commissariat  of  Finance  according 
to  average  market  value.  All  transactions  in 
valuables  or  currency  were  still  completely  pro- 
hibited. The  decree  of  Nov.  18,  1921,  granted 
to  the  State  Bank  the  monopoly  of  purchase  and 
sale  of  foreign  currency  and  precious  metals  in 
coin  and  bullion.  From  this  indirectly  followed 
the  right  to  sell  money  or  valuables  to  the 
State  Bank  but  not  to  purchase  them  from  the 
Bank.  The  decree  of  Apr.  4,  1922,  abrogated  the 
principle  of  compulsory  delivery  to  the  state  of 
property  in  precious  metals  or  foreign  exchange ; 
but  it  permitted  the  free  circulation  of  precious 
metals  in  the  form  of  bullion  only,  leaving  in 
force  the  monopoly  of  the  State  Bank  on  the 
purchase  and  sale  of  coin  and  foreign  exchange. 
By  decree  of  July  27,  1922,  state  and  coopera- 
tive institutions  were  permitted  to  accept  gold 
or  precious  metals  in  coin  in  payment  for  goods 
or  services,  provided  immediate  deposit  thereof 
was  made  to  their  accounts  with  the  State 
Bank. 

In  December,  1922,  the  issue  of  so-called 
"chervonets"  banknotes  by  the  State  Bank  was 
authorized;  these  eventually  became  standard 
currency.  These  notes  of  10 -ruble  denomination 
were  secured  according  to  law  by  gold,  silver, 


and  stable  foreign  exchange,  to  the  extent  of  not 
less  than  one-quarter  of  face  value,  the  balance 
being  covered  by  drafts,  notes,  warehouse  re- 
ceipts, and  other  transferable  collateral.  How- 
ever, ever  since  the  inception  of  its  note  issue 
the  State  Bank  has  maintained  the  gold  security 
in  reserve  of  the  chervonets  notes  at  50  per  cent 
of  face  value.  The  decree  of  Jan.  29,  1923,  abol- 
ished the  monopoly  of  the  State  Bank  on  pur- 
chase and  sale  of  foreign  currency  and  admitted 
trading  in  gold  and  silver  bullion,  in  foreign 
currency,  and  in  checks  and  bills  of  exchange. 
The  chervonets  notes  have  retained  their  parity 
with  the  gold  ruble  in  terms  of  Soviet  currency 
and  circulate  at  par  with  the  pound  sterling  and 
practically  so  with  the  dollar.  At  the  same 
time,  the  sound  or  purchasing  value  of  the 
entire  mass  of  paper  ruble  currency  outstanding 
was  dropping  precipitously.  On  Jan.  1,  1923,  it 
was  estimated  at  101,900,000  gold  rubles;  on 
June  1  at  88,702,000;  on  Jan.  1,  1924,  at  59,500,- 
000;  and  on  February  1  at  only  39,000,000 
rubles.  The  total  Soviet  paper  money  in  cir- 
culation on  Jan.  1,  1924,  was  about  178,000,000,- 
000,000,000  rubles.  Of  this  astronomical 
amount,  31,000,000,000,000,000  had  been  issued 
in  October,  45,000,000,000,000,000  in  November, 
and  80,000,000,000,000,000  in  December.  By 
Jan.  1,  1924,  chervonets  banknotes  assumed  a 
predominant  position  as  a  medium  of  exchange. 
A  series  of  decrees  promulgated  during  the  last 
week  of  February  and  during  March,  1924,  intro- 
duced a  reform  in  the  Russian  monetary  system. 
By  a  decree  effective  on  February  15,  tne  Soviet 
paper  ruble  was  abolished,  and  the  chervonets 
banknote  was  made  standard  currency.  By  the 
second  and  third  decrees  issued  on  February  29 
to  regulate  application  of  the  first  decree,  the 
system  of  reckoning  in  index  rubles  based  on 
1913  prices  was  abolished,  and  the  payment  of 
fixed  wage  rates  in  chervonets  rubles  was  sub- 
stituted for  their  payment  in  Soviet  currency, 
as  based  on  the  cost  of  living  index.  On  Mar. 
10,  1924,  announcement  was  made  that  Soviet 
paper  currency  would  be  redeemed  for  cher- 
vonets notes  at  the  rate  of  500,000  rubles  of 
1923  issue  (each  of  which  is  equal  to  1,000,000 
original  Soviet  rubles),  for  one  chervonets  ruble. 
Treasury  bills  of  1,  3,  and  5  ruble  denomination 
were  put  in  circulation  instead,  not  backed  by 
any  security  but  exchangeable  for  chervonets 
notes  at  any  of  the  state-controlled  banks.  In 
addition,  silver  and  copper  coin  was  put  in  cir- 
culation. By  May  1,  1924,  there  were  issued 
87,000,000  rubles  of  the  new  Treasury  bills,  20,- 
000,000  rubles  of  silver,  and  3,000,000  rubles  in 
copper,  a  total  value  of  110,000,000  rubles  of 
fractional  currency;  the  amount  of  chervonets 
banknotes  in  circulation  rose  to  305,000,000 
rubles,  making  a  total  of  415,000,000  rubles  in 
circulation,  with  the  fractional  currency  amount- 
ing to  about  25  per  cent  of  the  total  as  against 
40  per  cent  prior  to  the  War. 

The  budget  of  1922  (nine  months,  January- 
September)  was  balanced  with  a  deficit  of  139,- 
000,000  rubles,  covered  entirely  by  the  issue  of 
fiat  currency.  The  budget  of  1922-23  was  bal- 
anced with  a  deficit  of  572,000,000  chervonets 
rubles,  only  partially  met  by  the  issue  of  390,- 
000,000  rubles  of  fiat  money  and  129,000,000 
rubles  of  various  short-term  loans  and  by  the 
sale  of  foreign  currency  held  by  the  State  Bank. 
The  budget  estimate  for  1923-24  passed  at  1,- 
708,000,000  chervonets  rubles  and  an  estimated 
deficit  of  432,000,000  rubles.  To  cover  this  de- 


BUSSIA 


"55 


BUSSIA 


flcit,  about  180,000,000  rubles  of  Treasury  bills 
were  to  be  issued,  and  the  balance  was  to  be 
met  by  short-term  loans,  increased  taxation  and 
greater  income  anticipated  from  nationalized 
properties  and  railroads.  Bank  deposits  in- 
creased nearly  tenfold  during  1923,  from  21,980,- 
000  chervonets  rubles  on  Jan.  1,  1923,  to  210,- 
080,000  on  Jan.  1,  1924. 

Transportation.  The  following  data  on  rail- 
roads for  pre-war  years  cover  the  entire  Russian 
Empire  and  should  be  reduced  by  15  to  25  per 
cent  for  comparison  with  the  1924  territory. 
Main-track  mileage  at  the  end  of  1914  was  43,- 
8.50  miles,  of  which  6330  were  in  Congress  Poland 
and  the  Baltic  Succession  States.  The  mileage 
in  1922  within  Soviet  boundaries  was  42,357 
miles 

Condition  of  Rolling  Stock.  The  number  of 
locomotives  at  the  beginning  of  1914  was  20,057, 
with  an  average  of  15  per  cent  under  repairs. 
In  September,  1923,  the  total  number  was  10,642, 
of  which  8576  were  sound  and  the  rest  disabled. 
Number  of  freight  cars  in  1013-14:  550,000;  in 
September,  1923:  414,050;  of  these,  200,540  were 
in  sound  condition  The  number  of  passenger 
cars  in  September,  1023,  was  24,165,  of  which 
12,760  were  disabled.  Total  work  of  railroad 
transport  in  1013,  including  freight  trains,  rail- 
road service  trains,  and  military  transport 
trains,  was  expressed  in  46,065,000,000  ton  miles 
and  18,120,000,000  passenger  miles.  During 
the  1022-23  operating  year,  traffic  amounted 
to  16,470,000,000  ton  miles,  of  which  9,787,000,- 
000  ton  miles  represented  paid  goods  traffic;  pas- 
senger traffic  amounted  to  0,026,000,000  pas- 
senger miles.  Average  daily  loadings  of  cars 
amounted  in  1014  to  75,000,*  in  1921  to  10,900; 
in  1922  to  9770;  and  in  1023  to  11,821.  Thus 
the  average  load  factor  of  the  freight  traffic  was 
a  little  over  one-third  of  the  pre-war  figure,  but 
this  was  very  unevenly  distributed  so  that  on  the 
trunk  railroads  in  the  central  parts  of  Russia 
the  load  factor  reached  and  even  exceeded  one- 
half  of  that  of  1013.  In  the  outlying  regions, 
as  Siberia  and  the  North,  the  load  reached 
barely  10  to  20  per  cent  of  pre-war.  This  neces- 
sitated the  support  of  the  poorly-loaded  lines  at 
the  expense  of  those  more  actively  exploited. 

Condition  of  Trackage.  The  campaign  of  sys- 
tematic introduction  of  four  standardized  types 
of  rails  on  the  Russian  railroads  had  not  been 
completed  by  the  time  the  War  broke  out.  Con- 
sequently a  diversity  is  found  in  regard  to 
weight  of  rails,  even  within  trunk  lines  of  the 
same  system.  As  the  replacing  of  rails  by 
heavier  types  had  been  lagging  behind  the  re- 
plenishment of  motive  power  by  new  locomotives, 
the  1924  condition  of  track  did  not  correspond 
to  the  demands  imposed  by  traffic.  The  heavier 
rails  in  service  in  1924  were  from  13  to  16  years 
old,  while  the  lighter  types  had  been  in  service 
from  40  to  50  years,  with  an  average  service 
limit  of  33  years  under  pre-war  conditions  of 
traffic.  The  status  of  rail  fastenings,  spikes 
and  bolts,  was  even  worse.  Such  a  condition  of 
the  roadbed  made  it  continually  imperative  to 
reduce  the  speed  limit  of  trains.  The  official 
programme  of  trackage  improvements  provided 
for  replacement  of  140,000  tons  of  rails  during 
the  first  year,  1922-23.  On  account  of  condi- 
tions in  the  steel  industry,  only  about  85,000 
tons  were  provided  during  that  time;  hence,  the 
replacement  programme  will  have  to  be  consider- 
ably extended. 

Railroad  Personnel,  Wages,  and  Receipts.    In 


the  middle  of  1921  the  number  of  railroad  em- 
ployees was  1,256,767;  on  Jan.  1,  1922,  it  had 
been  reduced  to  907,000;  on  Jan.  1,  1923,  to  708,- 
000;  but  by  Oct.  1,  1923,  it  had  risen  again  to 
900,398.  The  number  of  men  employed  per  mile 
of  track  amounted  in  January,  1921,  to  30;,  in 
January,  1922,  to  22;  in  January,  1923,  to  17.3; 
in  October,  1923,  to  21.4;  the  monthly  average 
in  1913  was  19.35.  In  October,  1922,  the  wages 
of  railroad  workers  in  Russia  averaged  6.63  gold 
rubles  (index  basis)  per  month  (1  ruble  = 
$0.5146);  in  March.  1923,  9.65  rubles;  in  the 
following  June,  9.80  rubles.  The  increase  of 
wages  was  especially  noticeable  in  the  railroad 
workshops,  where  it  reached  almost  the  average 
wage  of  a  metal  worker  in  Soviet  Russia,  14 
rubles  per  month.  Railroad  \\orkers  still  re- 
mained the  lowest-paid  form  of  labor  in  Russia. 
By  June,  1923,  their  average  wage  still  amount- 
ed to  only  43.3  per  cent  of  pre-war  levels, 
whereas  the  comparative  rate  for  industrial 
workers  reached  57.5  per  cent.  Prior  to  the 
War  the  earnings  of  railroad  labor  averaged 
about  50  per  cent  above  those  of  industrial  labor, 
36  rubles  per  month,  as  against  an  average  of 
20  rubles  for  industrial  labor.  The  gross  re- 
ceipts of  railroads  for  the  12  months  ended  Sept. 
30,  1923,  amounted  to  205,000,000  gold  rubles 
on  the  index  basis.  During  the  same  period 
state  subsidies  to  the  railroads  totaled  86,000,- 
000  rubles,  while  the  total  subsidies  granted 
during  the  year  to  the  State  Transport  Service 
as  a  whole,  i.e.  including  water  transport,  etc., 
amounted  to  more  than  126,000,000  index  rubles, 
or  expressed  in  actual  chervonets  or  gold  cur- 
rency, to  157,000,000  chervonets  rubles.  This 
sum  represented  almost  one-third  of  the  entire 
budget  of  the  entire  Transportation  Service. 

Internal  Waterways.  The  length  of  navigable 
mileage  in  European  Russia  amounts  to  25,545 
miles  and  in  Asia  to  30,100  miles,  besides  longer 
mileage  suitable  for  rafting  purposes  only.  The 
river  fleet  in  1013  within  the  1924  Soviet  borders 
consisted  of  3925  powei -driven  cargo  boats  of 
682,528  aggregate  indicated  horse  power;  20,573 
sailing  and  other  vessels,  with  a  total  capacity 
of  12,907,000  long  tons.  In  1923  there  were  716 
power-driven  vessels  of  187,120  horse  power,  in- 
cluding 150  oil  tankers  of  72,180  horse  power, 
314  passenger  steamboats  of  102,786  horse  power, 
and  2408  sailing  and  other  vessels  of  a  total 
capacity  of  2,316,000  long  tons,  including  366 
oil  barges  of  1,025,000  tons  capacity.  The  vol- 
ume of  river  transport  in  1913  was  44,364,000 
long  tons  and  11,041,300  passenger;  in  1923,  10,- 
218,000  tons,  including  3,038,000  tons  of  oil 
cargo  and  8,087,185  passenger 

Merchant  Marine.  In  1914  there  were  1005 
steamships,  averaging  826  tons  gross  registry,  of 
average  capacity  of  487  tons;  55  motor-driven 
vessels  of  380  tons  deadweight  average,  and  238 
tons  average  capacity. 

History.  The  outbreak  of  the  War  in  August, 
1914,  produced  a  mighty  demonstration  of  Rus- 
sian Pan-Slavism.  Internal  dissensions  and 
strikes  were  submerged  in  a  wave  of  patriotism. 
The  Duma,  usually  so  critical,  rallied  to  the 
support  of  the  Czar,  and  the  representatives  of 
dissentient  nationalities  made  striking  assevera- 
tions of  loyalty.  All  Russian  political  groups, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Bolshevist  wing  of  the 
Social  Democratic  party,  expressed  their  resolu- 
tion to  spare  no  effort  in  assisting  the  govern- 
ment to  maintain  the  country's  integrity  and 
dignity  and  to  defend  coreligionists  and  kins- 


BTJSSIA 


1x56 


BTJ8SIA 


MERCHANT  MARINE,   1922 

8TSA1C-D&IVEN 


SAILING  AND   MOTO&-DBIVBN 


Distribution 
Baltic    Sea    

,     Number 
116 

Capacity 
(Long1  tons) 

69  050 

Number 
14 

Capacity 
(Long  tons) 
6  630 

338 

7  710 

243 

24  350 

207 

153  630 

87 

57  145 

331 

50  270 

90 

5  900 

Total  •                             ....        

092 

280  660 

434 

94  025 

282 

216 

"There  -wore,  in  addition,  560  barges  and  lighters.  The  principal  ports  were  as  follows:  on  the  Baltic  Sea, 
Fetrograd;  on  the  Black  Sea,  Odessa,  Batum,  Nikolaiev,  Novorossiisk,  and  Marioupol;  on  the  White  Sea,  Arch- 
angel, on  the  Caspian  Sea,  Astrakhan;  and  on  the  Arctic  Ocean,  Murmansk. 


men  abroad.  Even  leading  anarchists  espoused 
the  national  cause  with  spontaneous  enthusiasm. 
The  government  on  its  side  made  some  attempt 
to  conciliate  discontented  minorities.  The  strug- 
gle with  the  Finnish  Diet  was  suspended;  the 
Poles  were  promised,  by  proclamation  of  the 
generalissimo,  Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  a  grant  of 
early  autonomy  and  ultimate  reunion  under  the 
Russian  sceptre  with  their  fellow-nationals  of 
Germany  and  Austria;  and  restrictions  on  Jews, 
Catholics,  and  Lutherans  lapsed  temporarily. 
The  permanent  abolition  of  the  sale  of  vodka 
decreed  shortly  after  the  beginning  of  hostilities 
met  with  widespread  popular  support.  Large 
social  groups  were  organized  to  aid  in  the  prose- 
cution of  the  war:  local  provincial  councils 
formed  the  All-Russian  Union  of  Zemstvos,  and 
Municipal  Councils  were  similarly  federated  into 
a  national  society.  These  bodies  rendered  in- 
valuable service  in  auxiliary  relief  work,  al- 
though continually  hampered  by  a  suspicious 
and  jealous  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  na- 
tional government.  The  dynasty  had  been  given 
a  unique  opportunity  to  retrieve  it*  misdeeds 
and  blunders  by  placing  itself  wholehearted- 
ly at  the  head  of  a  great  popular  movement. 
But  unfortunately  Czar  Nicholas  II,  although 
well-meaning,  was  perversely  narrow-minded 
and  weak.  Surrounded  by  reactionary  nobles, 
priests,  and  bureaucrats,  he  "utilized  the  tem- 
porary heat  of  national  altruism  and  patriotism 
in  order  to  forge  enduring  iron  links  in  the  chain 
of  social  inequality  and  political  absolutism." 

The  Russian  invasion  of  East  Prussia  met 
with  an  overwhelming  catastrophe  in  the  battle 
of  Tannenberp,  but  simultaneously  Russian  arms 
gained  signal  successes  against  the  Austrians  in 
Galicia.  Reform  in  Poland  was  delayed  while 
reactionary  and  ultranationalistic  officials  de- 
voted themselves  to  energetic  measures  for  Rus- 
sifying conquered  Galicia.  During  the  winter 
of  1014-15,  although  the  Russians  held  their 
own  on  the  eastern  front,  they  showed  few  signs 
of  sweeping  like  a  "tidal  wave"  on  Berlin  or 
Vienna,  as  optimistic  Allied  publicists  hoped. 
At  the  opening  of  the  Duma  in  February,  1915, 
Premier  Goremykin  expressed  unwavering  con- 
fidence in  ultimate  victory,  and  the  majority  of 
the  legislature  seemed  to  share  his  faith.  Mean- 
while, the  Russian  foreign  minister,  Sazonov, 
had  taken  diplomatic  measures  to  insure  the 
realization  of  Russia's  great  ambition,  the  ac- 
quisition of  Constantinople.  The  Czar's  govern- 
ment hailed  with  positive  delight  the  oppor- 
tunity afforded  to  declare  war  on  Turkey  (Oct. 
31,  1914).  On  Nov.  14,  1914,  the  British  Am- 
bassador at  Potrograd  informed  Sazonov  that 
Russia  might  have  Constantinople,  and  during 
the  following  March  (1915)  a  secret  arrange- 
ment was  consummated  with  France  and  Great 
Britain  whereby  Russia  was  also  to  get  the  whole 
of  Turkey  in  Europe  except  a  district  around 
Adrianople  and  Kirk-Kilisse;  the  Asiatic  shores 


of  the  Bosporus;  and  about  80  miles  of  the 
Black  Sea  coast  in  Asia  Minor,  all  in  return  for 
according  the  British  and  French  like  satisfac- 
tions in  other  regions.  At  that  very  moment  an 
Anglo-French  expeditionary  force  was  engaged 
in  trying  to  force  the  Dardanelles  in  response 
to  a  Russian  plea  for  a  relief  of  pressure  on  the 
Caucasus  front,  where  the  Turks  had  concen- 
trated their  main  strength.  Russia  failed  to  co- 
operate with  her  Allies  in  that  tremendous  un- 
dertaking, so  vital  to  her  interests  and  so  essen- 
tial to  Entente  victory.  And  with  what  now 
appears  to  have  been  consummate  folly,  fathered 
by  greed,  the  Russian  cabinet  definitely  vetoed 
the  plan  to  obtain  Greek  military  aid  in  opening 
the  Straits;  the  Greeks,  so  Petrograd  feared, 
might  preempt  Constantinople,  the  debAcIe 
which  eventuated  had  a  direct  causal  effect  on 
Russia's  subsequent  collapse,  since  it  deprived 
her  of  a  line  of  communications  which,  if  kept 
open,  would  have  facilitated  the  shipment  of 
supplies  and  munitions  to  her  poorly  armed 
legions.  In  a  struggle  of  machinery  and  special- 
ized technical  equipment  su<-h  as  the  War  was 
proving,  Russia  wus  ill-prepared  for  battle;  a 
land  of  primitive  agriculturists,  in  a  semi  feudal 
society,  geographically  cut  off  from  assistance, 
shj  larked  the  requisite  resources  and  industrial 
organization. 

The  year  1915  had  opened  rather  brightly  for 
Russia.  To  be  sure,  the  government  was  ex- 
periencing great  financial  difficulties,  due  to  the 
loss  of  revenue  entailed  by  the  abolition  of  the 
government  monopoly  of  the  sale  of  vodka  and 
to  the  stupendous  expenditures  for  military  pur- 
poses, but  France  and  Great  Britain  lent  valu- 
able assistance  in  sustaining  Russian  credit,  and 
a  large  loan  was  floated  in  America.  In  the 
spring  and  summer  of  1915,  despite  the  inter- 
vention of  Italy,  the  armies  in  the  West  being 
deadlocked,  a  gigantic  Teutonic  force  was  con- 
centrated on  the  eastern  front,  and  the  Russians 
suffered  a  series  of  disastrous  defeats.  Russian 
generals,  several  of  whom  had  conspicuous  abil- 
ity, were  grievously  handicapped  by  intolerable 
social  and  economic  conditions.  Russia's  illiter- 
ate peasant  armies,  valorous  in  the  extreme  but 
woefully  short  of  munitions  and  supplies,  could 
not  cope  on  equal  terms  with  the  disciplined 
troops  of  the  Central  Powers.  Mere  numbers 
availed  nothing  against  superior  and  overwhelm- 
ing machine-guns  and  howitzers.  During  May 
and  June,  General  yon  Mackensen,  with  com- 
bined Austro-Hungarian  and  German  armies,  ex- 
pelled the  Russians  from  Galicia;  immediately 
thereafter  General  Hindenburg,  the  erstwhile 
victor  of  Tannenberg,  directed  a  mighty  thrust 
at  Russian  Poland.  By  October,  1915,  all  of 
Poland,  together  with  most  of  Lithuania  and 
Courland,  was  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy  powers, 
and  the  military  prestige  of  Russia  was  de- 
stroyed. Up  to  October,  1915,  Russia  had  lost 
approximately  2,500,000  men:  500,000  dead, 


RUSSIA 


"57 


BTTSSIA 


1,000,000  wounded,  and  1,000,000  taken  prisoner, 
The  Meeting  of  the  Duma.  The  reverses  in 
the  field  had  profound  repercussions  on  political 
life.  Patriots  assailed  the  government  for  its 
criminal  inefficiency  and  accused  leading  gen- 
erals of  incompetence.  An  early  session  of  the 
Duma  and  the  selection  of  a  really  representa- 
tive national  ministry  were  demanded.  Premier 
Goremykin  made  some  concessions  to  the  critics. 
He  superseded  his  unpopular  Minister  of  the 
Interior,  Makarov,  by  the  more  liberal  Prince 
Cherbatov.  On  June  25,  the  scoundrelly  Suk- 
homlinov-  resigned  the  war  portfolio  and  was 
replaced  by  General  Polianov.  Other  reaction- 
aries were  dismissed  and  more  acceptable  con- 
servatives appointed  to  succeed  them.  These 
changes  postponed  the  impending  crisis,  but  the 
situation  was  serious  in  the  extreme  when  the 
Duma  reassembled  on  August  1.  The  Duma, 
while  expressing  fervent  loyalty  and  patriotism, 
demanded  that  the  government  collaborate  with 
the  people  in  a  more  democratic  spirit  Goremy- 
kin promised  fuller  cooperation  in  the  work  of 
national  defense  and  planned  to  create  advisory 
boards  including  experts  and  delegates  from  the 
Xemstvos,  Municipal  Councils,  the  Duma,  and 
the  Council  of  the  Empire,  to  assist  the  minis- 
ters of  war,  commerce,  communications,  and 
agriculture  The  Duma  libeials,  aroused  by 
amazing  revelations  of  treason  and  corruption  in 
the  government  and  army  circles,  demanded 
greater  reforms.  In  late  August  and  early  Sep- 
tember, 10 If),  under  the  leadership  of  the  Consti- 
tutional Democrat,  Milyukov,  a  bloc  of  liberal 
and  moderate  groups  was  constituted,  embracing 
all  elements  in  the  Duma  except  the  extreme  re- 
actionaries and  nationalists  on  the  Right  and  the 
extreme  radical  Social  Democrats  on  the  Left. 
The  programme  of  the  bloc  involved:  (1)  the 
reconstruction  of  the  ministry  on  a  more  repre- 
sentative basis;  (2)  the  reconciliation  of  dis- 
contented nationalities  and  aggrieved  social 
classes;  (3)  the  reform  of  local  administration; 
(4)  punishment  of  delinquent  commanders  and 
officials;  and  (5)  the  vigorous  prosecution  of 
the  war.  Simultaneously  (September  5),  the 
Czar  with  a  magnificent  gesture  assumed  nomi- 
nally supreme  command  of  the  army,  and  Grand 
Duke  Nicholas  was  transferred  to  the  Caucasus. 
After  the  German  drive  had  spent  its  vigor, 
reaction  triumphed  over  reform.  To  the  con- 
sternation and  anger  of  the  Liberals,  an  imperial 
decree  unexpectedly  prorogued  the  Duma  (Sep- 
tember 16).  In  October,  Khovostov  from  the 
extieme  Kight  in  the  Duma  replaced  Cherbatov 
as  minister  of  the  interior,  with  the  avowed 
purpose  of  strengthening  the  machinery  of  "be- 
nevolent but  firm  authority."  One  ministerial 
change  followed  another  during  the  autumn  and 
winter,  until  on  Feb.  1,  1916,  "the  very  acme  of 
reaction  was  reached  with  the  retirement  of 
Goremykin  and  the  succession  of  Boris  Stiirmer, 
an  ultraconservative  and  an  oppressive  land- 
lord reputed  to  be  pro-German  in  his  personal 
sympathies  " 

The  Sturmer  Ministry.  The  opening  days  of 
the  new  administration  were  signalized  by  im- 
portant Russian  victories  in  Asia  Minor,  includ- 
ing the  capitulation  of  the  great  Turkish  strong- 
hold of  Erzerum  (February  16).  The  Duma, 
reconvened  on  February  22,  was  honored  for  the 
first  time  by  the  personal  attendance  of  the 
Czar.  Nevertheless,  relations  with  the  ministry 
continued  critical  and  controversial.  Finance 
occasioned  a  sharp  debate;  an  income  tax  was 


levied,  and  recourse  was  had  to  British,  French, 
and  American  loans.  Liberal  groups  denounced 
the  government  for  its  failure  to  establish  a 
greater  measure  of  political  liberty  and  for  its 
harsh  treatment  of  Finns  and  Poles.  There  was 
also  a  disorderly  debate  on  the  continued  perse- 
cution of  the  Jews.  New  changes  in  the  min- 
istry followed  these  attacks.  Khovostov  and 
Polianov  resigned  the  interior  and  war  portfolios 
respectively,  and  General  Sukhomlinov,  the  ex- 
Minister  of  War,  was  imprisoned  for  treason- 
able negligence  in  conduct  of  his  office  Mean- 
while Russia's  military  fortunes  were  appre- 
ciably reviving.  During  the  winter  of  1915-16 
Russia's  lines  were  reformed,  her  arsenals  re- 
plenished, and  her  command  reorganized.  In 
the  summer  of  1916  she  cooperated  with  her 
allies  in  a  series  of  coordinated  offensives.  Un- 
der General  Brussilov,  the  Russians  inaugurated 
a  vigorous  drive  along  the  Sereth  River  at  the 
beginning  of  June.  By  the  middle  of  August, 
the  entire  province  of  Bukovina  had  been  con- 
quered and  some  350,000  men  taken,  together 
with  enormous  stores  of  equipment.  Russia's 
sudden  rise,  "phoenix-like,  from  the  disastrous 
fire  and  flame  of  the  preceding  autumn,  reas- 
sured all  the  Allies."  It  contributed  to  Allied 
successes  in  the  West,  and  it  was  the  chief  factor 
in  encouraging  Rumania  to  enter  the  War  on 
the  side  of  the  Allies  (August,  1916).  Russia, 
however,  consented  with  ill  grace  to  Rumanian 
demands  for  future  compensation  and  subse- 
quently displayed  short-sighted  duplicity  in 
neglecting  to  aid  her  southeastern  neighbor  and 
ally  against  the  terrific  Teutonic  onslaught 
Meanwhile,  the  internal  situation  in  Hussia  had 
grown  truly  alarming,  for  the  recovery  of  the 
army  from  its  defeats  and  demoralization  in 
1915  was  not  accompanied  by  a  restoration  of 
political  confidence  and  stability  at  home  The 
Czar  and  his  advisers  had  learned  no  lesson. 
They  persistently  ignored  the  symptoms  of  eco- 
nomic distress  palpably  manifest  throughout  the 
empire  and  gave  no  consideration  to  widespread 
popular  demands  for  political  reform.  Against 
the  Stiirmer  ministry  a  mass  of  grievances 
speedily  accumulated.  The  premier  muzzled 
public  opinion,  forced  the  resignation  of  the 
able  and  patriotic  Sazonov  (August,  1916),  ap- 
pointed extreme  reactionaries  to  office,  prorogued 
the  Duma  from  July  3  to  November  14,  pro- 
mulgated obnoxious  autocratic  deciees,  and  en- 
deavored to  repress  popular  organizations  (espe- 
cially the  All-Russian  Union  of  Zemstvos,  the 
Union  of  Municipalities,  and  the  War  Industries 
Committee),  formed  to  promote  popular  co- 
operation with  the  government  and  to  assist  in 
the  vigorous  prosecution  of  the  war.  On  Oc- 
tober 4,  StUrmer  ordered  all  meetings  of  these 
organizations  to  be  placed  under  police  sur- 
veillance and  entrusted  the  administration  of 
the  interior  to  Protopopov,  the  most  zealous 
prosecutor  of  liberals  in  all  Russia  and  a  pro- 
German  into  the  bargain. 

The  Trepov  Ministry.  These  measures  aroused 
a  storm  of  protest  and  united  all  factions 
against  the  government.  Shortly  after  the 
Duma  met  (November  14),  StUrmer  resigned, 
only  to  be  succeeded  by  a  reactionary  of  the 
same  stamp,  Alexander  Trepov  The  Duma  did 
not  relax  its  criticism.  In  the  midst  of  a 
stormy  session  during  the  closing  days  of  1916, 
Professor  Milyukov,  leader  of  the  Constitutional 
Democrats,  vehemently  assailed  the  government, 
being  supported  by  several  other  speakers  who 


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made  sensational  disclosures  concerning  the  al- 
most traitorously  inefficient  prosecution  of  the 
war.  The  Duma,  the  Imperial  Council,  and  the 
Council  of  Nobles,  all  passed  resolutions  ex- 
coriating the  "dark  forces*'  tending  to  paralyze 
the  national  organism  and  to  create  confusion 
in  all  departments  of  the  government.  "Autoc- 
racy of  the  Russian  variety  proved  itself  abso- 
lutely unfit  to  meet  the  supreme  test  of  the 
Great  War."  Despite  the  alarming  spread  of 
popular  disaffection  during  the  winter  of  1016- 
17,  the  government  adhered  to  its  traditional 
methods  of  secrecy,  suspicion,  repression,  and 
intrigue.  The  Czar  was  hopelessly  dominated 
by  his  consort,  Czarina  Alexandra  Feodorovna, 
and  she  in  turn  was  under  the  hypnotic  influ- 
ence of  fools,  hypocrites,  and  charlatans,  espe- 
cially the  notorious  Gregory  Rasputin.  "Ras- 
put  in  (meaning  'dirty  dog'),  a  curious  com- 
pound of  shrewd  peasant,  avaricious  politician, 
erotic  maniac,  and  religious  fanatic,  acted  as 
official  'medicine  man'  to  a  superstitious  court 
and  gave  tone  and  character  to  the  blind,  per- 
verse autocracy."  Friend  of  Goremykin.  Suh- 
komlinov,  Sttiriner,  and  Protopopov,  with  whom 
he  cooperated  to  frustrate  nascent  liberalism 
and  constitutionalism,  he  exercised  such  a  bale- 
ful influence  on  the  course  of  events  that  his 
assassination  at  the  end  of  December,  1010, 
caused  much  rejoicing.  It  was  a  grim  portent 
of  immanent  revolution.  The  situation  at  the 
opening  of  1017  was  extremely  tense  and  ab- 
normal. The  armies  at  the  front  sullenly  main- 
tained their  positions  but  were  war-weary  and 
distrustful  of  their  leaders.  "The  factory  work- 
ers in  the  towns  were  deeply  affected  by  inter- 
nationalistic  and  socialistic  ideas,  while  the 
peasants  were  groaning  under  the  heavy  toll  of 
conscription  and  the  economic  demands  arising 
from  a  war  which  they  had  ceased  to  under- 
stand. Among  the  intellectuals  there  was  a 
widespread  feeling  of  uneasiness  as  regards  the 
coming  catastrophe.  .  .  .  But  the  prevailing  sen- 
timent was  despair  as  to  any  improvement  in 
the  reactionary  government." 

The  Colitzin  Ministry  On  Jan.  0,  1017, 
Prince  N.  Golitzin.  "a  typical  bureaucrat 
with  compressed  brains  and  elastic  conscience," 
replaced  General  Trepov  as  premier.  Other  re- 
actionary appointments  followed,  and  the  re- 
opening of  the  Duma  was  deferred  from  January 
25  to  February  27.  The  government  was  openly 
charged  with  aiming  "to  provoke  a  futile  re- 
bellion, to  suppress  the  rebellion  by  force,  to 
quell  by  terrorism  an  agitation  for  reform,  and 
to  entrench  Russian  autocracy  anew  in  power 
for  another  century."  On  February  25,  a  secret 
arrangement  was  concluded  with  France  whereby 
Russia  was  to  get  a  free  hand  in  drawing  her 
western  frontiers,  i.e.  around  Poland,  in  return 
for  the  granting  of  a  similar  freedom  to  France 
along  the  Rhine.  This  devious  diplomacy  was 
nullified  by  the  subsequent  course  of  events.  A 
grave  shortage  of  food  in  Petrograd  and  other 
cities  was  accentuated  by  the  mismanagement 
and  corruption  of  the  government.  The  Duma 
reconvened  on  February  27,  amid  overawing  po- 
lice guards.  Workmen  to  the  number  of  100,000 
in  Petrograd  and  25,000  in  Moscow  went  on 
strike  as  a  political  manifestation  on  behalf  of 
the  Social  Democrats.  The  food  crisis  became 
acute.  Bread  riots  occurred.  On  Mar.  11,  1917, 
the  Czar's  government  ordered  the  Duma  and 
the  Council  of  the  Empire  to  dissolve  and  the 
workmen  to  return  to  their  jobs.  The  workers 


refused  to  obey,  and  the  Duma  declined  to  dis- 
band, declaring  that  it  was  now  the  Bole  con- 
stitutional authority  in  Russia.  The  Revolution 
was  at  hand. 

The  Revolution  and  the  Provisional  Uovern- 
ment.  After  several  days  of  critical  uncertainty, 
the  Petrograd  garrison  was  won  over,  the  or- 
gans of  autocracy  ceased  to  function,  and  the 
Revolution  spread  with  lightning  speed  to  the 
armies  in  the  field  and  to  distant  provinces. 
The  forced  abdication  of  the  Czar  (March  15) 
in  favor  of  his  brother  the  Grand  Duke  Michael, 
and  Michael's  refusal  to  accept  the  crown  unless 
it  were  piofl'ered  by  the  will  of  the  people,  ended 
the  three-century  rule  of  the  Romanovs.  In 
Petrograd  authority  was  divided  between  the 
Duma  and  a  newly  constituted  Soviet  (Council) 
of  Workin0men>s  and  Soldiers'  Delegates.  By 
an  agreement  between  them,  a  thoroughly  re- 
spectable bourgeois  provisional  government  re- 
cruited from  the  Duma  and  responsible  to  it 
was  established  under  the  premiership  of  Prince 
George  Lvov,  a  liberal  landlord,  president  of 
the  Union  of  Zematvos  and  member  of  the 
Constitutional  Democratic  party.  His  ministry 
embraced  seven  other  members  of  his  party,  in- 
cluding Milyukov  as  foreign  minister,  three  Oc- 
tobrists,  including  Guchkov,  who  held  the  war 
portfolio,  and  one  Social  Revolutionary,  Alex- 
ander Keren  sky,  as  Minister  of  Justice. 

The  proMsional  government  was  speedily  rec- 
ognized by  foreign  countries.  With  equal  celer- 
ity, the  policies  of  the  discredited  autocracy 
were  reversed.  Finland's  constitution  was  re- 
stored; the  Poles  were  promised  unity  and  self- 
determination;  and  the  Jews  received  a  sweeping 
bestowal  of  equal  rights.  Thousands  of  polit- 
ical offenders  were  released  from  prison  or  re- 
called from  exile.  Freedom  of  speech,  of  asso- 
ciation, of  the  press,  and  of  religion  were  pro- 
claimed, and  it  was  announced  that  a  National 
Constituent  Assembly  would  shortly  be  desig- 
nated by  universal  suffrage  to  frame  a  perma- 
nent popular  constitution  for  Russia.  The  new 
ministry  advocated  a  thoroughly  democratic 
regime  for  revolutionized  Russia!  but  "unlike 
the  democracies  of  western  Europe,  the  Russian 
revolutionary  movement  would  have  to  base  it- 
self less  on  an  electorate  of  educated  bourgeois 
and  prosperous  independent  farmers  than  on  a 
mass  of  illiterate,  poverty-stricken  pearants,  and 
on  noisy  groups  of  ill-disciplined  urban  work- 
ers," for  Russia  was  politically,  economically, 
and  socially  the  most  backward  country  in  Eu- 
rope. Moreover,  the  great  mass  of  peasants  and 
proletarians  were  not  satisfied  with  promises  of 
political  democracy  and  individual  liberty;  they 
desired  a  far-reaching  social  and  economic  trans- 
formation. More  representative  of  the  bulk 
of  the  Russian  people  than  the  bourgeois  pro- 
visional government  were  the  extra-legal  Soviets 
of  Workmen's,  Soldiers',  and  Peasants'  Deputies, 
which,  modeled  on  the  initial  Petrograd  organ- 
ization, were  constituted  throughout  the  country 
and  in  the  army.  The  first  National  Congress  of 
Soviets  held  at  Moscow  (April,  1017)  demanded 
fundamental  agrarian  reform,  the  participation 
of  workmen  in  the  management  of  industry,  the 
democratization  of  the  army,  and  the  continu- 
ance of  belligerency  only  on  the  basis  of  a  peace 
programme  involving  "no  annexations  and  no  in- 
demnities." 

There  was  a  wide  gulf  between  these  aims  of 
the  Soviets,  which  were  dominated  in  the  rural 
region!  by  Social  Revolutionaries  and  in  the 


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1159 


BUSSIA 


towns  by  the  Menshevist  faction  of  the  Social 
Democrats,  and  those  of  the  middle-class  gov- 
ernment of  Lvov.  The  latter  desired  to  sub- 
ordinate internal  reforms  in  Russia  to  the  vig- 
orous prosecution  of  the  War.  Milyukov,  as 
minister  of  foreign  affairs*  adhered  to  the  diplo- 
matic traditions  of  the  old  regime,  favoring  the 
firm  maintenance  of  national  prestige,  cordial 
and  consistent  cooperation  with  the  Allies,  and 
the  complete  realization  of  imperialist  aims  as 
embodied  in  the  secret  treaties  The  demobiliza- 
tion of  the  army,  the  immense  wave  of  war- 
weariness  among  the  mass  of  the  people  and  the 
hostile  attitude  of  the  Soviets,  forced  the  resig- 
nation of  Milyukov,  Guchkov,  and  other  moder- 
ately conservative  ministers,  and  on  May  16, 
1017,  the  Ministry  was  reconstructed  along  more 
radical  lines,  Keiensky  as  Minister  of  War  be- 
coming the  dominant  figuie,  overshadowing  Pre- 
mier Lvov.  In  the  ministry  were  seven  Constitu- 
tional Democrats,  t\\o  Octobrists,  three  Social 
revolutionaries,  and  three  Menshevik  Social 
Democrats. 

TJic  Kerenrtky  Government.  Kerensky  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  terminate  the  War  success- 
fully, while  simultaneously  endeavoring  to  as- 
sure both  political  democracy  and  social  reform. 
But  although  extremely  eloquent  and  well-inten- 
tioned, the  new  loader  lacked  statesmanlike  pre- 
vision, clearness  of  purpose,  and  strength  of  will. 
"After  attaining  to  a  unique  position  at  the  head 
ot  revolutionary  Russia,  Kercnsky  entangled 
himself  in  a  net  of  contradictory  measures,  of 
ill-judged  assertions  of  authority  and  of  weak- 
minded  compromises  and  renunciations."  His 
ministi y  encountered  the  opposition  of  Constitu- 
tional Democrats  who  feared  anarchy,  of  the 
Bolsbe\ists  who  were  growing  more  influential 
in  the  Soviets,  and  of  CJerman  emissaries  foster- 
ing separatism  among  the  subject  nationalities 
and  pacifism  among  the  soldiers,  workmen,  and 
peasants.  He  was  unable  to  secure  a  repudia- 
tion by  the  Allies  of  the  obnoxious  secret  treaties 
or  a  restatement  of  war-aims  on  the  basis  of 
"no  annexations  and  no  indemnities "  Under 
the  circumstances  it  was  impossible  to  infuse 
patriotic  enthusiasm  into  the  Soviets,  and  the 
disintegration  of  discipline  in  the  army  led  to 
disastrous  defeat  during  the  attempted  Brussilov 
offensive  of  July,  1917.  All  the  gains  of  1916 
were  obliterated  in  one  crowning  catastrophe, 
and  the  Germans  extended  their  lines  in  the 
Baltic  pnmiices.  The  Austrians  recovered  all 
of  <*alicia. 

Kven  more  alarming  than  these  defeats  at  the 
front  was  the  continued  growth  of  internal  chaos. 
Although  numerically  speaking,  it  was  a  mere 
insignificant  minority  of  the  Russian  people,  the 
extreme  faction  of  Bolshevists  which  had  con- 
sistently opposed  the  War  since  its  very  out- 
break, began  in  the  spring  of  1917  to  acquire  im- 
mense prestige  among  the  war-weary  masses  who 
were  more  eager  for  the  social  millennium  than 
for  military  victory.  The  Bolsheviks  adhered 
to  their  principles  in  frankly  repudiating  polit- 
ical democracy  and  refusing  to  cooperate  with 
the  bourgeoisie  or  even  with  the  Social  Revolu- 
tionaries and  Mensheviks  in  the  hour  of  supreme 
national  crisis.  This  subversive  propaganda  was 
facilitated  by  the  return  of  a  long-exiled  leader, 
Nikolai  Lenine  (the  pseudonym  of  Vladimir 
Ulianov),  a  man  of  noble  extraction  who  had 
become  a  "doctrinaire  socialist  of  the  dogmatic 
type"  with  an  international  reputation.  Len- 
ine's  chief  accomplice  in  his  formidable  assaults 


on  Russian  society  and  the  provisional  govern- 
ment was  a  fanatical  ex-Menshevik,  Leon  Trotsky 
(a  pseudonym  for  Bronstein),  a  man  of  middle- 
class  Jewish  origin,  who  had  likewise  been  a 
political  exile  and  who  returned  to  Russia  in 
May,  1917.  The  Bolsheviks  vociferously  agi- 
tated for  peace,  outlined  a  temptingly  Utopian 
programme  of  immediate  social  reforms  includ- 
ing expropriation  of  the  landed  nobility  and  in- 
dustrial self-government,  and  made  their  slogan 
"All  power  to  the  Soviets."  Tn  June,  at  the 
All  Russian  Congress  of  Soviets  assembled  in 
Petrograd  under  the  presidency  of  the  Menshe- 
vist leader  Tcheidze,  Lenine  pronounced  a  fu- 
rious indictment  of  the  provisional  government 
and  of  Kerensky.  His  attack  was  unavailing, 
however,  and  he  was  overruled  by  the  moderates. 
Following  the  collapse  of  the  Russian  offensive 
in  July,  Prince  Lvov  and  the  other  Constitu- 
tional Democrats  in  the  ministry  resigned  (July 
17).  A  Bolshevist  uprising  was  repressed  by 
Kerensky  with  the  aid  of  the  Menshevist  Petro- 
grad Soviet,  Lenine  fleeing  to  Finland  where  he 
remained  until  October.  On  July  20,  Keiensky 
became  head  of  the  provisional  government.  He 
still  hoped  to  save  Russia,  but  the  odds  were 
against  him.  An  extraordinary  conference 
representing  various  parties,  the  Zemstvos  and 
municipalities,  universities,  the  army,  factory 
workmen,  and  peasant  communities,  which  me't 
in  Moscow  late  in  August,  revealed  a  state  of 
complete  paralysis  and  confusion  among  the 
leaders  of  the  country.  In  September,  Kornilov, 
who  had  succeeded  Brussilov  as  generalissimo, 
attempted  to  assume  a  military  dictatorship, 
after  concerting  plans  to  that  effect  with  Ke- 
rensky, but  the  latter  turned  against  him  and 
took  control  of  the  army.  This  affair  caused  a 
recrudescence  of  revolutionary  zeal  and  a  \iolent 
rush  to  the  Left.  Mean\\hile  anarchy  increased 
in  everyday  life.  The  peasants  were 'seizing  the 
large  estates,  dividing  the  spoils,  and  executing 
summary  justice  on  those  \\lio  bud  long  op- 
pressed them;  urban  workmen  were  dispos- 
sessing factory -owners.  The  Soviets  c.illcd  a 
Democratic  Conference  in  Petrograd  on  Sepi em- 
ber 27,  to  represent  peasants  and  prolctniians 
but  no  bourgeois  elements.  All  pioposals  for  a 
new  and  more  capable  coalition  go\crnment 
failed. 

The  Bolshevist  Revolution.  The  weakness  of 
the  government  was  the  strength  of  the  Bolshe- 
vists. Gradually,  they  supplanted  the  Meiishe- 
vists  in  control  of  urban  Soviets,  and  by  piomis- 
ing  speedy  agrarian  reforms,  i.e.  confiscation  of 
land,  they  weaned  the  peasants  auay  from  the 
Social  Revolutionaries  and  Koreiibky.  Trotsky, 
imprisoned  after  the  July  fiasco,  was  subsequent- 
ly released,  only  to  succeed  the  Menshevist  pres- 
ident of  the  Petrograd  Soviet  and  to  renew  his 
sulnersive  activities  by  organizing  Red  Guards 
subservient  to  Bolshevist  wishes.  During  Oc- 
tober Kerensky  made  one  last  effort  to  bolster 
up  his  government  by  establishing  a  Council  of 
the  Republic  with  a  membership  drawn  from 
all  the  political  parties,  principal  associations, 
and  institutions.  It  was  of  no  use;  the  day  of 
reckoning  bad  come.  The  provisional  govern- 
ment had  failed  to  fulfill  popular  aspirations  or 
to  overcome  the  force  of  opposition.  "The  time 
seemed  ripe  for  a  Bolshevist  revolution  and 
for  the  establishment  of  a  dictatorship  of  the 
proletariat."  By  extravagant  promises  of  peace 
and  an  earthly  paradise,  by  irresponsible  at- 
tacks on  the  much -harassed  government,  and  by 


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BUSSIA 


the  use  of  traditional  political  methods  of  in* 
timidation  and  intrigue,  the  Bolshevists  man* 
aged  to  control  a  large  majority  of  the  delegates 
newly  elected  to  the  Congress  of  Soviets.  Hav- 
ing formed  a  Military  Revolutionary  Committee 
and  assured  themselves  of  the  support  or  benev- 
olent neutrality  of  the  Petrograd  garrison,  the 
Bolshevists  utilized  their  Red  Guards  to  execute 
a  coup  d'6tat  (Nov.  0-7,  1917).  Kesensky  had 
provided  no  adequate  defense,  and  the  conflict 
was  brief.  The  members  of  the  provisional 
government  were  taken  into  custody,  Kerensky 
alone  evading  capture.  On  November  8,  the 
change  was  formally  recognized  by  the  Ail- 
Russian  Congress  of  Soviets,  which  immediately 
sanctioned  the  establishment  of  a  Council  of 
People's  Commissars  with  Lenine  as  premier  and 
Trotsky  as  Commissar  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

In  full  accordance  with  the  anticapitalist 
tenets  of  their  faith,  with  the  anti-imperialist 
pronouncements  of  the  Zimmerwald  manifesto 
of  1915,  and  with  their  promises  to  the  be- 
nighted and  war-weary  masses,  the  Bolshevists 
resolved  to  conclude  peace  with  the  Central 
Empires  at  any  price.  Proposals  to  the  Allied 
governments  for  the  immediate  conclusion  of  an 
armistice  and  the  restatement  of  war-aims  on 
the  "no  annexations,  no  indemnities"  basis  elic- 
iting no  answer,  the  Bolsheviks  enraged  the 
Entente  rulers  by  publishing  the  "secret  trea- 
ties." An  armistice  was  concluded  with  Ger- 
many, Austria,  Turkey,  and  Bulgaria  at  Brest- 
Lit  ovsk  on  Dec.  17,  1917.  Here  on  December 
22  despite  Allied  protests  to  Russia  against  con- 
cluding a  separate  peace,  a  formal  Pence  Con- 
ference was  inaugurated.  The  idealistic  peace 
proposals  advanced  bv  the  Bolshevists  were  ac- 
cepted by  the  Germans  "in  principle"  but  en- 
tirely vitiated  in  practice.  Early  in  January 
the  Conference  reached  an  impasse  owing  to  ex- 
treme Teutonic  demands  and  insistent  Bolshe- 
vist propagandizing.  On  February  10,  the  So- 
viet government  announced  that  it  could  not 
conclude  peace  but  would  not  renew  the  war. 
The  Central  Powers,  however,  terminated  this 
solemn  farce  by  reopening  hostilities.  Trotsky 
gave  up  the  foreign  office  for  the  war  portfolio 
and  was  succeeded  by  Tchitcherin,  who  cooper- 
ated with  Lenine  in  bringing  about  a  renewal  of 
negotiations.  An  exceedingly  drastic  set  of  peace 
terms  was  finally  incorporated  in  the  Treaty  of 
Brest-Li tovsk,  signed  on  Mar.  3,  1918.  This  con- 
vention registered  a  striking  devolution  of  the 
ape-long  process  of  Russian  European  aggran- 
dizement, for  the  huge  and  heterogeneous  empire 
was  diminished  and  transformed  into  an  essenti- 
ally national  state  of  an  area  comparable  with 
that  existent  before  Peter  the  Great.  By  a  cu- 
rious coincidence  the  same  period  witnessed  the 
retransfer  of  the  national  capital  from  Petro- 
grad (Peter's  town)  to  Moscow.  The  Bol- 
shevists were  obliged  to  relinquish  Finland, 
Poland,  Esthonia,  Livonia,  Courland,  Lithuania, 
Ukrainia,  Bessarabia,  and  part  of  Transcau- 
casia, which,  although  not  annexed  to  the 
Central  Powers,  were  dominated  and  econom- 
ically exploited  by  them.  Russia  thereby  lost 
26  per  cent  of  her  population,  27  per  cent  of 
her  arable  land,  32  per  cent  of  her  average 
crops,  26  per  cent  of  her  raihvay  system,  33  per 
cent  of  her  manufacturing  industries,  73 
per  cent  of  her  total  iron  production,  and  75 
per  cent  of  her  coal  fields. 

Bolshevist  Domestic  Policy.  In  the  meantime 
the  Bolshevists  were  consolidating  their  power 


in  Russia.  Internal  opposition  was  repressed 
with  an  iron  hand.  By  means  of  revolutionary 
tribunals  and  summary  proceedings  they  inaug- 
urated a  regime  of  systematic  terrorism  to  ex- 
tirpate reactionaries,  hostile  liberals,  and  luke- 
warm moderate  revolutionaries.  Among  the 
tens  of  thousands  who  perished  in  the  years 
1918-19  were  ex-Czar  Nicholas  II  and  his  family, 
who  were  deliberately  killed  at  Ekaterinburg 
on  July  16,  1918.  The  methods  of  Bolshevism, 
the  much-vaunted  dictatorship  of  the  proletariat, 
thus  savored  of  ruthless  czarism  at  its  worst. 
Indeed,  though  the  Bolshevists  expected  that  the 
state,  which  they  regarded  as  purely  a  "capi- 
talist organ,"  the  tool  of  a  dominant  class  in 
society,  would  be  rendered  quite  superfluous  with 
the  ultimate  realization  of  communism,  never- 
theless they  believed  that  during  the  transitional 
period  of  "dictatorship"  the  proletariat  would 
require  an  instrumentality  of  control  fully  as 
coercive  as  the  capitalistic  state.  It  was  not 
political  democracy,  it  was  force  and  fraud 
which  these  would-be  communists  utilized  to  es- 
tablish and  perpetuate  their  rule.  The  National 
Constituent  Assembly,  finally  elected  by  equal, 
direct,  universal,  and  secret  suffrage  in  Novem- 
ber, 1917,  embraced  a  considerable  majority  of 
Social  Revolutionaries  who  were  anti-Bolshevist 
in  sympathy.  The  Council  of  People's  Commis- 
sars, not  finding  this  organ  of  democracy  suf- 
ficiently subservient,  postponed  its  meeting  till 
January,  1918,  and  finally  dissolved  it  alto- 
gether. The  All-Russian  Congress  of  Soviets, 
purged  of  militant  anti-Bolshevists,  automat- 
ically became  the  supreme  repository  of  legis- 
lative power. 

Individual  liberties,  political  democracy,  and 
the  prosecution  of  the  War  were  all  shelved 
while  the  new  Bolshevist  government  em- 
barked on  a  radical  course  of  social  and  eco- 
nomic experimentation  and  revolution  A  series 
of  decrees  issued  in  November,  1917,  and  sub- 
sequently, pronounced  the  doom  of  the  capi- 
talistic regime  All  special  privileges  were 
abolished,  and  obligatory  labor  was  enjoined  on 
all  citizens.  Private  ownership  of  land  was 
abolished  without  compensation,  and  all  real 
estate  was  nationalized,  the  peasants  being  per- 
mitted to  occupy  such  land  as  they  actually 
cultivated.  Mines,  forests,  and  railways  were 
appropriated  by  the  state,  and  factories  were 
transferred  to  the  management  and  operation  of 
workingmen.  The  national  debt  was  repudi- 
ated, private  banking  resources  confiscated,  and 
foreign  trade  made  a  government  monopoly. 
"The  Russian  Orthodox  Church  was  shorn  of  its 
wealth,  deprived  of  state  support,  and  reduced 
to  the  position  of  a  voluntary,  unprivileged,  and 
self-supporting  society.  Private  schools  were 
suppressed,  and  considerable  attention  was  given 
to  the  development  of  a  nation-wide  system  of 
public  schools  which  should  be  owned  and  di- 
rected by  the  state  and  in  which  loyalty  to  Bol- 
shevist principles  should  be  inculcated.  Alto- 
gether the  Bolshevist  regime  in  Russia  effected 
a  vast  holocaust  of  traditional  forms  and  usages, 
of  ancient  privileges  and  institutions;  it  ended 
aristocracy  as  well  as  Czarist  autocracy;  it 
transformed  both  church  and  state;  it  substi- 
tuted socialist  for  individualist  concepts  of 
property." 

The  substance  of  these  Bolshevist  principles, 
precepts,  and  practices  was  enshrined  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Russian  Socialist  Federated  So- 
viet Republic,  adopted  in  July,  1918,  by  the  fifth 


BUSSIA 


1161 


BTJSSIA 


All-Russian  Congress  of  Soviets.  By  this  docu- 
ment all  central  and  local  authority  was  for- 
mally vested  in  Soviets  of  workers',  soldiers',  and 
peasants*  delegates.  For  Soviet  elections  all  cit- 
izens and  resident  aliens  over  18  years  of  age, 
male  and  female,  who  earned  their  living  by 
"productive  labor,"  and  all  revolutionary  sol- 
diers and  sailors  were  enfranchised,  but  the 
right  to  vote  was  denied  to  all  capitalistic  pro- 
ducers, landlords,  private  merchants,  clergymen, 
and  certain  other  classes.  The  centre  and  source 
of  all  power  was  to  be  the  All-Russian  Congress 
of  Soviets,  consisting  of  representatives  from 
the  Soviets  on  the  basis  of  one  delegate  for  every 
25,000  electors,  and  from  provincial  congresses 
of  Soviets  on  the  basis  of  one  delegate  for 
every  125,000  inhabitants — the  franchise  being 
thus  heavily  weighted  in  favor  of  the  urban 
workers,  the  main  supporters  of  Bolshevism, 
who  were  represented  both  in  their  own  city 
Soviets  and  in  the  provincial  congresses  and 
therefore  enjoyed  double  electoral  powers.  The 
All-Russian  Congress  thus  constituted  was  em- 
powered to  elect  an  All-Russian  Central  Execu- 
tive Committee  of  some  200  and  later  300  mem- 
bers to  serve  as  the  controlling  executive,  legis- 
lative, and  administrative  organ  while  the  Con- 
gress itself  was  not  in  session.  The  Central 
Committee  in  turn  was  to  designate  a  supreme 
central  administrative  cabinet,  the  Council  of 
People's  Commissars,  composed  of  18  members 
responsible  to  the  Central  Committee  and 
through  it  to  the  Congress  and  subject  to  recall 
at  any  time.  Individually  these  commissars 
were  to  preside  over  various  departments  such 
as  those  of  foreign  affairs,  war,  interior,  justice, 
labor,  etc.;  and  collectively  they  were  respon- 
sible for  the  general  conduct  of  affairs  and  the 
execution  of  Soviet  policies.  The  commissars 
who  exercised  the  real  authority  were  thus 
about  five  steps  removed  from  direct  popular 
election  and  control,  if  such  a  thing  might  be 
said  to  exist  in  a  country  where  the  Bolshevists 
(Communists),  a  mere  minority  party  of  some 
600,000  highly  disciplined  members,  controlled 
the  machinery  of  government  and  the  organs  of 
public  opinion  The  drastic  way  in  which  they 
had  fulfilled  popular  longings  for  peace,  for 
land,  and  for  proletarian  privileges  assured  them 
a  modicum  of  popular  support;  and  this,  taken 
in  conjunction  with  their  arbitrary  use  of  force, 
kept  them  in  power. 

Despite  perennial  and  perfervid  prophecies  to 
the  contrary,  the  Boshevist  government  proved 
unexpectedly  stable;  it  survived  domestic  insur- 
rections, counterrevolutionary  movements,  .and 
foreign  intervention  during  the  troubled  years 
from  1918  to  1021;  by  1024  it  had  attained  a 
not  inconsiderable  measure  of  domestic  support 
and  foreign  recognition.  But  its  leaders  were 
unable  to  achieve  either  of  their  two  major  ob- 
jectives: (1)  the  successful  and  complete 
communization  of  Russian  society;  (2)  the  pre- 
cipitation and  consummation  of  a  world-wide 
proletarian  revolution. 

Aside  from  and  in  addition  to  any  inherent 
fallacies  in  Bolshevist  doctrines  (see  BOLSHE- 
VISM; COMMUNISM;  SOCIALISM)  and  obvious 
technical  limitations  of  Bolshevist  leadership, 
there  were  many  virtually  insuperable  obstacles 
to  the  achievement  of  communistic  reforms  in 
Russia.  These  embraced  such  factors  as:  (1) 
the  colossal  and  almost  universal  ignorance  of 
the  lower  classes,  on  whose  intelligent  and  volun- 
tary cooperation  the  success  of  sucli  ventures 


largely  depended;  (2)  the  "persistent  and  deep- 
seated  hostility  of  dispossessed  property-owners 
in  Russia  and  of  capitalists  in  foreign  coun- 
tries"; and  (3)  the  agricultural,  industrial,  and 
commercial  demoralization  of  Russian  society  re- 
sulting from  the  War  and  already  manifest 
when  the  Bolshevists  seized  power  in  November, 
1917.  The  next  four  years  saw  confusion  worse 
confounded. 

Agrarian  Situation.  The  widespread  preva- 
lence of  agrarian  unrest  and  the  peasants'  pas- 
sion for  land  had  been  potent  factors  in  the  sub- 
version of  the  old  regime.  Approximately  85 
per  cent  of  the  population  of  Russia  was  classed 
as  rural,  and  the  problem  of  adjusting  the 
theories  of  the  revolution  to  meet  the  interests 
of  this  great  class  was  a  source  of  much  concern 
to  the  Soviet  authorities.  The  land  expropri- 
ation and  redistribution  which  accompanied  the 
Bolshevist  coup  d'elat  augmented  the  total  land 
holdings  of  the  peasantry  from  70  per  cent  of 
the  total  cultivated  acreage  to  96  per  cent  in 
European  Russia  proper  and  from  55  per  cent 
to  96  per  cent  in  the  Ukraine.  In  this  process, 
not  only  were  virtually  all  the  large  landed 
estates  wiped  out,  but  larger  peasant  holdings 
disappeared  as  well,  so  that  eventually  small 
farms  of  less  than  22  acres  comprised  90  per 
cent  of  the  total.  The  basic  principle  of  the 
law  of  February,  1918,  was  the  abolition  of  all 
private  ownership  of  noil ;  all  land  was  to  be  dis- 
tributed on  the  basis  of  an  "equalized  land 
tenure"  to  individuals  for  cultivation.  The  in- 
dividual holder  became  virtually  an  employee 
of  the  state;  the  produce,  after  a  deduction  of 
enough  to  meet  his  current  requirements,  be- 
came the  property  of  the  state.  The  great  mass 
of  peasants  failed  entirely  to  comprehend  that 
this  law  confiscated  their  land  as  well  as  that 
of  the  erstwhile  privileged  classes.  Conflicts  be- 
tween peasants  and  former  urban  workers  and 
others  who  desired  to  benefit  by  the  new  policy 
led  to  a  restatement  of  the  land  policy  in  a  new 
law  (February,  1919)  which  while  not  prohib- 
iting individual  farmers  declared  definitely  in 
favor  of  "large  Soviet  estates,  rural  communes, 
group  agriculture,  and  all  other  forms  of  col- 
lective use  of  land,'*  and  stated  that  ''all  forms 
of  individual  use  of  the  land"  were  "merely 
temporary  and  doomed  to  disappearance." 

In  the  years  following  the  land-socialization 
policy  there  was  a  marked  decrease  in  the  area 
under  cultivation.  This  and  other  circum- 
stances, notably  crop  failures,  forced  the  gov- 
ernment to  take  two  highly  important  steps  in 
the  reversal  of  that  policy.  First,  in  the  spring 
of  1921,  the  principle  that  the  entire  produce  of 
the  farmer  belonged  to  the  state  was  virtually 
abandoned.  All  peasants  who  paid  a  fixed  tax 
in  kind  were  given  the  right  to  dispose  of  any 
surplus  as  they  pleased  In  the  second  place, 
in  the  spring  of  1921  the  fundamental  law  of 
land  possession  was  completely  revised.  While 
it  reiterated  the  basic  principle  that  "the  land 
belongs  to  the  state"  and  repeated  the  prohi- 
bition against  the  purchase,  sale,  and  mortgage 
of  land,  it  completely  abandoned  the  idea  that 
"all  forms  of  individual  use  of  the  land  should 
be  regarded  as  merely  temporary  and  doomed 
to  disappearance."  The  peasants  were  given  not 
the  technical  ownership  but  the  actual  posses- 
sion of  the  land.  The  old  village  communities 
were  allowed  to  continue  their  practice  of  per- 
manent group  possession  with  periodical  repar- 
tition to  members  for  actual  use,  but  at  the 


BTJSSIA 


Sri* 


BTJBSIA 


tame  time  the  individual  peasant  family  was 
to  be  permitted  to  break  away  from  these  com- 
munities and  to  acquire  direct  possession,  per- 
petual and  hereditary.  The  new  law  was  thus 
almost  identical  in  principle  with  Stolypin's 
agrarian  measures  of  1007  and  1010.  In  short, 
it  was  a  distinct  recognition  of  the  individual- 
istic tendencies  of  the  mass  of  the  peasants, 
coupled  with  a  continued  attempt  .to  guard 
against  any  return  to  economic  inequality  in 
land  possession.  A  new  system  of  graduated 
land  taxation  helped  toward  the  same  end  of 
maintaining  social  equilibrium.  Agriculture 
constituted  the  one  line  of  production  in  Russia 
where  human  enterprise  was  practically  unaf- 
fected by  the  communist  regime  from  the  start, 
and  where,  given  more  freedom  and  opportunity 
to  dispose  of  their  output  and  to  export  surplus 
grain,  the  peasantry  might  conceivably  attain 
greater  prosperity  than  ever  before,  thus  poten- 
tially raising  the  general  level  of  national  pros- 
perity. By  15)23  Russian  agricultural  produc- 
tion aggregated  75  per  cent  of  the  pre-war  av- 
erage. 

Industrial  Situation.  Industrially,  Russia  in 
1017  had  been  severely  strained  by  the  War. 
The  breakdown  of  the  railways  and  shipping  of 
the  transportation  system  not  only  interrupted 
trade  and  deprived  the  peasants  of  implements 
and  supplies  but  prevented  the  shipping  of  food- 
stuffs to  the  industrial  cities.  Here,  the  expro- 
priation of  factory  owners  and  the  prohibition 
of  trade  completely  dislocated  the  normal  eco- 
nomic relations  of  society,  for  the  workmen 
proved  too  ignorant  to  operate  the  great  in- 
dustries without  technical  assistance.  "Indus- 
trial production  dropped  to  the  lowest  ebb,  due 
to  the  system  of  management  by  workmen's  com- 
mittees, lack  of  incentive  for  human  endeavor, 
the  scheme  of  universal  state  maintenance  of  the 
working  classes,  equalization  of  all  working  per- 
sonnel, irrespective  of  the  degree  of  responsi- 
bility or  nature  of  work  performed."  Various 
measures  for  stimulating  production  by  all  kinds 
of  premiums  and  penalties  were  utilized  and  dis- 
carded in  turn.  The  dwindling  of  available  re- 
serves of  materials  and  productive  equipment  to 
serious  proportions  and  the  menacing  dimi- 
nution of  agricultural  acreage  noted  above 
threatened  the  proletariat  with  starvation,  and 
menacing  strikes  occurred  in  Petrograd,  Mos- 
cow, and  other  cities  during  the  winter  of  1020- 
21.  The  Soviet  government  was  compelled  to 
modify  the  application  of  its  communistic  poli- 
cies. Technical  experts  and  managers  were  re- 
stored to  their  positions  at  relatively  high 
salaries.  Trading  in  commodities,  at  first  pro- 
hibited, then  winked  at,  became  openly  tolerated 
and  was  finally  legalized  in  May,  1021. 

The  "flew  Economic  Policy."  On  April  7  of 
the  same  year  the  original  plan  of  complete 
state  confiscation  of  all  industrial  products  was 
modified  to  permit  industrial  enterprises  to  al- 
locate a  certain  portion  of  their  output  to  work- 
men as  wages  and  premiums,  the  workmen  in 
turn  being  free  to  dispose  of  these  products  in 
the  open  market.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  so-called  "New  Economic  Policy"  (N.E.P.), 
characterized  by  Lenine  as  a  "strategic  retreat," 
which  marked  the  gradual  abandonment  of  com- 
munism through  the  successive  phases  of  col- 
lectivism and  state  socialism  to  a  system  of 
quasi  state  capitalism.  Under  the  new  system 
nearly  all  the  basic  industries  were  organized 
into  self-governing  trusts  and  syndicates,  ac- 


countable to  the  state  for  only  part  of  their 
current  profits.  Private  initiative  was  admitted 
by  leases  of  less  essential  enterprises  and  by  con- 
cessions and  participation  in  mixed  companies, 
in  which,  however,  the  controlling  interest  wai 
to  be  held  by  the  state.  The  principal  banks 
continued  under  government  control,  and  foreign 
trade  remained  a  government  monopoly.  Labor 
armies  and  compulsory  labor  in  general  were 
abolished,  as  well  as  all  forms  of  rationing. 
The  ordinary  system  of  employment  and  wage- 
earning  was  restored,  with  the  interference  of 
trade  union  and  factory  committees  in  the  man- 
agement of  works  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Two 
contrary  developments  manifested  themselves 
after  the  inception  of  the  new  economic  policy: 
(1)  the  continued  process  of  exhausting  the 
means  of  production;  and  (2)  the  improvement 
in  the  organization  of  industrial  processes  and 
of  exchange.  By  1922  Russian  industry  reached 
22  per  cent  of  pre-war  production,  a  meatuirahle 
increase  over  previous  years;  in  1923  the  figure 
had  increased  to  35  per  cent,  and  in  1924  to 
45  per  cent. 

The  new  departure  in  internal  policy,  coupled 
with  the  cessation  of  foreign  war  (see  below), 
seemed  to  prefigure  a  brighter  future  for  Rus- 
sia. The  disastrous  effects  of  the  famine  of 
1021  were  dissipated  in  succeeding  years  by 
more  favorable  crops.  Industry  seemed  to  be  re- 
viving, and  trade  was  resumed  with  various 
foreign  countries.  But  the  new  order  of  things, 
frankly  advocated  by  Lenine  and  the  more  mod- 
erate associates,  was  vigorously  assailed  by  the 
Communists  of  the  extreme  left  wing,  and  there 
was  considerable  dissension  in  party  councils. 
The  personality,  intellect,  and  will-power  of 
Lenine  overbore  all  opposition,  and  even  during 
his  prolonged  illness  during  1922  and  1923  his 
policies  prevailed.  The  death  of  Lenine  on  Jan. 
21,  1924,  was  followed  by  a  pronounced  change 
in  governmental  policy.  His  successor,  Rykov, 
inclined  in  the  direction  of  extreme  communism, 
and  during  the  spring  of  1924  steps  were  taken 
toward  abandonment  of  the  compromise  with 
capitalism  which  had  been  made  during  1921 
and  1922  and  the  reintroduetion  of  pure  com- 
munism. This  swing  back  to  the  extreme  left 
occasioned  no  small  confusion  in  the  ranks  of 
the  Communist  party.  Even  before  Lenine's 
death,  his  lieutenant  Trotsky  had  broken  lances 
with  the  extremists  and  fallen  under  censure ; 
and  after  the  overshadowing  figure  of  Lenine 
had  passed  away,  factional  strife  l>ecame  ex- 
ceedingly violent.  The  yean  from  1922  to  1924 
were  also  marked  by  bitter  religious  controver- 
sies, over  religious  teaching  in  the  schools,  the 
confiscation  of  church  property,  the  attempts  of 
the  government  to  encourage  the  "Living 
Church"  movement,  and  the  trials  and  execu- 
tions of  various  prominent  prelates,  both  Rus- 
sian Orthodox  and  Roman  Catholic,  on  charges 
of  treason.  There  was  a  marked  tendency,  it 
may  be  remarked  in  this  connection,  toward  the 
abandonment  of  Christianity  on  the  part  of  such 
Bolshevists  as  were  not  Jews,  and  toward  the 
substitution  of  somewhat  bizarre  Communist 
ceremonies  for  the  Christian  ritual  of  baptism 
and  death;  marriage  became  a  civil  contract, 
readily  dissolved  by  mutual  consent,  but  not 
more  than  three  divorces  were  permitted  to  the 
same  person  in  any  one  year. 

Foreign  Policy.  No  less  preoccupying  than 
domestic  affairs  were  the  foreign  relations  of 
Soviet  Russia,  The  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk, 


BU88IA 


1x63 


BT7S8XA 


far  from  ridding  Russia  of  the  Teutonic  "peril," 
proved  a  prelude  to  systematic  and  sustained 
intervention  in  her  internal  affairs  during  1918. 
Such  Russian  economic  resources  as  were  sus- 
ceptible to  German  seizure  were  ruthlessly  ex- 
ploited to  bolster  up  Germany's  war- weakened 
military  and  economic  machinery  then  making 
its  supreme  effort  on  the  western  front.  Sep- 
aratist nationalities  in  Finland,  Esthonia,  Lat- 
via, Lithuania,  Poland,  and  the  Ukraine  eman- 
cipated from  Russian  control  by  the  Treaty  of 
Brest-Li  tovsk  were  encouraged  to  set  up  anti- 
Bolshevist  governments  under  German  surveil- 
lance and  serai  suzerainty.  In  order  to  prevent 
too  active  Bolshevist  propaganda  in  Central  Eu- 
rope, financial  and  military  support  was  ex- 
tended to  Russian  counterrevolutionary  leaders. 
Only  the  complete  collapse  of  the  Central  Eu- 
ropean coalition  in  October  and  November,  1918, 
saved  Russia  from  even  more  far-reaching  Teu- 
tonic domination. 

The  defection  of  Russia  from  the  Allied  cause 
had  proved  a  staggering  blow  to  the  Entente, 
and  the  course  of  the  Bolshevist  leaders  was 
naturally  resented  by  the  governments  of  France, 
Great  Britain,  Italy,  Japan,  and  the  United 
States.  The  revelatior  of  the  secret  treaties, 
the  negotiation  of  a  separate  peace,  the  repudi- 
ation of  Russia's  immense  foreign  indebtedness, 
the  inauguration  of  a  communistic  regime  with- 
in Russsia  with  its  attendant  nationalization  of 
property  and  inevitable  reign  of  terror,  all  taken 
in  conjunction  with  the  apprehension  aroused  by 
the  openly  avowed  Bolshevist  ambition  to  effect 
a  world-u  ide  social  revolution,  infuriated  Allied 
public  opinion  against  Russia.  In  March,  1918, 
Allied  intervention  in  Russia  began  in  earnest, 
ostensibly  to  revive  the  eastern  military  front 
and  to  prevent  German  recuperation  at  Rus- 
sian expense,  but  also  with  the  ulterior  purpose 
of  setting  limits  to  the  subversive  activities  of 
the  Bolshevists  and  of  striking  anticapitalist 
communism  in  its  very  stronghold  A  rigorous 
economic  blockade  was  established  around  the 
orst  while  Allied  country,  and  expeditionary 
forces  were  landed  at  Murmansk  in  northern 
European  Russia  and  at  Vladivostok  on  the  dis- 
tant Pacific  coast  Truly  the  year  1918  was  a 
period  of  terror  and  turmoil  for  all  Russians. 
Even  with  the  triumph  of  Allied  arms  in  the 
War,  intervention  in  Russia  did  not  cease. 
"The  Allies  occupied  northern  Russia,  the 
Crimea,  and  most  of  Siberia;  members  of  the 
dissolved  National  Constituent  Assembly,  with 
a  following  of  Social  Revolutionaries,  Constitu- 
tional Democrats  and  some  reactionaries,  set  up 
at  Omsk  an  anti-15olshe>ist  government  which 
claimed  to  be  the  legal  successor  to  Keren  sky's 
provisional  government;  and  certain  leaction- 
ary  Russian  army  officers  such  as  Generals 
Denikin  and  Wrangel  in  southern  Russia,  or 
General  Yudenitch,  in  the  Baltic  area,  rallied 
Ukrainians,  Cossacks,  and  adventurers  to  their 
standards,  and  with  Allied  support,  undertook 
military  campaigns  against  the  Bolshevists." 

In  the  spring  of  1919  the  Paris  Peace  Con- 
ference, profoundly  disturbed  by  the  spread  of 
Bolshevism  and  its  seeming  menace  to  western 
society,  endeavored  to  find  some  solution  of  the 
Russian  imbroglio,  but  no  settlement  could  be  at- 
tained (see  PEACE  CONFERENCE  AND  TREATIES). 
Following  the  breakdown  of  these  negotiations, 
the  Allied  governments  reverted  to  the  policy  of 
supporting  the  various  counterrevolutionary 
factions  which  in  conjunction  with  the  Allied 


expeditionary  forces  hemmed  in  and  harassed 
Soviet  Russia  from  all  sides.  Chaos  reigned  in 
eastern  Europe  throughout  1919,  but  in  the 
course  of  time  the  Bolshevist  government  man- 
aged both  to  ward  off  foreign  intervention  and 
to  suppress  domestic  revolts.  The  counter- 
revolutionists  quarreled  among  themselves;  the 
Russian  proletariat  and  peasantry  feared  the 
triumph  of  reactionary  royal  ism  and  the  undo- 
ing of  "hard-won  social  and  economic  reforms; 
the  spirit  of  nationalism  impelled  large  numbers 
of  non-Bolshevik  Russians  to  cooperate  in  resist- 
ing foreign  aggression;  and  finally  the  Allied 
governments  had  far  too  divergent  interests  and 
were  far  too  exhausted  by  the  long-continued 
strain  of  war  to  be  able  or  willing  to  unite  in  a 
vigorous  policy  of  coercion  The  Allied  ex- 
peditionary forces  were  withdrawn  from  north- 
ern Russia  in  the  autumn  of  1919  and,  in  the 
spring  of  1920,  from  Siberia,  except  Vladivostok, 
which  remained  temporarily  under  Japanese  con- 
trol. The  various  border  states,  Poland,  Fin- 
land, Lithuania,  Latvia,  and  Esthonia,  were  still 
encouraged  to  wage  incessant  warfare  with  Rus- 
sia and  were  utilized  from  time  to  time  as  bases 
for  fomenting  and  launching  additional  counter- 
revolutionary movements  But  with  the  with- 
drawal of  active  Allied  military  opposition  the 
Bolshevist  armies  were  enabled  to  deal  more  ef- 
fectively with  these  lesser  opponents.  Yuden- 
itch was  driven  out  of  the  Baltic  area;  Denikin 
was  expelled  from  southern  Russia  and  forced 
to  take  refuge  in  Constantinople;  Admiral  Kol- 
chak,  temporarily  victorious  in  extending  his 
anti-Bolshevist  dictatorship  from  Siberia  into 
eastern  European  Russia  during  1919.  sus- 
tained serious  reverses  in  battle,  was  captured 
by  the  Bolshevists,  and  was  executed  in  Febru- 
ary, 1920. 

The  French,  however,  continued  throughout 
1920  to  make  trouble  for  Russia  and  incited  the 
Poles  to  wage  aggressive  war  (see  POLAND)  with 
the  aid  of  the  Ukrainians,  and  aided  and  abetted 
the  counterrevolution ist  General  Wrangel,  Deni- 
kin's  successor  in  southern  Russia  It  was  of  no 
avail.  On  Oct.  1,  1919,  Esthonia,  Latvia, 
Lithuania,  and  Finland  had  united  in  pro- 
posing the  negotiation  of  peace  with  Russia, 
and  during  the  next  year  treaties  were  made  be- 
tween these  states  and  the  Bolshevist  govern- 
ment. On  Feb  2,  1920,  Russia  and  Esthonia 
signed  the  Treaty  of  Dorpat  providing  for  Es- 
thonian  independence  and  for  reciprocal  com- 
mercial advantages.  By  the  Treaty  of  Moscow, 
July  12,  1920.  the  independence  of  Lithuania 
was  recognized.  War  with  Latvia  was  termi- 
nated by  the  Treaty  of  Riga,  Aug.  1,  1920,  bv 
which  Russia  acknowledged  the  independence  of 
Latvia  and  her  sovereignty  over  Livonia,  Cour- 
land,  and  Latgallia.  Finland,  long  oppressed  by 
the  Czars,  signed  a  peace  at  Dorpat  on  Oct.  24, 
1920.  by  which  her  independence  .was  confirmed, 
boundaries  adjusted  to  include  the  district  of 
Petchenga  in  the  north,  and  portions  of  Eastern 
Karelia  assigned  to  Russia.  Russia  also  en- 
deavored to  come  to  terms  with  the  Poles,  but 
it  was  not  until  after  a  series  of  defeats  and 
victories  on  both  sides  resulted  in  a  stalemate 
an1  the  Treaty  of  Riga  (Oct.  12,  1920,  confirmed 
in  final  form,  Mar.  18,  1921)  that  a  settlement 
was  finally  achieved,  stipulating  Polish  inde- 
pendence and  the  rectification  of  the  eastern 
boundary  of  Poland  (q.v.).  Meanwhile  the 
Bolshevists  had  successfully  evicted  General 
Wrangel  from  the  Crimea  and  reconquered  the 


BTJSSIA 


1x64 


BTTSSIA 


Ukraine  (q.v.)  which  was  once  more  attached 
to  Great  Russia  by  a  treaty  signed  Dec.  28, 
1920,  consolidating  the  administration  of  eco- 
nomic and  military  affairs  in  such  fashion  as 
to  leave  the  Soviet  government  of  the  Ukraine 
with  the  merest  shreds  of  independence  in 
foreign  affairs,  agriculture,  education,  and  jus- 
tice. Other  border  peoples,  also,  which  had 
temporarily  broken  away,  were  regained  by  the 
Moscow  commissars,  who  interpreted  their  dog- 
ma of  self-determination  in  such  fashion  as  to 
permit  armed  assistance  to  Red  factions  in 
neighboring  states.  In  the  Caucasian  republics 
of  Azerbaijan  and  Armenia  (qv),  Bed  troops 
helped  to  establish  Soviet  governments  late  in 
the  year  1020,  and  in  the  following  year  Georgia 
(qv.)  was  sovietized  and  united  with  its  two 
neighbors  into  a  Caucasian  federation  under 
Moscow's  protection.  In  Central  Asia,  Russian 
Turkestan  was  brought  under  firm  control,  and 
the  Khanates  of  Khiva  and  Bokhara  were  trans- 
formed into  Soviet  republics  despite  the  efforts 
of  a  brilliant  Turk,  Knver  Pasha,  to  include 
them  in  a  fantastic  Pan-Turanian  state  (see 
PAN-TUEANIAMSM).  Most  of  Siberia  (q.v.), 
after  the  fall  of  Kolchak,  was  reincorporated 
inti  Soviet  Russia,  and  the  short-lived  Far  East- 
ern Republic,  in  the  eastern  extremity  of  Si- 
beria, returned  to  the  fold  in  1022.  The  process 
of  reintegration  culminated  in  the  signature  of  a 
treaty,  Dec.  30,  1022,  providing  for  the  virtual 
federation  of  Soviet  Russia,  Soviet  Ukraine,  the 
Soviet  republics  of  the  Caucasus,  and  the  White 
Russian  Soviet  Republic.  On  the  basis  of  this 
treaty  a  new  constitution  was  promulgated  in 
1923,'  establishing  the  "Alliance"  or  "Union  of 
Socialist  Soviet  Republics/'  (See  Government) 
The  liquidation  of  Russian  imperialistic  in- 
terests in  the  Near,  Middle,  and  Far  East  was 
simultaneously  being  consummated.  At  the  out- 
set the  Bolshevist  doctrinaires  had  eschewed 
imperialism  as  a  phase  of  the  capitalism  they 
sought  to  destroy,  and  true  to  the  tenets  of  their 
creed,  they  had  renounced  the  concessions  and 
privileges  acquired  by  prerevolutionary  Russian 
governments  in  Turkey,  Persia,  Manchuria,  and 
Mongolia.  This  anti-imperialist  policy,  at  first 
manifested  chiefly  in  negative  form,  soon  as- 
sumed the  positive  aspect  of  a  vigorous  and 
widespread  attempt  to  arouse  the  Asiatic  races 
against  Anglo-French  domination  and  "exploi- 
tation." Afghanistan  (q.v.)  was  incited  by 
Bolshevist  propaganda  and  encouraged  by  a  Rus- 
sian alliance  to  make  war  on  the  British  Empire 
and  to  emancipate  itself  from  British  tutelage. 
With  the  Nationalist  government  of  Turkey 
(q.v  ),  the  Moscow  anti-imperialists  likewise  ne- 
gotiated an  alliance  against  European  imperial- 
ism, but  in  this  case  the  interests  of  the  Allies 
were  not  sufficiently  harmonious  to  make  the 
treaty  an  effective  force;  the  divergence  of  aims 
was  seen  mo<*t,  clearly  at  the  Lausanne  Confer- 
ence (see  PLACE  CONFERENCE  AND  TREATIES), 
when  the  Turks  showed  themselves  willing  to 
compromise  with  Western  Europe  regarding  the 
freedom  of  the  Straits,  while  the  Russians, 
anxious  to  exclude  British  and  French  warships 
from  the  Black  Sea,  held  out  for  the  absolute 
closure  of  the  Straits  to  vessels  of  war.  With 
China  (q.v.)  the  Rnsflian  government  after  long 
negotiations  concluded  a  treaty  concerning  rail- 
way interests  in  Manchuria  and  other  disputed 
matters.  The  value  of  such  diplomatic  gestures 
as  means  of  emphasizing  Russia's  self-appointed 
role  of  antagonist  to  European  imperialism  was 


enhanced  by  the  propagandist  activities  of  the 
Third  International,  supposedly  a  federation  of 
Communist  parties  of  ail  countries,  but  actually 
a  propagandist  organization,  officered  by  leading 
members  of  the  Russian  government,  dominated 
by  the  Russsian  Communist  party,  and  adhered 
to  by  only  an  insignificant  minority  of  Socialists 
outside  Russia.  This  organization  directed  its 
inflammatory  agitation  not  only  toward  the  sub- 
ject peoples  of  Asia,  but  also  toward  the  "cap- 
italistic" nations  of  the  West.  The  latter  phase 
of  its  activity  was  particularly  offensive  to  the 
United  States  government,  the  former  to  Great 
Britain. 

The  vigor  shown  by  the  Bolshevik  government 
in  suppressing  counterrevolutionary  movements 
and  in  reintegrating  at  least  part  of  the  old  Rus- 
sian Empire  wrought  a  radical  change  in  the 
attitude  of  the  western  powers  The  Allied 
blockade  had  failed  to  crush  Russia.  Post-war 
Europe  needed  commerce,  and  the  British  in  par- 
ticular were  manifesting  serious  concern  about 
the  necessity  of  restoring  normal  economic  life 
in  Central  and  Eastern  Europe  to  provide 
sources  of  food  and  raw  materials  and  markets 
for  British  manufactured  goods.  They  were  al- 
so anxious  to  diminish  or  eliminate  causes  of 
friction  with  the  Bolshevists  so  as  to  prevent 
trouble  in  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  India. 
These  realistic  considerations  did  not  operate 
with  equal  force  in  the  case  of  France,  Japan, 
and  the  United  States.  The  French,  mindful  of 
the  26,000,000,000-franc  debt  which  the  Bol- 
shevists had  repudiated,  steadfastly  refused  to 
countenance  any  recognition  of  Soviet  Russia. 
The  United  States  firmly  refused  to  recognize 
the  Soviet  government  as  representing  the  Rus- 
sian popular  will.  Japan,  despite  four  amicable 
secret  conventions  negotiated  with  Russia  in 
1900,  1910.  1912,  and  1910,  sought  to  profit  by 
the  temporary  eclipse  of  her  neighbor  to  en- 
hance her  interests  in  Siberia.  On  Jan.  lf>, 
1920,  the  Supreme  Council  at  Paris  announced 
the  lifting  of  the  blockade  around  Russia  and 
the  prospective  ree'stablishment  of  trade  rela- 
tions, although  Allied  statesmen  were  at  ono  in 
emphatically  repudiating  any  desire  or  inten- 
tion of  recognizing  the  Bolshevist  dictator  ship 
During  the  remainder  of  1920  the  British, 
despite  French  opposition  and  the  complications 
resulting  from  the  Russo-Polish  War,  carried  on 
negotiations  for  a  trade  agreement  Questions 
of  propaganda  and  of  Soviet  policy  in  Asia  were 
also  subjects  of  acrimonious  correspondence. 
(See  PERSIA;  AFGHANISTAN;  TURKESTAN;  etc.) 
.Finally,  on  Mar.  16,  1920,  a  trade  agreement 
was  signed,  involving  de  facto  recognition  of 
Russia,  the  removal  of  all  hindrances  to  a  re- 
sumption of  economic  relations,  the  mutual  aban- 
donment of  propaganda  against  the  institutions 
of  the  respective  signatories,  etc.  On  this  agree- 
ment as  a  prototype  were  modeled  numerous 
agreements  with  other  countries  from  1921  to 
1924.  Germany  signed  an  agreement  on  May  6, 
1921;  Norway,  Sept  2,  1921;  Austria,  Dec.  7, 
1921;  Sweden,  Mar.  9,  1922  (failed  of  ratifica- 
tion) ;  Italy,  May  29,  1922  (also  failed  of  ratifi- 
cation) ;  Czechoslovakia,  June  5,  1922;  and 
Denmark,  Apr.  24,  1923. 

The  problem  of  Russia  proved  the  storm 
centre  at  the  important  Genoa  Conference  (Apr. 
10-May  14,  1922).  Russia  desired  complete 
recognition  and  an  Allied  loan,  but  the  French 
continued  to  insist  that  Russia  should  respect 
the  rights  of  private  property  and  recognize  her 


RUSSIAN  LITERATURE 


1x65 


RUSSIAN  LITERATURE 


past  debts.  The  sole  tangible  result  of  the  con- 
ference was  the  signing  of  the  Russo-German 
Treaty  of  Rapallo,  providing  for  mutual  cancella- 
tion of  debts  and  war  claims,  which  still  fur- 
ther infuriated  the  French.  The  year  following 
Genoa  saw  little  headway  made  in  the  reac- 
ceptance  of  Russia  into  the  family  of  nations, 
but  late  in  1023  and  early  in  1924  its  prospects 
visibly  brightened.  De  jure  recognition  was 
gained  from  Poland  in  December,  1923;  from  tho 
Labor  government  of  Mardonald  in  Groat  Brit- 
ain, Feb  1,  1924;  from  Austria,  Norway,  and 
Italy  in  February;  and  from  Sweden  and  Greece 
in  March.  Other  countries  seemed  ready  to  fol- 
low their  example.  The  Jugo-Slav  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  announced  in  July  that  he  fa- 
vored recognition  of  Russia  but  could  not  toler- 
ate Communist  propaganda.  Rumania  was  "the- 
oretically" ready  to  grant  recognition  but  could 
hardly  do  so  in  prat-tire  as  long  as  Russia  re- 
fused to  acquiesce  in  the  Rumanian  annexation 
of  Bessarabia  (qv.).  Even  France,  hitherto 
the  most  irreconcilable  antagonist  of  Soviet  Rus- 
sia, announced  in  June,  1024,  through  the  Rad- 
ical Socialist  premier,  Edouard  Herriot,  a  readi- 
ness to  negotiate  regarding  terms  of  recognition 
but  did  not  follow  the  announcement  with  over- 
tures to  Moscow,  possibly  because  of  the  recru- 
descence of  extreme  Communism  in  Russia  Jap- 
anese negotiations  with  Karakhan,  the  Soviet 
envoy,  weie  complicated  by  Russia's  demand  for 
the  retuin  of  northern  Sakhalin  (qv)  and 
Japan's  insistence  on  prior  claims  to  the  oil  re- 
sources of  the  region.  V  ery  significant  as  an  in- 
dication of  possible  future  relationships  between 
Russia  and  the  western  powers  were  the  agree- 
ments signed  at  London  on  Aug.  8,  1924,  after 
somewhat  aciimomous  discussions  between  So- 
\iet  representatives  and  the  Macdonald  govern- 
ment: while  maintaining  in  principle  its  decree 
of  January,  ]J)18,  repudiating  foreign  debts,  the 
Russian  government  recognized  the  claims  of 
liritish  bondholders  to  such  limited  satisfaction 
as  circumstances  permitted,  and  agreed  also  to  a 
plan  for  the  compensation  of  British  nationals 
whose  property  had  been  confiscated  by  Com- 
munist deciees  See  the  articles  on  FINLAND; 
ESIHONIA,  LATVIA;  POLAND;  ARMENIA;  A/KR- 
BAIJAN;  GFOKGIA;  BOKHARA;  TURKESTAN,  RUS- 
SIAN; KHIVA:  SlBFRIA  AND  FAR  EASTERN  RE- 
PUBLIC; CJIIN\:  JAPAN;  WRANGELL  ISLAND; 
NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD;  WAR,  PIPIOMACY  OF 
ri  HE. 

RUSSIAN  LITERATURE.  Russian  litera- 
ture was  in  an  unfortunate  condition  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  War.  The  neoromantic  school 
was  declining  and  the  new  tendencies  were  not 
>et  clear.  The  V\ar  had  little  effect  upon  liter- 
ature. Many  of  the  authors,  as  Sologub  and 
Chirikov,  wrote  on  the  War,  but  Andreyev  alone, 
with  his  play  translated  as  The  borrow*  of  Bcl- 
(jium,  rose  above  mediocrity  Many  of  the 
books  written  during  these  years,  as  Sergyeye>- 
Tsensky's  The  Oblique  Helena,  did  not  even  touch 
the  War  and  all  too  many  of  the  authors  sym- 
pathized with  the  defeatists. 

With  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  in  1017 
and  the  assumption  of  power  by  the  Bolshexiks, 
a  sharp  break  came  in  Russian  literature 
Most  of  the  better-known  authors,  especially 
those  who  carried  on  the  tradition  of  Chekhov, 
fled  abroad,  like  Kuprin.  They  continued  pub- 
lishing, but  very  little  of  this  Emigre*  literature 
could  hope  to  survive.  The  greatest  of  these 
works  is  the  Road  to  Cqfvary  by  Count  Alexis 


N.  Tolstoy.  This  is  intended  to  be  the  first  part 
of  a  trilogy  and  gives  vivid  pictures  of  the 
confusion  in  Petrograd  during  the  War.  The 
history  of  the  period  is  resumed  in  Ataman 
Krasnov's  From  the  Two-Headed  Eagle  to  the 
Bolsheviks,  a  typical  "White"  novel  which  sets 
forth  in  glaring  colors  the  sins  and  crimes  of  the 
Bolsheviks.  We  may  mention  here  also  Merezh- 
kovsky  who  preaches  that  the  Bolsheviks  are 
Antichrist  (The  Kingdom  of  Antichrist),  and 
Andre"ev  who  died  in  Helsingfors  after  writ- 
ing 8.O  8.,  a  brilliant  journalistic  attack  on  the 
Allied  leaders  for  seeking  terms  of  peace  with 
the  Bolsheviks  Others  of  his  woiks,  as  Tie  W*ho 
Gets  Slapped,  do  not  touch  the  War  and  this 
is  true  of  much  of  this  cmiarr  literature.  The 
authors  look  back  with  longing  and  approval  on 
the  old  world  which  came  to  such  a  rude  and 
sudden  ending. 

Within  Russia,  conditions  became  steadily 
worse  and  the  excesses  of  the  communistic  lead- 
ers toward  the  educated  classes  of  the  commu- 
nity drove  author  after  author  abroad  or  so 
weakened  others  that  they  fell  an  easy  prey  to 
disease.  Thus  Alexander  Blok  died  in  1920*  but 
to  him  we  owe  the  greatest  poems  of  the  War. 
"The  Twelve"  describes  the  progress  of  a  revo- 
lutionary patrol  through  the  streets  of  Petro- 
grad on  a  stormy  night  and  as  they  pass  along 
they  are  led  invisibly  by  Christ  who  marches 
ahead  without  regard  to  the  firing  and  the  shots. 
The  meter  and  the  treatment  sum  up  all  of 
Blok's  earlier  work  and  the  poem  remains  as  the 
best  representation  of  the  spirit  of  the  revolu- 
tion. "The  Scythians"  is  a  challenge  to  west- 
ern Europe  and  boasts  of  the  great  gulf  that 
separates  Russia  from  Europe  and  makes  her  a 
real  intermediary  between  Europe  and  the  Mon- 
gols. 

With  the  exception  of  these  works,  little  of 
value  was  produced.  The  same  tendencies  which 
had  reigned  before  continued.  There  was  the 
search  for  God  of  the  followers  of  the  philos- 
opher Solovycv,  often  expressed  in  forms  that 
seem  little  short  of  blasphemous,  as  Byely'a 
"Christ  Is  Arisen."  The  extension  of  the  Third 
International  into  Asia  and  the  tendencies  of 
the  Scythians  are  reflected  in  poems  hy  Maricn- 
hof  and  Oryeshin,  who  boast  &i  the  new  day 
when  Asia  can  be  matched  with  a  weakened 
and  decaying  Europe.  Theie  is,  of  course,  an 
infinite  amount  of  verse,  mostly  of  inferior  qual- 
ity, glorifying  the  Bolshevik  regime  and  shout- 
ing out  defiance  to  capitalism  In  the  begin- 
ning the  futuiists  were  faxorcd  by  the  govern- 
ment and  \7ladiinir  Mavakovsky,  with  his 
masque  on  the  conquest  of  heaven  by  the  com- 
munists, became  almost  the  official  poet  of  the 
government,  but  he  lost  his  influence  and  the 
growing  stabilization  of  conditions  moderated 
the  tone  of  the  more  violent  writers  Among 
the  writeis  of  real  merit,  Anna  Akhmatova  prob- 
ably ranks  first.  A  quiet  singer  of  love,  she  is 
drowned  in  the  storms  of  lesser  authors  who 
compose  the  fifteen-odd  schools  of  poets  who 
contend  in  the  name  of  art  for  supremacy. 
Others  of  note  are  Yesenin,  the  peasant  husband 
of  Isadora  Duncan ;  Vyacheslav  Ivanov,  who  con- 
tinues his  cult  of  the  dying  god  undisturbed  by 
the  storms  and  tumults  of  the  age;  Pasternak, 
Erenburg  and  Mary  a  Tscvtayeva. 

The  period  was  not  so  propitious  for  prose. 
Gorky  was  drawn  into  the  service  of  the  Soviet 
government  and  strove  to  help  and  support 
those  intellectuals  who  remained  in  Russia. 


RUSSIAN  SOVIET  REPUBLIC 


zt66 


RYXOV 


Valery  Bryusov,  more  classical  than  ever,  de- 
voted himself  to  a  scientific  study  of  Pushkin 
and  Russian  verse.  Much  attention  was  given 
to  the  discovery  of  hitherto  unpublished  works 
of  older  authors.  Several  fragments  of  Dosto- 
yevsky  were  discovered  but  they  do  not  seem 
to  have  added  as  much  as  had  been  expected  to 
our  knowledge  of  his  works. 

Poetry  had  the  preeminence  over  prose,  al- 
though during  the  last  years  a  new  school  of 
prose  writers  developed,  largely  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Zamyatin.  Among  his  followers  we 
may  mention  the  group  known  as  the  Serapion 
brothers,  the  chief  of  which  is  Nikolay  Nikitin, 
and  Zoshchenko.  The  stories  are  vivid  and  bru- 
tal and  they  lack  the  excessive  stress  on  psy- 
chology which  is  characteristic  of  the  pre-war 
literature.  Other  prose  authors  are  Lebedin- 
sky  (The  Week),  and  Pilnyak  (The  Hungry 
Year). 

No  summary  of  the  literary  world  of  Russia 
would  be  complete  without  mention  of  the  Rus- 
sian theatre.  Despite  almost  insuperable  ob- 
stacles the  Moscow  Art  Theatre  (see  THEATBE) 
was  held  together  and  even  greater  progress 
was  made  in  the  developing  of  its  art.  Never- 
theless, the  actual  production  of  plays  fell  be- 
hind the  art  of  staging  and  the  greater  amount 
of  attention  was  given  to  novel  and  effective 
renderings  of  many  of  the  great  plays  of  all  ages 
and  of  all  languages.  In  the  winter  season  of 
1022-23.  a  lar^e  part  of  the  company  under 
Stanislavsky  made  an  extended  tour  through  Eu- 
rope and  America.  This  extension  of  the  Rus- 
sian dramatic  art  and  technic  throughout  the 
world  was  undoubtedly  one  of  the  great  results 
of  the  revolution. 

Russian  literature  showed  a  vitality  which  al- 
lowed it  to  survive  conditions  which  over- 
whelmed all  other  parts  of  the  national  life. 
Not  only  did  the  fears  of  those  who  thought 
that  it  was  doomed  to  perish  prove  needless  but 
at  the  close  of  this  period  the  literature, 
changed  and  transfigured,  was  very  clearly 
starting  again  on  a  new  era. 

RUSSIAN  SOCIALIST  FEDERATED 
SOVIET  REPUBLIC.  See  RUSSIA. 

RUSSO-POLISH  WAR.    See  VILNA. 

RtTST  OF  "\5fHEAT.     See  PLANTS,  DISEASES 

OF. 

RUTGERS  COLLEGE.  A  nonsectarian  in- 
stitution at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  founded  in 
1766.  The  student  enrollment  in  1914  was  440 
undergraduates  in  the  fall  term  and  450  in  the 
summer  session,  as  compared  with  enrollment 
in  1923-24  of  743  undergraduates  and  830  in 
the  summer  session  of  1923.  The  trustees  in 
1918  established  the  New  Jersey  College  for 
Women  as  an  affiliated  institution,  not  coedu- 
cational; in  1023-24,  it  had  419  undergraduates. 
The  faculty  of  Rutgers  College  increased  from 
65  to  115  members  and  the  library  from  76,643 
to  123,000  volumes.  In  1916,  the  college  cele- 
brated the  one  hundred  and  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  its  foundation  in  1766  as  Queen's  College  by 
charter  from  George  III.  Additional  endow- 
ment was  secured  and  in  1919-20  a  million 
dollar  campaign  was  carried  to  completion. 
The  John  Howard  Ford  Dormitory  was  built  and 
furnished  in  1914.  A  ceramics  building  and  sev- 
eral buildings  for  the  agricultural  college  were 
erected.  The  State  College  for  the  Benefit  of 
Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  maintained 
by  the  trustees  of  Rutgers  College,  was  desig- 
nated by  the  Legislature  the  State  University 


of  New  Jersey  in  1917.    President,  William  H. 
S.  Demarest,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

RUTH,  GEORGE  HERMAN  (1894-  ).  Pro- 
fessional baseball  player,  known  to  all  fan- 
dom  as  the  "Babe,"  born  at  Baltimore,  Md. 
He  joined  the  Baltimore  International  League 
Club  in  1914  and  was  sold  to  the  Boston  Club 
of  the  American  League  in  1915.  He  was 
bought  by  the  New  York  American  League  Club 
in  1920  for  $150,000,  the  largest  sum  ever  paid 
for  a  ball  player.  As  a  member  of  the 
'•Yankees"  he  established  a  world's  record  by 
knocking  out  fifty-nine  home  runs  during  the 
season  of  1921  and  for  his  all-around  work  in 
1923  was  voted  the  most  valuable  player  in  the 
American  League. 

RUTHENIA.  See  CZECHOSLOVAKIA  ;  GALI- 
CIA,  EAST. 

RUTHENIANS.  See  BUKOVINA;  GALICIA; 
UKRAINE. 

RUTHVEN,  ALEXANDER  GRANT  (1882-  ). 
An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Hull,  Iowa,  and 
educated  at  Morningside  College  and  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan.  He  was  instructor  in  zo- 
ology and  curator  of  the  museum  (1W)G-12), 
and  professor  of  zoology  and  director  of  the 
museum  (1912-  )  at  Michigan.  His  publica- 
tions were  on  the  reptilia,  and  he  col  Liberated 
with  Schull  and  La  Rue  in  Principles  of  Animal 
Biology  (1920). 

RYAN,  HARRIS  JOSEPH  (1866-  ).  An 
American  electrical  engineer,  born  at  Powell's 
Valley,  Pa.,  and  educated  at  Cornell  Univeisit\. 
He  became  an  instructor  in  physics  at  that  uni- 
versity in  1888  and  a  year  later  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  electrical  engineering:  this  chair  he 
held  until  1905,  when  he  accepted  a  call  to  a 
similar  professorship  at  Stanford  University. 
During  the  War  he  was  director  of  the  anti- 
submarine laboratory  of  the  National  Research 
Council  at  Pasadena,  Cal.  He  gave  much  atten- 
tion to  methods  for  electrical  engineer  ing  tests 
and  measurement;  the  laws  governing  relation 
of  size  and  separation  of  conduction ;  and  electric 
pressure  at  which  corona  and  powei  waste  ap- 
pear in  high-pressure  power  transmission  lines. 
Professor  Kyan  was  a  member  of  the  .Jury  of 
Awards  at  the  World's  Fair  held  in  Chicago  in 
1893  and  at  that  held  in  San  Francisco  in  1915 
In  addition  to  many  papers  and  monographs  on 
lectrical  subjects  variously  contributed,  he  wrote 
Textbook  of  Electrical  Machinery  in  collabora- 
tion with  II.  II.  Norris  and  G.  L.  Hoxie. 

RYAN,  JOHN  DENIS  (1864-  ).  An 
American  capitalist,  born  in  Michigan.  He  was 
a  director  and  official  in  ^nany  important  copper 
mining  companies  and  in  1918  was  appointed  di- 
rector of  aircraft  production  by  President  Wil- 
son. In  the  same  year  he  served  as  second  as- 
sistant Secretary  of  War  and  director  of  the  Air 
Service.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the  War 
Council  of  the  American  Red  Cross. 

RYKOV,  ALEXIS  IVANOVITCII  (1881-  ). 
A  Russian  statesman,  born  at  Saratov,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Kazan,  where  he 
studied  engineering.  He  was  many  times  jailed 
for  political  reasons.  In  1903,  while  studying 
his  specialty,  economics,  at  Geneva,  he  met  Len- 
ine,  and  from  that  time  the  two  were  close 
friends.  Rykov  led  the  revolt  of  1905  so  success- 
fully that  he  was  elected  to  the  Central  Com- 
mittee of  the  Social  Democratic  Labor  party. 
In  the  first  Bolshevik  cabinet  he  was  People's 
Commissar  for  the  Interior;  later  he  was  head 
of  the  Supreme  Council  of  National  Economy. 


BYKOV  1167  B.YXOV 

He  was  first  vice  president  of  the  Council  of  order  of  an  issue  of  silver  coins  to  provide  small 

People's  Commissars  of  Russia  and  was  virtu-  change  for  the  peasants  and  the  formulation  of 

ally   premier   during   the   illness  of  Lenine,   on  plans  for  a  better  working  relationship  between 

whose  deatli  he  became  Premier  of  Soviet  Rus-  the   farmers   and    the   industrial    workers.     He 

sia.     Among  his  first  acts  as  premier  was  the  wrote  much  in  the  field  of  economics. 


SAAR    BASIN.     A    region    created    by 
the    Peace    Conference,    contiguous    to 
the    northeast    boundary    of    France. 
Area,  1920  square  kilometers;  popula- 
tion in  1910,  649,500,  in  1919,  589,773, 
of  whom  110,623  were  in  the  town  of 
Saarbrticken.     The  inhabitants  before  1919  were 
entirely  German,  except  for  some  3000  French. 
The  basin,  a  continuation  of  the  great  Lorraine 
coal  field,  was  drawn  to  coincide  with  the  mines 
and  their  dependent  industries,  as  well  as  witli 
the  limits  of  the  coal  deposit      In  1912-13,  coal 
produced   amounted   to    17,473,000   tons    (6   per 
cent  of  the  total  Gorman  output,  though  40  per 
cent  as  great  as  the  total  French )  ;   steel  pro- 
duced, 2,080,000  tons      Glass  and  pottery  works 
came   next   in    importance.     There   were   72,700 
miners  employed,  and  some  50,000  other  indus- 
trial workers.     In   1920,  9,198,714   tons  of  coal 
were  produced,  and  in  1922,   10,943,311  tons;  to 
the  latter  figure  should  be  added  the  296,692  tons 
produced   at   the   privately   owned    Frankenholz 
mine. 

The  final  disposition  of  the  Basin  hinged  on 
the  successful  culmination  of  the  struggle  be- 
tween the  principles  of  annexation  and  lepara- 
tion.  On  the  score  of  historical  and  ethno- 
graphical rights,  French  claims  for  outright  an- 
nexation were  of  course  lamentably  weak,  while 
strategically  there  could  be  no  reason  for  the 
cession  in  the  light  of  the  forced  demilitarization 
of  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine.  But  as  compen- 
sation for  the  willful  destruction  of  French  coal 
mines  at  Lens  and  Valenciennes,  there  was 
every  ground  for  serious  consideration  of  the 
French  position.  The  final  solution,  as  embodied 
in  Articles  45-50  of  the  Treaty,  was  to  turn  over 
to  the  French  in  absolute  ownership  all  the 
coal  deposits  of  the  territory,  the  value  of  the 
mines  to  be  credited  to  the  German  reparation 
account;  give  the  French  the  right  to  improve 
the  existing  systems  of  communication,  or  to 
create  new  ones,  and  to  employ  French  currency ; 
and  incorporate  the  area  in  the  French  cus- 
toms regime  To  avoid  the  indignation  which 
would  have  been  evoked  by  outright  French 
annexation  of  the  territory,  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence made  the  Saar  Basin  a  separate  state,  to  be 
administered  by  an  international  governing 
commission  of  five  members,  representing  the 
League  of  Nations.  These  were  to  be  named 
by  the  League  Council  for  one  year.  The  com- 
mission was  to  have  full  sovereign  rights  in- 
cluding those  of  levying  taxes  and  dues.  Be- 
fore modifications  of  the  law  or  new  taxes,  ex- 
cept customs,  could  be  effected,  the  commission 
had  to  consult  elected  representatives  of  the 
population.  This  was,  however,  to  be  a  tempo- 
rary expedient.  For  the  ultimate  determina- 
tion of  the  Basin's  status,  a  plebiscite  in  15 
years  (1935)  was  provided  for  by  the  Treaty. 
Then,  every  person  over  20  years  who  had  been 
a  resident  in  1919  was  to  have  the  right  to  vote 


1x68 


for  one  of  three  possibilities:  the  international 
status  in  force  at  the  time,  union  with  Franco, 
or  union  with  Germany.  In  the  event  of  the 
reofltablishment  of  German  sovereignty,  the 
mines  were  to  be  repurchased  by  Germany.  (In 
Jan.  10,  1920,  the  League  of  Nations  took  con- 
trol, after  a  period  of  military  occupation;  eight 
days  later,  the  French  took  over  the  mines 
One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  commission  was  the 
extension  of  the  free  customs  union  between 
the  Saar  and  Germany  for  five  years.  In  Juno, 
1922,  elections  took  place  for  members  of  a  con- 
sultative council  which  the  commission  estab- 
lished to  aid  in  the  work  of  administration.  Of 
the  30  members,  16  were  Catholic  Centre,  5 
Right  Socialist,  and  4  Liberal  The  maintenance 
of  French  troops  in  the  Basin  and  the  drastic 
curtailment  of  liberty  of  the  press  by  French 
courts-martial  provoked  bitter  resentment  among 
irreconcilable  elements  of  the  population  and 
evoked  protests  from  liberal  leaders  in  England 
and  the  United  States,  but  on  the  whole  the 
governing  commission  was  far  more  successful 
in  averting  violent  popular  resistance  than 
might  have  been  anticipated,  in  view  of  the 
nationalist  sentiments  of  the  German  popula- 
tion. 

SABATINT,  RAFAEL  (1875-  ).  An  Ital- 
ian author  and  dramatist,  born  at  Jesi,  and 
educated  in  Switzerland  and  Portugal  He 
wrote  many  exciting  highly  colored  romances 
dealing  with  various  critical  periods  of  history. 
Several  of  his  books,  notably  Ncaramouche  and 
The  Rea  Hawk,  were  made  into  highly  success- 
ful motion-picture  plays.  His  writings  include- 
The  Lion* 8  Skin  (1911);  The  Life  of  Cesare 
Borgia,  a  history  (1912);  The  Justice  of  the 
Duke  (1912)  ;  Torquemada  and  the  Spanish  In- 
quisition, a  history  (1913);  The  dates  of 
Doom  (1914);  The  Rea  Hawk  (1915);  The 
Knare  (1017);  Rcaramouche  (1921);  Captain 
Blood  (1922);  Fortune's  Fool  (1923);  Barde- 
lys  the  Magnificent,  with  Hamilton;  The  Fugi- 
tives: The  Rattlesnake  with  J.  E.  Harold 
Terry;  and  Mistress  Wilding  (1924). 

SABOTAGE.  Legislative  action  against 
sabotage  made  its  appearance  in  the  United 
States  in  1917  and  reached  its  crest  in  1919. 
By  that  time  no  less  than  16  States,  Alaska, 
and  Hawaii  had  enacted  such  laws.  The  States 
were  Arizona,  California,  Idaho,  Iowa,  Ken- 
tucky, Michigan,  Minnesota,  Montana,  Nebras- 
ka, North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Oregon, 
South  Dakota,  Utah,  and  Washington.  Most 
of  the  laws  were  aimed  at  "criminal  syn- 
dicalism," which  was  defined  to  include  ad- 
vocacy of  sabotage.  Several  laws  were  more 
specific.  Thus  Arizona  defined  sabotage  as 
willful  and  malicious  injury  to  property,  or  vio- 
lation of  the  constitutional  or  statutory  rights 
of  another,  as  a  means  of  accomplishing  in- 
dustrial or  political  ends.  Nebraska's  defini- 
tion covered  railroad  property,  highway  bridges, 


SAINT  CATHERINE 


zx6g 


SAINT  PAUL 


manufacturing  plants  or  equipment,  or  any  farm 
or  manufactured  product.  Sabotage  was  de- 
fined by  North  Dakota  as  setting  grain  or  food 
products  on  fire  or  poisoning  any  work  or  food 
producing  animal  with  an  intent  to  hinder  or 
lessen  the  food  supply.  Montana  defined  sabo- 
tage as  malicious,  felonious,  intentional,  or  un- 
lawful damage,  injury,  or  destruction  of  prop- 
erty; and  Washington  made  it  a  felony  to  in- 
jure or  derange  property  in  order  to  obstruct 
any  industrial  enterprise,  to  interfere  with  the 
management,  or  to  advocate  such  tactics.  The 
movement  against  "criminal  syndicalism"  and 
sabotage,  apparently  a  product  of  war  psychol- 
ogy* stopped  with  the  legislative  grist  of  1919. 
Only  one  State,  Kentucky,  acted  since;  and  then, 
in  1922,  only  to  make  her  law  less  severe. 

SAINT  CATHEBINE,  COLLEGE  OF.  A  Ro- 
man Catholic  college  for  women  at  St.  Paul, 
Minn.,  founded  in  11)11.  The  board  of  trustees 
was  organized  in  1917.  The  number  of  students 
enrolled  increased  from  61  in  1914  to  413  in 
1924,  the  members  of  the  faculty  from  11  to 
35,  and  the  library  from  6000  to  17,000  volumes. 
The  total  yearly  income  rose  during  the  same 
period  from  $40,000  to  $352,720,  and  the  en- 
dowment from  nothing  to  $376,000.  President, 
Sister  Antonia. 

SAINT  ELIZABETH,  COLLEGE  OF.  A 
Roman  Catholic  college  for  women,  conducted 
by  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  founded  at  Convent 
Station,  N  J.,  in  1899.  The  student  enrollment 
increased  from  91  in  1913-14  to  248  in  1923- 
24 ;  the  faculty  rose  from  22  to  35  members,  and 
the  library  from  9000  to  14,000  volumes.  The 
annual  income  increased  from  $30,700  to  ap- 
proximately $128,000.  There  was  no  endow- 
ment, but  the  Bisters  gave  their  services  with- 
out remuneration.  The  curriculum  was  con- 
siderably enlarged,  with  additional  courses  in 
the  departments  of  English,  history,  music,  home 
economics,  and  sociology,  and  a  course  in  leader- 
ship of  girl  scouts.  Sister  Mary  Pauline  Kel- 
hgar,  LL.D.,  was  president  until  her  death  in 
1923.  Dean,  Sister  Mary  Jose  Byrne,  Ph.D. 

SAINT  GERMAIN,  TREATY  OF.  See  AUS- 
TRIA; PKACE  CONFERENCE  AND  TREATIES. 

SAINT  JEAN  BE  MAURIENNE,  AGREE- 
MENT OF.  See  PEACE  CONFERENCE  AND  TREAT- 
IES; WAR,  DIPLOMACY  OF  THE. 

SAINT  LOUIS.  The  chief  city  of  Missouri 
and  the  sixth  in  population  in  the  United 
States,  with  an  area  of  01.37  square  miles.  The 
population,  which  was  687,029  in  1910,  in- 
creased to  772,897  in  1920,  and  by  estimate  of 
the  Bureau  of  Census  (July  1,  1924)  to  812,698. 
In  February,  1923,  the  city,  by  a  vote  of  the 
people,  authorized  an  issue  of  bonds  for  the 
amount  of  $87,372,600  for  a  large  number  of 
public  improvements.  Of  the  total  amount  of 
bonds  voted  for,  $12,000,000  was  for  a  new 
waterworks  plant,  16  miles  west  from  the  city 
limits,  on  the  Missouri  River.  A  reservoir, 
with  a  capacity  of  200,000,000  gallons,  was  to  be 
constructed  at  the  highest  point  in  St.  Louis 
County.  Another  great  project,  the  largest 
under  the  bond  issue  proper,  was  the  construc- 
tion of  the  River  des  Peres  sewer  and  channel, 
for  which  $11,000,000  in  bonds  was  voted. 
The  drainage  works  were  to  consist  of  closed 
sewers  from  the  city  limits  west  of  Delmar  sta- 
tion through  Washington  Heights  and  Forest 
Park  to  Manchester  Avenue;  these  sewers  were 
to  carry  both  sewage  and  floods.  It  was  said 
that  these  sewers  would  constitute  the  largest 


completely  closed  drainage  system  on  record. 
St.  Louis  has  many  beautiful  parks.  One, 
Forest  Park,  composed  of  over  1300  acres,  is 
famous  for  its  natural  and  artificial  beauties. 
The  Zoological  Garden  was  started  tinder  an 
ordinance  passed  in  December,  1913.  It  has 
been  supported,  like  the  Art  Museum  and  the 
Public  Library,  by  the  revenue  of  a  mill  tax. 
It  was  governed  by  a  board  of  trustees  from 
August,  1917.  It  is  considered  one  of  the  finest 
in  America.  The  Missouri  Botanical  Garden, 
popularly  called  Shaw's  Garden,  is  widely 
known.  It  contains  135  acres.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  that  connected  with  Harvard  Uni- 
versity, it  is  said  to  be,  in  specimens,  library, 
growing  plants  and  trees,  the  finest  in  the 
world.  The  zoning  ordinance  of  1918,  under 
which  many  plans  were  made  and  much  work 
done  during  a  period  of  six  years  by  the  City 
Plan  Commission,  was  declared  invalid  by  the 
Missouri  Supreme  Court  in  decisions  made 
public  in  October  and  November,  1923.  The 
Court  held  that  under  the  charter  no  such 
police  power  was  given  to  the  city  and  that 
zoning  could  be  undertaken  only  through  em- 
inent domain.  Work  on  the  Major  Street  Plan 
as  adopted  by  the  Commission  in  1910  prog- 
ressed, and  much  of  the  minor  work  had  been 
completed  by  1924.  There  are  four  bridges  over 
the  Mississippi  River,  one  of  which  was  the 
Municipal  Free  Bridge,  the  largest  double-deck 
steel-span  bridge  in  the  world.  The  weight  of 
the  western  approach  is  7,938,446  tons;  channel 
spans,  13,925,600  tons;  eastern  approaches,  23,- 
919,786  tons.  Total  length  of  the  lailway  deck 
is  3.459  miles;  of  the  highway,  1.833  miles.  The 
cost  of  the  bridge  was  $6,288,435.  It  was  built 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Department  of  the 
President  of  the  Board  of  Public  Service  The 
public  schools  were  known  for  their  excellence. 
There  were  123  grade  schools,  six  public  high 
schools,  a  junior  high  school,  a  trade  school, 
and  a  teachers'  College.  Teachers  numbered 
2554,  and  nearly  100,000  pupils  were  enrolled 
in  1924.  There  are  also  many  private  schools 
and  academies  and  the  Washington  and  St. 
Louis  Universities.  There  are  26  lines  of  rail- 
roads entering  the  city.  Factories  total  more 
than  3300,  with  an  invested  capital  over  $600,- 
000,000.  For  the  years  1914-24,  the  tax  rate 
for  all  purposes  on  each  $100  of  assessed  valua- 
tion varied  from  $2.22  in  1914  to  $2.55  in  1921. 
See  RAPID  TRANSIT. 

SAINT  LOUIS  SYMPHONY  ORCHES- 
TRA. See  Music,  Orchestras. 

SAINT  MARY'S  FALLS  CANAL.  See 
SAULT  SAINTE  MAKIE,  CANALS  AT. 

SAINT  MIHIEL.  See  WAR  IN  EUROPE, 
Western  Front. 

SAINT  PAUL.  The  capital  of  Minnesota. 
The  population  increased  from  214,744  in  1910 
to  234,698  in  1920,  and  to  241,891,  by  estimate 
of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  for  1923.  St.  Paul 
regained  her  old  position  as  the  head  of  navi- 
gation on  the  Mississippi  River,  with  water 
connections  to  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans.  A 
municipal  dock  was  equipped  with  the  most 
modern  facilities,  and  the  Federal  government 
built  a  number  of  modern  steel  barges  and  tow- 
boats.  A  school  bond  of  $3,000,000  was  voted 
in  1917,  and  in  1919  the  $6  per  capita  limit  for 
school  taxation  was  removed.  The  James  J. 
Hill  Reference  Library  and  Public  Library  was 
built  during  the  period.  In  1917,  after  a  hous- 
ing survey  had  been  made,  a  city  planning  ordi- 


SAINT  PZBBBE  AND  HIQT7BLON       1170 


SALT  LAKE  CITY 


nance  was  passed  providing  for  a  city  planning 
commission  of  25  citizens  appointed  by  the 
mayor.  This  commission  recommended  improve- 
ments designed  to  give  better  routing  of  traffic 
across  and  around  the  city  in  order  to  relieve 
the  congestion  in  the  business  districts.  The 
next  year  a  zoning  ordinance  was  adopted  pro- 
viding for  six  use  districts,  including  three  resi- 
dence, one  commercial,  one  light  industrial,  and 
one  heavy  industrial,  and  four  height  districts 
limiting  the  buildings  to  heights  varying  from 
40  to  150  feet  Two  new  reinforced  concrete 
bridges  were  begun  in  1924  whicli  were  expected 
to  cost  more  than  $3,000,000.  Bank  clearings 
increased  from  $576,156,228  in  1910  to  $1,593,- 
657,574  in  1922;  the  number  of  factories  in- 
creased from  737  in  1914,  capitalized  at  $101,- 
789.920,  employing  31,430  and  making  products 
valued  at  $103,683,000,  to  849  in  1919,  capi- 
talized at  $155,685,000,  employing  41,256  and 
making  products  worth  $215,000,000. 

SAINT  PIERRE  AND  MIQTTELON.  The 
principal  islands  of  two  groups  off  the  south 
coast  of  Newfoundland,  belonging  to  France. 
Total  area,  93  square  miles;  population  (1921), 
3918,  which  was  increased  to  12,000  during  the 
fishing  season.  The  only  activity  was  cod  fish- 
ing. Great  gains  were  made  in  cod  fishing  dur- 
ing and  after  the  War,  as  the  trade  records  re- 
veal. Imports  for  1913,  1920,  and  1921,  were 
4,536,745  francs,  40,846,742,  and  22,989,000. 
Exports  for  the  same  years  were  6,201,798 
francs,  28,047,100,  and  19,691,000.  Almost  all 
the  exports  went  to  France,  while  only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  imports,  2  per  cent  in 
1919,  came  from  the  mother  country. 

SAINT  QTJENTIN.  See  WAR  IN  EUROPE, 
Western  Front. 

SAINT  THERESA,  COLLEGE  OF.  An  insti- 
tution for  women,  founded  by  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Francis  at  Winona,  Minn.,  in  1910.  The 
student  body  in  1923-24  numbered  420.  Be- 
tween the  time  of  its  foundation  and  1924  the 
college  acquired  buildings  of  an  estimated  value 
of  $2,000,000,  and  a  productive  endowment  of 
$500,000.  A  chapel  and  a  faculty  house  were 
in  process  of  construction  in  1924.  In  1920  the 
Saint  Clare  School  of  Education  was  organized 
in  connection  with  the  college  to  train  teachers 
for  the  parochial  schools,  the  first  fully  organ- 
ized and  accredited  school  of,  its  kind  in  the 
country.  It  offered  a  two-year  course  to  high 
school  graduates.  President,  Mother  M.  Leo 
Tracey. 

SAJOTTS,  CHARLES  E.  DE  M.  (1852-  ). 
An  American  physician  (see  VOL.  XX). 
In  1921  Dr.  Sajous  was  appointed  professor 
of  endocrinology  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1922,  his  well-known  work  The  In- 
ternal Secretions  and  the  Principles  of  Medicine 
passed  through  its  tenth  edition  and  in  the  same 
year  his  Analytic  Cyclopedia  of  Practical  Medi- 
cine appeared  for  the  ninth  time.  Dr.  Sajpus 
resigned  as  editor  of  the  New  York  Medical 
Journal  in  1919,  after  having  served  in  this 
capacity  since  1911. 

SAKHALIN.  An  island  off  the  east  coast 
of  Siberia.  The  region  to  the  north  of  the  paral- 
lel of  50  degrees  was  rfussian  territory  and  part 
of  the  Sakhalin  Province.  It  has  an  area  of 
14,668  square  miles  and  a  population  of  34,000 
(1915).  Eighty  per  cent  of  the  region  was 
covered  with  forest,  and  lumbering  was  the 
chief  occupation.  Japanese  Sakhalin,  or  Kara- 
futo,  had  an  area  of  13,148  square  miles  and  a 


population  of  105,765  in  1920,  as  compared  with 
39,846  in  1913  Under  the  Japanese  the  ex- 
ploitation of  their  territory  was  rapidly 
pushed.  The  herring  fisheries  had  the  great- 
est economic  value,  while  the  presence  of  great 
forests  indicated  that  lumbering  and  paper- 
making  would  soon  become  important,  rulp 
mills  were  already  established  in  1924.  An 
enlightened  government  interest  encouraged  agri- 
culture, and  settlers  were  provided  with  land, 
domestic  animals,  and  seed.  Three  coal  basins 
\ielded  154,193  tons  in  1920.  By  1917  exports 
had  already  reached  a  value  of  17,293,000  yen 
and  imports  11,723,000  yen.  The  budget  for 
1921-22  balanced  at  14,045,806  yen;  the  sub- 
sidy from  the  Japanese  Treasury  was  about 
750,000  yen.  In  1920,  Japanese  forces  occupied 
the  Russian  portion  as  a  result  of  the  so-called 
massacre  of  Nikolayevsk,  the  capital  of  Sak- 
halin Province  on  the  Amur  River,  when  all  the 
Japanese  residents,  numbering  about  350,  were 
slain.  Responsibility  was  difficult  to  establish, 
and  against  the  protests  of  the  Russians,  the 
Japanese  troops  stayed  on  (1924).  At  a  Russo- 
Japanese  conference  held  on  Sept.  4,  1922,  Japan 
demanded  reparations  as  the  price  of  with- 
drawal. In  August,  1924,  after  long  discussions 
between  the  Russians  and  the  Japanese,  a  basis 
for  an  agreement  was  announced.  The  terms  of 
this  Russo-Japanese  convention  were  said  to 
include:  Japanese  evacuation  of  Sakhalin;  the 
grant  of  a  55  year  concession  to  Japanese 
capitalists  in  the  oil  fields  of  North  Sakhalin ; 
Soviet  recognition  of  the  fishery  rights  conferred 
by  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth  (1905).  That  the 
British  government  would  oppose  this  agree- 
ment was  inevitable,  for  it  was  pointed  out  that 
the  Britsh  Shell  group  held  a  previous  con- 
cession to  the  oil  fields  in  question.  See  JAPAN; 
RUSSIA;  SIBERIA  AND  FAR  EASTERN  REPUBLIC. 

SALANDBA,  ANTONIO  (1853-  ).  An 
Italian  statesman  (see  VOL.  XX).  At  the  out- 
break of  the  War,  he  opposed  Italy's  joining 
her  forces  with  Germany  and  Austria  on  the 
ground  that  theirs  was  an  aggressive  war.  The 
majority  of  the  Italians  supported  him,  and 
when  opposition  caused  him  to  resign  in  May, 
1915,  feeling  on  behalf  of  Salamlra  and  the 
Allies  rose  to  such  a  height  that  it  actually 
threatened  the  throne.  "War  or  a  republic" 
was  the  cry.  The  King  refused  to  aeeept  Sa- 
landra's  resignation,  and  in  10  days  Italy  en- 
tered the  War  on  the  side  opposed  to  her  an- 
cient enemy  and  oppressor,  Austria.  Salandra's 
premiership  lasted  till  June,  1916. 

SALONIKI.  See  WAB  IN  EUROPE,  Balkan 
Front. 

SALT  LAKE  CITY.  The  capital  of  Utah. 
The  population  increased  27  per  cent,  from  92,- 
777  in  1910  to  118,110  in  1920,  and  to  126,241, 
by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  for 
1923.  The  water  supply  of  the  city  was  nearly 
doubled  in  1915  and  1916  by  two  dams  in  Big 
Cottonwood  Canyon,  impounding  550,000,000 
gallons  of  water.  Smoke  regulating  ordinances 
and  a  use  zoning  law  were  adopted,  and  a  muni- 
cipal bathhouse  was  built.  Bishop  Charles  W. 
Nibley  in  1922  presented  a  56-acre  golf  course 
to  the  city.  Bank  clearings  fell  from  $825,360,- 
260  in  1919  to  $661,686,278  in  1921  and  rose 
again  to  $785,320,679  in  1923;  building  permits 
increased  72  per  cent,  from  1115  valued  at  $4,- 
060,496  in  1919  to  1344  valued  at  $6,976,494; 
the  value  of  manufactured  products  rose  from 
$S5,000,000  in  1914  to  $108,814,000  (estimated) 


SALVADOR 


1171 


SALVATION  ABKY 


in  1923;  and  the  production  of  coal  rose  from 
3,088,350  tons  in  1912  to  4,627,570  in  1923,  an 
increase  of  50  per  cent. 

SALVADOB.  The  smallest  of  the  Central 
American  republics,  with  an  area  (officially  es- 
timated) of  13,176  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion (census  of  1923)  of  1,360,382.  The  official 
estimate  for  1913  was  1,225,835  A  slight  in- 
crease was  evident  during  the  period  in  school 
enrollments,  the  figure  for  1913  being  50,550, 
and  for  1921,  57,555.  But  from  1919  on,  the 
government  applied  itself  seriously  to  eradicat- 
ing illiteracy ;  70  per  cent  of  the  population  was 
reported  as  unable  to  read  or  write.  Popula- 
tions of  the  largo  cities  were:  Ran  Salvador, 
the  capital,  80,900;  Santa  Ana,  70,000;  San 
Miguel,  33,990;  San  Vicente,  30,080;  Nueva 
San  Salvador,  25,960.  On  June  7,  1917,  an 
earthquake  and  volcanic  eruption  did  much 
damage  to  the  capital  and  partially  destroyed 
several  smaller  towns.  An  earthquake  of  great 
intensity  shook  the  city  of  San  Salvador  on 
Apr.  28,  1919. 

Industry.  Coffee  culture  remained  the  lead- 
ing activity,  and  an  average  of  05,000,000  pounds 
was  exported  annually.  The  1923  production 
was  60,000  metric  tons,  valued  at  $16,800,000. 
Sugar  made  considerable  advances,  with  a  1923 
production  of  20,000  tons.  Cacao,  rubber,  to- 
bacco, and  -wheat  for  local  consumption  were 
given  increasing  attention.  After  1914  gold 
and  silver  mining  showed  possibilities,  especially 
in  the  departments  of  MorarAri,  San  Miguel,  and 
ha  Union.  The  foreign  trade  from  1913  on  in- 
creased regularly  exports  in  1913,  $9,011,112; 
in  1920,  $17,943,827;  in  1922,  $16,213,805. 
Coffee  averaged  80  per  cent  of  the  export  value. 
Other  exports  were-  sugar,  hcnequen,  gold  and 
silver  coin,  balsam,  hemp,  hides,  and  rubber. 
The  United  States  took  70  per  cent  of  the 
coffee;  Great  Britain,  4  per  cent.  Imports 
in  1!)13  were  valued  at  $6.174,000.  In  1922, 
they  were  $7,426,760  but  in  1919  they  had 
reached  the  high  figure  of  $14,958,196.  Leading 
imports  were  cottons,  hardware,  flour,  drugs, 
and  chemicals.  Trade  with  the  United  States 
in  1913  was:  imports,  $2,491,000;  exports,  $2,- 
«24,000.  Imports  in  1922  were  $4,878,137;  ex- 
ports ( 1921 ) ,  $3.296,622.  Trade  with  the  United 
Kingdom  in  1913  was:  imports,  $1,604,000;  ex- 
ports, $706,000.  In  1921  it  was-  imports,  $222,- 
330;  exports,  $1,263,561.  In  the  period  1914- 
24  Salvador  began  to  develop  industrially  and 
besides  supplying  many  articles  for  domestic 
consumption  exported  manufactured  products  to 
neighboring  countries.  Local  mills  embraced 
the  manufacture  of  cotton  and  silk  fabrics, 
leather  goods,  fibre  goods,  cigars,  cigarettes, 
sugar,  etc.  Klectrical  power  was  being  used. 
Stock  raising  was  also  gaining  in  importance. 

Finance.  For  1914-15  the  revenues  were 
$6,286,470  and  the  expenditures  $6,263,878.  For 
1922  they  were  $5,771,332  and  $6,120,473.  The 
national  debt  in  1913  was  $10,995,854.  On 
Dec.  31,  1921,  it  was  $16,834,105.  A  $6,000,- 
000  loan  was  negotiated  in  the  United  States 
in  1923.  The  three  banks  of  issue  on  Dec.  31, 
1021,  had  notes  in  circulation  to  the  value  of 
$3,508,910.  The  colon  in  1919  was  fixed  at 
$0.50  and  by  the  law  of  July  16,  was  made 
the  monetary  unit. 

Communications.  In  1922,  253,  miles  of  rail- 
way were  open,  all  of  narrow  gauge.  The  In- 
ternational Railways  line  from  east  to  west  was 
completed  in  1922  when  the  third  section  was 


opened  from  San  Vicente  to  Cojutepeque.  The 
railway  starts  at  La  Union.  In  1921  there  were 
2374  miles  of  telegraph  wire  and  1366  miles 
of  telephone  line. 

History.  Salvador  was  the  first  country  to 
move  toward  effecting  a  better  understanding 
among  Central  American  states.  On  June  24, 

1920,  it  sent  out   an   invitation   for  a  general 
meeting,  and  conferences  were  begun  at  Antigua 
in   Guatemala   on   Nov.    1,    1920.     On   Jan.    21, 

1921,  a  pact  was  signed  by  Salvador,  Honduras, 
and  Guatemala  for  a  Central  American  Union 
(q.v.),   thus   crowning  with   temporary   success 
the    aspirations    of    a    century.     Salvador    was 
the  only  Central  American   country  not  to  de- 
clare war  on  Germany.     In  1913  Salvador  signed 
an   arbitration    treaty  with    the   United   States 
and  a  commercial  treaty  in  1919.     Considerable 
local  ill-feeling  was  generated  toward  the  United 
States    because    it    was    felt    that    the    Hryan- 
Chamorro  treaty  of  1916,  in  giving  the  United 
States  a  naval  base  on   Fonscca  Bay,   violated 
Salvador's   sovereignty.     Suit  was  made  before 
the   American    Court  of   Justice,   and   although 
the   complaint   was   successful,   both    Nicaragua 
and   the   United    States    disregarded    Salvador's 
contention.     Peace  was  general   in   the  country 
after  1914  as  a  result  of  the  insistence  of  the 
United    States.     President    for    1919-23,    Jorge 
Mele"ndez;    for   1923-27,  the  vice  president,  Al- 
fonso Quinflnez  Molina,  was  raised  to  the  presi- 
dency.    Late  in  1923  much  interest  was  aroused 
in  the  United  States  over  the  terms  of  a  $6,000,- 
000  loan  floated   in   New  York  City.     The  con- 
tract,  which   was   to  a   large   extent   the   work 
of  ex-Secretary   of  State   Lansing,   provided   in 
effect  for  the  underwriting  of  the  loan  by  the 
United    States  government.     A   special   stipula- 
tion called  for  the  submission  of  differences  or 
interpretatons  arising  out   of  the  loan's  terms 
to  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  Chief  Jus- 
tice. 

SALVARSAN.     See   SYPHILIS. 

SALVATION*  ARMY.  A  religious  organi- 
zation aiming  to  evangelize  the  masses  who 
are  outside  the  influence  of  the  churches,  found- 
ed by  the  late  Gen.  William  Booth  in  London 
in  1865,  and  incorporated  in  New  York  State 
in  1899.  In  the  years  between  1914  and  1923 
the  number  of  corps  and  outposts  increased 
from  852  to  1325,  the  number  of  indoor  meetings 
from  197,099  to  442,485,  and  the  open-air  meet- 
ings from  150,055  to  201,042.  The  number  of 
officers  and  cadets  rose  from  3225  in  1916  to 
4090  in  1923-24,  and  the  number  of  converts 
from  53,483  to  100,159.  Various  sorts  of  rescue 
work  were  carried  on.  Over  100  industrial 
homes  were  maintained,  and  about  85  hotels 
for  men  and  women,  slum  posts,  and  13  nur- 
series, 31  maternity  and  rescue  homes,  8  chil- 
dren's homes,  and  10  hospitals  and  dispensaries. 
The  army  also  conducted  extensive  work  among 
prisoners;  in  1923,  through  their  efforts,  604 
prisoners  were  paroled  to  the  organization. 
Other  familiar  lines  of  their  work  included 
Christmas  and  Thanksgiving  dinners  given  to 
tho  poor,  summer  outings  to  mothers  and  chil- 
dren, employment  fund  for  men  and  women, 
and  distribution  of  ice  and  coal. 

During  the  War  the  Salvation  Army  was  ac- 
tive in  the  belligerent  areas  and  the  army  camps. 
Great  quantities  of  clothing  were  collected  for 
refugees  and  much  relief  work  accomplished. 
By  the  close  of  the  War  the  Salvation  Army  had 
sent  246  officers  and  employees  to  France  and 


SALZBTTRQ 


1272 


SANDBTJBQ 


100  to  army  camps  and  wag  maintaining  50  hut- 
ments in  France  and  20  in  this  country,  24 
ambulances  for  government  service,  50  rest 
rooms  for  men  in  the  service,  and  20  hospitals, 
of  \vhich  one  was  in  France. 

SALZBURG.  A  province  of  the  Republic  of 
Austria.  Its  area  in  1010  and  1923  was  2701.9 
square  miles.  Its  population  in  1010  was  214,- 
737;  in  1923,  222,731.  See  AUSTRIAN  REPUBLIC. 

SAMOA.     See   PACIFIC  OCEAN    ISLANDS. 

SAMOA,  AMEKICAN.  American  Samoa  com- 
prises the  island  of  Tutuila  and  several  other 
small  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  popu- 
lation in  1920  was  8058,  compared  with  7251 
in  1912  and  7376  in  1910.  The  people  are  al- 
most entirely  Samoans.  In  1920,  these  included 
3160  males  and  3019  females. 

Products.  The  soil  of  American  Samoa  is 
rich  and  well-adapted  to  the  growing  of  fruits, 
which  include  the  orange,  lemon,  lime,  citron, 
mango,  alligator  pear,  pineapple,  banana  and 
other  native  fruits.  The-  vegetables  grown  in- 
clude the  bread  fruit,  taro  and  yam.  Sugar 
cane  is  grown  to  some  extent,  especially  for  the 
leaves  which  arc  used  for  thatch  on  the  native 
houses.  Coffee  also  has  been  grown  in  small 
quantities  with  success  and  tobacco  is  grown 
by  the  natives  for  native  consumption  The 
most  important  product  of  the  soil,  however, 
is  the  coconut,  which  is  used  as  food  for  the 
natives,  while  the  water  of  the  green  nuts  is 
used  for  drink.  Copra,  the  dried  kernel  of  the 
ripe  coconut,  forms  the  chief  article  of  commerce, 
and  is  the  only  export  from  American  Samoa. 
It  is  shipped  to  foreign  countries  where  oil 
is  expressed  from  it.  This  oil  is  in  great  de- 
mand in  the  manufacture  of  coconut  butters  of 
various  kinds,  soaps  oil  for  salads,  and  for 
other  purposes.  During  the  decade  1913-23, 
and,  indeed,  since  the  American  occupation,  the 
government  has  encouraged  the  natives  to  plant 
more  coconut H  and  to  use  better  methods  of 
drying  the  copra.  The  copra  sold  in  1914  was 
2,551,027  pounds  valued  at  122,965;  in  1918, 
3,067,177  pounds,  valued  at  $187,481,  and  in 
1920,  2,208,803  pounds  valued  at  .$154,616. 

Industries.  There  arc  practically  no  in- 
dustries in  the  islands.  Copra  is  dried  by 
spreading  it  in  the  sun  Native  women  manu- 
facture floor  mats  and  sleeping  mats  from  the 
leaves  of  the  pandami,  but  these  are  not  often 
for  sale.  War  clubs,  fans,  baskets,  hats  and 
necklaces  of  shells  and  beads  are  made  to  sell 
to  tourists. 

Education.  The  foundation  of  the  school 
system  of  American  Samoa  is  the  parish  school 
conducted  by  the  native  pastors  of  the  various 
denominations.  There  is  no  government  super- 
vision except  that  by  law  all  children  between 
the  ages  of  si\  and  13  are  required  to  attend 
school  regularly.  Schools  are  maintained  by 
Roman  Catholics,  Weslcvans,  Mormons,  and  by 
the  London  Missionary  Society.  Since  1904,  the 
Marist  brothers  have  conducted  a  special  dis- 
trict school  at  Leone.  Prior  to  1921  there  was 
but  one  school  which  could  actually  be  called 
a  government  or  public  school  In  January  of 
that  year  Governor  Evans  instituted  plans  for 
a  widespread  development  and  expansion  of  the 

C'lic  school  system  throughout  Samoa.  A 
rd  of  Education  was  appointed  and  as  a 
result  Tutuila  was  divided  into  13  school  dis- 
tricts and  the  Manua  district  into  two,  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  graded  school  in  each 
of  these  districts.  In  1923  three  such  graded 


schools  had  already  been  established.  The 
average  attendance  in  the  various  schools  is 
about  3000. 

Trade.  As  noted  above,  copra  is  the  only 
export.  Imports  are  increasing  from  year  to 
year  and  mount  up  to  about  $250,000  annually. 
About  half  these  are  from  the  United  States. 

Finance.  American  Samoa  has  no  public 
debt.  The  bank  is  conducted  under  the  super- 
vision of  many  officials.  The  customs  revenues 
are  used  for  the  upkeep  of  roads,  schools  and 
general  island  government  expenses.  The  navy 
tax  fund  is  chiefly  used  for  the  pay  of  native 
officials. 

Transportation.  A  monthly  schedule  is 
maintained  between  San  Francisco,  Honolulu, 
Pagopago  and  Sydney,  by  the  Oceanic  Steam- 
ship Company.  Over  50  miles  of  roads  have 
been  constructed  since  American  occupation. 

Health  and  Sanitation.  As  a  result  of 
sanitary  supervision,  education  and  free  medi- 
cal treatment,  the  natives  of  American  Samoa 
have  increased  in  numbers  41  per  cent  under  the 
American  occupation,  from  1900  to  1920.  The 
prevailing  diseases  are  hookworm,  influenza, 
and  filariasis.  At  various  times  there  have  been 
serious  epidemics  of  measles.  Malaria,  chol- 
era and  smallpox  are  unknown  in  Samoa.  The 
government  maintains  dispensaries  and  a  sani- 
tation inspector  makes  public  inspection  of  all 
villages.  As  a  result,  health  conditions  in  the 
island  have  remained  good  during  the  decade. 

SAMUEL,  HERBERT  (Lons)  (187O-  ). 
An  English  public  official  (see  VOL.  XX).  He 
was  chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  for 
the  second  time  in  1915-16  and  also  Postmaster 
General.  In  1916  he  became  Secretary  of  State 
for  Home  Affairs  and  held  other  important  of- 
fices. In  1919  he  was  British  Commissioner  to 
Belgium  and  in  the  next  year  became  High 
Commissioner  of  Palestine,  where  the  handling 
of  a  delicate  situation  caused  by  the  fierce 
clashing  of  mutually  hostile  nationalities  called 
forth  all  his  ability  in  diplomacy  and  fair  deal- 
ing. Up  to  1924  he  had  succeeded  in  averting 
serious  outbreaks.  In  1917  he  wrote  The  War 
and  Liberty. 

SAN  ANTONIO.  The  largest  city  of  Texas. 
The  population  increased  67  per  cent  from  96,- 
614  in  1910  to  161,379  in  1920,  and  to  184,727, 
by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  for 
1923.  During  the  decade  1914-24,  San  Antonio 
became  the  centre  of  a  large  oil-producing 
territory.  The  first  field  was  discovered  in  1915 
at  Somerset,  18  miles  south  of  the  city;  in  1919 
it  produced  95,000  barrels  of  oil;  in  1923,  1,250,- 
000  barrels.  Large  fields  at  Luling,  Mirando, 
and  Calliham  were  subsequently  discoveied. 
Seven  junior  high  school  centres  were  completed 
at  a  cost  of  $1,500,000.  A  bond  issue  of  $4,150,- 
000  was  voted  for  public  improvements,  in- 
cluding $2,800,000  for  a  flood  protection  pro- 
gramme and  an  additional  $200,000  to  be  added 
to  the  $500,000  previously  voted  for  a  municipal 
auditorium  Building  permits  increased  from 
$2,619,060  in  1919  to  $8,672,029  in  1923.  A 
heavy  flood  inundated  the  city  in  1921  when 
Olmos  Creek  and  the  San  Antonio  River 
were  swollen  by  prolonged  and  violent  rains; 
this  caused  a  property  loss  of  about  $10,- 
000,000. 

SANDBURG,  CARL  (1878-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can poet  and  editor,  born  at  Galesburg,  111., 
and  educated  at  Lombard  College  of  that  city. 
He  served  as  a  private  in  the  war  with  Spain 


8AVDEBSON 


H73 


SAN  FBANOISOO 


in  1898,  was  secretary  to  the  Mayor  of  Milwau- 
kee, Wis.,  from  1010  to  1912,  and  in  1913  went 
to  Chicago,  where  he  became  associate  editor 
of  the  magazine  System.  He  did  newspaper 
writing  for  a  while,  received  the  Levin  son  Prize 
from  the  Poetry  Magazine  in  1914,  and  had  a 
half  share  in  the  prize  of  the  Poetry  Society 
of  America  in  1911).  One  of  the  first  to  fol- 
low Masters  in  the  use  of  free  verse,  Sandhurg 
soon  came  to  be  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the 
western  poets.  His  verse  was  harsh  and  un- 
rythmic;  his  themes  tended  to  be  brutal  and 
showed  too  great  a  fondness  for  the  so-called 
primitive  character  of  American  civilization; 
there  were,  perhaps,  too  many  references  to 
smokestacks,  iron,  prime,  dirty  alleys,  and  the 
like.  But  there  was  also  beauty  in  his  poetry 
and  a  sensitiveness  which  even  his  realistic 
preoccupations  could  not  obliterate  His  writ- 
ings include:  Chicago  Poem*  (1915);  Corn 
7/ttsAm?  (1018);  The  Chieayo  If  fire  Riots 
(1919)  ;  Smoke  and  Xteel  (1920);  Rlabs  of  the 
Sunburnt  West  (1922);  Rootahaga  Stories 
(1922);  Itootabaga  Pif/eons  (1923). 

SANDERSON,  JULIA  (1887-  ).  An 
American  actress  and  singer,  born  at  Springfield, 
Mass.  She  made  her  df'but  with  the  Forepaugh 
Stock  Company  in  Philadelphia  and  in  1902 
came  to  New  York  City,  where  she  first  appeared 
at  the  Casino  in  Winsome  Winnie  and  later  as 
Mrs.  Pineapple  in  A  Chinese  Honeymoon  and  in 
other  popular  roles.  After  playing  in  The  Hon- 
orable Phil  in  London,  she  toured  the  United 
States  as  Dora  Dale  in  The  Sunshine  Girl,  ap- 
peared in  the  musical  comedy  The  Girl  from 
Utah  with  Donald  Brian  and  Joseph  Cawthorn 
(1915),  and  starred  with  the  Sybil  company 
(1910-17) 

SAN  FRANCISCO.  The  second  city  in 
California.  The  population  increased  from  416,- 
912  in  1910  to  500,076  in  1920,  and  to  339,038, 
by  estimate  of  the  Census  Bureau,  for  1923. 
D'uring  the  decade  between  1910  and  1920,  work 
was  progressing  on  the  Tletch  Hetchy  Water 
Supply  System.  For  an  account  of  this  and 
other  important  developments  in  connection  with 
its  water  supply,  see  AQUEDI  crs  and  WATER 
WORKS.  The  Panama-Pacific  International  Ex- 
position, commemorating  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  was  held  in  San  Francisco  during 
nearly  the  whole  year  of  1915,  from  February 
20  to  December  4.  Thirty-nine  foreign  nations 
and  40  States  and  territories  were  represented 
by  industrial  and  artistic  exhibits  Of  the 
elaborate  buildings  erected  for  the  fair,  the 
Municipal  Auditorium,  at  the  Civic  Centre, 
was  of  permanent  construction;  it  cost  $1,086,- 
000.  The  total  cost  of  the  fair  was  about  $50,- 
000,000.  On  the  close  of  the  exposition  the 
grounds  were  converted  into  a  residence  park. 
Other  buildings  constructed  at  the  Civic  Centre 
during  the  decade  included  the  $3,500,000  City 
Hall,  a  four-story  building  with  a  ground  area 
of  278  by  415  feet  and  a  central  dome  112  feet 
in  diameter,  over  300  feet  high ;  the  Public  Li- 
brary, a  building  190  by  305  feet,  designed  in 
Italian  renaissance  style,  costing  $1,153,000, 
and  with  a  capacity  of  500,000  volumes;  and 
the  State  of  California  Building,  erected  at  a 
cost  of  $1,350,000  to  house  State  courts  and 
other  offices.  Park  Commissioner  and  Mrs. 
Adolph  Sprockels  gave  the  city  a  new  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts,  copied  exactly  from  the  Palace  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  in  Paris.  It  contained  ex- 
hibits of  work  by  French,  Belgian,  Rumanian, 


Polish,  Greek,  and  Jugo-Slav  as  well  as  native 
artists,  and  a  collection  of  Sevres  porcelain  and 
-Gobelin  tapestries 

After  careful  study  and  mapping  under  the 
direction  of  the  City  Engineer,  the  City  Plan- 
ning Commission  completed  and  secured  the 
adoption  in  1921  of  an  ordinance  dividing  the 
City  into  six  use  zones.  In  the  same  year  the 
City  Engineer  began  studies  of  the  rapid  transit 
system  of  the  City,  preparatory  to  making  plans 
for  a  four-track  subway  to  run  for  two  and 
one  half  miles  under  Market  Street,  from  the 
ferry  to  Valencia  Street.  The  development  of  a 
large  new  residential  area  was  made  possible  by 
the  completion  of  a  tunnel  12,000  feet  long  and 
an  electric  railway  through  Twin  Peaks.  After 
a  series  of  hearings  and  investigation  of  the 
project  and  the  various  alternative  plans 
presented,  the  United  States  War  Department 
in  1923  gave  permission,  and  work  was  started 
on  the  construction  of  a  cantilever  bridge  across 
Carquinez  Straits  between  Vallejo  and  Valcona, 
spanning  one  of  the  upper  reaches  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay.  It  was  to  consist  of  a  central  pier 
and  two  1100-foot  spans  and  would  be  the  third 
largest  cantilever  bridge  ever  constructed.  It 
was  for  vehicular  traffic  exclusively.  Permis- 
sion was  also  granted  for  two  vehicular  bridges 
across  the  lower  end  of  San  Francisco  Bay 
One  was  to  have  its  western  end  at  Little  Coyote, 
about  24  miles  by  highway  south  of  the  City, 
and  was  to  be  six  miles  long  and  to  cost  about 
$10,000,000,  including  seven  miles  of  approach 
roadway.  The  plans  demanded  a  200-foot  lift 
span,  a  series  of  arches  of  230-foot  span  across 
a  mile  of  deep  water,  and  shorter  arches,  trestle, 
and  fill  over  the  shallow  water  and  tidal  marsh. 
The  other  bridge  was  to  be  at  Dumbarton.  Va- 
rious projects  were  discussed  for  connecting  San 
Francisco  and  Oakland,  and  there  were  also 
under  way  for  the  spanning  of  the  Golden  Gate 
the  world's  longest  cantilever  bridge,  to  connect 
San  Francisco  with  Mann  and  the  other  coun- 
ties to  the  north. 

The  school  system  was  thoroughly  revised  in 
1922,  following,  for  the  most  part,  the  recom- 
mendations incorporated  in  a  report  which  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  made  on 
the  schools  at  the  request  of  the  city. 

Among  other  accomplishments  of  the  City  of 
San  Francisco  since  1910  were  the  building  of 
the  first  municipally-owned  street  railways  in 
the  United  States.  In  1924  the  Municipal  Rail- 
ways had  08  miles  of  track;  consistently  main- 
tained a  five-cent  fare;  paid  all  interest  charges 
on  its  bonds,  amounting  to  $2,000,000  in  1923; 
retired  bonds  aggiegating  $1,090,900;  earned 
the  money  to  build  extensions  costing  $1,791,- 
208,  and  still  had  a  credit  in  the  City  Treasury 
of  $1,680,913.  Two  tunnels  were  bored  beneath 
the  city's  hills,  the  Twin  Peaks  tunnel,  2Vi  miles 
long,  25  feet  wide,  and  costing  $4,750,000;  and 
the  Stockton  Street  tunnel,  911  feet  long,  50 
feet  wide,  and  costing  $650,000.  A  $5,750,000 
high-pressure  fire  protection  system  was  in- 
stalled. More  than  $20,000,000  in  streets  and 
boulevards  were  built  and  maintained.  Four- 
teen new  public  playgrounds,  with  a  combined 
area  of  125  acres,  were  opened.  The  city  also 
had  the  world's  largest  outdoor  swimming  pool, 
1000  feet  long  and  150  feet  wide.  The  San 
Francisco  Hospital  was  built,  a  public  institu- 
tion ranking  among  the  three  largest  and  finest 
hospitals  in  the  world.  James  Rolph,  Jr.,  was 
elected  mayor  of  San  Francisco  in  1912  and 


SANQBB 


1174 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


was  re&ected;  his  term  waB  to  expire  in  1928. 
See  RAPID  TRANSIT. 

SANGEB,  MABOABET  H.  (1883*  ).  An 
American  birth  control  advocate.  She  was  ac- 
tive in  birth  control  propaganda  after  1014. 
Frequently  arrested,  she  served  a  30-day  sen- 
tence in  1016.  At  other  times  her  case  was 
dismissed  on  appeal.  Her  first  husband,  the 
architect  William  Sanger,  was  also  tried  and 
convicted  in  the  New  York  courts  in  1915. 
Mrs.  Sanger  was  editor  of  the  Woman  Rebel, 
which  gave  way  in  1017  to  the  Birth  Control 
Review.  The  latter  publication,  with  a  circula- 
tion in  excess  of  100,000,  was  the  organ  of  the 
American  Birth  Control  League  in  which 
were  grouped  prominent  club  women  and 
social  workers  interested  in  the  population 
question.  Mrs.  Sanger,  as  president  of  the 
league,  directed  an  international  propaganda 
for  breaking  down  the  taboos  on  birth  control 
information.  She  lectured  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  in  Japan,  and  called  to 
her  support  English  publicists  like  Harold  Cox, 
editor  of  the  Edinburgh  Rericw,  and  Havelock 
Ellis.  In  New  York  her  propaganda  was  at 
times  opposed  by  prelates  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  After  one  meeting  at  the  Town  Hall 
was  suppressed  through  the  intercession  of 
Archbishop  Hayes,  Mrs.  Sanger  held  other  meet- 
ings in  which  Catholic  dignitaries  were  present. 
After  the  death  of  her  first  husband,  Mrs.  San- 
ger married,  in  1922,  J.  Noah  H.  Slee,  a  cap- 
italist who  was  interested  in  the  activities  of 
the  Birth  Control  League.  Besides  writing  nu- 
merous pamphlets,  Mrs  Sanger  was  the  author 
of  the  *  following  books:  What  Every  Girl 
Should  Know  (1914);  What  Every  Mother 
Should  Know  (1916)  ;  The  Case  for  Birth  Con- 
trol (1917);  Woman,  Immorality,  and  Birth 
Control;  Woman  and  the  JVcie  Race,  with  a 
preface  by  Havelock  Ellis  (1920)  ;  The  Pivot  of 
Civilization  (1922)  ;  The  New  Motherhood,  with 
introductions  by  Harold  Cox  and  Havelock 
Ellis  (1922). 

SANGSTEB,  MARGARET  ELIZABETH  (MRS. 
CABBOLL  M.  SHERIDAN)  (1894-  ).  An 
American  author,  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  She 
became  associate  editor  of  the  Christian  Herald 
in  1913  and  in  1918  she  visited  Belgium,  Ger- 
many, and  France  as  correspondent  for  that 
periodical.  Her  poems  and  stories  include: 
Friends  o'  Mine  (1913);  Real  People  and 
Dreams  (1914);  Cross  Roads  (1919);  The  Is- 
land of  Faith  (1921);  Your  Book  and  Mine 
(1923). 

SANKET  COMMISSION.  See  GREAT  BRIT- 
AIN, History 

SAN  MARINO.  A  republic  of  Europe  lo- 
cated in  the  peninsula  of  Italy.  Area,  38  square 
miles;  population,  12,027,  in  June,  1920,  as  com- 
pared with  10,489  in  1910.  Revenues  and  ex- 
penditures for  1922-23  (amounted  to  $165,405 
and  $173,830  (at  current  rate  of  exchange). 
In  1914  these  were  $193,541  and  $125,232. 
There  was  no  public  debt.  The  treaty  of  friend- 
ship with  Italy  was  renewed  in  1914  and  1920. 
Representatives  of  San  Marino  were  to  be  found 
at  London,  Paris,  Rome,  and  Barcelona.  San 
Marino  was  technically  at  war  with  the  Cen- 
tral Powers  for  her  citizens  were  permitted  to 
enlist  in  the  Italian  army. 

SAN  BEMO  CONFEBENCE.  See  REPARA- 
TIONS. 

SANTAYANA,  GEORGE  (1863-  ).  An 
American  philosopher  of  Spanish  extraction 


(see  VOL.  XX).  He  resigned  from  the  faculty 
of  Harvard  University  in  1012,  and  lived  there- 
after in  England  and  on  the  continent  He 
collaborated  in  1020  with  a  group  of  other 
American  philosophers  in  the  publication  of  the 
Essays  on  Critical  Realism.  Here  the  attempt 
is  made  to  save  philosophy  from  mentalism  and 
scepticism  through  the  revival  of  the  classic 
distinction  of  essence  and  existence,  both  no- 
tions conceived  as  independent  of  the  knowing 
subject.  In  his  subsequent  development,  San- 
tayana  seemed  to  move  away  even  from  such 
critical  realism.  His  Scepticism  and  Animal 
Faith  (1923)  and  his  "Preface  to  a  System  of 
Philosophy  (Yale  Reviewt  1924)  show  him  re- 
placing the  immutable  and  eternal  Platonic 
essences  with  relativistic  knowledge,  postulated 
by  human  faith  and  according  to  human  needs. 

His  other  works  since  1914  include  Character 
and  Opinion  in  the  United  States  (1921),  a  col- 
lection of  Soliloquies  in  England  (1922)  and  a 
war  book,  Egotism  in  German  Philosophy 
(1915). 

SANTO  DOMINGO  (DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC). 
A  West  Indian  state  occupying  the  eastern  part 
of  the  island  of  Haiti.  The  area  is  estimated 
at  19,332  square  miles.  The  population  in  1923 
was  708,000;  by  the  census  of  1921,  it  was  put 
at  897,405.  The  city  of  Santo  Domingo,  the 
capital,  had  30,957  inhabitants.  Agriculture 
and  cattle-raising  continued  the  chief  interests 
of  the  population.  Sugar  estates  were  to  be 
found  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country;  to- 
bacco, cacao,  and  coffee  were  grown  in  the  other 
sections.  Sugar  production  in  1922-23  totaled 
200,272  tons.  The  cacao  yield  in  1922  was  19,- 
000,000  kilos.  There  was  a  great  variety  of 
minerals,  the  chief  being  gold  and  silver,  but 
few  were  worked  In  1913  the  total  trade  was 
valued  at  $19,741,000;  in  1920  it  reached  the 
high  figure  of  $105,257,117.  In  the  succeeding 
years  it  declined,  falling  to  $45,199,375  in  1921 
and  $29,548,852  in  1922.  The  year  1921  was 
the  only  one  in  the  period  to  show  an  adverse 
trade  balance  for  the  republic  The  preponder- 
ating share  of  the  country's  foreign  trade  fell 
to  the  United  States.  Exports  from  Santo 
Domingo  to  the  United  States  for  1920,  1921, 
and  1922  were  respectively  87  per  cent  of  the 
total,  77  per  cent,  and  42  per  cent.  The  last 
figure  was  occasioned  by  the  small  purchases  of 
Dominican  sugar  because  of  the  tariff  and  pre- 
vailing low  prices.  Thus,  while  in  1921  the 
United  States  imported  80  per  cent  of  the  Do- 
minican crop,  in  1922  the  purchase  was  only 
25  per  cent.  The  United  Kingdom  and  Canada 
took  the  remainder.  In  1921  and  1922,  Amer- 
ican imports  into  Santo  Domingo  totaled  84 
and  72  per  cent  of  the  whole.  Sugar  and  cacao 
continued  the  leading  exports.  There  was  no 
additional  railway  building  over  the  period. 
However,  an  excellent  macadam  road  was 
opened  in  1922  from  Santo  Domingo  on  the 
south  coast  to  Monte  Christi  on  the  north  coast 
(182  miles).  In  1923  a  similar  road  from  San 
Pedro  de  Maroris  to  the  capital  (47  miles)  was 
completed.  Revenues  and  expenditures  for 
1913-14  were  $5,035,250  and  $4,890,216;  for 
1922,  $12,164,142  and  $11,353,686.  The  bonded 
debt  of  the  country,  on  Dec.  31,  1922,  stood  at 
$14,800,203.  Within  the  period  1914-24,  loans 
for  $1,538,200  (1018)  and  $6,698,485  (1922) 
were  raised.  Defense  was  in  the  hands  of  a 
native  constabulary  of  1200  men  and  114  officers. 
American  marines,  stationed  in  Santo  Domingo 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


"75 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


in  1924,  numbered  1881  ineii  and  105  officers. 
History.  The  much-needed  internal  peace 
which  was  to  result  from  the  American-Domin- 
ican fiscal  treaty  of  1907  came  to  a  premature 
end  with  the  assassination  of  President  Ramon 
Caceres  in  1911.  Thereafter  each  year  saw  a 
new  revolution  and  a  new  president.  President 
Bordas,  who  had  been  elected  in  April,  1913, 
encountered  a  strong  rebellion  in  the  spring  of 
1914.  When  the  situation  had  become  a  hope- 
less tangle  in  the  late  summer,  matters  were 
straightened  out  with  the  assistance  of  an  Amer- 
ican commission  which  had  been  sent  to  Santo 
Domingo  for  this  special  purpose.  Bordas  was 
induced  to  resign  and  Dr.  Ramon  Baez,  the  son 
of  a  former  president,  was  elected  provisional 
president  on  Aug.  27,  1914.  In  October  of  the 
same  year  ex-President  Juan  Isidro  Jiminez 
was  chosen  constitutional  president  For  a 
brief  time  it  seemed  as  if  he  would  be  able  to 
ensure  an  era  of  peace  and  prosperity,  but  it 
Boon  became  apparent  that  he  was  too  aged  and 
infirm  to  cope  with  the  elements  of  corruption 
and  disorder.  A  new  revolution  broke  out  un- 
der General  Arias,  a  chronic  revolutionist  of 
Monte  Christi,  early  in  1916.  When  Arias 
neemed  on  the  point  of  seizing  the  government, 
the  United  States,  which  by  this  time  had  grown 
thoroughly  impatient  with  the  interminable 
civil  disorders  and  their  attendant  destruction 
of  life  and  property  and  harm  to  American  and 
other  foreign  interests  and  had  become  alarmed 
by  the  danger  of  international  complications, 
landed  marines  and  took  control  in  Santo  Do- 
mingo. President  Jiminez,  who  had  approved 
American  intervention  but  had  Income  dismayed 
at  the  turn  of  affairs,  resigned  on  Mav  6,  1916, 
arid  left  the  country,  while  General  Arias  was 
HUinmarily  ousted  by  the  American  commander. 
The  complete  pacification  of  the  interior  by  the 
American  forces  was  rapid  and  without  serious 
opposition  from  the  native  population.  On 
July  25,  the  Dominican  Congress  chose  as  tem- 
porary president  Dr.  Francisco  Heriquez  Carva- 
jal,  a  man  of  outstanding  ability  and  character. 
In  view  of  the  failure  of  the*  1907  treaty  to 
ensure  peace  and  the  security  of  property,  the 
United  States  decided  to  exact  guarantees 
against  the  recurrence  of  disorders  in  the  fu- 
ture and  hence  made  its  recognition  of  Hen- 
riquez  contingent  on  the  conclusion  of  a  new 
American -Dominican  treaty  modeled  after  the 
treaty  signed  between  Haiti  and  the  United 
States  in  1915.  The  principal  features  of  the 
now  treaty  were  to  be  provisions  for  the  col- 
lection of  customs  under  American  supervision, 
the  appointment  of  an  American  financial  ad- 
viser, and  the  installation  of  a  constabulary 
force  officered  by  Americans.  On  the  refusal 
of  President  Henriquez  to  accede  to  this  request, 
on  the  ground  that  the  proposed  treaty  con- 
stituted a  flagrant  infringement  of  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  Dominican  Republic,  the  Amer- 
ican authorities  proceeded  to  compel  compliance 
by  withholding  all  Dominican  revenues  from 
the  government.  This  brought  about  complete 
paralysis  of  the  whole  governmental  machinery. 
When  it  became  apparent  that  President  Hen- 
riquez intended  to  stand  for  reelection  at  the 
expiration  of  his  temporary  term,  with  good 
prospects  of  success,  the  existing  deadlock 
threatened  to  continue  for  an  indefinite  period. 
To  end  an  impossible  situation  the  American 
commander  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  the 
Dominican  Republic  under  the  military  ad- 


ministration of  the  United  States.  Immediate- 
ly thereupon  the  military  government  took  full 
possession  of  the  country,  and  what  little  oppo- 
sition there  was  met  with  rapid  suppression. 

During  the  American  occupation,  Santo  Do- 
mingo enjoyed  a  wholesome  quiet  after  the 
many  years  of  internal  disturbances,  and 
a  notable  improvement  was  made  in  social  and 
economic  conditions.  Most  important  among 
the  many  reforms  were  the  construction  of 
many  miles  of  good  roads,  the  enactment  of  new 
tax  and  revenue  laws,  the  settlement  of  claims 
outstanding  against  the  Dominican  government, 
the  creation  of  an  efficient  police  force,  the 
building  of  new  schools,  and  the  enforcement  of 
strict  sanitary  regulations.  Notwithstanding 
these  obvious  benefits,  the  Dominican  people 
maintained  their  passive  resistance  and  the 
spirit  of  resentment  which  they  had  manifested 
when  they  rallied  around  President  ITenriquez 
in  1916.  Only  the  recognition  of  the  utter 
futility  of  an  armed  conflict  prevented  them 
from  offering  armed  resistance.  No  economic 
betterment  could  in  their  eyes  offset  the  ex- 
istence of  the  hateful  occupation  and  the  dis- 
tasteful occurrences  which  went  with  it.  The 
practical  exclusion  of  the  Dominicans  from  par- 
ticipation in  the  government,  the  overbearing 
conduct  of  many  of  the  American  military  offi- 
cers, the  arbitrariness  of  the  provost  courts, 
reports  of  acts  of  cruelty  and  brutality  on  the 
part  of  American  soldiers,  all  served  to  fan  a 
spirit  of  violent  resentment  and  opposition 
against  the  occupation.  Off  and  on,  loud  pro- 
tests- were  voiced  by  the  Dominicans  against 
American  intervention  and  the  very  consider- 
able loan  which  they  were  pressed  to  float. 

Evacuation  of  the  Dominican  Republic  by 
the  American  forces  was  foreshadowed  by  the 
proclamation  issued  by  the  military  government 
on  Dec.  28,  1920,  stating  that  "the  time  has 
arrived  when  it  (the  military  government)  may, 
with  a  due  sense  of  its  responsibility  to  the 
people  of  the  Dominican  Republic,  inaugurate 
the  simple  process  of  its  rapid  withdrawal  from 
the  responsibilities  assumed  in  connection  with 
Dominican  affairs."  At  the  same  time  it  was 
announced  that  a  commission  of  representative 
Dominicans  with  a  technical  adviser  would  be 
appointed  to  prepare  the  constitutional  amend- 
ments and  to  revise  the  laws  of  the  Republic 
and  that  these  laws,  after  approval  by  the  mil- 
itary government,  would  be  submitted  to  a  con- 
stituent assembly  and  to  the  national  congress. 
On  June  14  a  similar  proclamation  was  issued, 
outlining  the  conditions  under  which  the  with- 
drawal would  bo  made  After  a  long  delay 
due  to  the  refusal  of  the  Dominicans  to  accept 
the  American  conditions,  an  American-Domin- 
ican accord  was  signed  on  June  30,  1922,  which, 
aside  from  the  establishment  of  a  provisional 
government,  stipulated  that  a  treaty  should  be 
concluded  between  the  United  States  and  the 
new  Dominican  government,  whereby  the  latter 
should  recognize  the  validity  of  all  acts  of  the 
American  military  government  during  the  occu- 
pation, of  the  bond  issues  of  1918  and  1922, 
and  of  the  convention  of  1907,  the  latter  to  re- 
main in  effect  for  the  time  during  which  the 
1918  and  1922  bond  issues  remained  unpaid. 
Pending  the  establishment  of  a  permanent  gov- 
ernment, Juan  Bautista  Vicini  Burgos  assumed 
office  as  provisional  president  on  Oct.  21,  1922. 
Subsequently  Gen.  Horatio  Vasquez,  who  was 
perhaps  the  outstanding  figure  in  Dominican  po- 


SABAWAK 


1176 


SAULT  8AINTE  MABIE 


litical  life,  was  elected  constitutional  president. 
On  June  20,  1924,  the  Dominican  Congress  rat- 
ified the  treaty  with  the  United  States  which 
provided  for  the  withdrawal  of  the  American 
forces,  and  simultaneously  it  was  announced 
from  Washington  that  the  withdrawal  would 
commence  as  soon  as  possible  after  July  10, 
1924 

SARAWAK.    See   STRAITS    SETTLEMENTS. 

SABAZEN,  EUGKNK  (  »-  ).  Profes- 
sional golf  player.  He  learned  the  game  as  a 
caddy  and  in  1922  captured  the  American  open 
championship  and  followed  this  up  a  few  weeks 
later  by  carrying  off  the  honors  in  the  Amer- 
ican professional  championship.  He  success- 
fully defended  his  professional  title  in  1923. 

SARGENT,  JOHN  SINGER  (1850-1925)  An 
Anglo-American  artist  ( sec  VOL.  XX ) .  His  por- 
trait of  Henry  James  was  one  of  the  paintings 
attacked  by  the  suffragettes  in  London  in  1914. 
The  third  series  of  his  mural  decorations  in  the 
Boston  Public  Library,  finished  in  1916,  was 
entitled  "The  Theme  of  the  Madonna."  He 
made  several  paintings  of  scenes  on  the  western 
front  during  the  War.  His  large  picture, 
"Gassed,"  in  the  Royal  Academy,  attracted 
great  attention.  In  November,  1921,  his  deco- 
rations in  the  rotunda  of  the  Boston  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts  were  unveiled. 

SARRAIL,  MAURICE  (1856-  ).  A  French 
general  (see  VOL.  XX).  At  the  beginning  of 
the  War  he  commanded  the  6th  Corps,  and  on 
Sept.  2,  1914,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  3d  Army.  At  Verdun,  although  authorized 
and  even  commanded  to  fall  back,  he  held  his 
army  on  the  northwestern  front,  which  helped 
to  make  Jofifre's  counterattack  possible.  He 
later  became  commander-in-chief  of  all  the 
Allied  forces  in  the  East  but  was  recalled  to 
France  in  1917,  and  in  April,  1918,  he  was  put 
on  the  reserve  list  as  having  reached  the  age 
limit.  Soon  after  the  end  of  the  War  he  pub- 
lished an  account  of  the  Salon iki  operations, 
under  the  title,  Mon  Command  cm  en  t  en  Orient. 

SABTORIUS  VON  WALTERSHAUSEN, 
AUGVST,  BARON  (1831-  ).  A  German  econ- 
omist (see  VOL.  XX).  He  published  Der  Para- 
graph 11  dcs  Frankfurter  Friedcns  (1915); 
Weltwirtschaft  und  Weltkrieg  (1915);  Deutsch- 
land  und  die  Weltwirtscliafi  nach  dem  Kriege 
(1922);  and  continued  his  Deutschlands  Wirt- 
3cliafl8(ic8clncntc  from  1913  to  1920. 

SASKATCHEWAN.  A  Canadian  Province, 
with  an  area  of  251,700  square  miles,  and  a 
population  in  1921  of  757,510.  The  latter  was 
a  gain  of  265,078  or  53.8  per  cent  over  the  fig- 
ures for  1911.  Of  the  population  in  1921,  538,- 
552  (71  1  per  cent)  lived  in  rural  districts  and 
218,958  in  urban.  In  1921,  males  numbered 
413,700  and  females  343,810.  Settlers  of  Amer- 
ican origin  in  1916  numbered  87,907.  There 
were  considerable  colonies  of  Germans,  Austri- 
ans,  Scandinavians,  Russians,  and  Dutch.  Pop- 
ulations of  the  larger  towns  in  1921  were:  Re- 
gina,  the  capital,  34,432;  Moose  Jaw,  19,285; 
Saskatoon,  25,739;  Prince  Albert,  7558. 

Industry.  Because  of  the  prairie  nature  of 
the  country,  agriculture  was  the  leading  occupa- 
tion. By  1923  the  acreage  devoted  to  wheat 
had  increased  to  12,791,000  acres  from  the 
5,720,000  acres  in  1912.  Saskatchewan  was  the 
leading  wheat-producing  Province.  The  acre- 
age under  oats,  barley,  rye,  potatoes,  also 
doubled  at  least  during  the  period.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  diversified  farming  practiced  and 


the  attention  given  to  root  crops,  etc.,  the  live 
stock  industry  thrived.  In  1923  there  were 
403,813  milch  cows  (204,624  in  1914),  1,131,- 
274  other  cattle  (474,436  in  1914),  137,240 
sheep  (126,027  in  1914),  679,867  swine  (454,- 
703  in  1914).  The  value  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts for  1923  was  $291,439,000,  as  follows:  field 
crops,  $248,778,000;  dairy  products,  $19,366,000 
(compare  the  1910  product  of  $381,809);  wool 
clip,  $142,000;  game  and  furs,  $7000;  garden 
products,  $2,461,000;  poultry  and  products, 
$8,670,000.  tinder  the  spur  of  an  enlightened 
self-interest,  farmer  organizations  applied  them- 
selves to  cooperative  grazing  schemes  and  co- 
operative elevators.  In  1922,  332  elevators 
handled  a  total  of  37,335,337  bushels  of  all 
grains.  The  extensiveness  of  the  idea  may  be 
gained  from  the  fact  that  shares  in  these  enter- 
prises were  held  by  23,014  persons.  Other  in- 
dustries yielded:  fish  catch  (1921),  $243,018; 
coal,  (1922)  $802,053  In  1921,  there  were 
2027  industrial  establishments,  concerning 
themselves  primarily  with  milling  and  building 
operations,  capitalized  at  $34,794,506  and  add- 
ing to  products  by  manufacture,  $20,723,666. 
Employees  numbered  7235;  salaries  and  wages 
paid,  $8,842,286.  The  water-power  resources 
were  estimated  at  513,481  horwe  power  but  by 
1922  practically  none  of  this  had  been  utili/ed. 

Trade  and  Communications.  Animal  prod- 
ucts and  grains  were  the  Province's  leading  ex- 
ports. Expoits  for  1922-23  amounted  to  $12,- 
777,000;  imports,  $10,716,000.  In  1922  there 
were  6267  miles  of  railway  in  operation  as  com- 
pared with  r>(>r>4  miles  in  1914. 

Government.  Revenues  for  1921-22  totaled 
$11,801,894  as  compared  with  $4,60S,7f>4  in 
1913;  expenditures  for  1913  and  1921-22  were 
$4,656,800  and  #13,322,1 19.  In  1922,  in  the 
4543  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  183,935 
pupils  were  enrolled  (99,109 '  pupils  in  1913). 
High  schools  were  attended  by  5627  pupils. 
Total  expenditures  for  education  in  1913,  $S,- 
787,904;  in  1921,  $15,612,331.  The  provincial 
representation  in  the  Dominion  Senate  was  in- 
creased to  six  members.  For  1920-21,  receipts 
from  the  Dominion  government  (subsidy  and 
school  lands)  amounted  to  $3,088,640.  Women 
received  the  franchise  in  1916  and  were  made 
eligible  for  election  to  the  provincial  legislature. 

SATELLITES.     See    ASTRONOMY. 

SATIE,  ERIK  (1866-1925).  A  French  com- 
poser, born  at  Honfleur,  France.  Although  he 
received  musical  instruction  from  the  age  of 
eight,  and  had  good  teachers,  be  neglected  his 
opportunities.  After  leaving  the  Paris  Con- 
Hervatory,  where  he  was  regarded  as  hopeless, 
he  played  in  various  cabarets  in  Montmartro 
until  about  1890  He  then  met  Josephin  Pela- 
dan,  a  writer  and  leader  of  a  mystic  cult,  the 
Salon  de  la  Rose-Oroix,  which  he  joined  in 
1892.  The  next  two  years  he  spent  writing  in- 
cidental music  for  the  plays  of  Peladan  and 
other  members  of  the  salon,  and  thug  began  to 
realize  the  inadequacy  of  his  technical  equip- 
ment. He  entered  the  Schola  Cantorum,  and 
nothing  was  heard  of  him  until  1911,  when 
Ravel  played  some  of  his  piano  pieces.  Satie 
began  as  an  extreme  impressionist  and  rapidly 
drifted  into  Futurism.  He  wrote  mainly  for 
piano,  his  works  being  as  eccentric  and  extrava- 
gant as  their  titles  (e.g.  Aperguea  Dfaagrtables, 
En  Forme  de  Poire,  Pieces  Froides,  etc.).  He 
also  wrote  two  ballets,  Upsud  and  Quadrille. 

SAULT  SAINTE  MABIE,  CANALS  AT.    In 


8AUVJCUB 


xi77 


SAXONY 


1014  the  United  States  St.  Mary's  Falls  Canal 
bad  its  facilities  increased  by  tbe  completion 
of  a  third  lock,  known  as  tbe  Davis  lock,  which 
was  opened  to  commerce  on  October  21.  This 
lock  was  1350  feet  in  length  between  gates,  with 
a  usable  length  of  1300  feet,  and  had  a  width 
of  80  feet  and  a  minimum  depth  of  24.5  feet  over 
the  sill.  This  lock  was  a  part  of  a  new  sep- 
arate canal  on  the  American  side  with  a  width 
of  200  to  300  feet  and  by  its  increased  depth 
made  it  unnecessary  for  the  heaviest  draft 
vessels  to  use  the  Canadian  canal  as  was  pre- 
viously sometimes  required,  for  there  was  only 
about  18%  feet  at  low  water  through  the  Poe 
or  second  American  lock.  The  new  canal  was 
crossed  by  a  long  bascule  bridge  carrying  a 
railway  track.  Another  feature  of  this  canal 
was  a  fourth  lock,  of  the  same  dimensions  as 
tbe  third.  This  fourth  or  Sabin  lock,  named 
for  the  general  manager  of  tbe  canal,  L.  0. 
Sabin,  was  completed  after  various  delays  due 
to  tbe  War  and  opened  to  traffic  on  Sept.  18, 
1019.  It  is  operated  by  electricity  and  but  8 
minutes  are  required  to  raise  or  lower  tbe 
craft  in  the  lock  a  distance  of  20  feet  Two 
of  the  largest  lake  freighters  can  be  accommo- 
dated tandem  on  these  long  locks.  In  191(5  a 
record  was  made  of  25,407  vessels  with  a  reg- 
istered net  tonnage  of  69,824,403  passing 
thiough  the  American  and  Canadian  canals 
with  a  total  of  91,888,219  tons  of  freight.  This 
record  can  be  compared  witb  tbe  statistics  for 
1923  when  21,975  vessels  passed  through  tbe 
canals  with  a  net  tonnage  of  68,546,412  and  91,- 
37!M*r>8  tons  of  freight. 

SAUVEUR,  ALHERT  (1863-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican metallurgist  (see  VOL.  XX).  He  was 
metallurgist  attached  to  tbe  American  Aviation 
Commission  in  France  during  1917-19  and  was 
appointed  metallurgical  expert  to  the  French 
Ministry  of  Munitions  in  1917. 

SAVOY,  UPPER     See  SWITZERLAND. 

SAWYER,  KOLAND  DOUGLAS  (1874-  ). 
An  American  clergyman,  born  at  Kensington, 
N.  H.,  and  educated  at  Boston  University.  Bo- 
Hides  bis  ministerial  duties,  he  conducted  a  cru- 
sade against  profanity  during  1902—07,  and  or- 
ganized the  Anti-Profanity  League.  He  was 
also  active  in  Socialist  politics,  lectured  for  tbe 
Socialist  party,  and  was  Socialist  candidate  for 
governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1912  He  was 
elected  to  tbe  Massachusetts  Legislature  on  the 
Democratic  ticket  in  1914  and  was  reflected  till 
1921.  His  writings  include:  The  Making  of  a 
ftorialist  (1911);  Nodal  Science  of  Jesus 
(1912);  Walt  Whitman,  the  Prophet  Poet 
(1913);  'Neath  Rvayinii  Pines  (1916);  Thor- 
eau,  New  England  'Philosopher  (1917);  The 
Great  Teachers  of  Wisdom  and  Virtue  (1920)  ; 
etc.  

SAWYER,  RUTH  (MRS.  ALBERT  C.  DURAND) 
(1880-  ).  An  American  author,  born  at 
Boston,  and  educated  at  Columbia  University. 
In  1908  she  began  professional  story  telling  and 
later  wrote  short  stories,  particularly  Irish  folk 
talcs.  She  wrote:  The  Primrose  King  (1915)  ; 
Seven  Miles  to  Arden  (1916);  Myself  (1917); 
A  Child's  Tear  Book  (1917);  Doctor  Dannif 
(1918);  Leerie  (1920);  The  Silver  Sixpence 
(1921);  OladioJa  Murphy  (1923);  Tale  of  the 
Enchanted  Bunnies  (1923). 

SAXONY.  The  internal  situation  in  Saxony 
remained  comparatively  calm  during  tbe  first 
years  of  the  War.  In  1917,  however,  it  assumed 
a  disquieting  aspect,  and  a  strong  movement 


for  internal  reform  and  an  early  peace  began. 
It  accumulated  force  during  the  following  year 
and  brought  about  the  fall  of  the  government 
in  October,  1918.  The  career  of  the  succeeding 
government,  the  TTeinze  ministry,  was  cut  short 
by  the  November  revolution,  in  the  course  of 
which  King  Friedricli  August  abdicated  and  a 
republic  was  proclaimed.  During  the  confu- 
sion of  the  early  revolutionary  period,  the  gov- 
ernment was  in  the  hands  of  People's  Commis- 
sioners representing  tbe  extreme  Socialists,  but 
after  tbe  disturbances  and  upheaval  of  .Jan- 
uary, 1919,  tbe  reins  of  government  were  taken 
over  by  the  Majority  Socialists.  The  radicals 
in  tbe  country,  which  long  before  bad  earned 
for  itself  the  sobriquet  of  "Ked  Saxony,"  were 
not  willing,  however,  to  relinquish  tbe  reali/a- 
tion  of  their  dreams  without  a  serious  struggle. 
New  risings  took  place  and  after  a  series  of 
sanguinary  conflicts*  a  Soviet  republic  was  de- 
clared in  Leipzig  during  April,  1919,  which  was 
crushed  by  the  Reichswehr  during  the  following 
month.  Thereupon  Saxony  entered  into  a  more 
peaceful  period  until  the  Kapp  Putsch,  which 
threw  the  country  once  more  into  violent  dis- 
order. Serious  communist  risings  occurred 
throughout  Saxony  and  especially  in  the  Vogt- 
land,  where  tbe  communist  bandit.  Max  Holz, 
ruled  for  a  while  in  a  Robin  Hood  manner. 
Again  the  Reichswehr  had  to  be  called  in  to  re- 
establish the  authority  of  the  Dresden  govern- 
ment. At  this  time  the  ministry,  consisting, 
since  October,  1919,  of  a  coalition  of  Majority 
Socialists  and  Democrats,  was  replaced  by  a 
coalition  of  the  two  Socialist  parties  A  new 
constitution  was  adopted  on  Oct.  26,  1920,  and 
in  accordance  with  its  provisions  elections  for 
the  Diet  were  held  during  the  following  month, 
which  cut  the  representation  of  the  Majority 
Socialists  by  nearly  one-half  The  Majority 
Socialists  obtained  only  27  seats  against  47  for 
the  bourgeois  parties  but  the  combined  popular 
vote  for  the  former  two  Socialist  parties  was 
1,029,083  against  1,011,108  for  the  bourgeois 
groups.  In  consequence  of  their  increased  rep- 
resentation, the  latter  were  able  to  maintain  a 
vigorous  parliamentary  opposition  against  the 
Socialist  government. 

After  a  period  of  comparative  calm  in  1921 
and  1922,  "Red  Saxony"  came  once  more  into 
the  limelight  in  the  fall  of  1923,  at  a  time  when 
the  Reich  was  in  a  very  critical  situation  and 
reaction  and  monarchist)]  were  rampant  in  the 
neighboring  state  of  Bavaria  Ostensibly  as  a 
counter-movement  against  the  peril  of  Bavarian 
nationalism,  the  Socialists  received  avowed  com- 
munists into  the  cabinet  and  "Proletarian  Hun- 
dreds" were  organized  to  fight  reaction  and  to 
spread  revolutionary  terror.  This  action  soon 
brought  the  Saxon  Prime  Minister,  Dr.  Zeig- 
ner,  into  conflict  with  the  Reichswebr  and  the 
Minister  of  National  Defense  for  the  Reich. 
When  the  Saxon  Minister  of  Finance,  Dr.  Bo'tt- 
cher,  who  was  an  out  and  out  communist,  called 
on  the  ''Proletarian  Hundreds"  to  arm,  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Reich  decided  to  take  action. 
The  commander  of  the  Reichswehr  in  Saxony 
demanded  from  Dr.  Zeigner  the  dismissal  of 
the  communist  ministers  and  the  submission  of 
Saxony  to  the  authority  of  the  Reich.  Upon 
the  refusal  of  the  Saxon  Premier  to  comply  with 
these  demands  tbe  Reichswehr  marched  into 
Saxony  on  Oct.  22,  1923,  and  tbe  whole  Zeig- 
ner ministry  was  dismissed.  The  central  gov- 
ernment installed  thereupon  a  moderate  So* 


SAYLEB 


1178 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITBBATTTBB 


cialist  ministry.  Dr.  Zeigner  wa»  subsequently 
brought  to  trial  for  private  offenses  committed 
While  in  office. 

The  result  of  the  suppression  of  radical  so- 
cialism in  "Red  Saxony"  was  on  the  one  hand 
a  consolidation  of  the  communist  elements  and 
on  the  other  the  discrediting  of  moderate  so- 
cialism and  a  considerable  shift  to  the  Bight. 
In  the  municipal  elections  of  Jan.  13,  1924,  the 
Social  Democrats  suffered  defeat  at  the  hands 
of  the  bourgeois  parties  In  the  course  of  1024, 
the  internal  situation  in  Saxony,  as  elsewhere 
in  the  Reich,  improved  materially,  notwith- 
standing the  serious  lockouts  in  Chemnitz  and 
Zwickau  in  the  early  summer,  which  were  part 
of  an  extended  conflict  in  the  Reich  between  em- 
ployers and  workers  over  the  lengthening  of 
work  hours. 

SAYLEB,  OLIVER  MARTIN  (1887-  ).  An 
American  dramatic  critic  born  in  Huntington, 
Ind.  He  was  graduated  from  Oberlin  College, 
Ohio,  in  1900,  and  during  1900-20  worked  on 
the  Indianapolis  Xews  After  1915  he  was  cor- 
respondent for  the  Boston  Evening  Transcript. 
He  studied  the  theatres  of  Europe  and  gave  ex- 
tended lectures  on  Russia  and  on  the  theatre. 
He  is  the  author  of  Russia,  White  or  Red 
(1010)  ;  The  Russian  Theatre  under  the  Revolu- 
tion (1020);  Our  American  Theatre,  a  com- 
prehensive study  of  the  condition  of  the  theatre 
in  the  United  *  States  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  producer,  actor,  audience,  and  stage 
technician 

SAZONOV,  SEBGIUS  DMITRIEVITCH  (1866- 
).  A  Russian  statesman.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Alexandrovsky  Lycee,  and  although 
convinced  of  the  necessity  of  reforms,  he  never- 
theless supported  the  'old  order.  His  first 
diplomatic  post  was  that  of  Counselor  of  the 
Embassy  in  London,  where  he  assisted  Count 
Benckendorff  in  cementing  friendship  between 
his  country  and  Great  Britain.  Afterward  he 
was  Russian  Minister  at  the  Vatican  and  later 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  St.  Petersburg, 
at  a  time  when  Russia  was  disentangling  her- 
self from  the  aggressive  policy  of  Germany. 
Sazonov  showed  patience,  skill,  and  firmness  in 
resisting  German  pressure  without  giving  of- 
fense, at  the  same  time  strengthening  the  bonds 
uniting  Russia  and  Great  Britain.  With  the 
Czar  he  did  his  utmost  to  avert  the  War,  but 
when  it  came  he  proved  loyal  throughout  to 
the  Entente  cause.  He  opposed  assumption  of 
the  army  command  by  the  Czar  and  also  sought 
to  placate  the  Poles  by  home  rule.  This  last 
measure  was  countermanded,  and  Sazonov  was 
dismissed  After  the  revolution  of  March,  1017, 
it  was  planned  to  send  him  to  London  to  rep- 
resent the  provisional  government,  but  the  fall 
of  Milyukov  defeated  the  project.  Kolchak 
made  him  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and  he 
made  an  unsuccessful  trip  to  London  to  win 
recognition  of  Russia. 

SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE.  Dan- 
ish. JChann  Sigurj6nsson,  who  died  in  1919, 
held  the  foremost  rank  among  twentieth  cen- 
tury Danish-Icelandic  dramatists  His  plays, 
based  on  Icelandic  history  and  legend,  show  a 
strong  love  for  Icelandic  nature  and  Icelandic 
character,  both  of  saga  and  contemporary  times. 
Henri  Nathan  sen  was  generally  considered  the 
greatest  Danish  dramatist  of  the  day.  One  of 
his  favorite  themes  is  the  contrast  between  Jew 
and  Gentile.  Einar  Christiansen  writes  some- 
what in  the  manner  of  Ibsen.  Like  Otto  Ben- 


son, he  often  portrays  the  conflict  between  the 
old  and  the  new. 

Among  the  poets,  Ludvig  Holstein,  although 
a  lyricist,  usually  conceals  his  own  personality. 
His  poetry  often  expresses  a  love  for  nature, 
particularly  spring.  Johannes  Jorgensen  was 
considered  by  some  the  greatest  living  Danish 
poet.  A  Catholic  convert,  he  gives  expression 
in  his  poetry  as  well  as  in  his  prose  to  his  soul 
experiences  and  religious  sentiments.  L.  C. 
Nielsen  was  attempting  to  create  a  modern  na- 
tional poetry.  He  is  the  writer  of  a  number  of 
cantatas  of  great  power  and  is  the  interpreter 
of  the  lonely,  the  wanderer,  and  the  lover.  In 
the  poetry  of  Kai  Hoffmann  is  seen  a  love  for 
life  and  for  everything  living.  Olaf  II  an  sen's 
is  largely  poetry  of  reminiscence  Other  poets 
of  note  are  Sophus  Claussen  and  Th0ger  Lar- 
sen. 

Danish  fiction  suffered  a  great  loss  in  the 
death  of  Jakob  Knudsen  in  1017.  Johannes  V. 
Jensen  was  one  of  the  foremost  writers  of  Den- 
mark. Influenced  at  times  by  Walt  Whitman, 
and  a  strong  believer  in  the  Houndnebs  of  north- 
ern life  and  tradition,  Jensen  became  interested 
in  a  Gothic  renaissance  In  his  later  works 
(Brwen,  Xorne-Gcest,  Kongens  Fald),  he  pic- 
tures Danish  life,  particularly  from  Viking 
times.  Otto  Rung  is  characterized  by  his  clear 
and  firm  thinking,  his  original  interpretation 
of  human  nature,  his  thrilling  action,  and  his 
subtle  psychology.  A  writer  touching  on  so- 
cial conditions  is  Henrik  Pontoppidan.  He 
does  not  preach ;  yet  his  sympathies  are  clearly 
with  the  under  class,  tiia  series,  DC  Djdes 
Rigs,  beginning  with  Torben  og  Jytte  and  end- 
ing with  Favsingholm,  portrays  different 
phases  of  the  struggle  between  the  people  and 
their  oppressors.  Martin  Andersen  Rextf  is 
another  writer  interested  in  social  problems. 
Among  his  later  works  may  be  mentioned  Dittc 
Menneskebam,  a  series  treating  the  history  of 
a  family  and  constructed  on  large  lines,  and 
Pelle  Eroberen,  the  story  of  a  poor  boy  who 
grows  up  to  be  a  leader  of  the  workingincn. 
More  strongly  felt  are  the  tendencies  toward 
preaching  a  social  gospel  in  the  works  of  Jeppe 
Aakjaer,  whose  Boor  der  er  Gcercndc  Krccfter 
may  be  interpreted  as  warning  the  leisure  class 
against  a  possible  rebellion  of  the  peasants. 
In  Jens  Langkniv,  Aakjoer  tries  to  portray  in 
a  single  village  the  general  history  of  Denmark. 
His  stories  usually  centre  around  a  character, 
a  cause,  or  a  view  of  life.  Karl  Gjellerup,  who 
died  in  1010,  was  originally  a  theologian  and 
then  went  over  to  a  rationalistic  view  of  life, 
to  end  up  with  an  ethical-religious  philosophy 
In  his  novels,  Gjellerup's  learning  often  seems 
oppressive  and  distracts  from  his  story.  His 
Den  Qyldne  Qren  depicts  the  conflict  between 
heathendom  and  Christianity.  Kund  Hjort0 
finds  his  strength  in  his  keen  perceptions  as  a 
philologian  and  a  psychologist.  Of  his  later 
works  may  be  mentioned  the  novels  Fru  Herba 
and  Tvelys,  and  the  collection  of  short  stories, 
Ud  for  Skrcenten.  Of  the  Icelandic  immigrants 
writing  in  Danish,  the  most  important  is  Gun- 
nar  Gunnarsson,  who  shows  vividly  the  dis- 
harmony, the  gloom,  and  the  passion  of  the 
soul-life  of  the  Icelander,  and  also  his  lighter 
mood  Among  his  works  are  the  series  Borgs- 
Icegten  Varg  i  Veum,  Edbrjdre,  which  goes 
back  to  early  times,  and  Salige  er  de  Enfoldige. 

In  linguistics,  Otto  Jespersen  held  a  prom- 
Inept  place  not  only  in  Denmark  but  in  the 


SCANDINAVIAN  LITEBATUBE        u79         SCANDINAVIAN  LITBBATTJBE 


world.  In  the  field  of  literary  criticism  should 
be  mentioned  Georg  Brandes,  who  in  addition 
to  Scandinavian  has  treated  other  literatures, 
ancient  as  well  as  modern;  Vilhelm  Andersen; 
and  Valdemar  Vedel. 

Norwegian.  Gunnar  Heiberg  was  considered 
the  greatest  Norwegian  dramatist  of  the  period. 
His  strength  lies  in  the  portrayal  of  strong 
sentiments  and  feelings.  Another  outstanding 
playwright  was  Hans  E.  Kinck.  The  drama 
also  received  contributions  from  others  whose 
chief  work  lies  outside  this  field,  such  as  Her- 
man Vildenvey,  Nils  Kjaer,  Vilhelm  Krag,  and 
Johan  Bojer. 

Norwegian  poetry,  even  when  written  in 
Landsmaal,  has  retained  many  of  the  Danish 
characteristics  and  in  general  shows  foreign 
influence.  In  spite,  however,  of  its  lack  of  a 
distinctly  national  character,  it  is  very  strong. 
In  the  period  under  review,  foremost  among 
lyric  poets  stood  Olaf  Bull,  who  expresses  feel- 
ings for  nature  and  love  with  exquisite  tender- 
ness, and  Nils  Collett  Vogt,  who  is  strongly 
subjective  and  \\hoae  Hjemkomftt  is  his  ripest 
and  deepest  poetry.  Oilier  noted  lyricists  were 
Vilhelm  Krag,  the  repiesentathe  of  neoroman- 
ticism,  and  Knut  Hamsun,  whose  main  field, 
however,  is  the  novel  Herman  Vildenvey  owed 
his  popularity  to  his  roguish  humor.  Among 
poets  writing  in  Lamlsmaal  were  Olaf  An- 
krust,  whose  JJimmclvardcn  is  one  of  the  best 
poeinn  in  Landsinaal  literature,  and  KristofTer 
rppdal,  who  comes  nearest  to  writing  a 
ujitioiial  poetry  and  whose  verse  in  general  is 
fiee  from  the  Danish  characteristics  noted 
abo\  e. 

Hans  E.  Kinck  was  regarded  by  some  as  the 
most  important  living  Norwegian  author.  At 
heart  a  lomanUcitjt,  he  is  yet  interested  in  the 
woild  of  reality  and  its  problems.  In  the  field 
of  fiction,  his  tfucnkailen  Brast,  a  novel  built 
on  \ery  broad  lines  and  strong  in  social  psy- 
chology, is  an  epoch-making  work.  Nils  Col- 
lett Vogt,  besides  being  a  novelist,  is  a  dram- 
atist and  a  poet.  Johan  Bojer,  whose  Den  titore 
Hunger  made  him  known  internationally,  up- 
holds idealism  against  materialism  and  gen- 
erally shows  the  victory  of  optimism  over  pes- 
simism. Another  novelist  known  outside  of 
Norway  is  Knut  Hamsun,  whose  Markens 
6Y0C/C,  expressing  the  dream  of  an  ideal  state 
in  nature,  seems  a  reaction  against  the  War. 
The  best-known  woman  writer  of  the  period 
was  Sigrid  Undset,  whose  Kristin  Lavransdat- 
tcr  gives  in  three  volumes  the  story  from  child- 
hood to  death  of  a  fourteenth  century  girl. 
Sigrid  Undset  is  particularly  interested  in  the 
problems  of  her  own  sex.  The  same  is  true  of 
Barbra  Ring,  author  of  Fjr  Kuldenkommer, 
Under  ticjl,  titslre,  etc.,  who  treats  woman's 
side  of  married  life  and  evinces  a  love  for  the 
soil  and  the  agrarian  class.  Kristian  Elstcr, 
in  his  works  Landeveien,  Ildcn,  (Juldct  og  de 
(Jrfnne  tikoger,  etc.,  protests  against  existing 
conditions  and  the  prevailing  philosophy  of 
life.  Among  prominent  novelists  should  also  be 
mentioned  Gabriel  Scott  and  Johan  Fredrik 
Vinsnes.  Of  Landsmaal  writers  we  may  note 
Arne  Garborg,  also  a  poet,  the  leader  of  the 
Landsmaal  movement;  Oskar  Braaten,  who  is 
particularly  interested  in  life  among  the  poorer 
classes;  Kristoffer  Uppdal,  who  even  in  his 
prose  evinces  strongly  lyric  tendencies;  and 
Olaf  Diiun,  who  shows  an  intimate  knowledge 
of  peasant  life. 


Halvdan  Koht  is  a  scholarly  writer  on  his- 
torical and  literary  subjects.  Among  literary 
critics  should  be  mentioned  Gerhard  Gran,  the 
editor  of  Edda,  founded  in  1914;  Christen  Col- 
lin,  and  Fredrik  Paasche. 

Swedish.  The  Swedihh  drama  was  not  very 
strong  during  this  period  The  theatre  drew 
largely  on  foreign  and  earlier  Swedish  plays. 
Among  the  best  contemporary  dramatists  were 
Tor  Iledberg,  who  also  excelled  in  other  fields 
of  literature,  and  Per  Hallstrb'm. 

The  greatest  living  Swedish  poet  was 
Verner  von  Heidenstam.  He  is  an  idealist,  fond 
of  portraying  the  conflict  between  good  and 
evil  and  interested  in  Swedish  history  and  its 
heroes.  Through  his  poetry  breathes  the  spirit 
of  patriotism,  which  is,  however,  laigely  an 
extension  of  his  love  for  his  birthplace.  In 
addition  to  being  a  poet,  Heidenstam  wrote  sev- 
eral novels,  particularly  on  historical  subjects; 
these  antedated  1014.  Matts  Magni  (Jran- 
Btro'm  at  times  shows  the  influence  of  Runeberg. 
He  emphasizes  the  spiritual  and  touches  on  the 
relation  between  the  subjective  and  the  objec- 
tive and  on  man's  intimate  connection  with  na- 
ture. Among  his  works  may  be  mentioned 
Visor  i  Byn  and  11  at  och  Karlck.  Daniel 
Fallstrorn  is  a  writer  of  love-lyrics;  he  also 
describes  nature,  particularly  the  surroundings 
of  Stockholm.  Swedish  lyric  poetry  was  strong- 
ly represented  in  Finland  In  this  connection 
four  men  were  outstanding.  Preeminent  among 
these  was  Bertel  Gri  pen  berg,  a  portiayer  of 
strong  feelings,  hate  as  well  as  love.  His  verses 
are  full  of  the  spirit  of  fight  Among  his  later 
works  we  may  mention  the  collection  Under 
Fanan,  written  under  the  inspiration  of  the 
civil  war  in  Finland.  Jacob  Tegengrcn  is  deep- 
ly sensitive  to  nature,  particularly  to  its  spring 
and  summer.  He  is  quiet  and  dreamy,  the 
melancholy  of  his  earlier  years  having  given 
way  to  a  more  jo\ful  tone.  Among  his  later 
poems  may  be  noted  "Ny  var."  Arvid  Murne's 
poetry  is  often  inspiied  by  a  love  for  his  native 
place,  its  nature,  and  its  people.  But  Morne  is 
also  an  agitator,  fighting  now  for  this  cause, 
now  for  that,  this  often  gives  his  poetry  an 
argumentative  coloring.  lie  has  also  shown 
ability  in  the  drama  and  novel.  Hjalmar  Pro- 
cope',  the  last  of  the  Swedish  writers  in  Finland 
to  be  mentioned  here,  has  no  definite  philosophy 
of  life  His  poetry  is  quiet  and  characterized 
by  a  mild  and  manly  resignation. 

The  author  who  was  considered  by  most  critics 
the  greatest  living  writer  of  Swedish  fiction  waa 
Hjalmar  Soderbcrg.  The  chief  strain  running 
through  his  works  is  pessimism.  His  irony  and 
wit  as  well  as  certain  features  of  his  technique 
show  French  influence.  Next  in  rank  is  Per 
Hallstroin,  also  a  dramatist,  whose  \\orks  show  a 
very  strong  power  of  imagination  and  keen 
psychological  insight.  Selma  Lagerlof  is  an 
extremely  popular  author,  well  known  also  out- 
side of  Sweden.  Her  work  is  characterized  by 
a  rich  imagination,  a  lovo  for  her  native  prov- 
ince of  Vhrinland,  a  strong  power  of  story -tell- 
ing, and  a  wholesome  moral  tone.  Best  known 
of  her  works  is  (lost a  Kcrlings  Saga;  of  her 
later  works  we  may  mention  Kcjsaren  av  Port- 
ugallien,  llannlyst,  and  Murbacka.  K.  G.  Os- 
siannilsson,  who  is  also  a  poet,  is  interested  in 
the  problems  of  society,  particularly  in  class 
struggles.  Marika  Stjernstedt  is  interested  in 
her  own  sex,  especially  in  the  strong,  independ- 
ent woman  placed  in  contrast  with  her  weak 


SCAPA  FLOW 


1180 


SCHEIDEMANN 


and  submissive  slater.  Some  of  her  late  books 
are  Aventyrcnsland;  En  Officershistoria ;  Varl- 
dcn  och  Stjurnorna,  picturing  the  attainment  of 
peace  through  struggle;  and  Bakom  Diskcn. 
Piir  Lagerkvist  is  an  author  whose  place  has 
not  yet  been  determined.  He  leans  somewhat 
toward  impressionism,  is  strongly  original,  and 
lias  a  very  productive  imagination.  Among 
his  late  books  may  be  mentioned  Det  Eviga 
Leendet  and  Den  'Lycklit/csvau.  Martin  Koch 
is  a  writer  with  a  social  message.  He  shows 
strong  sympathy  for  the  lower  classes,  whose 
lives  he  likes  to  depict,  as  seen  in  Guds  Vackra 
Varld  and  Anteckningar  PA  Itavet.  In  religion 
he  favors  an  everyday  practical  faith  rather 
than  dogmatism  and  formalism.  Elin  \VUg- 
ner  generally  has  a  thesis  in  her  works,  al- 
though in  her  later  books  she  leans  somewhat 
to  the  novel  of  character.  Among  these  later 
works  are  Helga  Wisbcck,  Lakare ;  Den  Befriadc 
Kurlcken,  and  Den  Xamnlosa,  the  last-named 
showing  the  influence  of  Strindberg  and  Dost- 
oyevsky.  Henning  Berger  is  especially  fond  of 
the  emigrant  to  America  whom  lie  treats  in  sev- 
eral of  his  stories.  His  characters  usually  have 
something  of  the  legendary,  and  in  general  his 
novels  are  permeated  by  a  note  of  earnestness 
and  melancholy.  Tor  Hedberg  is  one  of  the 
strong  writers,  not  only  of  fiction  but  also  of 
drama,  poetry,  and  criticism.  Sven  Lidnian  is 
interested  in*  memories  and  traditions.  Of  his 
later  woiks  may  be  mentioned  Unset  med  dc 
Gamla  Froknama  and  Rusom  Gcnom  £/</. 
Among  humorists  should  be  mentioned  Albert 
Engstrom,  whose  humor  and  keen  understanding 
of  Swedish  character  made  him  a  favorite  with 
the  people,  and  Hjalmar  Bergman,  whose  Mark- 
urells  i  Wadkoping  carried  him  to  the  height 
of  popularity. 

Nathan  Soderblom,  the  archbishop  of  Sweden, 
contributed  to  the  subject  of  religion,  its  origin, 
development,  etc.  Adolf  Noreen  had  become  in- 
ternationally known  for  his  linguistic  investiga- 
tions. Among  literary  critics  were  Henrik 
Schllck,  Karl  Warburg,  John  Landquist,  and 
Fredrik  Book. 

SCAPA  FLOW.  A  small  body  of  water  near- 
ly enclosed  by  the  Orkney  Islands,  about  14 
miles  long  varying  from  3  to  8  miles  in  width. 
The  principal  channels  leading  out  are  through 
Hoy  Sound  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  through 
Holm  Sound  into  the  North  Sea.  Each  is  about 
2  miles  wide.  The  best  anchorage  is  on  the 
north  coast  of  Hoy,  but  there  are  several  others. 
Seapa  is  over  50  miles  farther  from  the  German 
coast  than  Rosyth  (q.v.),  but  the  great  ease  of 
entrance  and  exit  for  a  large  fleet  caused  its 
use  during  the  War  as  the  operating  base  of 
the  British  Grand  Fleet.  It  was  in  Scapa  Flow 
that  the  surrendered  German  fleet  was  interned 
and  where  it  was  scuttled  by  its  officers.  See 
WAR  IN  EUROPE,  Xaval  Operations. 

SCARBOROUGH,  GEORGE  MOORE  (1875- 
).  An  American  playwright,  born  at  Mt. 
Carmel,  Texas,  and  educated  at  the  University 
of  Texas.  From  18!)7  to  1905  he  practiced  law 
in  Texas,  then  became  a  reporter  for  the  New 
York  American,  and  was  with  the  Department 
of  Justice  from  1009  to  1914.  His  first  play, 
The  Lure  (1913),  attracted  much  attention. 
Among  his  other  plays  are:  At  Bay  (1913); 
The  Court  of  Last  Retort  (1913);  What  la 
Lovet  (1914);  The  Heart  of  Wetona  (1916); 
Moonlight  and  Honeysuckle  (1918);  The  #<w- 
Daughter  (1919);  Bluelonnet  (1920);  The  Mad 


Dog  (1921);  Mrs.  Hope's  Uuslatid   (1921);  The 
Grail    (1922). 

SCABLET  FEVEB.  In  1923  and  1924  more 
was  learned  of  the  intimate  nature  of  this  disease 
than  within  the  previous  50  years.  During  that 
period  it  had  been  taught'  that  scarlet  fever 
per  &e  is  nut  a  severe  disease  but  that  it  paves 
the  way  for  secondary  infections  with  the 
streptococcus.  These  complications  are  respon- 
sible for  the  wave  of  deafness,  kidney  disease, 
etc.,  that  follows  it.  But  the  labors  of  in- 
dependentlv  active  researchers — Dick  and  Dick; 
Dochez,  Sherman,  and  Blake;  and  Trask  and 
Lynch — which  were  published  in  1923  and  1924 
in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Association,  all 
point  to  the  same  conclusions.  Scarlet  fever 
is  due  solely  to  a  special  strain  of  the  hemo- 
lytic  streptococcus,  which  flourishes  only  in  the 
tissues  of  scarlet  fever  patients  and  possibly  in 
so-called  immune  carriers.  This  oiganism  is 
the  cause  alike  of  the  disease  and  of  its  destruc- 
tive complications.  From  first  to  last  its  patho- 
genesis  shows  the  same  nature  and  largely  the 
same  manifestations  as  diphtheria,  which  so 
closely  resembles  it  in  its  clinical  expression. 
This  indicates  that  the  disease  is  largely  the 
result  of  an  intoxication  by  the  Becietions  aris- 
ing fiom  the  bacterium,  so  that  scarlet  fever 
takes  its  place  \\ith  those  affections  which  can 
be  reached  by  an  antitoxin.  Other  members  of 
the  group  to  date  comprise  diphtheria,  tetanus, 
botulism,  one  form  of  anthrax,  etc.  From 
analogy  it  should  be  possible  to  recognize  those 
predisposed  to  the  disease,  to  immunixe  against 
it,  and  to  cure  patients  already  infected,  pro- 
vided the  antitoxin  can  be  used  seasonably. 
The  conditions  have  been  lealized  perfectly  in 
the  laboratory  and  in  experimental  work  on 
volunteers,  but  application  in  daily  ordinary 
practice  xull  icquire  HC\<MH!  A  ears 

SCHAFEB,  DIETRICH  (1845-  ).  A  Ger- 
man author  and  histotian  (flee  VOL  XX).  Like 
most  of  the  histoiians  of  1m  country,  after  1914 
he  wrote  only  works  dealing  with  the  War  and 
the  problems  of  Germany.  They  include:  Rein 
oder  Xiehtsein  (1914)  ;  Deutttehlattd  und  Frank- 
retch  (1914)  ;  Das  Deutsehe  ^  oik  iind  der  Osten 
(1913);  Maat  und  Yolk  (1915),  Dentsehland 
und  England  in  Kec-und  Wcltqeltinirj  (11)1.5); 
Die  Kultur  und  Ihre  Aufgaben  (1!)17);  Die 
Vcrcinigten  Ktaaten  als  Weltmacht  (11)17); 
Russland  (1918);  Wir  Deutsclicn  als  Volk 
(1918);  Die  Nclnild  am  Krietfe  (1919);  Die 
Nchuld  an  der  Wiederqebtnt  Polrns  (M)19). 

SCHEIDEMANN,  PHTLIPP  (1865-  ).  A 
German  Socialist  leader,  born  at  Kassel.  After 
attending  the  Burgerschule  and  the  Jlealschule 
of  his  native  town,  he  learned  the  printer's 
trade,  and  later  became  editor  of  a  Socialist 
paper  at  Giessen  and  then  of  others  at  Nfirn- 
burg,  Offenbach,  and  Kassel.  Jn  190,3  he  was 
elected  to  the  Reichstag,  representing  Solingen, 
and  became  a  leader  of  the  Social-Democratic 
party.  He  supported  the  government  in  its 
war  policy,  which  greatly  displeased  the  Minor- 
ity or  Independent  Socialists.  In  1918  he  was 
elected  vice  president  of  the  Reichstag  and  was 
made  secretary  of  state  without  portfolio  in 
October  of  that  year.  His  party  was  said  to 
have  been  willing  that  the  monarchical  form  of 
government  should  be  continued  in  Germany  un- 
der a  regency,  but  the  Independent  Socialists 
were  determined  on  a  republic;  and  their  efforts 
were  so  successful  that  they  were  admitted  in 
equal  numbers  in  the  provisional  government. 


SCHELDT  BIVEB  CONTBOVEBS?       u8i 


SCHLESWIG 


They  denounced  Sclieidemanii  for  his  willing- 
ness to  retain  the  services  of  reactionary  offi- 
cers and  troops  for  the  suppression  of  Commu- 
nist disorders.  When  the  National  Constituent 
Assembly  met  at  Weimar  on  Fcb  0,  1019,  he 
was  elected  vice  president  of  the  Republic. 
After  guiding  the  new  government  through  the 
troubleH  of  the  first  half  of  1019,  he  resigned 
on  July  20,  as  he  could  not  agree  to  the  sign- 
ing of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  Tie  took  up 
again  the  leadership  of  the  Majority  Socialists 
in  the  National  Assembly  and  afterward  in  the 
republican  Keichstag.  Jn  1020  he  was  elected 
chief  burgomaster  in  his  native  town. 

SCHELDT  BIVEB  CONTBOVEBSY.  See 
NETHERLANDS 

SCHEPPEGBELL,  WILLIAM  (1800-  ). 
An  American  laryngologist  and  one  of  the 
world's  authorities  on  hay  fever.  Born  in 
Hanover,  Geimany,  he  was  educated  in  the 
State  College  of  South  Caiolina  and  after  tak- 
ing a  medical  degiee  settled  in  New  Orleans 
in  1890,  devoting  himself  to  the  ear,  nose  and 
throat.  He  began  to  write  on  hay  fever  in  1000 
and  published  many  ai  tides  on  the  subject, 
some  of  them  in  the  United  States  Government 
Bulletins  (United  States  Public  Health  and 
Seivire).  He  v\as  for  some  veais  president  of 
the  Tluy  Fever  Prevention  Society,  and  has  made 
numiMoiis  additions  to  the  aiinamentariuin  of 
his  hpecial  work,  notably  in  connection  with  the 
use  of  electricity  His  major  writings  are  filec- 
tiit'ifi/  it)  the  Diagnosis  mid  Treatment  of  Dis- 
e<tti(x  of  the  A  o.sr,  Throat  and  Kar  (1808)  and 
llai/  Frtcr  and  \sthma  (1022). 

SCHICK,  BEIA  (  ?-  ).  A  Hungarian 
bacteriologist  and  pediatiist  known  for  bis  dis- 
co\ery  of  the  special  reaction  to  diphtheria 
toxin  of  childien  who  are  susceptible  to  the 
disease,  which  is  now  in  general  use  throughout 
the  civili/ed  \\nild  by  health  officers  He  also 
discovered  the  existence  of  a  peculiar  toxic  sub- 
stance in  inensti  nating  women  termed  by  him 
menotoxin.  Scbick  was  fonneilj  an  assistant  to 
the  well-know  11  Vienna  pediatrists  Escherich 
and  von  Pinjuet  He  has  made  numerous  valu- 
able contributions  to  periodical  literature,  but 
Ins  rnajoi  woiks  are  limited  to  Mcharlach 
( Kschench  and  Sebick)  in  1012  and  Die 
Nfrumkraii/Jieit  (von  Pirqtiet  and  Schick)  in 
100.") 

SCHICK   TEST.     See  DIPHTHERIA. 

SCHINDLEB,  KIRT  (1882-  ).  An 
American  choral  conductor,  born  in  Berlin, 
Germany.  He  was  tiained  in  Berlin  under  K. 
Knsorge  (piano),  L  Bussler,  and  F  Gernsheim 
f composition),  and  studied  under  L.  Thuille  in 
Munich.  From  1002  to  1003,  he  was  conductor 
at  the  opera  in  Stuttgart,  later  in  WUr/burg, 
and  from  1005  to  1007.  v\as  assistant  conductor 
at  the  Metropolitan  Opeia  House.  In  1007,  he 
became  reader  and  critical  adviser  for  G  Schir- 
iner  In  1008,  be  founded  in  New  York  the 
MaeDovvell  Chorus,  which  in  1010  became  the 
Scbola  Caritorum  This  organization  intro- 
duced many  important  novelties.  Schindler  is 
considered  a  specialist  on  folk  music,  of  which 
lie  published  several  collections.  His  original 
compositions  consist  of  about  50  songs  and  a 
cboial  ballad,  The  Miracle  of  St.  Raymond. 

SCHLATTEB,  ADOLF  vox  (1852-  )  A 
German  theologian  and  author  (see  VOL.  XX). 
His  recent  publications  include:  Die  Christ- 
hchc  Kthik  (1014);  Die  Korinthische  Theologie 
(1014);  Die  Murtyrer  in  den  Anfangen  der 


Kirche  (1915);  Die  Beiden  Schwerter  (1916); 
Luthere  Deutung  der  Romerbriefe  (1917);  Die 
Entstehung  der  Beitrage  zur  Forderung  der 
Christlichen  Kultur  (1020). 

SCHLESINGEB,  ARTHUR  MEIER  (1888-  ). 
An  American  educator,  born  at  Xenia,  Ohio.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  Ohio  State  University 
in  1900  and  took  postgraduate  courses  at  Co- 
lumbia. From  1011  to  1010,  he  was  professor 
and  assistant  professor  of  history  at  Ohio  State 
University,  and  in  1010  became  ptofessor  of 
history  and  head  of  the  department  of  the  State 
University  of  Iowa.  He  was  a  memlK'i  of  many 
historical  societies  and  wiote  (with  II  C. 
Hockett)  A  Syllabus  of  United  States  History 
(1915)  ;  The  Colonial  Merchants  and  (he  A  men- 
can  Revolution,  nC^-1116  (1018),  Salmon 
Portland  Chase  (1910);  yew  Vieit points  in 
American  History  (1021).  Professor  Schles- 
inger  edited  Great  Charters  of  Americanism 
(1920),  and  was  also  editor  of  the  State  of 
Iowa  Studies  in  Social  Science 

SCHLESWIG.  This  small  duchy  (area,  3385 
square  miles),  wrested  from  Demnaik  by  Prus- 
sia and  Austria  in  the  war  of  1804  and  annexed 
by  Prussia  in  I860,  was  one  of  the  stakes  of 
diplomacy  at  the  Peace  Conference  of  1010. 
Despite  the  programme  of  Germani/ation  which 
Prussian  officialdom  had  energetically  pushed, 
about  one-third  of  its  474.355  inhabitants  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  vVar  still  spoke  Danish.  How- 
ever, resistance  to  German  rule  in  the  period  be- 
foie  and  during  the  War  had  hardly  been  of  an 
aggressive  character.  Schleswigers  fought  in  the 
Geiman  army;  Denmark  was  reluctant  to  es- 
trange her  powerful  neighbor  to  the  south  by  re- 
quests for  territorial  readjustment  But  the  de- 
feat of  Germany  and  the  triumph  of  the  new 
democratic  principles  at  once  changed  the  com- 
plexion of  affairs.  The  German  government, 
anticipating  a  Danish  appeal  to  the  doctrine  of 
self-determination,  offered  a  separate  arrange- 
ment for  North  Schleswig  But  Denmark  pro- 
crastinated, the  general  dread  of  a  resurrected 
Germany,  together  with  the  divided  councils  at 
home,  standing  in  the  way  of  a  clear-cut  pro- 
nouncement of  aims.  Fma'lly,  on  Feb.  21,  1010, 
the  Danish  government  placed  the  question  of 
Schleswig  before  the  Peace  Conference.  In  the 
draft  treaty  submitted  to  the  Germans  in  May, 
provision  was  made  for  the  taking  of  a  plebiscite 
in  three  rones,  the  third  of  which  extended  as 
far  south  as  the  Eider  and  the  Scblei  and  was 
peopled  largely  by  Germans  whose  social  and  cul- 
tural ties  were  clearly  with  the  south  While 
the  Germans  naturally  objected  to  the  inclusion 
of  this  southern  region  in  the  plebiscite  area,  it 
was  the  weight  of  the  arguments  of  the  Danish 
Radical  party  that  succeeded  in  eliminating  the 
third  ^one  fiom  the  final  treaty.  Danes  pointed 
out  that  the  Germans  in  this  district  might  be 
favorably  disposed  toward  union  with  Denmark 
for  economic  reasons,  viz.,  to  escape  heavy  war 
taxes  and  the  share  of  reparations,  and  that 
such  a  move  would  leave  Denmark  with  a  new 
irredentism  Articles  100-14  therefore  mapped 
out  two  plebiscite  zones:  the  northern  running 
south  of  Tonder  but  north  of  Flensburg,  and  the 
southern'  taking  in  the  area  about  Flensburg. 
Voting  in  the  first  zone  on  Feb  10,  1020,  gave 
a  clear-cut  majority  for  the  Danes,  75,431  bal- 
lots being  cast  for  Denmark  and  25,320  for 
Germany.  Tonder,  in  particular,  being  the  cen- 
tre of  a  Frisian  population,  gave  a  majority  for 
Germany.  Voting  in  the  second  zone  took  place 


1182 


SCHOFIBLD 


on  Mar.  14,  1020.  Flensburg,  (population  63,- 
000)  the  chief  point  of  contention,  was  the 
scene  of  frequent  clashes  between  the  inhabitants 
and  the  French  troops  of  occupation,  and  there 
were  other  disturbances.  The  final  returns 
showed  that  51,820  votes  had  been  cast  for 
Germany  and  only  12,793  for  Denmark  Flens- 
burg went  German  by  three  to  one.  In  June, 
1020,  the  Council  of  Ambassadors  fixed  the 
Ixmndary  between  Denmark  and  Germany  and 
details  were  settled  in  the  next  month  by  treaty 
between  the  two  countries.  Into  North*  Schles- 
wi<r  (Danish,  Slesvig)  the  Danish  currency  was 
immediately  introduced,  and  work  was  begun 
on  the  reconstruction  of  highways  and  railroads. 
Questions  of  the  rehabilitation  "of  war  veterans, 
the  protection  of  German  minorities  (of  whom 
there  were  25,000  in  the  province),  frontier  ar- 
rangements were  amicably  settled  by  treaty  with 
Germany  in  1022  Denmark  assumed  'North 
Schlcswig's  share  of  the  German  reparation  debt 
and  under  the  Peace  Treaty  was  obliged  to  pay 
65,000,000  gold  marks  ($15,500,000)  to  the 
reparation  account  for  the  properties  of  the 
Prussian  state  which  had  passed  into  her  con- 
trol. A  loan  floated  in  the  United  States  made 
the  payment  immediately  possible.  Danish  Sles- 
vig has  an  area  of  1538  square  miles  and  a 
population  (census  of  1021)  of  163,022.  By  its 
acquisition  Denmark's  area  was  increased  by 
about  10  per  cent  and  its  population  by  5  per 
cent.  A  certain  amount  of  German  sentiment 
in  the  region  was  reflected  in  the  fact  that  in 
the  elections  of  1020  and  1024  a  German 
was  returned  to  the  Danish  Folketing  from 
Slesvig. 

SCHMIDT,  OTTO  ERNST  (pseudonym,  OTTO 
ERNST)  (1862-  ).  A  German  Author  (see 
VOL.  XX).  He  wrote  novels,  plays  and  essays, 
of  which  the  later  ones  include:  Nietzsche,  der 
Falsche  Prophet  (1914);  Gewittersegen  (1915); 
Semper  der  Mann,  a  novel  which  continues  the 
story  of  his  hero,  Semper  der  Jungling;  Das 
Gluck  ist  immer  da  (191G);  August  Gutbier, 
a  satirical  novel  (1917);  Wer  totet  Seine  Mut- 
ter? (1918);  Marnn  der  Arbeit,  Aufgewacht! 
(1918);  Friede-Freude  (1920). 

SCHMITT,  FLORENT  (1870-  ).  A  French 
composer,  born  at  Blftmont,  France.  He  began 
his  musical  studies  at  the  Conservatory  in 
Nancy,  and  in  1889-96  was  at  the  Paris  Con- 
servatory, a  pupil  of  Dubois,  Lavignac,  Faur6 
and  Massenet.  In  1897,  he  won  the  second  Prix 
de  Rome,  and  in  1900  the  first  prize.  From 
1900  to  1921  he  lived  in  Paris,  and  devoted  his 
entire  time  to  composition.  In  1921,  he  became 
director  of  the  Conservatory  at  Lyons  Al- 
though one  of  the  foremost  of  impressionist 
composers,  he  does  not  sacrifice  definite  formal 
structure  to  mere  atmosphere  He  wrote-  an 
opera,  Antony  et  CUopAtre  (Paris,  1920) ;  three 
ballets,  La  Tragtdie  de  Salome"  (Paris,  1907), 
Ourvagi  ( unproduced ) ,  and  La  Petite  Elfe  Ferme 
I'fEil  (Paris,  1922);  the  symphonic  poems  Le 
Palais  Hant6,  Stlamik  (for  military  band), 
Combat  de  Raksasas  et  Dtlivrance  de  Sita 
(manuscript  lost  in  the  Paris  flood  of  1910), 
and  Rfoes;  for  orchestra,  En  Etc",  Reflets  d'Al- 
lemagne,  Pupazmi,  and  Rapsodie  Viennoise;  vo- 
cal with  orchestra,  Rtmiramis  (lyric  scene), 
Psalm  46,  Chansons  d  Quatres  Voix,  Pendant  la 
Tempe'te.  Dansc  des  Devadasis;  a  considerable 
amount  of  chamber  music;  and  fine  works  for 
piano  (solo,  four  hands,  and  two  pianos). 

8CHNABEL,  ABTUB  (1882-        ).    An  Aus- 


trian pianist,  born  at  Lipnik,  Carinthia.  After 
receiving  his  first  instruction  from  H.  Schmitt 
he  studied  with  Leschetizky  in  Vienna  (1888- 
97).  After  that  time  he  made  constant  tours, 
chiefly  of  Austria  and  Germany.  He  visited 
the  United  States  for  the  first  time  in  1921.  In 
1912,  he  made  his  home  in  Berlin,  where  he 
formed  a  trio  with  A.  Wittenberg  (violin)  and 
A.  Hekking  ('cello),  and  also  appeared  frequently 
as  assisting  artist  with  other  chamber-music  or- 
ganizations. His  joint  recitals  with  Karl  Flesch 
have  for  years  been  among  the  notable  events 
of  the  Berlin  musical  season.  As  an  eloquent 
interpreter  of  the  classic  and  romantic  masters 
he  is  unsurpassed,  while  as  a  composer,  begin- 
ning as  a  mild  impressionist,  he  gradually 
drifted  toward  extreme  futurism.  In  his  latest 
piano  pieces,  written  after  the  War,  he  discards 
tonality,  key -signatures,  time-signatures  and 
bar-lines. 

SCHNEIDER,  ALBERT  (1863-  ).  An 
American  bacteriologist  and  pharmacologist, 
born  at  Granville,  111.  Having  graduated  in 
medicine  at  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, Chicago,  in  1887,  he  settled  in  California 
and  in  1903  began  to  teach  bacteriology,  phar- 
niacognosy  and  therapeutics  in  the  univer- 
sity of  that  State,  resigning  in  1919  to  assume 
the  professorship  of  pharmacognosy  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Pharmacy  at  the  University*  of  Nebraska. 
While  in  California  he  also  took  charge  of  the 
experimental  station  of  the  Spreckles  Sugar 
Company  (1906-07);  was  at  the  head  of  the 
department  of  pharmacognosy  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  (1909-lr>) 
and  was  microanalyst  of  the  State  food  and 
drug  laboratory  (1915-19).  His  chief  publi- 
cations arc:  Pharmaceutical  Bacteriology 
(1912);  Pharmacal  Plants  and  Their  Culture 
(1912);  Microbiology  and  Microanalysix  of 
Foods  (1920);  Microanalysis  of  Powdered 
Vegetable  Drugs  (1921). 

SCHNEIDER,  EDWARD  CHRISTIAN  (1874- 
).  An  American  physiologist  born  at 
Wapello,  Iowa.  He  was  educated  at  Tabor  Col- 
lege (B.S.,  1897)  and  at  Yale  (Ph.D.,  1901). 
He  was  instructor  in  chemistry  at  Tabor  (1897- 
99)  ;  professor  of  biology  and  physical  chemistry 
(1901-03),  and  professor  of  biology  (1903-19) 
at  Colorado  College;  and  professor  of  biology 
(1919-  )  at  Wesleyan  University.  He  was 
physiologist  in  the  medical  research  laboratory 
at  Mitchel  Field  Air  Service  (1919-  ). 
Professor  Schneider  did  important  work  on  the 
influence  of  high  altitudes  on  man  in  connection 
with  the  aviation  service. 

SCHNITZLER,  ARTHUR  (1862-  ).  An 
Austrian  dramatist  (see  VOL.  XX).  During 
the  War  and  after  it,  many  of  his  plays  were 
translated  into  English  and  published  in  the 
United  States,  where  they  aroused  much  interest. 
The  Lonely  Way,  translated  in  1915,  was  high- 
ly considered.  Other  works  made  available  to 
English  readers  were:  The  Hour  of  Recogni- 
tion, a  Comedy  of  Words  flOlG);  Casanova's 
Homecoming  (1922)  ;  Gallant  Cassian,  (a  puppet 
play  1922)  ;  The  Shepherd's  Pipe,  and  Other 
Plays  (1922);  The  Vast  Domain  (1922);  Liv- 
ing Hours  ( 1 923 ) . 

SCHOFIELD,  WALTER  ELMER  (1867-  ). 
An  American  painter  (see  VOL.  XX).  He  re- 
ceived the  Temple  gold  medal  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  1914,  the  Alt- 
man  prize  of  $1000  from  the  National  Academy 
of  Design  in  1920,  and  the  Mrs.  Keith  Spalding 


SCHOOLS  OF  AGBICULTTJBE 


1183 


SCIENC1 


prize  of  $1000  in  1921.  He  enlisted  in  the 
British  army  in  1915,  became  captain  of  artil- 
lery, and  saw  active  service  in  France. 

SCHOOLS  OF  AGBICTJLTUBE.  See  AGRI- 
CULTURAL EDUCATION. 

SCHBEINEB,  GEORGE  ABEL  (1875-  ). 
An  American  author,  born  in  Germany.  He 
served  in  the  Boer  War  on  the  side  of  the*  Boers, 
came  to  the  United  States  in  1900,  and  was 
naturalized  six  years  later.  He  was  managing 
editor  of  the  San  Antonio  (Texas)  Light -Gazette 
in  1912-13  and  acted  as  war  correspondent  for 
the  Associated  Press  in  many  countries.  His 
writings  include:  The  Iron*  Ration  (1018); 
La  Dtitresse  Allemande  (1918);  From  Berlin  to 
Bagdad  (1918);  The  Craft  Sinister  (1920); 
Entente  Diplomacy  and  the  World,  with  B  de 
Sicbert  (1921 ) ;  How  America  Decided  the  World 
War,  from  the  MS.  of  General  von  Falkenhayn 
(1022);  International  Communication — Its 
Alcana  (1924). 

SCHTJCHABDT,  HUGO  (1842-  ).  A 
German  philologist  and  university  professor 
(see  VOL.  XX).  His  recent  works  are:  Aus 
dem  Uerzen  cities  Romanisten  (1015);  Ber- 
berische  H iatusstilgung  (1010)  ;  Zu  der  ffoman- 
ischen  Benennunq  der  Mils:  (1017);  Sprachver- 
wandtschaft  (1017);  Die  Itomanischcn  Lehn- 
worter  im  Bcrbenschcn  (1018);  8 prachur sprung 
(1010-20):  flprat'hcnbrevier  (1022). 

SCHttCK,  JOHAN  HENKIK  EMIL  (1855-  ). 
A  Swedish  historian  (sec  VOL.  XX).  He  pub- 
IMiod:  EiHjcllirrlt  (1016);  KJialftpearc  och 
Mans  Tid  (1010);  Fran  dct  Forna  Upsala 
(10J7);  J/awiriifff  (1020);  Ut  Axel  Renter- 
holms  Dagbok  (1021 ). 

SCHUMACHER,  HERMANN  A(MANDUR) 
( 1 808-  ) .  A  German  economist  and  writer 
on  the  science*  of  government  (see  VOL  XX). 
His  works  after  1014  include:  Der  Panama 
Kanal  und  tieinc  Bedeutung  (1914);  Die  Rtcl- 
htng  der  Dcutschcn  Sceschiffahrt  in  Weltver- 
lehr  (1014);  Deutschlands  Volkscrnahrung  und 
Volksemahrungspolitifc  im  Kricgc  (1915)  ; 
Deutschlands  Ktcllung  in  der  Wcltwirtschaft 
(1015);  Meistbcgunstigung  und  Zollunterschei- 
dung  (1916);  Antwerpens  Weltstellung  und 
Seine  Bedeutung  fur  das  Deutsche  Wirtschafts- 
Icbcn ;  Belgiens  Stcllung  in  der  Wcltwirtschaft 
(1916)  ;  Der  Deutsche  und  Bclgischc  Weltbewerb 
und  Seine  Regclung  (1016);  Deutschland  und 
Englands  Finanziclle  Kraft  (1917);  Gcgen- 
wartsfragcn  des  Sozialismus  (1920). 

SCHURIQ,  ARTUR  (1870-  ).  A  German 
writer  and  critic.  Tie  was  born  at  Dresden  and 
studied  at  the  universities  of  Leipzig  and  Ber- 
lin. He  is  the  author  of:  Wolfgang  Amadcus 
Mozart  (1013);  Das  Lcbcn  eines  tionderlings, 
a  life  of  Beyle-Standhal  (1921)  ;  Konstanze  Mo- 
zart (1922);  Fransisco  Pizarro  (1022);  and 
two  volumes  of  essays,  Anti-Tagore  (1921),  and 
Katechismus  der  Lebensfcunst  (1922).  He  also 
wrote  two  novels,  Seltsamc  Liebesleutc  (1913), 
and  Gottfried  Butterrogel  (1023),  and  trans- 
lated and  edited  works  by  Beyle,  Flaubert,  Julie 
de  rEspinasse,  J.  G.  Prod'homme,  Balzac,  Taine, 
and  others. 

SCHWAB,  CHARLES  M.  (1862-  ).  An 
American  capitalist  (see  VOL.  XX).  At  the 
urgent  request  of  President  Wilson  in  1918,  he 
put  all  his  great  private  interest  aside  and  be- 
came director  general  of  the  Emergency  Fleet 
Corporation,  created  for  the  purpose  of  produc- 
ing sufficient  ships  to  transport  American  troops 
to  France.  His  energy  and  qualities  of  leader- 
39 


ship  cleared  away  difficulties  and  stimulated 
work  so  that  all  records  were  broken  and  the 
most  hopeful  estimates  surpassed. 

SCIENCE,  AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  FOR  THE 
ADVANCEMENT  OF.  An  organization  founded  in 
1848  and  incorporated  in  1874.  Connected  with 
it  are  81  officially  associated  societies,  of  which 
49  are  affiliated  and  have  representation  in  the 
Association  council.  Twenty-seven  scientific  so- 
cieties became  affiliated  in  the  period  from  1914 
to  1924  Besides  the  affiliated  notional  societies, 
12  State  academies  of  science  became  affiliated. 
The  membership  of  tbe  Association  itself  in- 
creased from  some  8300  in  1014  to  approximately 
13,000  in  1024.  The  registered  attendance  at 
the  annual  meetings  was  between  1800  and  2400. 
Besides  the  annual  winter  mop-tings,  summer 
meetings  were  held  at  San  Francisco,  Salt  Lake 
City,  and  Los  Angeles.  In  the  decade  after 

1914  the  Association  was  much  strengthened  by 
the  organization  of  the  Pacific  Division  and  the 
Southwestern  Division,  which  act  autonomously 
and  hold  summer  meetings  in  their  respective  re- 
gions.    The    permanent    funds    of    the    Associa- 
tion  increased,   roundly,  from   $110,000  in   1016 
to  $132.000   in    1924.   *The  weeklv  journal   con- 
tinued to  be  the  official  organ  of  tlie  Association. 
A   volume   of   Summarized   Proceedings,   includ- 
ing a  directory  of  members,   was  published   in 

1915  and  another  in  1921:   the  next  was  to  ap- 
pear in    1925.     The  committee  of  100  on  scien- 
tific research,  organized  early  in   1014,  was  the 
beginning    of    a    nation-wide    endeavor    to    ac- 
celerate  systematic   research      A   joint   commit- 
tee  on    conservation,    organized    parly    in    1021, 
was  made  up  of  three  committees  representing 
the  United  States  National  Academy  of  Sciences, 
the    United    States    National    Research    Council, 
and  the  American  Association.     It  aims  to  study 
the  problem  of  conservation  in  a  broad  way  and 
to  aid   in   bringing   the  subject   properly  before 
the   public   of   the   United   States,   Canada,   and 
other     countries.     The     Association     cooperated 
with   the    United    States   National    Academy   of 
Sciences    and    the    United    States    National    He- 
search    Council    in    the    lately    founded    Science 
Service,  whose  aim  was  to  disMeminato  truthful 
and    at    the    same    time    readable    information 
about    scientific    subjects      President     in     1024, 
J.    McKeen     Cattell,     editor     of    Science.     The 
Association    published    resolutions    favoring  the 
general  adoption  of  the  metric  system  of  weights 
and   measures   and   clearly   stating   the   impreg- 
nable position  of  the  scientific  theory  of  evolu- 
tion. 

SCIENCES,  NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF.  A  body 
of  American  scientists,  incorporated  in  1803 
for  the  purpose  of  investigating,  examining,  ex- 
perimenting, and  reporting  on  any  subject  or 
art,  when  called  on  by  any  department  of  the 
government.  The  activitie's  of  the  Academy 
during  the  decade  1914-24  were  varied  and  im- 
portant. In  101G,  as  a  result  of  a  movement  to 
mobilize  the  nation's  science  for  industrial 
progress  and  military  efficiency,  the  National 
Research  Council  was  established,  with  John 
J.  Carty  as  chairman.  Dr.  W.  II.  Welsh  and 
0.  E.  Hale  investigated  in  England  the  effect 
of  the  War  on  scientific  research  and  industrial 
progress.  During  1916  the  Academy  made  an 
investigation  of  the  Panama  Canal  slides.  At 
the  annual  meeting  of  the  Academy  held  in 
Philadelphia  in  1917,  Dr.  Hale  delivered  an 
address  on  the  work  of  the  National  Research 
Council.  The  meeting  in  1918  was  held  at 


SCOTLAND 


1184 


SOOTTI 


Johns  Hopkins  University.  The  matters  discus- 
sed, chiefly  technical,  related  to  chemistry, 
astronomy,  medicine,  and  other  sciences.  The 
autumn  meeting  of  1919  was  held  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity. Addresses  were  made  by  W.  M.  Davis 
on  four  clin"  islands  in  the  coral  seas;  G  B 
Davenport  and  A.  J.  Love,  on  defects  found  in 
drafted  men;  and  John  M.  Clarke,  on  some 
restorations  of  distinct  vertebrates.  There 
were  also  discussions  of  subjects  relating  to 
geography,  chemistry,  astronomy,  and  physics 
At  the  meeting  held  in  Washington  in  1920, 
interesting  addresses  on  important  subjects  were 
delivered  bv  A.  A.  Michelson,  C.  B.  Davenport, 
F.  V.  Coville,  L.  J.  Briggs,  and  others  In  1921 
the  annual  meeting  was  held  in  Washington. 
There  was  again  discussion  of  important  phases 
of  science,  including  mathematics,  physics,  as- 
tronomy, medicine,  and  geology.  An  interest- 
ing paper  was  read  by  Maude  Slye  on  the 
influence  of  heredity  on  'the  incidence  of  cancer. 
At  the  meeting  in"  1922,  held  in  Washington, 
important  papers  included  one  by  H.  F.  Os- 
borne,  entitled  "Recent  Discoveries  on  the 
Antiquity  of  Man/'  and  one  by  J.  S.  Ames, 
"Recent  Progress  in  Aeronautics."  In  1922  a 
building  for  the  National  Academy  and  the  Na- 
tional Research  Council  was  under  construction. 
This  was  made  possible  by  a  gift  of  $5,000,000 
from  the  Carnegie  Corporation  and  contribu- 
tions from  friends  of  the  Academy  and  Council. 
The  autumn  meeting  of  1923  was  held  at  Cornell 
University.  Many  papers  embracing  a  variety 
of  subjects  in  the  scientific  field  were  read. 
The  Academy  awards  several  prizes  and  medals 
for  eminent  contributions  to  science,  and  grants 
in  aid  of  researches  are  made  from  the  income 
from  trust  funds  administered  by  the  Academy. 
Its  publication^  include  Annual* Reports,  Mem- 
oirs, and  Proceedings.  Additional  publications 
are  issued  by  the  Research  Council  in  its 
bulletin  and  its  reprint  and  circular  series. 
In  192:?  Charles  D.  Walcott  was  succeeded  as 
president  by  A.  A.  Michelson  of  the  University 
of  Chicago. 

SCOTLAND.     See  GREAT   BRITAIN. 

SCOTT,  AUSTIN  WAKESMAN  (1884-  ). 
An  American  lawyer  and  educator,  born  at  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.  He  graduated  from  Rutgers 
College  in  1903  and  from  the  Harvard  Law 
School  in  1909.  He  was  successively  instructor, 
assistant  professor  and  professor  of  law  at  the 
Harvard  Law  School,  occupying  the  latter  posi- 
tion from  1914  He  edited  several  books  on 
legal  subjects  and  was  the  author  of  Handbook 
of  Military  Law. 

SCOTT,  CYRIL  MEIR  (1879-  ).  An  Eng- 
lish composer,  born  at  Ox  ton,  Cheshire.  Hav- 
ing devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  the 
piano,  he  entered  the  Hocli  Conservatory  in 
Frankfort  in  1890,  and  studied  composition  un- 
der I.  Knorr.  After  1900,  he  lived  at  Liverpool, 
making  frequent  pianistic  tours.  In  1920-21, 
he  made  a  tour  of  tlfe  United  States.  As  a 
composer  he  is  recognized  as  the  foremost  of 
the  English  impressionists.  So  completely  did 
he  absorb  the  spirit  of  Debussy's  art  that  his 
best  works  might  easily  pass  as  productions  of 
the  French  composer  His  works  comprise:  a 
symphony;  four  overtures,  Christmas,  Princesse 
Maleine,  Aglawine  et  Kclysette,  and  Pelleas  et 
Melisande;  two  rhapsodies;  Aubade;  Arabesque; 
three  Dances;  a  piano  concerto;  La  Belle  Dame 
sans  Merci,  for  soprano  and  baritone  with  or- 
chestra; Helen  of  Kirkconnel,  for  baritone  and 


orchestra;  Nativity  Hymn,  for  chorus  and  or- 
chestra; a  piano  sextet,  a  piano  quintet,  three 
string  quartets  and  a  violin  sonata;  numerous 
pieces  for  piano,  and  songs  An  opera.  The  Al- 
chemist, had  not  yet  been  performed  in  1924. 
He  is  the  author  of  The  Philosophy  of  Modern- 
ism (1917).  Consult  A.  E.  Hull,  Cyril  Scott: 
Composer,  Poet  and  Philosopher  (London,  1918; 
2d  ed,  1921). 

SCOTT,  JAMES  BROWN  (1806-  ).  An 
American  authority  on  international  law  (sec 
VOL.  XX).  He  was  special  adviser  of  the  De- 
partment of  State,  and  chairman  of  the  Joint 
State  and  Neutrality  Board  (1914-17),  and 
technical  delegate  to  the  Paris  Peace  Conference 
(1919)  In  1915,  he  became  president  of  the 
American  Institute  of  International  Law,  and 
in  1910,  trustee  and  secretary  of  the  Carnegie 
Endowment  for  International"  Peace.  His  later 
books  include  An  International  Court  of  Jus- 
tice (1916);  Peace  Through  Justice  (1917);  .4 
Surrey  of  International  Relations  between  the 
United  States  and  Germany,  Aug.  1,  Wl'i-Apr. 
6,  VJll  (1918);  James  Madison's  ATo/e*  on  De- 
bates in  the  Federal  Convention  of  1111  and 
Their  Relation  to  a  More  Perfect  Society  of  Na- 
tions 

SCOTT,  LEROY  (1875-  ).  An  American 
author,  born  at  Fairniount,  Ind  ,  and  educated  at 
Indiana  University  On  giaduation  be  engaged 
in  newspaper  work  (1897-1900)  and  later  was 
assistant  editor  of  the  Woman's  Home  Compan- 
ion (1900-01).  During  1902-03  be  was  assist- 
ant headworker  of  the  Unixersity  Settlement  in 
New  York  City  and  afterward  devoted  bis  whole 
time  to  writing  His  books  include:  The  Wall- 
ing Delegate  (11)05);  To  Him  That  Hath 
(1907);  Counsel  for  the  Defense  (1912);  \o 
13  Washington  Square  (1914;  dramatized, 
1915);  Partners  of  the  Night  (1916);  Mary 
Regan  (1918):  A  Daughter  of  Tuo  Worlds 
(1919);  Children  of  the  Whirlwind  (1921); 
Cordelia  the  Magnificent  (1923) 

SCOTT,  WALTER  DILL  (1869-  ).  An 
American  university  president  and  psycholo- 
gist, born  at  Cooksville,  111.,  and  educated  at 
Northwestern  University  and  at  McCormick 
Theological  Seminary.  He  began  his  career  as 
associate  professor  of  psychology  and  educa- 
tion at  Northwestern  University*  in  1901  and 
became  president  of  that  institution  in  1920 
He  was  director  of  the  Bureau  of  Salesmanship 
Research  of  the  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology 
during  1916  and  1917  and  lias  been  president  of 
the  Scott  Company,  consultants  and  engineers 
in  industrial  personnel,  since  1910.  In  1917 
he  was  appointed  director  of  the  committee  on 
classification  of  personnel  in  the  United  States 
Army,  and  in  1918  he  was  made  colonel.  For  bis 
personnel  classification  work  be  was  given  the 
Distinguished  Service  Medal  He  wrote.  Die 
Psychologic  der  Trieoe  (1900);  The  Theory  of 
Advertising  (1903);  The  Psychology  of  Public 
Speaking  (1907);  The  Psychology  of  Advertis- 
ing (1908)  ;  Influencing  Men  in  Business 
(1911);  Increasing  Human  Efficiency  (1911); 
The  Psychology  of  Advertising  in  Theory  and 
Practice  (1921)  ;  Rcience  and  Common  Renee  in 
"Working  with  Men  (1921);  Personnel  Manage- 
ment (1923). 

SCOTTI,  ANTONIO  (1866-  ).  An  Italian 
dramatic  basso  (see  VOL.  XX).  In  the  spring 
of  1921,  after  the  close  of  the  regular  season 
at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  he  organized 
the  Scotti  Grand  Opera  Company,  recruited 


gCBANTON 


1185 


SCTJXPTTnELE 


largely  from  the  Metropolitan  artists,  which 
made  a  very  successful  tour  of  the  eastern 
cities.  This  tour  later  became  an  annual  event. 

SCBANTON.  A  mining  and  manufacturing 
city  of  Pennsylvania  The  population  rose  from 
129,867  in  1910  to  137,783  in  1920;  to  140,636, 
by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census,  for 
1923;  and  by  city  estimate  to  151,000  in 
1924.  Weston  Field,  a  community  building  and 
public  playground,  was  constructed.  A  new 
junior  high  school  was  erected,  as  well  as  several 
industrial  and  commercial  buildings  After 
the  collapse  of  certain  mine  galleries  under  the 
city,  causing  surface  subsidence,  the  operating 
companies  took  greater  precautions  in  their 
methods  and  assumed  responsibility  for  the 
damage  done  to  surface  property. 

SCTJLPTTJBE.  The  effect  of  the  War  upon 
sculpture  was  at  first  disastrous.  In  practically 
all  European  countries  production  gradually  and 
then  almost  entirely  ceased.  Soon  after  the 
close  of  the  War  a  rex  ival  came.  Tbe  call  for 
war  memorials  was  extenshe,  and  sculptors  were 
as  much  in  demand  as  ever.  The  tendencies  re- 
mained about  the  same  as  just  before  and  during 
the  first  years  of  the  War. 

France.  On  Nov.  17,  1917,  Rodin,  born  1840, 
the  greatest  of  French  sculptors,  died  His  art 
was  the  culmination  of  the  naturalism  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  it  was  chiefly  he  who 
developed  the  highly  pictorial  character  of  most 
contemporary  art.  His  breaking  up  of  the  sur- 
faces into  bosses  and  hollows  to  attain  the 
subtle  modeling  and  effects  of  light  and  shad- 
ow in  which  lie  so  greatly  excelled  and  bis  ren- 
dering of  in stan taueous  movement  reali/ed  in 
sculpture  a  measure  of  representation  thitherto 
confined  to  painting.  The  impressionism  of  his 
later  period,  neglecting  more  and  more  the  non- 
significant parts  and  emphasizing  only  the  char- 
acteristic and  essential,  paved  the  way  for  the 
sketchy  character  of  most  modern  \\ork  and 
finally  for  the  vagaries  of  po<*tinipressionism. 
The  dominating  feature  in  the  later  development 
of  French  and  indeed  of  European  sculpture  was 
undoubtedly  the  influence  of  Rodin,  which  may 
be  compared  with  that  of  Michelangelo  on  Ital- . 
ian  sculpture  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  as 
in  the  later  time  it  was  easier  for  less  gifted 
artists  to  copy  the  master's  weaknesses  than 
his  strength.  *The  peculiarities  which  in  Ro- 
din's work  were  balanced  by  marvelous  modeling 
and  profound  depth  of  sentiment  often  became 
mannerisms  in  the  works  of  his  less  gifted  fol- 
lowers. This  influence  was  in  part  disastrous, 
aided  as  it  was  by  other  disintegrating  tend- 
encies in  French  art  Even  the  older  men, 
Rodin's  immediate  contemporaries,  lost  their 
bearings.  The  public  monuments  of  France  just 
before  the  War  were  for  the  most  part  tawdry, 
in  poor  taste,  and  un monumental.  This  was 
apparent  in  the  later  work  of  such  able  artists 
as  MerciS,  Frcmiet,  Barrias  and  others,  and  to 
a  less  extent  in  those  of  Saint  Marceaux  and 
Falguiere  The  next  generation  followed  for  the 
most  part  in  these  footsteps.  The  later  work 
of  men  like  Denys  Puech,  Francois  Larche,  Ver- 
let,  Villeneuve,  Charpentier,  and  others  pos- 
sessed the  same  false  note, 

Salvation  came  from  a  group  of  younger  men, 
also  under  the  influence  of  Rodin,  who,  follow- 
ing Bartholomews  advice,  carved  great  simple 
figures  in  native  limestone,  as  the  mediaeval  mas- 
ters did.  One  of  the  three  foremost  of  these, 
Aristide  Maliol  (1861-  ),  an  artist  of  ele- 


mental power  and  primitive  methods,  strives  for 
sculptural  bulk.  Emile  Bourdelle  (1861-  ) 
was  Rodin's  direct  and  most  powerful  successor, 
whose  mighty  portrait  heads  and  dramatic  re- 
liefs well  emulate  his  master's.  Henri  Bou- 
chard (1875-  ),  a  strong  and  highly  charac- 
teristic master,  was  a  versatile  and  well-balanced 
artist,  and  perhaps  the  most  important  of  the 
three  Among  sculptors  practicing  the  more 
finished  modeling  along  traditional  lines  and 
whose  works  are  of  real  artistic  worth  were  the 
clever  Francois  Sicard,  Quilivic  for  Breton  sub- 
jects, Constant  Iloux,  Cordonnier,  Jules  Desbois, 
Gu stave  Michel,  Jean  Boucher,  and  later,  Mar- 
cel Jacques,  Maurice  Faure,  and  Jeanne  Han  in. 
The  War  brought  the  usual  crop  of  designs  for 
military  memorials,  mostly  bad. 

Mention  may  be  made  here  of  postimpression- 
ism,  the  reaction  against  the  unbridled  natural- 
ism and  cleverness  of  much  official  French  sculp- 
ture. For  although  its  chief  exponents  were 
not  native  Frenchmen,  yet  they  studied  in  Paris, 
and  it  was  there  that  they  found  their  principal 
support.  Postimprcssionism  endeavors  to  repre- 
sent the  human  figure  in  a  purely  abstract  way, 
with  little  or  no  reference  to  actuality  The 
method  consists  in  the  elimination  of  almost  all 
modeling  except  of  the  parts  chosen  for  charac- 
terization, which  are  exaggerated  out  of  all  neni- 
blance  to  nature.  This  is  exemplified  in -the 
strange  portraits,  usually  expressing  a  highly 
rarefied  type  of  humanity,  by  Constantin  Bran- 
cusi,  a  Rumanian.  Other  well-known  repre- 
sentatives were  Gautier-Brzcaka  (1801-1015),  a 
young  man  killed  in  the  trenches  during  the 
War,  who  belonged  to  the  vorticists,  and  Aleks- 
andr  Archipenko,  the  most  important  of  the 
group.  The  latter  simplifies  the  parts  of  the 
human  body  into  geometrical  shapes  and  exag- 
gerates its  curves  in  taking  various  postures, 
thus  achieving  sculptural  bulk.  The  little  fig- 
ures of  Henri  Matisse  are  as  curious  as  his 
paintings.  Umberto  Boccioni,  an  Italian  futur- 
ist, tacked  all  kinds  of  actual  objects  such  as 
glass,  wood,  cardboard,  cloth,  and  electric  lights, 
to  the  sculpture  represented ;  in  this  he  followed 
the  custom  of  futurist  painting.  See  PAINTING. 

Germany.  From  the  early  years  of  the 
twentieth  century  a  veritable  renaissance  of 
sculpture  took  place  in  Germany  and  Austria. 
Nowhere  else  was  the  change  as  marked.  The 
outworn  realism  and  ronfanticism  of  the  late 
nineteenth  and  eaily  twentieth  centuries  were  re- 
placed by  a  new  and  more  vital  naturalism,  of 
a  strikingly  simplified  and  essentially  decora- 
tive character.  The  new  sculpture  was  con- 
ceived as  a  part  of  the  building  or  monument  to 
which  it  belonged,  subordinated  to  the  Mass- 
qefuhl,  i.e.  the  feeling  for  the  mass  of  the  whole. 
It  combines  technical  ability  of  a  high  order 
in  modeling,  carving,  and  casting  with  a  mas- 
tery of  the  most  varied  materials  of  sculpture. 
It  seeks  to  express  character,  and  its  chief  at- 
tribute is  power,  even  to  the  point  of  brutality 
This  new  German  style  found  its  most  striking 
expression  in  a  series  of  national  monuments, 
such  as  the  colossal  statue  of  Bismarck  at  Ham- 
burg by  Hugo  Lederer,  conceived  in  the  style 
of  the  mediaeval  effigies  of  Roland,  and  the 
Volkerschaft  Monument,  commemorating  the  bat- 
tle of  Leipzig,  by  Bruno  Schmitz,  the  largest 
military  monument  in  the  world.  The  sculptures 
of  the  latter,  by  Franz  Metzner,  are  in  a  class 
by  themselves,  colossal,  harmonious,  and  myste- 
rious. The  clever  adaptation  of  sculpture  to 


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Architectural  effects  IB  seen  also  in  many  recent 
buildings.  In  the  Haus  Rheingold,  a  Berlin 
restaurant,  Metzner  employed  the  human  body 
as  a  purely  decorative  form  with  astounding 
effect.  Other  examples  of  subordination  ana 
simplification  are  the  reliefs  of  the  Bflrger- 
t heater  in  Vienna  by  Luksch-Makowska,  and  es- 
pecially the  sculptures  of  the  proscenium  of 
the  Marble  House  Theatre  in  Berlin,  by  G.  S. 
Sieburg,  in  which  simplification  is  pushed  to  the 
utmost  limit. 

The  most  influential  and  widely  imitated  fig- 
ure in  the  later  German  sculpture  was  Franz 
Metzner  (1872-1918),  whose  art,  often  grotesque 
and  enigmatic,  shows  a  profound  feeling  lor 
the  mass  and  is  masterful  in  technique.  The 
best  qualities  of  this  modern  German  sculpture, 
power,  plasticity,  and  ability,  are  exemplified 
in  such  works  of  Hugo  Lederer  (1871-  )  as 
the  Krupp  memorial  at  Essen.  Of  powerful 
monumental  quality  is  also  the  work  of  Benno 
Elkan  (1877-  ),  in  his  fine  funerary  sculp- 
ture, like  "The  Stone  ot  Lamentation"  at  Wick- 
rath  in  the  Rhine  Province,  his  lifelike  busts, 
and  medals.  Anton  Ilanak  (1875-  )  of 
Vienna  is  primarily  a  sculptor  in  marble,  whose 
inspiration  is  Michelangelo  and  the  Greeks.  The 
stone  and  marble  nudes  of  Hermann  Haller, 
Hubert  Kowarik,  Hans  Daniman,  and  Karl 
Stemolak  are  Hellenic  in  simplification  and  of 
fine  sculptural  quality.  A  master  marble  cut- 
ter was  Theodor  Georgii  (1883-  ),  whose 
work  is  carved  directly  out  of  the  stone.  He 
was  also  a  leader  in  animal  sculpture,  in  which 
connection  August  Gaul  (1868-  )  especially 
and  Fritz  Belm  (1878-  )  should  be  men- 
tioned. Other  important  carvers  of  stone  and 
marble  among  the  younger  men  were  Georg 
Kolbe,  Arthur  Lange,  Ernst  Seger,  Joseph  Lim- 
burg,  and  Adolf  BrUtt. 

The  decorative  talent  of  the  contemporary 
German  school  was  especially  evinced  in  the 
treatment  of  most  diverse  materials,  as  in 
Joseph  Wackerle's  archaistic  figures  of  traver- 
tine. Audacious  and  powerful  experiments  in 
tinted  sculpture  were  made  by  Benno  Elkan  and 
others.  Charming  if  startlingly  modern  effects 
were  attained  in  porcelain  by  Theodor  Eichler 
and  Bernhard  Hotger  of  Darmstadt.  Wood- 
carving  was  practiced  more  extensively  and  en- 
thusiastically in  Germany  than  elsewhere,  by 
Hermann  Haller  inr  Berlin,  Richard  Langer 
in  Munich,  and  especially  Franz  Barwig  in 
Vienna. 

Other  European  Countries.  Among  sculp- 
tors who  died  in  Great  Britain  during  the  dec- 
ade 1914-24  was  Sir  George  Frampton  (1860- 
1023),  known  especially  for  his  polychrome 
sculptures.  His  monument  to  Edith  Cavell, 
erected  in  St.  Martin's  Church,  Trafalgar 
Square,  London,  in  1920,  shows  his  conversion 
to  Greek  archaism,  a  very  startling  change. 
This  is  a  sign  of  the  diminishing  vogue  of  the 
union  of  the  arts  and  crafts  movement  with 
sculpture,  so  successfully  practiced  by  Alfred 
Gilbert  (1854-  )  and  his  followers.  The 
list  of  dead  includes  also  Thomas  Brock  ( 1847- 
1922)  and  Robert  Colson  (1867-1921).  The 
outstanding  feature  of  British  sculpture  of  the 
day  was  the  prevalence  of  the  French  influence, 
modified  by  the  more  ascetic  requirements  of 
British  taste.  Among  the  older  men  Hamo 
Thornycroft  (1860-  )  and  Alfred  Drury 
(1859-  ),  the  foremost  representative  of  the 
French  influence  in  England,  continued  an  im- 


portant activity.  Of  great  imaginative  power 
and  originality  is  the  work  of  Bertram  Mac- 
Ken  nal  (1863-  ),  an  Australian  trained  in 
Paris,  although  his  later  memorials  showed  in- 
creased conformity  to  prevailing  British  tastes. 
His  equestrian  statue  of  Edward  VII  in  Trafal- 
gar Square  was  unveiled  in  1921.  Gilbert 
Bayes  (1871 —  )  was  known  chiefly  for  the  use 
of  the  horse  as  a  motif  and  for  his  interesting 
accessories.  Among  other  men  whose  work  is 
noteworthy  were  S.  Nicholas  Babb  (1874-  ), 
Albert  Toft,  Ernest  Gillick,  Benjamin  Clemens; 
Richard  Garbe,  whose  art  is  characterized  by 
a  certain  brutal  strength;  Havard  Thomas,  and 
Derwent  Wood.  Mention  should  also  be  made 
of  the  highly  characteristic  and  very  modernistic 
productions  of  Jacob  Epstein  (1880-  ),  who 
was  born  in  New  York  and  received  his  princi- 
pal artistic  education  in  Paris.  His  "Christ"  in 
particular  provoked  much  discussion. 

In  Belgium,  the  glorification  of  labor,  so  ably 
begun  by  Meunier,  was  notably  continued  by 
J.  van  Biesbroeck,  of  Ghent.  The  more  con- 
servative tendencies  were  represented  in  the 
work  of  Victor  Rousseau  (1865-  ),  whose 
bronze  group  entitled  "Gratitude,"  erected  in 
Trafalgar  Square  in  London,  was  presented  by 
Belgium  to  Great  Britain  in  1920.  The  most 
startingly  original  of  Belgian  sculptors  of  the 
period  was  Georges  Minne  (1867 —  ),  like- 
wise of  Ghent,  whose  spare  and  highly  stylized 
figures  are  of  great  power. 

Scandinavian  art  of  the  period  was  very 
modern  and  showed  the  French  influence,  modi- 
fied by  native  requirements.  The  lifelike  and 
rather  unfinished  works  of  Carl  L.  Eldli  (1873- 
)  are  impressionistic  in  character.  Carl 
Milles  (1875-  )  shows  great  versatility  of 
subject,  ranging  from  dancing  girls  to  pre- 
historic monsters;  he  is  always  monumental  in 
his  presentation.  Mention  should  also  be  made 
of  the  lively  imaginative  Icelander,  Einar 
Jonsson. 

Russian  sculpture  was  cosmopolitan  in  charac- 
ter, as  the  artists  were  trained  and  lived  largely 
abroad,  especially  after  the  social  revolution. 
.  The  art  of  Prince  Paul  Troubetzkoy  ( 1866-  ) , 
born  in  Italy,  self-taught,  and  much  influenced 
by  Tolstoy,  is  clever  and  impressionistic  in 
character.  Naoum  Aronson,  who  resided  in 
Paris,  was  a  striking  individualist,  excelling 
especially  in  his  interpretation  of  children. 
Modernism  had  numerous  representatives,  chief 
among  them  Archipenko. 

The  Italians  are  the  best  stone  cutters  in  the 
world,  and  their  sculpture  is  characterized  by 
a  manual  dexterity  and  florid  ornament  which 
proved  itself  a  bane.  Biondi  (1885-1917)  was 
known  for  his  large  groups  carved  more  or 
less  disconnectedly,  and  often  revoltingly  natu- 
ralistic, with  the  exception  ot  his  latest  produc- 
tion, "Les  Recluses  MiseYables,"  which,  strange 
to  say,  was  highly  spiritualized  and  well  com- 
posed. Vincenzo  Gemito  (1852-  )  modeled 
charming  bronze  genre  subjects,  usually  repre- 
senting Neapolitan  urchins.  Leonardo "  Bistolfl 
(1859-  )  of  Turin  created  some  work  of  true 
monumental  character,  like  his  fine  "Offering" 
on  the  Victor  Emmanuel  monument  at  Rome. 
In  1915  a  superb  Garibaldi  monument  by  Eu- 
genio  Baron i  was  unveiled  near  Genoa. 

Spanish  sculpture  also  suffered  from  parade 
of  technique  and  too  many  accessories.  The 
foremost  sculptor  at  the  close  of  the  period  was 
Jose"  Clara  (1878-  ),  whose  art  is  always 


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1x67 


personal  and  interesting,  sometimes  even  titan- 
ic. More  or  less  directly  connected  with  the 
development  in  Germany  and  Austria  is  the  art 
of  the  non-German  peoples  who  once  formed  a 
part  of  Austria-Hungary.  Their  art,  like  the 
Germans',  emphasizes  the  mass  and  strives  after 
power  even  to  brutality.  Among  the  prominent 
figures  were  Nicholas  Ligeti  and  Geza  Maroti 
of  Budapest  and  Jan  Stursa  of  Prague,  known 
especially  for  his  subtly  modeled  figures  of  girls. 
Foremost  of  all  was  Ivan  MeStrovic  (1883-  ), 
born  in  Dalmatia,  in  1024  the  national  sculptor 
of  Jugo-Slavia.  He  studied  at  Vienna  under 
Franz  Metzner,  whose  art  his  own  most  resem- 
bles, and  was  also  for  a  time  in  Paris,  where  he 
was  influenced  by  Rodin,  who  pronounced  him 
"the  most  remarkable  of  living  sculptors."  His 
powerful  and  dramatic  art  shows  a  certain  in- 
iluence  of  the  archaic  Greek,  and  in  religious 
subjects  he  goes  back  to  Byzantine  traditions. 

The  United  States.  In  no  other  country  was 
there  such  an  increase  in  the  output  of  sculp- 
ture during  the  twentieth  century  and  especial- 
ly during  the  decade  1914-24  as  in  the  United 
States.  So  great  was  this  that  the  volume  of 
sculpture  produced  after  1900  more  than 
equaled  all  that  had  been  done  before  that  time. 
One  of  the  reasons  for  the  increased  output  was 
the  wide  use  of  architectural  sculpture,  especial- 
ly on  public  buildings,  and  tbe  willingness  of 
important  sculptors  to  devote  themselves  to 
such  work;  another  was  the  great  demand  for 
public  monuments  throughout  the  country;  a 
third  was  the  demand  for  garden  sculpture,  es- 
pecially for  fountains  in  public  parks  and  pri- 
vate grounds.  Owing  to  the  distance  of  Amer- 
ica from  the  scene  of  conflict  and  to  its  late  en- 
trance into  the  War,  there  was  no  such  cessa- 
tion of  artistic  production  there  during  the  War 
as  took  place  in  Europe. 

As  compared  with  the  development  in  Europe, 
American  sculpture  took  a  middle  course,  avoid- 
ing conservative  and  radical  extremes,  some- 
times indeed  a  little  restrained,  but  escaping 
the  extravagances  of  postimpressionism.  The 
cluof  centre  of  production  continued  to  be  New 
York  and  its  vicinity,  where  nine-tenths  of 
American  artists  live  and  labor.  They  come, 
however,  from  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
land,  by  far  the  greater  number  from  west  of 
the  Alleghanies,  and  many  from  the  Far  West. 

During  the  decade  1014-24  the  United  States 
lost  several  important  sculptors.  Foremost 
among  them  was  Karl  Bitter  (1867-1915), 
killed  by  accident  in  his  prime.  His  latest 
works,  such  as  the  granite  pediment  of  the 
Wisconsin  State  capitol  and  the  Lowry  memo- 
rial of  Indianapolis,  show  constant  development 
of  a  decorative  sense  and  mastery  of  material. 
A  fitting  termination  for  the  activity  of  Henry 
M.  Shrady  (1871-1922)  was  the  national  U.  S. 
Grant  memorial  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  especial- 
ly the  colossal  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Grant 
which  ranks  among  the  best  of  the  day.  Bela 
L.  Pratt  (1864-1917),  active  as  a  teacher  in 
Boston,  is  known  for  his  youthful,  girlish  nudes; 
Solon  A.  Borglum  (1868-1922),  for  cowboy  and 
Indian  subjects  and  many  monuments.  Among 
others  were  John  J.  Boyle  (1852-1917),  sculp- 
tor of  red  men;  Edith  Woodman  Burroughs 
(1871-1918),  famed  for  girlish  figures  and 
characteristic  portrait  busts;  and  Charles  Gary 
Rumsey  (1879-1922),  known  especially  for  his 
horses. 

Among  the  older  men,  the  extensive  produc- 


tion of  Daniel  Chester  French  (1850-  ), 
dean  of  American  sculptors,  combined  with  his 
customary  good  taste  and  pure  form  a  distinct 
increase  in  power,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  lovely 
nude  "Memory"  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
New  York  City,  the  colossal  seated  Lincoln  for 
the  national  Lincoln  memorial  (1919),  and  the 
Dupont  Fountain  (1922),  both  in  Washington, 
D.  C.  Besides  his  monumental  sculpture,  Her- 
bert Adams  (1858-  )  continued  the  produc- 
tion of  sensitively  tinted  heads  of  young  women. 
Charles  H.  Niehaus  (1853-  ),  "indefat- 
igable builder  of  monuments,"  had  a  number 
of  later  works  to  his  credit,  like  the  Francis 
Scott  Key  monument  at  Baltimore  (1922),  and 
so  had  J.  Massey  Hind  (1860-  ),  besides  a 
vast  quantity  of  decorative  sculpture. 

The  later  works  of  Frederic  MacMonnies 
(1863-  )  continued  his  novel  and  exotic 
ideas,  as  witness  the  Denver  "Pioneer"  fountain 
and  the  Princeton  battle  monument.  George 
Gray  Barnard's  (1863-  )  profound,  symbolic 
work  is  worthily  expressed  in  some  of  his  re- 
cent statues,  like  "Woman"  (Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum, New  York  City).  His  powerfully  realis- 
tic and  magnificently  characterized  bronze 
Lincoln  (Cincinnati,  Ohio,  and  Manchester, 
England)  caused  more  discussion  than  perhaps 
any  other  American  statue.  Paul  Bartlett's 
(1865-  )  thoughtful  and  skillful  technic 
is  revealed  in  the  grandiose  pediment  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  in  Washington  and 
his  delicate  architectural  figures  on  the  New 
York  Public  Library.  Gutzon  Borglum  (1876- 
)  was  in  1924  engaged  on  a  group  of  42 
heroic  figures  in  bronze  for  Newark,  N.  J.,  and 
on  a  colossal  relief,  700  feet  by  100  feet,  in- 
volving several  hundred  figures,  carved  in  the 
face  of  Stone  Mountain,  near  Atlanta,  Ga.  The 
latter  was  intended  as  a  memorial  to  the  Con- 
federate Army  and  when  completed  was  to  be 
the  most  colossal  work  of  sculpture  ever  at- 
tempted. 

Among  other  sculptors  producing  important 
public  monuments  were  Hermon  A.  MacNeil 
(1866-  );  Albert  Jaegers  (1868-  ),  who 
did  the  fine  "Pioneer"  monument  at  German- 
town,  Pa.;  Edmond  T.  Quinn  (1868-  ), 
whose  work  is  tasteful  and  conscientious;  Alex- 
ander S.  Calder  (1870-  )  ;  Adolph  A.  Wein- 
man (1870-  );  and  Augustus  Lukeman 
(1872-  ).  The  Piccirilli  family  is  cel- 
ebrated for  skillful  marble  cutting.  An  impor- 
tant later  work  by  Attilio  Piccirilli  (1866- 
)  was  one  of  the  pediments  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin State  capitol  at  Madison,  and  by  his  brother 
Furio  (1870-  ),  a  statue  of  Pierre  Gautier 
de  la  Varonne,  forming  part  of  the  decoration 
of  the  Parliament  House  at  Winnipeg  in  Can- 
ada, which  is  entirely  in  his  charge.  Charles 
Grafly  (1862-  ),  the  well-known  teacher  in 
Philadelphia,  in  the  late  years  of  the  decade, 
devoted  himself  to  portraiture,  in  which  he  was 
unsurpassed  in  American  sculpture.  Lorado 
Taft  (I860-  ),  dean  of  Chicago  sculptors, 
in  later  years  devoted  himself  to  the  creation  of 
fountains,  like  the  "Fountain  of  Time"  in  Chi- 
cago (1922).  Cyrus  Dallin  of  Boston  (1861- 
)  continued '  his  distinctive  work,  the  rep- 
resentation of  the  American  Indian. 

Among  animal  sculptors,  Phinister  Proctor 
(1862-  )  had  begun  to  subordinate  his 
animals  to  the  human  figure  in  a  series  of 
monuments.  Edward  C.  Potter's  latest  works 
included  the  much  discussed  lions  at  the  Public 


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Library  in  New  York.  Excellent  indeed  are 
the  animal  bronzes  of  F.  C.  R.  Roth;  Eli  Harvy; 
Albert  Laesle  (1877-  ),  who  depicts  in 
unique  manner  the  humor  of  animal  life;  and 
Anna  V.  Hyatt  (Mrs.  Archer  Huntingdon) 
(1876-  ).  Her  spirited  equestrian  Joan  of 
Arc  on  Riverside  Drive,  New  York  City,  was  a 
stirring  conception.  The  War  offered  fine  op- 
portunity for  the  medalists,  chief  of  whom  in 
the  United  States  were  John  Flanagan  (1865- 

),  designer  of  the  well-known  Me"daille 
de  Verdun  (1921),  and  Victor  L>.  Brenner 
(J871-  ). 

The  sculpture  of  the  men  born  after  1870  was 
full  of  promise  for  the  future.  Andrew  O'Con- 
nor's (1874-  )  figures,  like  the  "Soldier"  of 
Worcester,  Mass.,  and  the  Lincoln  at  Spring- 
field, 111.,  arc  virile  in  conception  and  well- 
modeled.  The  art  of  James  Earle  Fraser  ( 1876- 

)  is  marked  by  skill  and  good  taste,  as  in 
'The  End  of  the  Trail"  (San  Francisco),  and 
his  relief  is  wondrously  delicate.  Lee  Lawric 
(1877-  ),  of  German*  origin,  was  an  architec- 
tural sculptor,  as  witness  the  figures  of  the 
reredos  of  St.  Thomas's  Church  in  New  York 
City.  Mahonri  Young  (1877-  ),  well-known 
as  a  teacher,  specialized  in  characteristic  statu- 
ettes of  laborers.  Rudolf  Evans  (1878-  ) 
became  famous  as  a  carver  of  beautiful  nudes 
through  "The  Golden  Hour,"  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg, Paris,  and  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York  City.  Robert  Aitkin  (1878-  )  was  a 
strong  yet  versatile  artist,  whose  monuments, 
garden  figures,  busts,  coins,  and  medals  were 
widely  known.  Grace  and  charm  are  the 
marked  characteristics  of  the  carefully  modeled 
work  of  Edward  McCartan  (1878-  ).  The 
vivid  portraits  by  Jo  Davidson  (1883-  )  of 
figures  prominent  during  the  War  are  powerful 
artistic  as  well  as  historic  documents. 

The  American  Academy  at  Rome  had  a  marked 
influence  on  later  American  sculpture  through 
the  young  men  who  enjoyed  its  four  years' 
scholarships.  The  dominant  note  of  their  art 
is  Greek  archaism  in  all  decorative  and  con- 
ventional features  but  less  in  figure  modeling. 
The  execution  is  on  the  whole  more  finished 
than  that  of  the  group  which  studied  chiefly  in 
Paris.  Sherry  Fry  (1874-  )  combined  the 
archaic  note  with  careful  and  interesting  model- 
ing. John  Gregory  (1879-  )  is  known  for 
charming  garden  figures.  The  art  of  Chester 
Beach  (1881-  )  reflects  rather  the  Rodin- 
esque  than  the  archaic  motive.  It  is  clear, 
individuali/ed,  and  of  rugged  quality.  Like- 
wise the  art  of  Albin  Polasek,  an  excellent  por- 
traitist, and  in  11)24  instructor  in  the  Art  Insti- 
tute in  Chicago,  is  also  rather  naturalistic  than 
archaic.  The  chief  representative  of  the  latter- 
day  classicism  was  Paul  Manship  (1885-  ), 
a  master  craftsman  of  archaic  decoration,  com- 
bined with  Hkillful  modeling  of  the  nude.  In 
Leo  Friedlandcr's  (1889-  )  work  the  archaic 
is  united  with  a  certain  brutal  power  reminis- 
cent of  the  modern  German  school. 

A  striking  feature  of  the  development  of 
American  sculpture  during  the  period  was  the 
large  number  of  distinguished  women,  greater 
than  in  any  other  country  and  larger  than  that 
of  women  painting  in  the  United  States.  Al- 
though practicing  all  branches  of  sculpture, 
they  excel  especially  in  representing  women 
and  children,  garden  sculpture,  and  small 
bronzes.  Janet  Scudder  (1873-  )  is  known 
for  her  fountain  figures;  Bessie  Potter  Vonnoh 


(1872-  ),  for  simple  domestic  scenes  in- 
vested with  great  charm;  Abastenia  Eberle 
(1878-  ),  for  plastic  sketches  of  the  hum- 
ble life  of  a  great  city.  Evelyn  Beatrice  Long- 
man (1874-  )  has  created  a  series  of  busts, 
bronze  doors,  and  memorials;  Laura  Gardin 
Fraser  (1889-  ),  nudes  and  miniature  re- 
liefs; Anna  V.  Hyatt,  animals;  Malvina  Hoff- 
man (1887-  ),  spirited  figures  and  groups; 
Frances  Giimes,  graceful  marble  reliefs;  Har- 
riet W.  Frishmuth  (1880-  ),  dramatic 
nudes.  Mention  should  also  be  made  of  Ger- 
trude Vanderbilt  Whitney,  whose  sculpture,  al- 
ways original,  became  strongly  personal. 

Modernist  tendencies  found  little  echo  in 
American  sculpture.  Their  chief  representative 
was  Gaston  Lachaise,  a  Frenchman,  trained  in 
the  Beaux  Arts,  but  whose  sculpture  was  pro- 
duced in  New  York. 

Bibliography.  The  be^t  comprehensive  view 
of  the  development  of  the  period  is  Lorado 
Taft's  Modern  Tendencies  in  Sculpture  ( Chi- 
cago, 1021).  Other  accounts  are  by  C.  R.  Post, 
A  History  of  European  and  American  Sculpture, 
vol.  ii  (Cambridge,  1921)  ;  and  Kineton  Parkes. 
Sculpture  of  To-Day  (London,  1921).  For  the 
United  States,  consult  the  supplementary  chap- 
ter to  Lorado  Taft's  History  of  American  Sculp- 
ture (New  York,  1923).  See  also  Adeline 
Adams,  The  Spirit  of  American  Sculpture  (New 
York,  1923)  and  the  current  art  magazines. 

SCURVY.  The  ideal  antiscorbutic  diet  was 
still  undetermined  in  1924.  Oiiginally  the  dis- 
ease was  attributed  in  part  to  the  substitution 
of  salted  for  fresh  meat  Experiments  on  an- 
imals have  shown  that  although  fresh  meat 
contains  antiscorbutic  vitamine,  it  is  insuffi- 
cient to  prevent  the  development  of  scurvy  if 
the  diet  is  otherwise  free  from  the  Vitamine  C. 
There  is  evidence  that  to  contain  effective  Vi- 
tamine C,  the  meat  must  be  raw  and  quite  fresh- 
ly killed.  Arctic  explorers  escape  scurvy  at 
times  by  subsisting  on  freshly  killed  game; 
fresh  fish  is  devoid  of  this  vitamine,  and  this 
is  also  true  of  the  fat  of  meat  Indians  and 
Esquimaux  appear  to  prefer  fresh  viscera  to 
fresh  muscle  and  always  bargain  for  the  former 
when  dividing  game  with  white  men.  It  goes 
without  saying  that  all  preserved  and  tinned 
meat  is  unsuitable  in  an  antiscorbutic  dietary, 
and  raw  viscera  are  out  of  the  question  for 
white  men.  There  was  considerable  propaganda 
for  the  purpose  of  prevailing  on  the  white  man 
to  settle  permanently  within  the  Arctic  Circle; 
this  was  based  on  the  century-old  misrepresen- 
tation concerning  this  climate.  StefTansson  has 
shown  that  the  weather  there  can  be  matched 
in  every  way  with  that  of  certain  portions  of 
the  northern  United  States.  The  degree  of 
cold,  amount  of  snow,  and  other  seasonal  draw- 
backs are  not  materially  worse  in  the  Arctic 
and  are  often  better.  A  greater  drawback 
might  be  scurvy  due  to  the  absence  of  fresh 
game  and  other  foods  containing  the  Vitamine 
C.  To  go  through  the  winter  free  from  scurvy 
there  would  have  to  be  a  plentiful  supply  of  po- 
tatoes, apples,  canned  tomatoes,  and  fresh  milk; 
dried  and  evaporated  vegetables  would  not 
serve. 

SEALS.     See  FISHERIES. 

SEAMEN'S  ACT,  OF  1915.     See  SHIPPING. 

SEAPLANE.  See  AERONAUTICS;  NAVIES, 
United  States. 

SEABES,  FREDERICK  HANLEY  (1873-  ). 
An  American  astronomer,  born  at  Cassopolis, 


COURTESY    OF    BROWN-ROBERTSON    00.,    INC. 


JAMES  EARL  FRAZER 

"THE  END  OF  THE  TRAIL" 
In  the  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco,  California 


SEATTLE 


1189 


SECBETIONS 


Mich.  He  studied  at  the  University  of  Califor- 
nia and  in  Berlin  and  Paris.  During  1901-09, 
he  was  professor  of  astronomy  and  director  of 
the  Laws  Observatory  at  Missouri  In  1909, 
he  was  called  to  the  charge  of  the  computing  di- 
vision and  of  the  puhlications  of  the  Mt.  Wilson 
Observatory  of  the  Carnegie  Institution.  Among 
the  special  investigations  by  which  he  advanced 
the  knowledge  of  astronomy  are  studies  on  the 
theory  of  orbits  and  perturbations,  distribution 
of  stars,  HTK!  the  general  magnetic  field. 

SEATTLE.  The  twentieth  city  in  the 
United  States  and  the  largest  north  of  San 
Francisco  and  west  of  Minneapolis.  In  1923 
Seattle  ranked  second  to  New  York  in  the  num- 
ber of  people  entering  the  United  States  through 
it  and  was  outranked  only  by  New  York  and 
Boston  in  value  of  foreign  imports  The  pop- 
ulation increased  from  237,97(>  in  1910  to  315,- 
085  in  1920  and  to  355,000  by  local  estimate  for 
J924.  In  1919  Seattle  purchased  the  street 
lailway  system  on  a  $15,000,000  public  utility 
bond  issue;  in  1924  it  supplemented  its  munici- 
pal power  plants  by  the1  hist  unit  of  the  Skagit 
hiver  power  development  The  municipality 
also  added  some  $5,000,000  to  its  investment  in 
waterfront  terminals  at  Smith  Cove,  including 
a  municipal  pier  more  than  half  a  mile  long, 
used  for  trans-Pacific  shipping.  A  fireproof 
concrete  municipal  grain  elevator  was  built 
At  the  close  of  the  \\  ar  a  memorial  civic  centre 
was  planned.  Between  1909  and  1924  there  was 
an  increase  of  1(53  per  cent  in  the  number  of 
maiiuiacturing  establishments,  537  per  cent  in 
the  number  of  employees,  and  98  per  cent  in  the 
\aluc  of  products  Bank  cleanups  increased  251 
pel  cent,  fiom  $«M),()9.],3(i5  in  19lV)  to  $2,072,039,- 
430  in  1920.  deposits,  9(5  pei  cent,  from  $78,H27,- 
201  to  $154,5.40,874,  foicign  imports,  1012  per 
cent,  from  $21, (1(18,831  to  $241,112,184,  foreign 
evpoits,  12  J3  per  cent,  fiom  $10,150,702  to  $135,- 
312,904;  domestic  imports,  375  per  cent,  from 
$28,143,402  to  $133,823,985;  and  domestic  ex- 
ports, 115  per  cent,  from  $30,128,105  to  $77,- 
774,124. 

SECRET     TREATIES.     See     WAR,     DIPLO- 
MACY   OF    TITK 

SECRETIONS,  INTERNAL.  Endocrinology 
made  prodigious  advances  in  the  decade  1914— 
24,  as  sho\\  n  by  the  formation  of  a  national  so- 
ciety foi  the  study  of  inteinal  secretions,  the 
appearance  of  a  quarteily  maga/ine  devoted  to 
the  subject,  and  the  publication  of  an  encyclo- 
pedic work  on  the  endocrines  edited  by  Dr. 
Barkei  of  Johns  Hopkins  Naturally  the  sub- 
ject of  organotheiapy  belongs  under  this  head- 
ing, including  insulin  and  the  sensational  work- 
in  so-called  rejuvenation  done  by  Steinach  and 
his  followers,  VoronofT  and  others.  Dr  Barker, 
in  summing  up  endocrinology  in  the  Journal  of 
the  American  Medical  Association  (July  8, 
1922),  prefers  the  term  incretion,  signifying 
internal  secietion,  to  endocrine  substance,  hor- 
mone, etc.  Of  great  immediate  interest  is  the 
possible  difference  between  active  principles 
found  in  glands  and  whole  gland  substance. 
The  probabilities  are  that  these  organs,  like 
certain  plants,  contain  several  active  principles 
In  addition  to  the  clinical  evidences  of  excess 
or  diminution  of  production  of  certain  incre- 
tions,  the  results  of  actual  treatment  and  au- 
topsies, attempts  were  made  at  pharmacologic 
tests  in  which  certain  alkaloidal  drugs  as  well 
as  the  incretions  themselves  are  injected  into 
the  organism  for  diagnostic  purposes  in  order 


to  determine  whether  there  is  a  deficiency  or 
superfluity  of  gland  activity.  One  of  the  great 
advances  of  the  decade  was  the  isolation  of 
thyroxin  as  the  representative  active  principle 
of  the  thyroid  gland  by  Kendall  at  the  Mayo 
clinic.  Removal  or  reduction  in  size  of  one 
suprarenal  gland  has  been  practiced  many  times 
in  German}  in  the  hope  of  mitigating  incessant 
convulsions  in  certain  epileptics,  since  increased 
convulsibility  was  believed  to  be  a  result  of 
excess  of  suprarenal  tissue.  While  certain  in- 
cretions are  active  in  determining  the  stature, 
length  of  long  bones,  general  outlines  of  the 
face,  and  other  static  peculiarities,  others  were 
believed  to  determine  the  rate  of  metabolism 
and  incidentally  the  temperament  of  the  in- 
dividual. 

Effects  of  Faulty  Foods.  rlhis  subject  was 
studied  by  McCarrison  of  India  with  special 
reference  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  vitaniine 
It  is  evident  that  the  phenomena  seen  in  de- 
ficiency diseases  are  due  largely  to  the  effects 
produced  on  the  endocrine  glands.  Other  groups 
of  symptoms  were  due  to  simple  starvation, 
unbalanced  diet,  and  excess  of  fat.  It  is  re- 
markable that  in  prolonged  fasting  the  supra- 
renal glands  enlaige,  although  all  other  en- 
docrine bodies  undergo  reduction  in  si/e  The 
thyroid  gland  is  reduced,  to  two-thirds  its  nor- 
mal size,  but  the  weight  of  the  suprarenal  may 
double.  If  the  animals  then  receive  plenty  of 
food  with  exclusion  of  vitaniine,  the  results 
show  much  similarity,  although  in  some  males 
the  pituitary  body  enlarges  as  well  as  the 
suprarenals  This  "group  of  symptoms  is  pro- 
duced also  by  simple  deprivation  of  vitaniine  B; 
absence  of  vitamines  A  and  C  is  without  these 
effects.  If  on  the  other  hand  plenty  of  vi- 
taniine is  given  without  any  protein  in  the  food, 
there  is  reduction  in  size  of  some  of  the  endo- 
crines, but  it  is  very  slight  in  some  of  them; 
the  pancreas  is  the  chief  sufferer.  In  this  group 
as  in  the  others,  the  suprarenals  were  notably 
enlarged.  If  the  diet  did  not  contain  the  nor- 
mal calory  requirement,  analogous  behavior 
was  noted.  The  significance  of  the  enlargement 
of  the  suprarenals  does  not  mean  any  effort  at 
compensation,  for  it  has  long  been  known  that 
their  secretion  is  deficient  in  fasting.  Hence, 
practically  all  of  the  endocrine  glands  suffer 
through  improper  feeding  of  any  kind.  In  over- 
feeding with  fat,  the  thyioid  enlarges  and  the 
suprarenal s  become  smaller  The  thyroid  is 
genuinely  enlarged,  much  as  in  Giaves's  dis- 
ease. McCarrison  indeed  terms  the  condition 
goitre  and  associates  its  cause  in  such  cases 
with  relative  absence  of  iodine  from  the  diet. 
In  normal  thyroid  structure  and  function  there 
is  a  balance  between  diet  fat  and  iodine. 

Gonads  or  Sexual  Glands.  The  fact  that 
castration  of  immature  animals  prevents  the 
full  development  of  secondary  characters  led 
to  the  general  belief  that  the  sexual  glands  are 
the  sole  seat  of  sex.  The  various  operations 
for  procuring  so-called  rejuvenation  are  based 
on  this  conviction.  Many  isolated  facts  an- 
tagoni/e  this  belief,  and  it  became  increasingly 
evident  that  sex  differences  extend  throughout 
the  entire  organism.  In  other  words,  a  woman 
is  not  a  woman  because  of  her  ovaries  but  has 
ovaries  because  she  is  a  woman.  It  is  also  pos- 
sible to  show  that  sex  is  a  matter  of  degree  or 
development  rather  than  a  basic  antagonism. 
The  substratum  of  the  individual  is  believed  to 
be  female,  with  an  evolutionary  tendency  to 


SECRETIONS 


IIQO 


SEGBETIONS 


maleneas.  Tlie  unfertilized  ovum  is  all  female, 
and  fertilization  is  necessary  for  maleness  to 
develop.  Once  maleness  has  developed  it  is 
stable  and  immutable,  but  femaleness  is  essen- 
tially transitory.  After  the  termination  of  the 
breeding  cycle,  the  female  may  take  on  a  num- 
ber of  male  secondary  characters,  although 
there  are  no  male  sexual  glands  to  explain  the 
phenomenon.  Otherwise  sexually  entire  indi- 
viduals have  been  born  without  sexual  glands, 
and  castration  even  of  the  very  young  male 
animal  sometimes  fails  to  deprive  it  of  male- 
ness.  Since  the  substratum  is  essentially  fe- 
male, there  is  originally  but  one  type  of  gonad, 
the  ovary.  In  physical  hermaphrodites  and,  it 
is  also  claimed,  in  the  psychical  form  or  sexual 
invert,  an  apparent  testicle  may  piovo  under 
the  microscope  to  be  a  so-called  ovotestis  or 
ovary  only  partly  differentiated  into  a  testis. 
It  is  evident  that  the  relathe  number  of  males 
and  females  in  a  community  depends  on  the 
amount  of  development  from  ovary  to  testis. 
In  some  of  the  lower  animals  such  as  tadpoles 
it  is  possible  to  stimulate  the  development,  so 
that  instead  of  normal  equality  of  numbeis  only 
male  adults  develop.  Study  of  individuals  of- 
ten shows  dissociation  of  second  a  ry  sexual  char- 
acters; thus  the  plumage  of  certain  birds  is 
pait  male,  part  female  In  general,  Hex  re- 
sides in  the  individual  cell,  in  the  chromosomes. 

Belation  of  the  Gonads  to  Sex.  This  ques- 
tion could  be  answered  only  imperfectly.  In 
the  lattei  years  of  the  nineteenth  century  no 
one  doubted  that  the  kind  of  gonad  determined 
the  HCX  entirely,  but  in  the  interim  there  was 
a  nteady  accumulation  of  evidence  to  the  con- 
trary, largely  as  the  rehult  of  animal  experi- 
ment. It  was  learned  that  in  the  absence  of  a 
functioning  thyroid,  sexual  development  in  de- 
fective. In  certain  experiment  animals  it  was 
bhoun  that  implantation  of  testes  into  castrated 
females  changes  them  into  males,  but  the  con- 
vcise  is  not  true;  implantation  of  ovaries  into 
castrated  males  (Iocs  not  change  them  into  fe- 
male**. The  development  of  certain  tumors  in 
the  region  of  the  adrenal  glands  occurring  in 
females  will  efl'ect  transformation  into  males, 
with  certain  physical  limitations  such  as  supra- 
renal virilism;  and  in  these  changes  the  ovaries 
play  no  part. 

It  is  true,  however,  that  grafting  testicular 
substance  into  various  types  of  animal  and  man 
will  produce  striking  phenomena,  as  shown  es- 
pecially by  the  experiments  of  Steinach  on  rats. 
These  researches  were  carried  out  for  years  on 
male  and  female,  old  and  young,  castrated  and 
entire.  It  was  noted  that  in  addition  to  change 
in  sex  characters  there  was  also  an  alteration 
in  age  characters.  Thus  it  was  apparently  pos- 
sible not  only  to  alter  the  sex  of  an  animal  but 
to  alter  its  age;  in  other  words,  to  rejuvenate 
it.  In  order  to  understand  the  bearing  of  such 
experiments  it  is  necessary  to  know  much  about 
ordinary  breeding  of  strains  of  animals,  includ- 
ing crossing  and  hybridism,  and  the  natural 
history  of  intact  and  castrated  animals  of  both 
sexes.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  an- 
imals lead  artificial  lives,  are  purposely  bred 
for  experiment,  and  so  on.  Thus  Steinach's  re- 
sults were  at  one  time  disputed;  breeders  made 
the  claim  that  his  old  senile  rats  who  became 
young  again  were  only  sick  rats  who  improved 
in  health  because  of  the  favorable  conditions 
secured  by  the  experiments.  Steinach  seemed 
to  have  disproved  this  charge. 


Division  or  Ligation  of  the  Duct.  Steinach, 
who  at  first  advocated  actual  implantation  of 
material  from  the  sexual  glands  to  produce  the 
similitude  of  rejuvenation,  later  discovered  in 
the  course  of  experiment  that  simple  division 
or  ligation  of  the  spermatic  duct  produced  such 
stimulation  of  the  interstitial  portion  of  the 
testis  as  to  produce  the  same  therapeutic  result 
as  actual  implantation.  Owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  obtaining  testicular  material,  this  discovery 
was  hailed  as  of  major  importance,  for  any 
surgeon  could  perform  the  operation  at  any 
place  or  time.  The  results  of  section  of  the 
duct  appeared  to  be  very  unequal,  striking  in 
certain  cases  and  negative  in  others.  These 
discrepant  effects  were  variously  explained. 
The  benefits  in  some  cases  supervened  so  rapidly 
that  they  were  attributed  to  mental  impression. 
Attention  was  also  called  to  the  fact  that  di- 
vision of  the  duct  as  an  incidental  step  in  the 
operation  of  removing  the  hypertrophied  pros- 
tate was  practiced  thousands  of  times  without 
any  evidence  of  rejuvenation,  but  the  counter- 
claim was  made  that  there  was  often  more  im- 
provement in  the  general  health  after  excision 
of  the  prostate  than  could  be  explained  "by  mere 
removal  of  an  obstruction ;  some  very  old  men 
secured  a  new  lease  of  life  and  usefulness. 

The  direct  result  of  ligation  or  division  of  the 
duct  is  destructive;  the  sperm  forms  cells  un- 
dergoing atrophy.  This  in  turn  is  followed  by 
an  overgrowth  of  the  connective  tissue  in  which 
are  imbedded  the  Leydig  cells  which  supply  the 
internal  secretion  of  the  male  gonad.  This 
state  of  affairs  is  not  permanent,  for  the  sper- 
matic cells  show  some  regeneration ;  at  the 
same  time  the  Leydig  cells  are  reduced  in  num- 
ber. The  favorable  results  are  more  noticeable 
in  premature  senility,  i.e.  in  men  less  old  in 
years,  than  in  men  in  the  seventies  and  eight- 
ies. In  the  really  old,  the  benefit,  when  pres- 
ent, is  of  the  nature  of  a  general  tonic,  while 
in  the  prematurely  old  there  may  be  in  addi- 
tion improvement  in  defective  sexual  functions. 

Implantation  of  Testicle.  This  operation 
did  not  originate  with  Steinach,  for  it  was 
performed  by  Lespinasse  and  Lydston  both  of 
Chicago  and  independently  of  each  other,  on 
human  beings  and  using  human  testicles. 
Others  who  followed  them  used  the  testicles  of 
animals,  including  those  of  apes,  rams,  beeves, 
etc.  This  entire  line  of  experiment  is  derived 
from  the  much  older  transplantation  of  ovaries, 
which  has  long  been  a  recognized  procedure, 
although  largely  limited  to  implantation  of  the 
woman's  own  ovaries  after  the  operation  of 
total  removal  of  the  uterus  and  appendages 
The  object  of  such  transplantation  has  nothing 
in  common  with  rejuvenation  or  reinvigoration 
but  is  solely  to  protect  the  woman  from  the 
trying  symptoms  which  follow  -castration.  In 
implanting  the  testicle,  the  same  idea  has  been 
entertained  in  cases  of  accidental  castration; 
such  cases  are  few  in  comparison  with  the  op- 
portunities which  daily  present  themselves  of 
premature  old  ago,  functional  loss  of  virility, 
and  general  breakdown  of  health.  The  simplest 
and  easiest  method  consists  in  implanting  a 
small  slice  of  beef's  or  ram's  testicle  under  the 
skin  of  the  abdomen.  The  testicles  of  men  and 
apes  have  been  used  in  a  few  cases  Dr.  Bel- 
field  summed  up  the  subject  of  testicular  im- 
plantation by  stating  that  in  the  elderly  the 
benefits,  when  apparent,  are  but  shortlived.  In 
young  men  who  have  had  their  gonads  removed 


8EGBI8T 


xxgx 


SEISMOLOGY 


by  accident  or  surgery  or  who  have  lost  them 
as  a  result  of  destructive  disease,  the  good  re- 
sults are  more  in  evidence  and  the  period  of 
recovery  longer,  although  it  lasts  only  some 
months.  The  operation  may  of  course  be  re- 
peated indefinitely.  It  is  by  no  means  certain 
that  this  improvement  is  specific  in  character. 
The  work  of  VoronoiT  largely  corroborated  that 
of  Steinach,  although  his  experiments  were  con- 
ducted on  goats  and  rams.  Human  experience 
is  not  recorded  in  his  books.  Steinach  and  his 
followers  have  reported  many  cases  of  gonad 
grafting  in  men  and  in  women  as  well. 

SECBIST,  HORACE  (1881-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can economist,  born  at  Faimhigton,  Utah,  lie 
studied  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  where 
he  took  his  Ph.D  in  1911.  In  1909,  he  became 
instructor  of  economics  at  Wisconsin,  wheie 
in  1918  he  became  professor  of  economics  and 
statistics.  In  1909,  he  was  expert  special  agent 
of  the  United  States  Census  Bureau,  and  dur- 
ing 1911-12,  statistician  of  the  Wisconsin  In- 
dustrial Commission,  becoming  also  in  1914, 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Industiial  Re- 
lations. During  the  War,  he  was  the  statis- 
tician of  the  tonnage  section  of  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board  and  later  was  supervis- 
ing statistician  of  the  Tnited  States  Railroad 
Labor  Board.  In  addition  to  many  articles  va- 
liously  contributed,  he  is  the  author  of  An 
Economical  Analysis  of  tic  Constitutional  Lim- 
itations on  Public  Indebtedness  in  the  United 
States  (1914);  Headings  and  Problems  on  Sta- 
tistical Methods  (1920);  Costs,  Merchandising 
Practices,  Adicrtising  and  Salctt  in  the  Retail 
Distribution  of  Clothing  ((>  vols  ,  1921). 

SEGUR,  PIERKK  M.  II.,  MARQUIS  DE 
( 1833-1 9 10).  A  French  historian,  born  in 
Paris,  and  educated  at  the  College  of  Stanislas, 
lie  entered  the  public  sen  ice  in  1876  as  auditor 
to  the  privy  council  but  after  a  short  time  re- 
linquished that  office  to  de\ote  himself  to  the 
study  of  French  history  and  literature.  He  be- 
came a  member  of  the  French  Academy  in 
1907.  His  writings  consist  of  studies  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  several 
histoiies  coveiing  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI,  and 
various  articles  and  discourses,  including: 
(tens  d'  Autrcfois  (1903);  Esquisses  et  Recits 
(1908);  Silhouettes  Uistoriqiics  (I1!)!!);  and 
J'arrni  les  Cypres  ct  les  Lauricrs  (1912). 

SEIDEL,'  TOSCIIA  (1900-  ).  A  llussian 
violinist,  born  at  Odessa.  At  the  age  of  seven 
he  l>egan  to  study  the  violin  under  Max  Fiede- 
mann.  From  1909  to  1011,  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Alexander  Fiedemann  at  Stern's  Conservatory 
in  Berlin,  where  Auer  heard  him  and  offered  to 
teach  him  free  of  charge.  In  1915,  he  made  a 
most  successful  dtfbut  at  Christiania,  and  for 
the  next  three  years  appeared  extensively 
tluoughout  Scandinavia  in  recitals  and  with 
orchestra,  and  occasionally  in  joint  recitals 
with  Auer  himself.  In  1918,  he  made  his  Amer- 
ican delmt  at  New  York,  and  since  then  has 
made  extensive  tours  of  the  country,  meeting 
everywhere  with  extraordinary  success.  He  is 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  of  the  younger  genera- 
tion of  violinists. 

SElLLiRE,  ERNEST,  BABON  (1866-  ), 
French  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Paris. 
His  family  came  from  Lorraine  and  was  allied  to 
the  Talleyrand-Pe*rigord,  Berglas  Saint-Winock, 
and  other  patrician  strains.  He  studied 
at  the  Ecole  Poly  technique  in  Paris,  but  instead 
of  pursuing  the  engineering  profession  he  de- 


voted himself  to  literature  and  social  philos- 
ophy. Strongly  influenced  by  Nietzsche  and 
the  doctrine  of  the  will  to  power,  Seilliere  de- 
veloped what  he  called  the  philosophy  of  im- 
perialibm,  that  is  to  say,  a  philosophy  of 
masculine  activity,  service  and  organization  as 
opposed  to  the  effeminate  romanticism  of  Rous- 
seau. He  traced  all  the  modern  evils,  political, 
social,  and  aesthetic,  to  the  influence  of  roman- 
ticism. Curiously  enough,  Scillieie  was  a  par- 
tisan of  Bergson's  intuitional  philosophy,  and 
even  his  own  doctrine  was  chaiacterized  as  an 
inverted  romanticism.  The  list  of  his  works 
include:  Ferdinand  Lasallc  (1897);  Le  Parti 
Kocialiste  Allemand  (1898)  ;  La  Philosophic  de 
r  1  mpcrialisme ;  Lc  Comte  de  Gobineau  (1903); 
Appolon  ou  Dionysos  (190G)  ;  Xiet^chc  (1905)  ; 
L'Impcrialismc  Dcmocratiqite  (1907);  Schopen- 
hauer (1909);  Barley  d'Aureiilly  (1910); 
Gustaie  Flaubert  (1914)  ;  SJme.  Guyon  et  Fc,ne- 
lon  (1918);  Les  Oriyincs  Romanesques  de  la 
Morale  Romantique  (1918)  ;  Georges  Sand 
(1919);  Sainte-Beuve  (1920);  Jean  Jacques 
Rousseau  (1921);  Italzac  (1922). 

SEISMOLOGY.  Not  much  was  added  in 
1914-24  to  knowledge  of  the  character  and  ef- 
fects of  earthquakes;  their  ultimate  cause  was 
still  very  incompletely  understood.  It  was  well 
established  that  tectonic  quakes  are  due  to  the 
movements  and  vibrations  caused  by  the  shock 
lesulting  from  sudden  slips  within  the  solid 
material  of  the  earth's  crust,  from  fracture 
consequent  on  a  state  of  stress;  but  this  prac- 
tically marked  the  limit  of  the  science. 

Oldham  concluded  that  the  faulting  of  the 
crust,  the  direct  cause  of  destructive  shocks, 
is  the  secondary  result  of  a  more  deep-seated 
disturbance  of  some  kind,  and  that  it  is  the 
latter,  and  not  the  former,  which  produces  the 
records  on  distant  seismographs.  G.  W.  Walk- 
er, following  up  certain  investigations  begun  by 
Galitzin  on  the  angle  of  emergence  of  the 
wa\e  paths,  likewise  found  that  the  focus,  al- 
though sometimes  quite  closo  to  the  surface,  is 
frequently  at  a  depth  of  from  300  to  500  miles 
or  more.  These  conclusions  have  been  confirmed 
by  11.  H.  Turner  through  a  study  of  the  times  of 
arrival  of  seismic  wa\cs  at  the  antipodes  or 
anticentre.  Turner's  icbults  for  the  relative 
depths  of  foci  suggest  that  they  collect  around 
three  chief  values,  and  by  identif3'ing  these  with 
the  three  critical  surfaces  at  the  respective 
depths  of  106,  232,  and  492  kilometers  which 
were  previously  discovered  by  Calitzin  from 
direct  observations  of  the  angles  of  emergence 
at  Pulkovo,  Turner  obtained  a  value  for  the 
surface  velocity  of  P  waves  agreeing  with  that 
observed  in  the  case  of  the  great  Oppau  explo- 
sion on  Sept.  21,  1921.  He  found  that  207  kilo- 
meters is  the  depth  of  the  average  focus  cor- 
responding to  the  standard  seismological  tables 
in  u«io.  The  destructive  quakes  probably  arc 
those  originating  in  the  uppermost  layer.  On 
the  other  hand,  Jeffreys,  in  a  study  of  the  waves 
from  the  Pamir  quake  of  Feb.  18,  1911,  con- 
cludes that  Walker's  theories  aie  totally  in- 
correct. 

C.  G.  Knott  finds  that  the  rate  of  transmis- 
sion of  both  the  P  and  S  waves  increases  con- 
tinuously with  distance  below  the  surface  until 
the  wave  path  attains  a  depth  about  0.3  the 
earth's  radius.  The  wave  paths  reaching  les- 
ser depths  than  this  have  a  continuously  curved 
form,  convex  toward  the  centre  of  the  earth; 
below  this  the  rate  of  propagation  is  nearly 


SEISMOLOGY 


1199 


SEIS&OLOGY 


constant,  even  decreasing  at  certain  depths  00 
that  some  of  the  wave  paths  are  concave  toward 
the  centre  in  part  of  their  course.  Below  0.6 
of  the  radius  the  distortional  or  S  wave  is 
killed  and  is  not  registered  at  distances  greater 
than  120°  from  the  epicentre  The  rate  of  prop- 
agation of  the  two  forms  of  wave  motion  is 
about  6.2  and  4.0  kilometers  per  second  respec- 
tively, near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  about 
12.8  and  6  8  at  depths  over  1500  kilometers. 
A  new  investigation  of  the  propagation  of  seis- 
mic waves  has  also  been  carried  out  by  J.  H. 
•Jeans,  who  points  out  that  in  addition  to  the 
Rayleigh  L  waves  there  are  two  series  of  sur- 
face waves  which  travel  around  the  earth  in 
126  and  222  minutes  respectively.  The  prop- 
agation of  seismic  waves  in  a  visco-elastic  eartli 
has  been  studied  by  HosalL 

From  a  study  of  the  waves  generated  by  the 
Oppau  explosion,  which  were  undoubtedly  truly 
representative  of  the  uppermost  layers* of  the 
earth's  crust,  in  south  Germany,  the  Nether- 
lands, and  Alsace,  \Vrinch  and  Jeffreys  have 
found  the  velocities  of  the  P  and  S  waves  to 
have  been  respectively  5  4  and  3.15  kilometers 
per  second,  considerably  less  than  in  the  case 
of  ordinary  earthquake  ^aves.  The  Rayleigh 
waves,  being  characteristic  of  the  lower  basaltic 
and  peridotic  layers,  were  absent,  and  in  their 
place  appeared  the  Love  waves,  transmitted 
largely  through  the  continental  granitic  layer. 

Whether  any  variations  occur  in  the  periods 
of  seismic  waves  as  they  radiate  outward  from 
the  origin  has  for  some  time  been  doubtful. 
From  a  detailed  study  of  the  records  of  the 
California  quake  of  Jan.  31,  1922,  J.  B.  Macel- 
wane  found  that  the  period  of  a  long  A\ave  at 
the  beginning  of  the  first  preliminaries  de- 
creases, and  that  of  a  very  short  superposed 
wave  increases,  as  the  distance  from  the 
epicentre  increases.  No  relation  could  be  dis- 
covered between  the  periods  of  the  S  waves  and 
the  epicentral  distances.  The  periods  of  two 
maxima  in  the  shorter  waves  of  the  principal 
portion  showed  a  rapid  increase  with  distance. 

Under  the  direction  of  the  Advisory  Com- 
mittee on  Seismology  of  the  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion, there  has  been  concentrated  on  the  study 
of  the  earth  movements  and  seismic  tremors  of 
California  probably  the  greatest  assemblage  of 
cooperating  agencies  ever  put  to  work  on  a 
single  scientific  problem  The  United  States 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  is  engaged  in  laying 
a  network  of  precise  primary  triangulation  over 
the  State  and  connecting  it  with  points  in  Ne- 
vada and  elsewhere,  in  order  to  provide  a  basis 
for  detecting  movements  of  the  crust  in  Cal- 
ifornia and  to  verify  the  slow  creeps  previously 
indicated  by  astronomical  observations  at  the 
Ukiah  latitude  observatory  and  at  the  Lick  Ob- 
servatory. The  survey  nas  already  detected 
irregular  movements  of  4  to  16  feet  which  have 
occurred  since  the  last  surveys,  made  about 
1805,  mostly  northward  south  and  west  of  the 
San  Andreas  fault,  and  southward  north  and 
east  of  it.  The  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey, in  cooperation  with  the  Seismological  So- 
ciety of  America  and  various  geologists,  has 
mapped  all  known  faults  in  the  State,  and  the 
Society  has  published  a  map  showing  all  these 
faults;  the  localities  where  quakes  may  be  ex- 
pected are  thus  indicated,  and  in  these  zones 
the  proper  location,  design,  and  construction 
of  buildings  and  other  structures  may  be  made 
to  minimize  the  danger  from  earthquakes.  To 


aid  in  tracing  the  faults  out  to  sea,  the  United 
States  Hydrographic  Office,  by  means  of  a  new 
acoustic  sounding  device,  has  made  a  unique 
contour  map  of  the  ocean  bottom  off  the  south- 
ern California  coast  out  to  beyond  the  edge  of 
the  continental  shelf.  Anderson,  of  the  Mt. 
Wilson  Observatory,  has  devised  a  remarkably 
sensitive  portable  torsion-pendulum  seismom- 
eter, which  is  extraordinarily  simple,  cheap, 
and  easily  set  up;  the  entire  instrument  weighs 
only  a  few  pounds,  it  can  be  adjusted  to  record 
quakes  occurring  at  any  distance,  and  great 
numbers  of  these  instruments  may  be  set  up 
about  the  country  and  used  to  study  in  detail 
the  propagation  *of  seismic  waves  from  local 
tremors  through  the  heterogeneous  crust. 

The  examination  of  long  series  of  earthquake 
records  has  suggested  the  existence  of  a  num- 
ber of  interesting  periodicities  in  earthquake 
frequency.  Those  whose  existence  seems  most 
certain  are  4  years,  15  months,  fl  months,  and 
21  minutes  in  length,  particularly  in  Jamaica 
and  Italy.  After  a  careful  and  extensive  study 
of  the  niicroscisnis  which  seem  to  tiavel  from 
western  Europe  across  liiiKfeia  into  Sibeiia,  dy- 
ing out  as  they  go,  Galitxin  concluded  that  they 
are  not  caused  by  waves  beating  on  the  western 
coast  of  Kurope,  as  had  been  supposed.  llea\y 
wa\es  are  not  always  accompanied  by  micros, 
and  micios  frequently  e\i»t  when  there  are  no 
heavy  \\a\os.  J.  J.  Shaw  discoveied  that  in- 
dividual rnicroseisms  could  readily  be  identi- 
fied on  seismographs  separated  by  as  much  us 
two  miles,  and  then  travel  across  the  countrv 
studied  in  detail.  The  most  interesting  fact 
thus  brought  to  li^ht  was  that  at  a  given  sta- 
tion they  seemed  invariably  to  come  from  ilic 
same  direction  whenever  they  occuired  at  all 
When  the  distance  between  stations  \\as  in- 
creased to  8  or  10  miles,  however,  the  individual 
micros  could  not  be  traced  from  station  to 
station. 

The  great  Russian  seisrnological  orguni/ation 
did  a  vast  amount  of  valuable  work  under  (ialil- 
zhi,  but  with  the  death  of  its  famous  Icadci 
and  the  political  revolution,  it  gradually  went 
out  of  existence.  Seisrnological  work  in  Russia 
was  recommenced  at  several  stations  in  102.'J 
Galitzin  improved  the  Milne  seismograph  al- 
most out  of  recognition,  producing  the  best 
such  machine  yet  devised.  The  much  less  elab- 
orate and  less  expensive  instrument  devised  l\\ 
J.  J.  Shaw  is  but  little  inferior  to  Galit/in's. 

The  International  Seismological  Association 
was  dissolved  in  April,  1922.  A  section  of  the 
International  Geodetic  and  Geophysical  Union 
of  the  International  Research  ('ouncil,  organ- 
ized in  1019,  is  devoted  to  seismology.  The 
first  meeting  wns  hold  at  Rome  in  11)22  and  the 
second  at  Madrid  in  1024. 

The  following  eminent  seismologists  died  dur- 
ing the  decade-  Prince  Boris  ftalitzin,  May  4, 
Ifllfi;  J.  Perry,  Aug.  5.  1020;  ft.  W  Walker, 
Sept.  0,  1021*;  C  ft.  Knott,  Oct.  20,  102J; 
Fusakichi  Omori,  Nov.  8,  1023,  and  Otto  Klotz, 
Dec  28,  1023. 

Bibliography.  New  books  of  importance  on 
seismology  weie:  C  Davison,  A  Manual  of 
Seismology  (Cambridge  Press,  1021);  G.  W 
Walker,  Modern  H< ismology  (London,  1013)  ;  B 
Galitxin,  tr.  0.  Hecker,  Vorlesungen  uber  Kcis- 
momefrie  (Leipzig,  1014);  O.  Klotz,  Neittmo- 
logioal  Tables  (Ottawa,  1016);  H.  0.  Wood, 
A  List  of  Keismologic  Stations  of  the  World 
(Washington,  1921)..  See  EARTHQUAKES. 


8BLANGOB  1193 

See    MALAY    STATES,    FEDER- 


SETON 


8ELANGOB. 

ATED. 

SELENIUM  OXYCHLOBTDE.    See  CHEM- 

ISTBY. 

SELF-DETEBMINATION.  See  RACIAL 
MINORITIES  TREATIES. 

SELLABS,  ROT  WOOD  (1880-  ).  Amer- 
ican college  professor  and  author,  born  at  Eg- 
mondville,  Ont ,  and  graduated  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan  in  1003.  He  began  teaching 
at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1005  and  be- 
came assistant  professor  of  philosophy  there  in 
1918.  He  wrote:  Critical  Realism  (1916); 
The  Next  Step  in  Democracy  (1916);  The  Es- 
sentials of  Logic  (1917)  ;  The  bcxt  Ktep  in  Re- 
ligion (1918);  Essays  in  Critical  Realism 
(1921);  Evolutionary  Naturalism  (1921). 

SENATE  BESEBVATIONS.  See  UNITED 
STAILS,  History. 

SENESCENCE.     See  ZOOLOGY. 

SENSATION,  CUTANEOUS  AND  ORGANIC. 
See  PSYCHOLOGY,  EXPERIMENTAL. 

SENUSSITES.     See    PAN-ISLAMISM. 

SEFIS,  MEDICAL.  See  RHEUMATISM,  CHRON- 
IC. 

SEPTIC  TANKS.  See  SEWERAGE  AND  SEW- 
AGE TREATMENT. 

SEBAFIN,  TULLIO  (1880-  ).  An  Italian 
conductor,  born  at  Cavarzere.  After  gradua- 
tion from  the  Milan  Conservatory  he  joined  the 
orchestra  at  La  Scala  as  viola  player.  His 
Huccensful  debut  as  conductor,  with  Aida  in 
Ferrura,  resulted  in  his  engagement  for  the 
Teatro  Regio  in  Turin,  where  he  remained  till 
1908,  when  he  succeeded  Toscanini  as  principal 
conductor  at  La  Scala  in  Milan.  In  1914-15 
he  was  at  the  Carlo  Felice  in  Genoa,  in  the 
summer  of  1915  in  Ha\ana,  and  during  the 
winter  of  1915-10  at  the  Opera  Real  in  Madrid. 
He  then  served  in  the  Italian  army,  and  after 
his  return  was  once  more  at  the  Teatro  Regio 
in  Turin  until  1921,  when  he  went  to  the  San 
Carlo  in  Naples.  In  the  fall  of  1924,  he  was 
engaged  for  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
New  York.  He  made  frequent  appearances  as 
guest  conductor  in  Paris,  London,  Rome  and 
Buenos  Aires.  He  ranks  with  the  foremost 
operatic  conductors  of  the  world. 

SERBIA.  Formerly  a  Balkan  kingdom  with 
an  area  of  36,937  square  miles.  In  December, 
1918,  it  was  proclaimed  a  part  of  the  new  Uni- 
tary State  of  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes 
( Jugo-Slavia).  See  JUGO-SLAVIA  for  matters 
pertaining  to  population,  industry,  trade, 
finance,  etc. 

History.  The  murder  at  Sarajevo  of  the 
Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand  and  his  consort  on 
June  28,  1914,  as  the  result  of  the  plotting  of 
a  group  of  Bosnian  Serb  students,  was  succeed- 
ed by  a  silence  that,  at  first  by  the  optimistic, 
was  regarded  as  a  hopeful  augury.  It  was  im- 
possible that  the  unfortunate  event  should  be 
in  any  respect  interpreted  as  having  had  the 
official  support  of  the  Serbian  government.  But 
the  ultimatum  of  July  23  dispelled  all  hopes 
that  Austria-Hungary  meant  to  treat  the  ques- 
tion in  a  charitable  light.  The  onerous  terms 
imposed,  the  refusal  to  accept  the  offers  of 
mediation  tendered  by  the  other  powers,  and 
even  the  rejection  of  the  Serbian  reply  which 
indicated  a  willingness  to  concede  most  im- 


was  not  her  own.  Ever  at  the  mercy  of  an 
Austro-German  thrust  on  the  one  hand,  and 
playing  the  role  of  a  tool  of  a  vacillating  Allied 
policy  on  the  other,  it  was  inevitable  that  Ser- 
bia should  be  racked  by  the  horrors  of  war 
perhaps  more  cruelly  than  any  other  combatant. 
Serbia  was  encouraged  to  stand  up  against  the 
Austrian  army  with  the  promise  at  first  of 
Russian  assistance,  and  then  Allied  aid  from 
Saloniki.  Neither  came,  with  the  result  that 
Serbia  was  crushed  There  were  temporary 
successes  at  first.  The  Austrian  army  was 
thrown  back  across  the  Save  and  Drina  Rivers 
in  August,  1914,  again  in  September,  and  once 
again  in  December.  The  last  victory  was  a 
Pyrrhic  one.  Exhausted  by  the  effort,  and  in 
the  grip  of  a  typhus  epidemic  which  swept 
away  a  quarter  million  of  Serbs,  the  nation 
was  compelled  to  remain  quiescent  thioughout 
the  whole  of  1915.  Meanwhile  the  machinations 
of  the  Allied  diplomats  tended  to  aggravate 
Serbia's  position  rather  than  to  relieve  it.  To 
encourage  Italy's  and  Bulgaria's  entry  into  the 
War,  promises  were  made  that  cut  squarely 
across  Serbia's  interests.  From  the  Italian 
point  of  view  a  united  Jugo-Slav  state  spelled 
danger;  for  the  conciliation  of  Bulgaria  large 
concessions  in  Macedonia  had  to  be  offered.  A 
greater  neglect,  however,  was  the  failure  to 
support  Serbia  from  the  military  point  of  view 
\\  ith  Bulgaria's  entry  into  the  War  on  the  side 
of  the  Central  Powers,  a  great  Austio-Ocrman- 
Bulgarian  enveloping  offensive  was  launched  in 
October,  1915.  In  a  few  \\eeks  Serbia,  unaided, 
was  completely  conquered  and  the  mihtaiy  and 
civil  populations  were  compelled  to  flee  to  the 
south  and  the  west  Corfu  became  the  tem- 
porary capital  of  the  fugitive  government  while 
Serbia  was  divided  between  Austria  and  Bul- 
garia (by  December  14).  Bulgaria  went  so  far 
as  to  declare  that  Serbia  no  longer  existed  and 
proceeded  to  enroll  Serbs  in  her  army,  confis- 
cate the  land,  and  institute  the  Bulgar  lan- 
guage. Thousands  were  deported  for  work  in 
enemy  countries.  Serb  history  at  Corfu  during 
the  three  years  of  exile  is  a"  melange  of  party 
jealousies.  There  could  be  no  democratic  rep- 
resentation; cliques  shouldered  one  another  in 
an  attempt  to  gain  what  little  prestige  there 
was  in  heading  a  meaningless  government.  On 
Feb.  12,  1918,  a  parliament  met  at  Corfu,  but 
its  accomplishments  were  little.  Serb  patriotb 
were  up  in  arms  against  Jugo-Slav  patriots;  to 
the  day  of  the  Armistice  it  was  impossible  to 
foretell  whether  the  aspirations  of  the  Serbs, 
Croats  and  Slovenes  were  ever  to  be  realized. 
For  the  events  of  1918-24.  see  JUGO-SLAVIA. 

SERBS,  CROATS,  AND  SLOVENES,  KING- 
DOM OF.  See  JTTGO-SLVMA. 

SETON,  JULIA  ( 18(1-2-  ) .  An  American 
lecturer  and  writer,  born  at  Chicago.  She  was 
graduated  from  the  Medical  Department  of  the 
Denver -Uross  College  in  1898,  and  took  post- 
graduate courses  at  Tufts  Medical  College. 
She  practiced  medicine  in  Denver  and  in  Boston, 
and  began  metaphysical  healing  in  the  latter 
city  in  1904.  In  190(i,  she  removed  to  New 
York  City  and  there  founded  the  New  Thought 
Church  and  School.  She  lectured  in  the  prin- 
cipal cities  of  the  United  States  and  in  Europe, 
and  wrote  Concentration — The  tieeret  of  Sue- 


portant  points  under  discussion,  indicated  that  cess  (1907);  Marriage  (1914);  The  Race  Prob- 

the  Dual  Monarchy  meant  to  precipitate  a  con-  Icm     (1914)  ;     Adrietnir    Le    Karon,    a    novel, 

flict.     On    July    28,    Austria-Hungary    declared  (1915);  Destiny,  a  novel,   (1917);  The  Outside 

war    on    Serbia.    Thenceforth    Serbia's    destiny  and  Inside  of  Life,  and  The  Self  in  Tune. 


8EVCIX 


"94 


SEWERAGE 


SEVC13C,  OTAKAB  (1852-  ).  A  Bohem- 
ian violinist  (see  VOL.  XX).  In  1021,  he 
taught  a  master  class  at  the  Ithaca  Conserva- 
tory of  Music,  and  in  1922-23,  a  similar  class 
at  the  Chicago  Musical  College  Not  less  than 
700  of  his  pupils  became  teachers  or  orchestral 
performers  in  the  United  States  alone.  During 
nis  stay  in  this  country  he  put  the  finishing 
touches  to  his  life  work,  a  complete  method  for 
the  violin,  from  the  first  rudiments  to  the  last 
degree  of  virtuosity.  The  first  section,  School 
of  Intonation  (15  parts  and  two  supplements, 
with  English,  German  and  French  text)  was 
published  at  New  York  in  1922;  the  printing 
of  the  second  section,  School  of  the  Virtuoso 
(12  parts)  was  begun  in  the  spring  of  1924. 
Judging  from  the  published  portion,  the  work 
is  not  only  the  most  voluminous  and  compre- 
hensive of  its  kind,  but  seems  destined  to  live 
as  a  lasting  monument  to  the  genius  of  one  of 
the  world's  greatest  teachers. 

SfiVBES,  TREATY  OF.  See  DABDANELLES  AND 
BOSPORUS  STB  AITS;  CILICIA;  DODECANESE; 
PEACE  CONFERENCE  AND  TREATIES;  SMYRNA; 
TURKEY. 

SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  TREAT- 
MENT. Where  a  high  degree  of  sewage  treat- 
ment is  considered  necessary,  main  reliance  is 
most  commonly  placed  on  oxidation  by  means 
of  sprinkling  filters,  also  known  as  trickling  or 
percolating  filters,  preceded  by  more  or  less 
treatment  and  in  some  cases  followed  by  further 
treatment.  Since,  say,  1916,  the  activated- 
sludge  process  has  been  coming  to  the  front  in 
England,  the  United  States,  and  Canada  and 
has  been  taken  up  in  a  small  way  in  India. 

Rational  Control  of  Water  Pollution. 
Much  attention  was  given  to  the  classification 
of  streams  and  other  natural  bodies  of  water 
with  a  view  to  putting  regulations  designed  to 
prevent  pollution  on  a  more  rational  basis  than 
formerly.  A  notable  example  of  this  is  af- 
forded by  the  report  on  the  pollution  of  bound- 
ary waters  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  made  in  1918  by  the  International 
Joint  Commission  created  many  years  earlier 
by  a  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  The  waters  involved  include 
the  Great  Lakes,  the  Rainy,  St.  Mary's,  St. 
Clair,  Detroit,  and  Niagara  Rivers  and  to  some 
extent  the  St.  Lawrence  as  well.  The  studies 
were  conducted  by  eminent  engineers,  chemists, 
and  bacteriologists  in  official  and  private  life 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  report 
recognizes  that  the  utilization  of  rivers  and 
lakes  to  receive  the  sewage  of  cities  is  a  legiti- 
mate and  proper  function  so  long  as  this  can 
be  done  without  menace  to  public  health  or  the 
creation  of  nuisances  by  offense  to  sight  and 
smell,  and  also  that  the  amount  of  sewage 
which  may  properly  be  discharged  into  adjacent 
waters  by  any  city  should  be  determined  by  a 
careful  study  of  all  governing  local  conditions, 
including  particularly  whether  or  not  public 
water  supplies  would  be  endangered  by  the 
sewage,  and  if  so  the  permissible  burden  on 
water  treatment  plants.  This  burden,  the  re- 
port states,  should  not  exceed  500  bacteria  of 
the  colon  type  per  cubic  centimeter  as  an 
average  for  the  year,  determined  by  samples 
taken  in  a  manner  specified  in  some  detail. 
The  report  proposed  that  before  discharge  into 
the  Detroit  and  Niagara  Rivers,  sewage  should 
be  treated  to  such  a  degree  that  the  water  re- 
ceiving it  would  correspond  to  sewage  diluted 


by  a  stream  flaw  of  four  cubic  feet  per  sec- 
ond per  capita  of  contributing  population.  In 
Pennsylvania  the  Sanitary  Water  Board,  com- 
posed of  representatives  of  State  departments 
having  to  do  with  health,  fisheries,  and  other  as- 
pects of  the  waters  of  the  State,  in  1023  di- 
vided the  streams  of  the  State  into  three  gen- 
eral classes,  according  to  degrees  of  pollution 
and  uses  to  which  the  streams  are  put,  and  es- 
tablished general  principles  to  control  their 
pollution.  These  principles  were  in  general  ac- 
cord with  those  followed  quite  recently  by  the 
State  Department  of  Health  in  passing  on 
plants  for  sewage  treatment.  The  New  Jersey 
Legislature  of  1024  created  a  Sanitary  and 
Economic  Water  Commission.  In  1022  the 
Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey  Departments  of 
Health  divided  the  interstate  portion  of  tf , 
Delaware  River  into  three  zones  and  laid  down 
conditions  as  to  the  degree  of  sewage  treatment 
that  each  department  would  require,  in  passing 
on  plans  for  sewage  works  in  each  zone.  In 
Great  Britain,  through  what  appears  to  be  co- 
operative work  carried  on  by  tne  Ministries  of 
Agriculture,  Fisheries,  and  Health,  the  rivers 
were  divided  into  three  classes:  (1)  those 
sufficiently  pure  to  support  a  considerable  stock 
of  fish ;  ( 2 )  those  polluted  but  nevertheless  still 
containing  a  great  number  of  fish;  (3)  rivers 
grossly  polluted  and  containing  few  if  any  fish. 
It  was  expected  that  further  control  of  stream 
pollution  through  the  joint  efforts  of  these  Min- 
istries would  take  this  classification  into  account. 
For  preliminary  report  of  the  Steinman  Com- 
mittee on  River  Pollution,  see  abstract  in  Lon- 
don Surveyor,  Jan.  11,  1024. 

Sewage  Treatment.  For  preliminary  treat- 
ment of  sewage  and  also  where  it  is  neces- 
sary to  do  little  but  remove  some  of  the  heavier 
and  coarser  solids,  bar  screens,  grit  chambers, 
and  fine  screens  are  employed,  either  singly  or 
in  combinations  of  two  or  more.  Additional 
solid  matter  may  be  removed  by  sedimentation, 
either  with  or  without  sludge  digestion.  The 
latter  is  used  to  reduce  the  volume  of  solids 
for  final  disposal  and  may  be  effected  in  sepa- 
rate sludge  digestion  tanks,  receiving  the  sludge 
from  cither  plain  settling  tanks  or  from  septic 
tanks,  although  the  latter  as  originally  designed 
were  intended  to  effect  both  sedimentation  and 
sludge  digestion  in  one  tank.  Two-story  septic 
tanks  of  either  the  Travis  or  Imhoff  type,  in 
which  the  sludge  is  retained  for  digestion  in  the 
lower  chamber,  are  the  most  widely  used  type, 
particularly  the  Imhoff  tank  in  Germany  and  the 
United  States.  In  England  a  few  Travis  tanks 
are  used,  but  for  the  most  part  either  the  one- 
story  tanks,  plain  settling  or  septic,  are  em- 
ployed, except  that  chemical  precipitation  is 
still  used  in  several  places  where  it  was  in- 
stalled many  years  ago.  Sludge  from  the  va- 
rious tanks,  other  than  chemical  precipitation, 
is  generally  de-watered  to  a  considerable  degree; 
by  placing  it  on  sludge-drying  beds  consisting 
of  sand  above  and  gravel  below,  with  under- 
drains  in  the  latter.  Chemical  precipitation 
sludge  is  generally  de-watered  by  filter  presses. 

Chemical  precipitation  fell  off  rapidly  after 
the  one-story  septic  and  Imhoff  tanks  raine  into 
use.  With  the  completion  of  an  installation  of 
Imhoff  tanks  under  construction  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  in  1924,  Providence,  R.  I.,  would  be  the 
only  city  of  considerable  size  in  the  United 
State  and  one  of  a  very  few  of  any  size  in  that 
country  still  employing  chemical  precipitation 


BBWSBAGB 


1195 


SHACKLETON 


which  never  gained  such  a  foothold  in  America 
as  it  did  in  England.  Where  tank  treatment, 
with  or  without  previous  screening,  is  insuffi- 
cient, the  most  common  method  of  further  treat- 
ment is  by  sprinkling  it  onto  beds  of  coarse 
material  and  letting  it  percolate  or  trickle 
through  the  beds  over  the  particles  of  filter 
media,  which  are  generally  broken  stone  in  the 
United  States  and  either  stone  or  cinders  in 
England.  Large  total  areas  of  sewage  film  are 
thus  exposed  to  contact  with  the  air,  and  bac- 
terial reduction  by  oxidation  is  effected.  Sew- 
age sprinklers  in  the  United  States  are  generally 
of  the  fixed  nozzle  type,  while  in  England  some 
form  of  moving  distributor  is  more  commonly 
used,  consisting  of  perforated  pipe  either  in  the 
form  of  revolving  arms  or  else  mounted  at  each 
end  and  moved  forward  on  wheels  running  on 
tracks  on  each  side  of  the  bed. 

Activated-Sludge  Process.  In  the  acti- 
vated-sludge process,  the  sewage,  either  as  it 
comes  to  the  works  or  else  after  preliminary 
treatment  to  remove  some  of  the  solid  matter, 
is  passed  through  tanks  at  the  bottom  of  which 
are  either  porous  plates  or  perforated  pipes 
through  which  air  under  low  pressure  is  dis- 
charged upward.  A  considerable  amount  of 
sludge  is  allowed  to  accumulate  and  is  retained 
in  these  tanks.  The  compressed  air  raises  the 
sludge,  keeps  it  in  suspension,  and  causes  the 
whole  mass  of  BO  wage  and  sludge,  teaming  with 
bacterial  life,  to  "boil."  From  the  activation 
tanks,  the  liquid  portion  of  the  sewage  and  a 
part  of  the  sludge  are  drawn  to  settling  tanks. 
From  these  tanks  the  clarified  liquid  or  final 
effluent  is  drawn  off  and  sent  to  the  stream  or 
other  body  of  water  chosen  to  receive  it.  If 
the  sludge,  i.e.  solid  matters  highly  diluted 
with  water,  is  to  be  utilized  as  a  fertilizer  basis, 
then  the  moisture  must  be  reduced  to  10  per 
cent.  Owing  to  various  difficulties  encountered, 
de-watering  has  presented  more  problems  than 
was  expected  at  the  outset.  These  problems 
could  hardly  be  regarded  as  having  been  solved 
to  the  general  satisfaction  of  engineers  in  1024, 
although  some  of  the  larger  plants  under  con- 
struction were  proceeding  on  the  basis  that 
sludge  could  be  satisfactorily  de-watered  and 
probably  ultimately  sold  as  a  fertilizer  base. 
About  20  cities  in  the  United  States  and  seven 
in  Canada  had  activated-sludge  plants  in  opera- 
tion up  to  the  middle  of  1924,  and  four  addi- 
tional plants  were  projected  for  early  construc- 
tion in  Canada. 

Various  Large  Projects.  When  the  Chicago 
Sanitary  District  completed  its  programme  it 
would  have  altogether  seven  sewage  works  of  va- 
rious types  and  combinations  of  types  designed 
to  treat  the  sewage  of  Chicago  and  vicinity 
so  that  it  might  continue  to  be  discharged  into 
the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  and  passed  on  down 
through  the  Desplaines  and  Illinois  Rivers  to 
the  Mississippi  without  creating  a  nuisance. 
These  works  were  made  necessary  by  the  large 
growth  in  population  since  the  diversion  of 
the  fcewage  from  the  Lakes,  accomplished  in 
1900,  and  because  up  to  1924  the  district  had 
not  succeeded  in  getting  authorization  from  the 
Federal  government  to  use  as  much  diluting 
water  as  the  original  plans  contemplated,  was 
still  in  litigation  with  the  Federal  government 
and  several  States,  and  was  faced  with  pro- 
tests from  Canada  on  the  subject  of  diversion. 
Late  in  1923,  Philadelphia  officially  opened  its 
northeast  sewage  works,  consisting  of  32  Im- 


hoff  tanks  and  80  sludge-drying  beds  with  a 
rated  capacity  of  60,000,000  gallons  a  day.  Ul- 
timately this  plant  was  to  have  a  capacity  of 
250,000,000  gallons  a  day  to  serve  a  population 
of  300,000  people.  Philadelphia's  southwest 
plant  was  under  contract  in  1924  and  its  south- 
east plant  projected.  The  three  plants  were  to 
have  a  total  capacity  of  800,000,000  gallons 
daily.  Baltimore  had  a  large  installation  of  set- 
tling and  separate  sludge  digestion  tanks  and 
sprinkling  filters.  In  New  Jersey,  the  Passaic 
Valley  sewerage  district,  including  Newark, 
Paterson,  and  many  other  municipalities,  ex- 
pected to  have  its  project  of  sewage  collection 
and  disposal,  long  under  construction,  com- 
pleted and  in  use  in  1924.  The  project  in- 
cluded a  trunk  sewer  from  Paterson  to  a  point 
on  the  Newark  Meadows,  a  pumping  plant  and 
settling  tank  on  the  Meadows,  and  a  tunnel 
beneath  Newark  Bay  and  the  Bayonne  penin- 
sula and  into  New  \ork  Bay.  Los  Angeles  was 
building  a  new  trunk  outlet  sewer  to  a  point 
on  the  Pacific  coast  at  Hyperior,  a  screening 
plant  there,  and  an  ocean  outlet  in  1924. 

Bibliography.  Metcalf  and  Eddy,  American 
Sewerage  Practice,  three  vols.,  and  also  a  one- 
volume  edition  (New  York) ;  Babbitt,  Sewerage 
and  Sewage  Treatment  (New  York)  ;  Folwell, 
Sewerage,  new  edition  (New  York) ;  and  Wagen- 
halls,  The'riault,  and  Hammon,  Report  on  Sew- 
age Treatment  in  the  United  States  (Washing- 
ton), a  Public  Health  Service  study  of  15  repre- 
sentative plants.  See  MUNICIPAL  OWNERSHIP. 

SEX  DETERMINATION.  See  LIVE  STOCK; 
ZOOLOGY. 

SEX  INSTINCT.  See  PSYCHOLOGY,  AB- 
NORMAL. 

SEX  STUDIES.     See  SECRETIONS,  INTERNAL. 

SEYFFERT,  LEOPOLD  (1888-  ).  An 
American  artist,  born  at  California,  Mo.  He 
studied  at  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  and,  after  winning  two  foreign  scholar- 
ships, continued  his  artistic  education  in  Paris 
and  Spain.  In  1012  he  gained  the  fellowship 
prize  of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
a  gold  medal  of  the  Art  Club  of  Philadelphia 
in  1913,  a  silver  medal  at  San  Francisco  in 
1915,  the  Hallgarten  prize  in  1916,  the  Altman 
prize  in  1917,  the  Beck  gold  medal  in  1918,  the 
Temple  gold  medal  in  1921,  and  the  Proctor 
prize  in  the  same  year.  His  work  is  repre- 
sented in  several  of  the  most  important  art 
galleries  in  the  country. 

SEYMOUR,  CHARLES  (1885-  ).  An 
American  educator  and  historian,  born  at  New 
Haven,  Conn.  He  was  graduated  from  Cam- 
bridge University  in  1904  and  from  Yale  in 
1908,  taking  postgraduate  courses  at  the  latter 
and  in  Paris.  In  1911,  he  was  appointed  in- 
structor in  history  and  in  1918  professor  of 
history  at  Yale.  At  the  Peace  Conference  in 
Paris  in  1919,  he  was  chief  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Division  of  the  American  Commis- 
sion to  Negotiate  Peace,  and  was  also  delegate 
on  other  commissions  dealing  chiefly  with  the 
Balkans.  Among  his  writings  are:  Electoral 
Reform  in  England  and  Wales  (1915);  The 
Diplomatic  Background  of  the  War  (1916); 
How  the  World  Votes  (with  D.  P.  Frary,  1918)  ; 
Woodrow  Wilson  and  the  World  War  (1921). 
He  edited,  with  Col.  E.  M.  House,  What  Really 
Happened  at  Paris  (1921). 

SHACKLETON,  SIB  EBNEST  (1874-1922). 
An  English  Arctic  explorer  (see  VOL.  XX). 
[From  1914  to  1916  he  went  on  an  Arctic  explor- 


OIL 


2x96 


SHANTUNG 


ing  trip,  although  he  had  offered  hig  services 
to  England  the  moment  the  War  broke  out.  In 
1919,  at  Archangel,  his  knowledge  proved  in- 
valuable in  providing  comforts  to  the  soldiers 
there.  In  1921  he  undertook  his  last  Arctic 
voyage,  which  was  to  be  a  30, 000-mile  journey 
in  the  south  Atlantic  and  the  Antarctic.  He 
died  off  the  whaling  point  Grytviken  on  South 
Georgia  Island  and  was  buried  there  in  a  coffin 
made  by  Norwegian  whalers.  By  a  strange 
chance  Grytviken  had  been  the  jumping-off 
point  of  his  1914  expedition.  Sec  POLAR  RE- 
SEARCH. 

SHALE  OIL.     See  CHEMISTRY,  ORGANIC. 

SHALIAPIN  (CHALIAPINE),  FEODOR 
IvANOvrrcii  (1873-  )  A  Russian  dramatic 
bass,  born  at  Kazan.  Without  any  preliminary 
musical  training,  he  became,  in  1390,  a  member 
of  the  chorus  of  a  traveling  light  opera  com- 
pany, whose  director  immediately  was  struck 
by  the  exceptional  beauty  and  power  of  his 
voice  and  soon  entrusted  him  with  leading 
roles.  In  1892-93,  he  studied  systematically 
with  Usatov  in  Tiflis,  and  during*  the  bummer 
season  of  1894  lie  made  his  debut  in  grand 
opera  at  the  Mary  frisky  Theatre  in  Petrograd, 
where  he  remained  two  years.  In  1896,  he  join- 
ed Mamontov's  Private  Opera  in  Moscow,  whence 
liis  reputation,  especially  as  an  unsurpassed 
interpreter  of  Russian  national  types,  rapidly 
spread  all  over  Europe.  His  first  appearance's 
at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York 
(1907-08)  did  not  arouse  unusual  enthusiasm, 
probably  because  he  had  no  opportunity  of  sing- 
ing his  famous  Russian  roles,  but  when,  on  his 
second  visit,  he  appeared  as  Boris  Godunov 
(Dec.  9,  1921),  his  success  was  overwhelming. 
Likewise,  his  recitals  drew  capacity  houses. 
Later  he  became  an  annual  visitor,  dividing 
his  time  between  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House 
and  the  Chicago  Civic  Opera  Company. 

SHANDAKEN  TUNNEL.  See  TUNNELS; 
AQUEDUCTS. 

SHANNON,  CHARLES  HAZLEWOOD  (1865- 
).  An  English  painter  (see  VOL.  XX).  In 
191 8  he  became  \  ice  president  of  the  International 
Society  of  Sculptors  and  Gravers.  His  later 
works  include  "The  Embroidered  Shawl"  (1918) 
and  the  lithographs,  "Ebb  Tide"  (1917);  "The 
Tidal  River"  (1919)  ;  "A  Sharp  Corner"  (1919). 
He  also  painted  several  portraits,  including 
those  of  Princess  Patricia  of  Connaught,  Lilian 
McCarthy,  and  Hilda  Moore  ("The  Lady  in 
Black"). 

SHANNON,  EFFIE  ( ?-  ).  An  American 
actress,  born  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  She  began 
to  act  at  10  years  of  age,  as  Eva  in  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,  and  appeared  as  an  ingenue  in  many 
popular  plays.  She  played  with  Rose  Coghlan 
in  Diplomacy,  with  Herbert  Kelcey  in  The  Moth 
and  the  Flame,  His  Lord  and  Master^  The 
Thief,  etc.  She  took  part  in  The  Years  of  Dis- 
cretion under  the  direction  of  David  Belasco 
during  1913-14  and  played  in  Children  of  Earth 
in  1915.  She  also  appeared  in  Under  Orders, 
Mama's  Affair,  The  Detour,  etc. 

SHANNON,  FREDERICK  FRANKLIN  (1877- 
) .  An  American  clergyman  and  author,  born 
in  Morris  County,  Kan.,  and  educated  at  Har- 
vard University.  He  was  ordained  to  the 
Methodist  ministry  in  1899,  and  after  preaching 
in  West  Virginia  and  in  Grace  Church  and  the 
Reformed  Church  on  the  Heights  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  he  became  pastor  of  the  Central  Church 
in  Chicago  in  January,  1920.  His  writings  in- 


clude: The  SouV s  Atlas  and  Other  Sermons 
(1911);  The  New  Personality  (1915);  The  En- 
chanted Universe  (1916);  The  Breath  in  the 
Winds  (1918);  Cod's  Faith  in  Man  (1919); 
The  Economic  Education;  The  Land  of  Begin- 
ning Again;  The  A>tr  Greatness. 

SHANTUNG.  A  Chinese  maritime  prov- 
ince; area  55,970  square  miles;  estimated  popu- 
lation, 25,810,000.  Shantung  first  entered  up- 
on western  attention  in  1898  when  Germany  ex- 
torted from  China  a  99-year  lease  of  Kiaochow 
Bay  with  a  surrounding  area  of  193  square 
miles,  as  well  as  large  commercial  concessions  in 
the  hinterland.  The  German  policy  was  con- 
sistently enlightened.  A  railway  was  built 
(the  Tsingtau-Tsinan  line),  a  postal  service  es- 
tablished, and  work  was  carried  on  in  afforesta- 
tion, the  checking  of  floods,  the  building  of 
roads  and  harbors.  Schools  were  founded  as 
well  as  eleemosynary  institutions,  the  attitude 
of  the  Germans  toward  the  Chinese  being  al- 
ways amiable  if  paternalistic.  On  Aug  23, 
1914,  in  compliance  with  the  terms  of  the 
Anglo-Japanese  Alliance,  Japan  declared  war 
on  Germany  and  moved  immediately  on  Kiao- 
chow. Troops  were  landed  outside  the  leased 
area  in  the  Shantung  peninsula,  in  violation 
of  Chinese  neutrality;  the  Shantung  railway 
was  seized,  and  an  attack  by  land  and  sea 
was  launched  against  the  powerful  fortifica- 
tions of  Tsingtau.  The  city  capitulated  Novem- 
ber 7  and  three  days  later  the  leased  tenitory 
of  Kiaochow  was  formally  taken  over  by  .Japan, 
with  a  view,  ostensibly,  to  its  eventual  rcstnia- 
tion  to  China.  Upon  this  promise  the  Chinese 
looked  with  misgivings;  their  auspicious  re- 
ceived confirmation  only  too  soon,  when  in  1915, 
China  was  compelled  to  comply  with  the  cele- 
brated "21  Demands"  (see  CHINA).  As  re- 
gards Shantung,  the  demands  called  for:  (1) 
Chinese  agreement  in  advance  to  any  under- 
standing Japan  might  effect  with  Germany  re- 
specting German  interest  and  concessions  in 
Shantung;  (2)  an  engagement  on  the  part  of 
China  not  to  lease  or  cede  to  any  other  power 
any  territories  in  Shantung;  (3)  Chinese  con- 
sent to  the  building  of  a  Japanese  railway  con- 
necting Chefu  or  Lungkow  with  the.  Tsingtau- 
Tsinan  railway;  (4)  a  promise  from  China  to 
open  certain  important  cities  and  towns  in 
the  province  for  the  residence  and  commerce 
of  foreigners.  Chinese  protests  wen*  unavail- 
ing. The  terms  of  the  ultimatum  were  written 
into  a  treaty  and  a  scries  of  notes  interchanged 
on  May  25.  By  these  China  accepted  the  above- 
mentioned  engagements,  while  Japan,  in  recog- 
nition of  Chinese  counter-claims,  pledged  her- 
self to  return  the  leased  territory  of  Kiaochow 
to  China  "if  upon  the  conclusion  of  the  present 
war,  the  Japanese  government  should  be  ft i ven 
an  absolutely  free  disposal  of  the  leased  terri- 
tory of  Kiaochow  Bay."  The  preoccupation  of 
Europe  with  the  War,  Japan  used  to  her  fur- 
ther advantage.  In  1917,  by  a  series  of  secret 
treaties  with  the  Allies,  Japan  forced  the  defi- 
nite guarantee  of  her  economic  interests  in 
Shantung.  China's  virtual  consent  was  received 
when,  on  Sept.  21,  1918,  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment entered  into  a  formal  agreement  with 
Japan  on  these  matters  and  accepted  20,000,000 
yen.  The  whole  matter,  however,  had  previous- 
ly been  complicated  by  the  entry  of  China  into 
the  War  on  the  side  of  the  Allies. 

The    general    interest    in    Shantung,    as    the 
Peace  Conference  sat,  was. one  of  the  most  cu- 


SHANTUNG 


"97 


SHANTZ 


rious  phenomena  of  this  period.  The  Japanese, 
their  representatives  could  say,  sought  no  more 
than  the  French  and  British  already  possessed 
in  China,  i.e.  economic  exploitation  of  designated 
areas,  while  their  demands  encompassed  less 
than  a  complacent  world  willingly  granted  to 
Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and  Greece,  in 
Africa,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Pacific  Too,  they 
had  reduced  a  formidable  fortress  in  Tsingtau, 
and  this  they  looked  on  as  one  of  the  spoils 
of  war.  To  liberal  opinion,  in  England,  but  in 
America  particularly,  the  despoiling  of  China 
meant  a  cynical  repudiation  of  the  lofty  pur- 
poses of  the  War.  Japan  took  her  stand  on 
secret  treaties;  moreover,  China  was  not  an 
enemy  but  an  ally,  even  if  a  tardy  one.  It  was 
point  rd  out,  by  Americans,  that  Japanese 
proximity  to  China  rendered  the  problem  not 
so  much  one  of  economic  aggression  as  of  politi- 
cal submergence.  About  this  position  President 
Wilson's  objections  to  the  Shantung  cession 
uerc  formed.  For  a  long  time  he  resisted  the 
pressure  of  the  Peace  Conference,  and  it  was 
only  the  withdrawal  of  Orlando  and  the  fear 
of  complete  disruption  of  the  proceedings  by  the 
alienation  of  the  Japanese,  that  on  Apr.  30, 
191!),  lie  gave  a  reluctant  consent.  Kiaochow 
15a\  wan  to  go  to  Japan  by  the  treaty;  but  the 
Japanese  delegates  orally  assured  Mr.  Wilson  of 
their  intention  subsequently  to  return  the  leased 
territory  to  China.  Accordingly,  articles  156- 
1.18  of  the  Versailles  Treaty  transferred  to 
•  Japan  the-  German  lease  of  Kiaochow  Bay,  as 
\\ell  as  all  German  mining  and  railway  con- 
cesmons  and  other  German  property  or  rights  in 
Shantung.  These  clauses  gave  Japan  virtual, 
though  not  legal,  sovereignty  over  the  leased 
area,  and  economic  sovereignty  over  the  whole 
province. 

In  the  United  States  disapproval  of  these 
terms  was  expressed  in  one  of  the  13  reservations 
which  the  American  Senate  adopted  in  Novem- 
ber, 1919  (though  not  by  the  necessary  two- 
thirds)  with  regard  to  the  treaty.  Reservation 
six  lan.  "The  United  States  withholds  its  as- 
sent to  Articles  136,  157,  and  158,  and  reserves 
full  liberty  of  action  with  respect  to  any  con- 
troversy which  may  arise  under  said  articles 
between  the  Republic  of  China  and  the  Empire 
of  Japan."  China,  for  her  part,  emboldened 
by  American  sympathy,  refused  signature  to 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  and  adopted  a  policy 
of  passive  resistance,  ardently  patriotic  Chinese 
students  taking  the  lead  in  the  popular  out- 
cry against  what  they  considered  a  national 
disaster.  A  popular  boycott  against  Japanese 
goods  spread  so  rapidly  that  at  one  time  Japan's 
tiade  with  China  was  reduced  80  per  cent. 
This  opposition,  reinforced  by  Anglo-American 
prussuic,  compelled  the  Japanese  government 
to  employ  more  amicable  methods  toward  China 
During  1020  and  1021  Japan  repeatedly  tried 
to  open  negotiations  on  the  basis  of  the  restora- 
tion of  Chinese  political  rights  in  return  for 
non-political  concessions  to  Japanese  interests. 
China,  however,  was  adamant.  China  had  not 
been  a  party  to  the  treaty  and  was  therefore 
not  bound  by  its  terms,  was  the  substance  of 
the  Chinese  position.  Matters  stood  at  this 
stage  when  the  Washington  Conference  (q.v  ) 
assembled.  The  problem  was  still  too  much  an 
American  concern  for  the  Conference  to  attempt 
to  neglect  or  circumvent  it.  Japanese  and 
Chinese  representatives,  delegated  to  discuss  the 
matter,  found  a  solution  difficult,  if  not  im- 


possible. The  meetings  for  a  time  reached  a 
complete  halt  on  the  question  of  control  of  the 
Shantung  railway,  which,  in  effect,  implied  gen- 
eral economic  control  Only  as  a  result  of  the 
mediation  of  Mr.  Hughes  and  Mr.  Balfour  was 
an  understanding  effected  and  a  separate  Sino- 
Japanese  agreement  signed,  Feb.  4,  1922.  The 
treaty  meant  a  complete  triumph  for  China  and 
a  vindication  of  at  least  one  of  the  idealistic 
principles  of  the  War.  Its  provisions  called  for 
the  restoration  of  the  leased  territory  of  Kiao- 
chow to  China  with  all  German  or  Japanese 
public  properties  therein;  the  withdrawal  of 
Japanese  troops  and  gendarmes  from  Shantung, 
the  sale  of  the  Tsingtau-Tsinanfu  Railway  with 
all  its  branches  and  all  its  properties  to  China 
for  the  sum  of  53,406,141  gold  marks  (about 
$12,700,000)  ;  during  the  five  years  allowed  for 
payment  the  railway  was  to  have  a  Japan- 
ese traffic  manager  and  Japanese  and  Chinese 
chief  accountants  of  equal  rank  Other  sec- 
tions called  for  the  roe's tablishm en t  of  a  Chinese 
customs  house  at  Tsingtau  and  for  the  crea- 
tion of  a  Chinese  company  (in  which  Japanese 
capital  might  not  exceed  the  amount  of  Chinese 
capital)  for  the  operation  of  the  mines  of 
Tscchuan,  Fangtse,  and  Chinling-Chen.  By 
December,  1022,  Japan  had  evacuated  the  prov- 
ince. The  influence  of  the  settlement  was 
shown  by  the  fact  that  the  French  offered  to  re- 
turn Kwang-Chou-Wan  and  the  British  Wei-Hai- 
Wci  on  the  basis  accepted  for  the  Shantung 
restoration. 

The  period  of  Chinese  occupation,  1923-24, 
justified,  in  one  sense,  the  highest  hopes  enter- 
tained for  it,  and  in  another,  displayed  lament- 
able weaknesses.  A  militarist  of  the  old  school, 
General  llsiung,  was  appointed  director-general, 
i.e.  mayor,  of  Tsingtau;  the  head  of  the  finance 
department  was  accused  of  diverting  funds  to 
Peking,  the  administration  of  the  wharves  the 
most  important  single  source  of  income  for  the 
city,  was  woefully  inefficient;  the  young  foreign- 
educated  Chinese  were  discriminated  against 
openly.  On  the  other  hand,  material  progress 
was  marked.  The  police  were  efficient;  the 
roads  were  kept  in  good  repair;  afforestation 
went  on  rapidly.  On  the  Shantung  Railway,  a 
Chinese  staff,  made  up  of  returned  students,  re- 
placed the  Japanese,  and  operation  was  so  suc- 
cessful (business  was  lo  per  cent  greater  than 
in  the  previous  year)  that  for  the  year  1923- 
24  profits  were  sufficient  to  pay  the  interest 
on  the  money  due  the  Japanese. 

SHANTZ,  HOMER  LL.ROY  (1876-  ).  An 
American  botanist,  born  at  Kent  County,  Mich. 
He  was  graduated  frorn  Colorado  College  in 
1901  and  took  postgraduate  courses  at  the 
University  of  Nebraska.  He  was  instructor  of 
botany  and  zoology  at  Colorado  College  and 
instructor  of  botany  at  the  University  of  Ne- 
braska and  the  University  of  Missouri  In 
11)07,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  botany  and 
bacteriology  at  the  University  of  Louisiana. 
He  served  as  special  agent  in  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  and  from  1910  to 
1919  was  plant  physiologist  in  charge  of  physi- 
ological and  fermentation  investigations.  lie 
was  a  member  of  many  scientific  societies  and 
contributed  articles  on  botany  to  scientific 
journals  and  publications  of  the  United  States 
government.  He  was  agricultural  explorer  for 
the  Smithsonian  Institution  African  Expedition 
in  1919-20,  and  carried  on  other  explorations  in 
Africa. 


SHAPLEY 


SHAPLEY,  HABLOW  (1885-  ). 
American  astronomer,  born  at  Nashville,  Mo. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Missouri,  and 
took  his  Ph.D.  at  Princeton  in  1913.  In  1914, 
he  became  astronomer  at  Mt.  Wilson  Observatory 
of  the  Carnegie  Institution,  remaining  there 
until  1921  when  he  accepted  the  directorship  of 
the  Harvard  Observatory.  His  original  investi- 
gations were  devoted  to  studies  in  photometry 
and  spectroscopy,  ae  well  as  to  the  orbital  theory 
and  computation  on  which  he  contributed  im- 
portant papers  to  the  literature  of  astronomy. 

SHABLOW,  MYRNA  DOCIA  (  1893-  )  An 
American  dramatic  soprano,  born  at  Jamestown, 
N.  D.  Having  studied  piano  and  voice  at  the 
Beethoven  Conservatory,  she  continued  her 
vocal  studies  with  F.  E.  Bristol  (1911-13)  and 
with  E.  Clement  in  Paris  (1914).  Her  oper- 
atic repertory  she  acquired  under  Campanini, 
Moran/oni,  Weingartncr  and  S.  Wagner  She 
made  her  d£but  with  the  Boston  Opera  Com- 
pany as  Stella  in  Offenbach's  Contrs  d'  Hoffmann 
(Nov.  25,  1912)  and  sang  with  that  organiza- 
tion until  1914  From  1915  to  1921  she  was 
a  member  of  the  Chicago  Opera  Association, 
and  again  in  1923.  In  1914,  she  appeared  at 
Covent  Garden.  She  is  gifted  not  only  with 
a  glorious  voice,  but  is  also  a  splendid  actress. 
Her  favorite  roles  are  Tosca  and  Brflnnhilde  in 
Siegfried  In  1921,  she  married  Edward  B. 
Hitchcock. 

SHARP,  WILLIAM  GRAVES  (1859-  ).  An 
American  diplomat  (see  VOL  XX).  He  was  a 
member  of  Congress  from  Ohio  from  1909  to 
1914,  resigning  in  the  latter  year  following  his 
appointment  as  ambassador  to  France  in  which 
office  he  served  until  1919.  He  was  elected  a 
Foundation  member  of  the  Soci^te"  Astronomique 
de  France,  having  been  a  lifelong  student  of 
that  science.  He  was  awarded  the  Grand  Cross 
and  Legion  of  Honor  in  recognition  of  his 
services  as  ambassador. 

SHABPE,  HENRY  GRANVILLE  (1858-  ). 
An  American  army  officer,  born  at  Kingston, 
N.  Y.,  and  graduated  from  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1880.  Most  of  his  official 
employment  was  in  the  commissary  department. 
He  had  charge  of  the  relief  of  flood  sufferers 
at  Cairo,  111.,  and  Memphis,  Tenn  ,  in  1897,  and 
was  on  duty  in  Porto  Rico  in  1898  and  in  the 
Philippines  from  1902  to  1904.  He  was  in 
France  in  1919.  He  wrote:  The  Art  of  Sub- 
Slitting  Armies  in  War;  The  Art  of  Supplying 
Armies  in  the  Field  as  Exemplified  during  the 
Civil  War;  The  Provisioning  of  the  Modern 
Army  in  the  Field;  The  Quartermaster  Corps  in 
the  Year  /fl/7  in  the  World  War  (1921). 

SHAW,  GEORGE  BERNARD  (1856-  ).  An 
English  author  and  dramatist  (see  VOL.  XX). 
In  1914  he  wrote  Common  Sense  About  the 
War,  which  was  so  outspoken  as  to  offend  many, 
and  throughout  the  War  he  aroused  considerable 
irritation  by  what  was  considered  untimely  de- 
fense of  the  Germans  and  fault-finding  with 
the  Allies.  Other  later  books  were-  How  to 
Settle  the  Irish  Question  (1917);  Peace  Con- 
ference Bints  (1919);  and  the  plays:  O'Fla- 
herty  V.C.,  The  Inca  of  Perusalem  (1915); 
Augustus  Does  His  Bit  (1916);  Heartbreak 
House  and  Annajanska  (1917)  ;  Back  to  Methu- 
selah, a  cycle  of  five  plays  (1921)  ;  Jitta's  Atone- 
ment (1922);  and  Saint  Joan,  which  was 
played  in  New  York  City  in  1924. 

SHAW,  JAMFS  BTBNIB  (1866-  ).  An 
American  mathematician,  born  at  Remington, 


1  1  08 

An     Ind. 


He  studied  at  Purdue  University.  Dur- 
ing 1890-98,  he  was  professor  of  mathematics 
at  Illinois  College,  and  later  held  a  similar 
chair  at  Kenyon.  From  1903  to  1910,  he  was 
professor  of  mathematics  at  the  James  Milliken 
University,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  called 
to  the  University  of  Illinois,  where  in  1918 
he  became  professor.  Professor  Shaw  made  a 
specialty  of  algebra,  particularly  of  multiple 
and  linear  associative  algebra,  on  which  he  con- 
tributed important  papers  to  mathematical 
journals.  In  addition  to  many  papers,  he  wrote 
Synopsis  of  Linear  Associative  Algebra  (1907), 
and  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  Mathematics 
(1918). 

SHAW,  J(OHN)  W(ILLIAM)  (1863-  ). 
An  American  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop,  born 
at  Mobile,  Ala.  He  was  educated  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  the  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at 
Mobile,  and  at  St  Finian's  Seminary  in  Ire- 
land. He  studied  also  at  the  University  of  the 
Propaganda  at  Rome,  and  was  ordained  to  the 
priesthood  in  1888,  becoming  assistant  in  the 
Cathedral  at  Mobile,  and  assistant  and  mis- 
sionary in  St  Peter's  Church,  Montgomery,  Ala., 
and,  in  1891,  rector  of  the  Cathedral  of  Mobile 
and  chancellor  of  the  diocese.  In  1910,  he  be- 
came Coadjutor  Bishop  of  San  Antonio,  Texas, 
and  in  1911  Bishop.  In  1918,  he  was  conse- 
crated Archbishop  of  New  Orleans. 

SHAW,  THOMAS  (1872-  ).  An  English 
labor  leader,  born  at  Colne,  Lancaster.  He  be- 
gan work  in  a  cotton  mill  when  but  eight 
years  old.  He  was  self  educated,  mastering 
French  and  German  so  thoroughly  that  he  was 
one  of  the  most  skillful  interpreters  at  the  in- 
ternational lal>or  conferences  which  he  attend- 
ed. He  was  one  of  the  ablest  speakers  in  the 
English  labor  movement,  and  possessed  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  industrial  problems. 
Ramsay  Macdonald  appointed  him  Minister  of 
Labor. 

SHEEP.     See  LIVE  STOCK. 

SHELFOBD,  VICTOR  ERNEST  (1877-  ). 
An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Chemung,  N.  Y. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Chicago. 
He  was  assistant  in  zoology  (1900-01)  at  West 
Virginia  University;  assistant  (1904-07),  asso- 
ciate (1907-09),  and  instructor  (1909-14)  in 
zoology  at  the  University  of  Chicago;  assist- 
ant professor  (1914-20),  and  associate  professor 
(1920-  )  at  the  University  of  Illinois,  and 
biologist  in  charge  of  the  research  labora- 
tories of  the  Illinois  Natural  History  Survey 
(1914-  ).  He  has  been  active  in  developing 
research  on  ecology  and  has  published  Animal 
Communities  in  Temperate  America  (1913). 

SHELL.     See  PROJECTILE. 

SHERRILL,  CHARLES  HITCHCOCK  (1807- 
)  .  An  American  lawyer  and  diplomat,  born 
in  Washington.  He  was  graduated  from  Yale 
in  1889  and  from  the  Law  School  of  that  uni- 
versity in  1891.  He  practiced  law  in  New 
York  "  for  several  years  and  in  1909  was  ap- 
pointed minister  to  Argentina.  He  served  until 

1911,  when  he  was  obliged  to  resign  from  the 
diplomatic  service  on  account  of  ill  health.     In 

1912,  he  resumed  the  practice  of  law.    He  was 
active   in   athletics  and   was  the   originator  of 
several    series    of    national    and    international 
sports.     During  the  War,  he  served  as  brigadier- 
general   and    adjutant-general    of   the    State   of 
New  York  in  charge  of  the  United  States  draft. 
He  is   the  author  of   Stained   Glass   Tours  in 
France    (1898);   Stained  Glass  Tours'  in  Italy 


8HBBBXNGTON 


xi99  SHXPBirzLonra 

H!3li£r?c*  ^^"JKgSJSS^MS^  -1917>-the- Board  annoilDced  thftt  «"*""*" had 

a  Far-Eastern  Prob- 


•     i  J.        -   -,         -.  at 
e,  including  a  degree  in  medicine  in 

1892.  He  was  professor  of  physiology  in  the 
University  of  Liverpool  from  1895  to  1913  and 
resigned  to  accept  his  present  chair  of  Wayne- 
flete  professor  of  physiology  at  Oxford.  He  was 
also  formerly  Brown  professor  of  pathology  in 
the  University  of  London.  He  is  best  known  for 
his  researches  into  the  repair  of  nervous  tissue 
and  his  major  works  have  been  The  Integrative 
Action  of  the  Nervous  System  (190G),  and 
Mammalian  Physiology  (1916).  He  wag 
knighted  in  1922. 

SHIP,  ARMORED.    See  VESSEL,  NAVAL. 

SHIP,  MERCHANT.  See  SHIPBUILDING;  SHIP- 
PING. 

SHIP,  NAVAL.    See  VESSEL,  NAVAL. 

SHIPBUILDING  AND  NAVAL  ARCHI- 
TECTURE. The  design  and  construction  of 
naval  vessels,  as  well  as  of  merchant  craft,  fall 
under  this  head.  They  are  extensively  treated  un- 
der NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD  and  VESSEL,  NAVAL. 
On  Jan.  1,  1924,  the  steady  decline  in  merchant 
shipbuilding  which  had  been  going  on  since  the 
peak  was  reached  in  1019-20,  was  still  evident. 
General  shipping  conditions  improved  consider- 
ably from  ,lune  30,  1922,  to  June  30,  1923,  and 
there  had  been  some  gain  since  that  time;  but 
the  business  and  financial  conditions  through- 
out the  world  were  not  such  as  to  lead  to  great 
extension  of  maritime  trade  and  the  demand 
for  more  ships.  Nearly  7,000,000  tons  of  ship- 
ping were  laid  up  on  June  30,  1923  and  until 
much  of  this  was  absorbed  into  active  fleets,  no 
groat  amount  of  construction  could  be  expected. 
The  total  shipbuilding  in  the  various  countries 
of  the  world  in  1922  was  2,467,084  tons,  and  in 
1923,  l,r>43,181  tons.  The  tonnage  launched 
in  1923  was  less  than  half  of  that  launched  in 
1913  and  about  two-thirds  the  annual  average 
for  the  10  years  preceding  the  War.  The 
launchings  in  the  various  countries  of  the  world 
in  tho  years  from  1914  to  1923  are  shown  in 
Table  T 

United  States.  The  Shipping  Board  and 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  (see  the  article 
SHIPPING  )  began  to  rush  the  work  of  ac- 
quiring shipping  as  soon  as  the  latter  was 
formed  and  organized  in  1917.  Contracts  were 


accelerated;   and  that  contracts  were 

pending  for  99  vessels  of  610,000  tons.  Of  the 
vessels  ordered,  379  had  wooden  hulls;  keels  had 
been  laid  for  166,  of  which  130  were  in  yards 
which  did  not  exist  when  the  contracts  were  let. 
The  wooden  hulls  were  ordered  from  72  yards, 
61  of  which  were  new;  and  the  58  composite 
ships  were  given  to  4  yards,  3  of  which  were 
new.  Contracts  for  the  steel  ships  were 
awarded  to  32  yards,  of  which  20  were  new. 
Four  of  the  newly  ordered  ships,  2  of  steel  and 
2  of  wood,  were  launched  before  the  end  of  the 
year;  and  of  the  requisitioned  ships,  49  were 
launched  and  completed.  In  accordance  with  a 
special  provision  of  the  Urgent  Deficiency  Act 
of  June  15,  1917,  the  Shipping  Board's  Emer- 
gency Fleet  Corporation  awarded  contracts  for 
the  construction  of  three  government-owned 
shipyards  designed  for  building  fabricated  steel 
ships.  These  contracts  were  made  with  the 
Submarine  Boat  Corporation  for  a  plant  on 
Newark  Bay,  with  the  American  International 
Corporation  for  one  at  Hog  Island  near  Phila- 
delphia, and  with  the  Merchants'  Shipbuilding 
Company  for  one  at  Chester,  Pa.  The  yards 
were  to  cost  $35,000,000  and  the  government  was 
given  an  option  to  purchase  the  lands  on  which 
they  were  situated.  The  builders  of  the  yards 
were  given  contracts  for  building  in  them  200 
ships,  but  further  contracts  greatly  increased 
the  total  as  well  as  the  capacity  and  equipment 
of  the  yards.  In  addition,  the  government  fur- 
nished money  for  the  extension  of  private 
yards,  dry  docks,  etc.,  and  spent  about  $80,000,- 
000  for  housing  operations  and  for  purposes  of 
transportation.  The  total  investment  of  the 
government  in  shipbuilding  facilities  was  esti- 
mated at  $211,000,000.  Under  the  pressure  of 
necessity,  new  vessels  were  laid  do\vn  in  con- 
stantly increasing  numbers;  and  the  construc- 
tion of  vessels  in  hand  was  accelerated  as  far 
as  practicable.  One  uteel  vessel  of  3500  tons 
was  launched  at  the  Kcorse  Yard  of  the  Great 
Lakes  Engineering  Works  in  14  working  days 
from  the  time  of  laying  the  keel,  completed  in 
29  days;  and  34  days  after  the  keel  was  laid  it 
steamed  away  in  charge  of  a  United  States 
-Shipping  Board  crew.  The  extraordinary  ac- 
complishments of  the  Fleet  Corporation  in  1917 
and  1918  are  shown  in  Table  IT. 


TABLE  H.— WORK  OF  EMERGENCY  FLEET  CORPORATION  IN  1917  AND  1918  IN  DEADWEIGHT  TONS 

Deadweight  Equivalent  in 

1917  No.  tons  completed  tonnage 

Vessels    delivered     49  301,809  301  809 

Launched  but  not  delivered      .        57  403.502  322,802 

On  tho  ways    391  1,908,735  190,878 


Total  in   1917    

1918 

Vessels    delivered     526 

Launched  but  not  delivered 287 

On  the  ways    391 

Work  done  on  ships  begun  in  1917      391 


2,983,977 
1,222,873 
1,939,225 
1,908,735 


Total  in   1918 


816,484 

2,983,977 
978,298 
645,408 
445,372 

5,054.055 


let  during  the  summer  and  autumn  of  that  year  Immediately  after  the  signing  of  the  Armi- 
to  all  shipbuilding  companies  in  the  United  stice,  the  Shipping  Board  began  to  curtail  its 
States  to  the  full  amount  of  their  capacities,  in  programme.  Contracts  for  new  work  were  can- 
some  cases  to  an  amount  necessitating  an  ex-  celed  as  far  as  practicable.  The  reductions  in 
tension  of  their  facilities.  Late  in  November,  work  thereby  entailed  were  largely  offset  by 


SHIPBUILDING 


1200 


SHIPBUILDING 


orders  given  by  American  corporations  on  pri- 
vate account  and  consisted  nearly  50  per  cent  of 
tankers,  in  which  the  Shipping  Board  pro- 
gramme was  inadequate 

Foreign  Shipbuilding.  In  Great  Britain, 
the  necessity  for  building  cargo  ships  to  re- 
place the  waste  in  the  War  was  reali/ed  as 


soon  as  the  amount  of  tonnage  withdrawn  for 
naval  use  became  known;  and  this  necessity  was 
rendered  more  urgent  by  the  submarine  cam- 
paign of  1915.  Some  steps  were  taken  in  thnt 
year  to  increase  the  amount  of  shipbuilding,  but 
skilled  lalior  was  scarce,  as  much  of  it  had  been 
diverted  to  munitions  factories,  indeed,  parts  of 


TABLE  I.— NUMBER  AND  TONNAGE  OP  MERCHANT  VESSELS  OF  100  TONS  GROSS  AND  UPWARDS, 
LAUNCHED  IN  THE  COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD  DURING  THE  YEARS  1914  TO  1923 


GRhVI     BRITAIN 
AND    IRELAND 


DOMINIONS 

Canadian  Lake  Ports 


Coasts 

Yenr                                                         No                   Tons  No.  Tons  No  Tons 

1914      656               1,683,553  58  22,288  22  25,246 

1915         327                   650,919  27  13,289  4  8,725 

1916 306                   608,235  36  22,577  4  8,994 

1917                 286               1,102,896  80  66,475  25  27,996 

1918      301               1,:U8,120  184  230,514  22  49,390 

1919 612               1,620,442  235  298,493  28  60,2:fJ 

1920        618               2,055,624  90  174,557  13  29,087 

1921 426               1,538,052  49  118,303  5  11,372 

1922        235               1,031,081  37  53,347  2  9,418 

1923 222                  645,651  41  37,072  3  4,191 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  DENMARK  FRANCK 

Year                      No.       Tons  No.  Tons  No  Tons 

1914   11        34,335  25  32,815  33  114,052 

191->      .     No  returns  23  45,198  6  25,102 

1916 "  28  35,277  9  4J.752 

1917     ••  23  20,445  6  18,828 

1918 "  13  26,150  3  13,715 

1919 "  46  37,706  34  32,003 

1920  "  30  00,009  50  93,449 

1921 "  37  77,238  05  210.0C.J 

1922 "  23  41,016  62  1K4.509 

1923 "  24  49,479  27  96,044 

GERMANY  HOLLAND  ITALY 

Year                      No        Tons  No.  Tons  No  Ton^ 

1914 89        387,192  130  118,153  47  42,981 

1915    201,000  •  120  113,075  30  22,132 

1916  ..      .        196,000°  201  180,197  10  56,054 

1917 65,000°  146  148,779  17  38,900 

1918 38,000°  74  74,020  15  00,791 

1919        135,000°  100  137,080  32  «2,713 

1920     327,000°  99  183,149  82  1U3.190 

1921   242       509,061  98  232,402  85  101,748 

1922 195       575,204  60  103,132  42  101,177 

1928 117        358,273  35  65,632  21  00,523 

JAPAN  NORWAY  SW  KDRN 

Year                       No.       Tons  No.  Tons  No  Tons 

1914 32         85,801  61  54,204  20  15,103 

1915  20        49,408  59  62,070  27  20  ,T  M> 

1016      55        145,624  52  42,458  34  i!G,70<) 

1917    104        350,141  44  46,103  34  26,700 

1918     198       489,924  51  47,723  30  :j9,r>8H 

1019      133        611,883  82  57,578  53  50,971 

1420       .   140        456,642  30  38,855  40  63,823 

1)21     43       227,425  35  51,458  27  05.911 

1*122   49         83,419  23  32,391  14  30.0-iri 

1923 44         72,475  48  42,619  10  20,1 1« 

UNITED  STATES 

Coast  Great  Lakes  Total,  V  8 

Year                                                         No                   Tons  No.  TOUR  No  Tons 

1914 84                  162,937  10  37,825  94  200,802 

1915 70                   157.107  8  20,293  84  177  loo 

1916              167                   384,899  44  119,348  211  504247 

1917 .       266                  821,115  60  170,804  320  907,91<> 

1918 741               2,602,153  188  430,877  9.'9  3,0:',.'!, OHO 

1919 852               3,579,826  199  49.r>,559  1051  4,075,  W> 

1020 467      2,348,725  42  127,^28  509  2,170.2r»:j 

1921  166       995,129  7  11,284  173  1,000,413 

1922 55        97,161  4  21,977  59  119,138 

1923 69        96,491  14  76,326  83  172,817 

OTHER    COUNTRIES  WORLD  TOTAL 

Year                                No.  Tons  No  Tons 

1914   35  36,148  1,319  2,852,753* 

1915    10  13,641  748  1,201,038" 

1016    18  14,296°  964  1,688,080" 

1917 27  32,538°  1,112  2,937,780" 

1918   40  84,478°  1,806  5,447,444  « 

1919   77  79,334°  2,483  7,144,549  « 

1920   52  96,368°  1,759  5,801,666° 

1921   92  128,630  1,377  4,341,679 

1922   51  43,154  852  2,467,084 

1923   26  11,687  701  1,648,181 


•  Returns  from  Teutonic  allies  approximate  only. 


MOTOR  VESSELS 


OOUKTUY    "  MOTONBHO  ",    NEW    YORK 


1.  MOTOR    BARGE   "TWIN    PORTS,"  built  for   Lake,   Canal,  and    River   Service,   Great   Lakes  to   New   York 

Harbor. 

2.  AMERICAN    MOTOR    SHIP   "  CALI FOR NIAN,"  16,500  tons    displacement,  45OO   I     H.   P.,    speed   12   knots. 

Built  by  Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons  Ship  &  Engine  Bldg.  Co  ,  Philadelphia. 

3.  BRITISH   MOTOR   SHIP   "GLENOGLE."  12.50O  tons  displacement.    Two  Diesel  Engines  of  3000  I.  H    P 

R.i.lt  Ku  Marian   Jt  W/tltf     R.K..+ 


SHIPBUILDING 


IJOt 


SHIPBUILDING 


shipbuilding    establishments 
into  munitions  works.    In  E 


had  been  turned 
December,  1016,  the 
Ministry  of  Shipping  was  established,  and  defi- 
nite plans  made  to  expedite  building  were  carried 
into  effect  in  1017.  Five  types  of  "standard" 
ships  of  3000  to  8000  tons  were  designed,  and 
they  were  followed  by  "fabricated"  ships  for 
which  new  shipyards  were  built.  These  meas- 
ures were  fairly  successful,  but  the  lack  of 
workmen  kept  down  the  output.  Of  the  other 
nations,  France  and  Italy  were  unable  to  speed 
up  commercial  work;  this  left  the  United  States 
and  Japan  as  the  only  countries,  aside  from 
Great  Britain,  which  could  materially  aid  in 
the  supply  of  new  ships. 

Types  of  Ship.  The  necessity  of  rapid  pro* 
duction  during  the  War  brought  out  some  new 
types  of  cargo  ships,  such  as  fabricated  ships, 
standard  ships,  welded  ships,  and  concrete  ships. 
The  ideas  involved  were  not  new,  but  oppor- 
tunity for  their  development  on  a  large  scale 
had  not  hitherto  existed  A  few  standard  de- 
signs were  made  and  many  ships  of  each  de- 
sign constructed.  The  hulls,  machinery,  and 
fittings  were  exactly  alike,  so  that  scores  of 
each  plate,  frame,  casting,  forging,  etc.,  could 
be  made  at  one  time  and  place,  thereby  greatly 
reducing  the  cost,  as  in  other  sorts  of  standard- 
ization. Fabricated  ships  are  standard  ships 
in  which  the  lines  of  the  hull  are  simplified  and 
straightened  as  far  as  practicable.  This  makes 
it  possible  for  most  of  the  frames  and  plates 
to  be  shaped,  cut,  and,  to  some  extent,  riveted 
in  shops  equipped  for  bridge  and  structural 
iron -work  The  reduced  number  of  frame  and 
plate  shapes  effected  a  great  saving  in  labor 
and  time,  and  some  saving  was  made  in  rivet- 
ing, shaping,  and  transportation.  The  Isher- 
wood  system  is  a  system  of  longitudinal  fram- 
ing, i.e.  one  in  which  the  longitudinal  frames 
are  continuous  and  the  transverse  frames 
worked  in  sections  between  them.  Sir  Joseph 
I  sherwood  devised  a  modification  of  the  existing 
system  in  which  was  utilized  the  whole  of  the 
framing  of  the  bottom  of  the  ship  and  of  the 
decks  so  that  it  might  be  incorporated  as  part 
of  the  structural  girder  strength  of  the  ship. 
This  system,  first  used  in  1908,  greatly  in- 
creased in  importance  during  the  War,  and  250 
ships  of  nearly  2,600,000  tons  were  built  in  ac- 
cordance with  it  in  1918.  Welded  ships  are  ves- 
sels in  which  welding  is  used  to  replace  a  great 
part  of  the  riveting  and  some  of  the  calking. 
While  this  had  not  yet  become  a  popular 
method  of  ship  construction  in  1924,  the  experi- 
ments made  were  promising.  Vessels  of  ar- 
mored concrete  had  been  in  use  for  many  years, 
and  a  number  were  built  by  the  Shipping  Board. 
As  they  were  not  very  popular  among  shipping 
men  and  were  not  mentioned  in  late  lists  of  the 
decade  1014-24,  it  i«  presumed  that  they  were 
sold  or  otherwise  disposed  of. 

Propelling  Machinery.  In  cargo  vessels 
designed  to  operate  in  those  parts  of  the  world 
where  adequate  repair  shops  are  few  and  far 
between,  the  reciprocating  steam  engine  was 
still  in  1924  the  favorite  with  owners  who  do 
not,  for  various  reasons,  find  the  Diesel  engine 
suited  to  their  work.  Reciprocating  engines 
had  been  in  use  for  such  a  great  length  of  time 
that  perfection  of  the  type  in  regard  to  reli- 
ability, simplicity,  and  ease  of  ordinary  re- 
imir  are  strong  points  in  their  favor.  But  they 
luck  economy  of  operation  and  have  too  great 
machinery  weights  and  space,  particularly  in 


weight  and  space  of  fuel,  as  compared  with  en- 
gines of  recent  types.  For  vessels  of  moderate 
size  and  speed,  particularly  for  those  covering 
long  routes,  Diesel  engines  were  becoming  more 
and  more  popular.  But  in  new  passenger  steam- 
ers of  hign  and  medium  speed,  the  latter  type 
carrying  large  cargoes,  the  geared  steam  tur- 
bine was  almost  invariably  fitted,  although  a 
few  such  steamers  had  been  ordered  with  new- 
type  Diesel  machinery. 

Oil  Fuel.  The  use  of  oil  in  place  of  coal 
as  the  fuel  for  marine  boilers  was  being  con- 
tinually extended.  Practically  all  new  passen- 
ger steamers  had  oil-fired  boilers.  While  the 
actual  cost  of  oil  fuel  per  ton  mile  is  greater 
than  that  of  coal,  the  economies  effected  by  its 
use  more  than  counterbalance  this.  The  space 
occupied  by  the  boilers  is  less.  Oil  can  be  car- 
ried by  tanks  located  in  spaces  not  suitable  for 
cargo.  The  detestable  work  of  coaling  whip  is 
avoided,  and  most  of  the  necessary  time  and 
expense  for  that  work  is  saved.  The  number  of 
men  in  the  boiler  rooms  is  reduced  by  half.  As 
oil  fuel  is  50  per  cent  more  efficient  than  good 
steaming  coal,  the  weight  saved  by  its  use,  as 
well  as  the  space,  can  be  devoted  to  cargo  or 
passengers.  The  principal  objection  to  the  use 
of  oil  was  that  in  many  ports  of  the  world  it 
was  difficult  to  obtain.  This  objection  was  be- 
ing largely  obviated. 

Turbines.  In  the  early  types  of  turbine 
engines,  the  turbines  were  directly  connected  to 
the  propeller  shafts.  This  necessitated  low  tur- 
bine speed  or  high  propeller  speed,  neither  ar- 
rangement economical.  To  enable  the  turbines 
to  operate  at  their  most  efficient  speed,  which 
is  high,  and  at  the  same  time  to  drive  propel- 
lers of  the  most  desirable  size  and  pitch  at  the 
proper  speed,  the  turbines  are  fitted  to  deliver 
their  power  to  the  propeller  shafts  through 
gearing.  Nearly  all  turbine  machinery  of  late 
construction  was  of  the  geared  type.  The  eco- 
nomical speed  of  the  turbines  is  adjusted  by 
the  gears  to  the  designed  sea  speed  of  the  ves- 
sel; at  lower  "speeds  the  economy  is  relatively 
less.  The  principal  difficulty  experienced  with 
geared  turbines  is  the  pitting,  wearing,  and 
breaking  of  the  gear  teeth,  and  this  increases 
with  age. 

Electric  drive  was  devised  to  overcome  the 
same  difficulties  connected  with  efficient  turbine 
and  propeller  speeds  that  brought  forth  the 
geared  turbine.  The  turbines  drive  electric 
generators  furnishing  current  to  motors  on  the 
propeller  shafts.  This  arrangement  permits  of 
economical  operation  at  all  ordinary  speeds,  an 
important  advantage  in  ships  of  war.  For  this 
and  other  reasons  all  reeent  battleships  of  the 
United  States  Navy  and  the  large  battle  cruisers, 
which  were  scrapped  by  the  Five  Power  Pact, 
were  fitted  with  electric  drive;  but  in  light 
cruisers  and  smaller  vessels,  and  in  the  mer- 
chant service,  geared  turbines  are  almost  uni- 
versally preferred. 

Motor  Ships  and  Diesel  Engines.  The  most 
serious  competitor  of  the  geared  turbine  and  in- 
deed of  all  other  types  of  steam  propelling 
machinery  is  the  heavy-oil  internal-combustion 
engine  of  the  Diesel  or  modified  Diesel  type. 
For  machinery  of  GOOO  horse  power  or  less*,  it 
seems  likely  to  at  least  divide  popularity  with 
the  reciprocating  engine.  The  earlier  engines 
were  mostly  single-acting  and  of  the  four-stroke 
cycle  type.  Large  four-stroke  cycle  double-act- 
ing engines  of  10,000  brake  horse  power  were 


1909 


constructed  in  1924.  But  recent  great  improve- 
ments in  two-stroke  cycle  engines  caused  them  to 
take  the  lead  so  that  on  Jan.  1,  1924,  much 
more  than  half  of  all  the  motor  ships  building 
in  Great  Britain  were  of  the  two-stroke  cycle 
type.  To  give  greater  mechanical  simplicity 
and  to  reduce  further  the  first  cost  of  the  pro- 
pelling machinery,  which  had  averaged  about  10 
per  cent  greater  than  steam  equipment  of  the 
same  power,  double-acting  two-stroke  cycle  en- 
gines with  port  scavenging  were  engaging  the 
attention  of  designing  engineers.  A  considerable 
number  of  ships  equipped  with  such  engines 
were  in  service  in  1024,  and  many  others  were 
under  construction.  Another  direction  in  which 
design  was  tending  toward  greater  simplicity 
was  the  substitution  of  solid,  or  mechanical, 
injection  of  the  fuel  in  place  of  air  injection. 
In  the  quarter  ending  June  30,  1923,  52  steam 
vessels  of  148,123  tons  and  18  motor  vessels  of 
00,515  tons  were  laid  down  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland;  in  the  same  quarter,  6  steamers  of 
16,800  tons  and  3  motor  ships  of  6000  tons  were 
laid  down  in  the  United  States;  in  all  countries, 
202,515  tons  of  steamers  and  107,015  tons  of 
motor  ships.  Since  June  30,  1923,  the  propor- 
tion of  motor  ships  laid  down  has  still  further 
increased.  The  United  Shipping  Board  was  re- 
moving the  steam  machinery  and  fitting  Diesel 
engines  in  four  comparatively  new  steamers  and 
intended  to  transform  about  50  others  in  the 
same  way.  The  increasing  demand  for  motor 
ships  was  causing  many  European  owners  to 
effect  similar  transformations.  The  largest 
motor  ship  laid  down  up  to  1924  was  the  Union 
Castle  passenger  liner  building  at  the  yard  of 
Harland  and  Wolff  in  Belfast,  Ireland.  The  di- 
mensions are:  length,  630  feet;  beam,  73  feet; 
tonnage  (gross),  20,000.  The  propelling  ma- 
chinery consisted  of  two  sets  of  double-acting, 
8-cylinder  Diesel  engines  of  some  20,000  indicated 
horse  power.  The  designed  sea  speed  was  18* 
knots.  See  ELECTRIC  SHIP  PROPULSION. 

8HIPMAN,  SAMUEL  ( 1883-  ) .  An  Ameri- 
can dramatist,  born  in  New  York  City,  and  edu- 
cated at  Columbia  University.  He  has  written 
many  popular  plays,  among  the  best-known  be- 
ing East  is  West,  in  collaboration  with  Aaron 
Hoffman,  and  friendly  Enemies.  Others  are: 
Love  and  Art;  A  Social  Outcast;  A  Spiritual 
Vulture;  The  Spell,  with  Clara  Lipman;  It 
Depends  on  the  Woman;  Royal  Maid;  Some 
Warriors;  Elevating  a-  Husband;  Children  of 
To-day ;  Flames  and  Embers;  Head  of  the  House; 
Sweethearts;  The  Qood-for-nothing  ;  Exemption, 
with  Clayton  Hamilton;  The  Kreutzer  Sonata, 
with  Percival  Wilde ;  Firs*  is  Last,  with  John  B. 
Hynicr. 

SHIPPING.  The  depressed  financial  condi- 
tion of  most  European  countries  continued  up 
to  and  through  1924  to  affect  adversely  the 
shipping  situation.  During  the  last  years  of  the 
War  it  was  very  generally  expected  that  the 
great  war  losses  and  the  small  amount  of  con- 
struction in  the  first  two  years  of  the  war  period 
would  bring  about  a  shortage  of  shipping  for 
several  years  after  the  close  of  hostilities.  One 
of  the  principal  arguments  used  by  the  German 
government  to  convince  the  Reichstag  and  the 
people  at  large  of  the  desirability  of  the  ruth- 
less submarine  campaign  was  based  on  this  ex- 
pectation, which  would  open  new  ways  for  Ger- 
man shipping.  The  anticipations  in  regard  to 
shortage  of  shipping  were  not  realized  for  two 
reasons:  the  reduced  amount  of  maritime  trade, 


and  the  heavy  building  of  the  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Japan  in  the  years 
1917  to  1921,  supplemented  by  the  relatively 
large  additions  made  to  their  merchant  fleets 
by  the  less  important  countries  during  the  same 
period.  The  United  States  added  11,000,000 
tons  to  her  overseas  tonnage  of  1914,  and  every 
one  of  the  principal  pre-war  maritime  nations, 
except  Germany,  Russia,  and  Austria-Hungary, 
added  some  thousands  or  millions  of  tons  to  their 
commercial  fleets.  The  tonnages  given  in  Lloyd's 
Register  for  July  1,  1914,  and  July  1,  1923,  are 
shown  in  the  Table  A.  Steam  and  motor  vessels 
of  less  than  100  gross  tons  and  sailing  vessels 
of  less  than  100  net  tons  are  excluded  in  all 
cases.  For  lack  of  satisfactory  records  all  Japa- 
nese and  most  Greek  (in  1923)  sailing  vessels 
are  omitted:  also  wooden-hulled  vessels  of  the 
United  States  engaged  in  trade  in  the  Great 
Lakes. 

TABLE  A " 
SHOWING  THE  TOTAL  TONNAGES  OF  VESSELS  OF  THE 

PRINCIPAL    MARITIME    COUNTRIES  ON    JULY    1, 

1914,  AND  JULY  1,  1923 

Nation                          July  1,  1914  July  1,  1923 
Great    Britain    and    Do- 
minions          21,045,049  22,058,112 

United    States    5,368,194  10,945,363 

Germany     5,459,296  2,590,073 

Norway    2,504,722  2,551,912 

France 2,319,438  3,737,244 

Japan    1,708,386  3,604,147 

Italy     1,668,296  3,033,742 

Netherlands     1,490,455  2,625,741 

Sweden      1,118,086  1,207,727 

Austria-Hungary    1,055,719  0 

Russia     1,053,818  (?) 

Spain     898,823  1,260,206 

Greece    836.868  755,441 

Denmark     820,181  996.862 

Belgium     352,124  616.670 

Other  countries    1,384,097  3,182,993 

Total,    all    countries  49,089,552  65.166,233 

United  States  Merchant  Marine,  1914-24. 
This  was  probably  the  most  eventful  decade  in 
the  history  of  American  shipping.  At  its  begin- 
ning, July  1,  1914,  the  tonnage  in  the  foreign 
trade  had  declined  to  relative  insignificance.  This 
had  been  brought  about  by  various  antagonistic 
interests,  foreign  and  domestic,  by  high  wages 
in  the  shipping,  shipbuilding,  steel,  and  various 
other  industries  affecting  the  building  and  opera- 
tion of  ships,  and  by  lack  of  interest  in  the 
question  by  Congress  and  the  people  at  large. 
The  combination  of  these  numerous  adverse  fac- 
tors was  too  great  to  be  overcome  without  as- 
sistance by  the  government  and  by  large  com- 
mercial groups  concerned  in  the  foreign  trade. 
Measured  in  dollars  and  cents  it  meant  that 
the  cost  of  operating  a  steamer  under  the  Amer- 
ican flag  averaged  about  6  per  cent  more  than 
under  the  British  and  about  8  per  cent  more 
than  under  the  Norwegian.  The  British  freight 
lines,  including  steamers  carrying  passen- 
gers as  a  more  or  less  subsidiary  interest, 
were  and  in  1924  continued  to  be  largely  sup- 
ported and  controlled  by  great  manufacturing, 
importing,  exporting,  and  docking  interests  who 
found  it  advantageous  to  direct  by  their  sup- 
port the  routes  and  terminals  of  transportation 
lines.  By  achieving  this,  the  transportation 
lines  became  interested  agents  in  finding  and  de- 
veloping foreign  markets  for  British  goods  and 
in  securing  foreign  products  for  British  import 
trade  at  the  lowest  rates,  for  the  cheaper  the 
roods  the  larger  the  volume  of  traffic.  The 
German i  pursued  similar  methods  and  gave 


DC 

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a) 


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a.  «• 


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E 

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1203 


SHIPPING 


oven  more  support  and  direction  to  their  ship- 
ping, which  was  also  carefully  fostered  by  the 
government.  The  American  merchant  marine 
in  the  foreign  trade  had  no  such  support  as 
that  given  to  the  British  and  German  fleets. 
Two-thirds  of  the  exports  up  to  1914  were  raw 
materials  The  American  manufacturers  have 
not  made  the  same  efforts  as  Great  Britain  and 
Germany  to  extend  the  sale  of  their  products  in 
foreign  markets.  Until  they  do  so  and  take  the 
same  measures  concerning  the  transportation  of 
their  wares,  the  maintenance  of  an  extensive 
oversea  merchant  marine  will  be  a  difficult 
matter. 

As  early  as  1913  the  increasing  export  of 
manufactured  articles  and  the  reduction  in  cost 
of  steel  for  shipbuilding  began  to  have  a  favor- 
able effect  on  the  American  shipping  industry 
The  outbreak  of  war  gave  a  tremendous  stimu- 
lus, which  increased  as  the  months  rolled  on. 
lint  in  February,  191. r>,  the  Seamen's  (La  Fol- 
lette)  Act  was  a  serious  blow;  in  a  few  weeks 
it  destroyed  the  American  transpacific  lines, 
which  gave  up  attempting  to  continue  their 
service,  Hold  their  vessels,  and  went  out  of  busi- 
ness. (See  UNITED  STATES.)  The  demand  for 
shipping  began  to  increase  soon  after  the  out- 
break of  war  At  first,  neutral  shipping  was 
preferred,  but  very  soon  the  demand  for  tonnage 
swept  everything  into  use,  a  result  which  Ger- 
man war  methods  would  soon  have  achieved,  for 
the  danger  to  neutrals  from  mines  and  sub- 
marines was  but  little  less  than  that  to  bellig- 
erents By  the  end  of  1914,  transatlantic  freight 
rates  had  risen  to  four  times  pre-war  figures, 
and  they  continued  to  advance  in  1915  and 
1910,  in  some  instances  to  15  times  the  pre-war 
normal.  These  conditions  were  brought  about 
by  (a)  the  internment,  blockade,  capture,  and 
destruction  of  German,  Austrian,  Russian,  Turk- 
ish, Rumanian,  and  Bulgarian  shipping;  (b)  the 
diversion  to  naval  use  of  a  large  percentage  of 
Allied  tonnage,  the  demand  steadily  increasing; 
(c)  the  loss  of  vessels  from  normal  dangers  of 
the  sea  and  from  submarine  attack,  submarine 
mines,  etc.;  (d)  the  transportation  of  food 
and  munitions  of  war  over  long  distances,  from 
United  States,  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  South 
America,  Australia,  the  East  Indies,  etc.  Many 
American  ship  owners  began  at  once  to  seize 
the  opportunity  to  expand  their  holdings  and 
to  take  advantage  of  the  expected  rise  in  freight 
rates.  Many  vessels  were  transferred  from  the 
coasting  trade  and  enrolled  for  foreign  service. 
A  few  shipping  men  took  advantage  of  the 
already  existing  provision  of  the  Panama 
Canal  Act  of  1912  which  permitted  the  registry 
of  foreign-built  vessels  not  more  than  five  years 
old  American  registry  of  such  ships  was  still 
further  facilitated  by  the  Act  of  Congress  of 
Aug.  18,  1914.  In  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1915,  147  vessels  of  622,759  gross  tons  were 
thus  transferred  to  the  American  flag  and  regis- 
tered for  the  foreign  trade 

In  many  cases  the  transfers  did  not  involve 
a  change  in  the  actual  ownership,  as  they 
really  belonged  to  American  citizens  or  corpora- 
tions but  were  operated  under  foreign  flags  for 
superior  advantages  thereby  obtained  Not- 
withstanding the  enormous  freight  rates  and 
the  increasing  demand  for  shipping,  nowhere  in 
the  world  was  much  new  shipping  laid  down  in 
the  first  year  of  the  War.  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Russia  had  no  immediate  use  for  shipping; 
England,  France,  and  Italy,  after  May  23,  1915, 


were  using  their  shipyards  and  their  workmen 
chiefly  in  connection  with  war  work,  naval  or 
military.  The  United  States  and  Japan  were 
the  only  other  countries  with  extensive  building 
yards  and  building  facilities.  New  work  was 
not  undertaken  in  these  countries  until  after 
June,  1915,  because  in  the  first  year  of  hostil- 
ities it  seemed  to  be  the  general  opinion  that 
the  War  could  not  last  long  on  account  of 
its  enormous  expense.  By  that  time,  however, 
it  was  seen  that  this  war  was  as  new  in  its 
methods  of  finance  as  in  its  size  and  its  methods 
and  that  it  might  continue  for  years.  The 
American  and  Japanese  shipping  interests  began 
to  order  ships.  At  the  same  time  British,  Nor- 
wegian, and  other  foreign  companies  placed  or- 
ders in  the  United  States  By  the  end  of  the 
year  700,000  tons  of  merchant  shipping  were 
under  construction  in  American  yards. 

Shipping  Act  of  1916.  Early  in  1916  the 
Wilson  administration  proposed  in  Congress  the 
creation  of  a  great  merchant  marine  under  gov- 
ernment control  and  operation.  This  was  bit- 
terly opposed  by  the  great  body  of  the  Repub- 
licans and  the  more  conservative  Democrats. 
But  as  time  went  on  and  the  need  for  shipping 
became  more  and  more  acute,  it  was  seen  that 
only  by  means  of  government  assistance  could 
the  necessary  vessels  be  supplied,  so  that  on 
Sept.  7,  1910,  after  a  long  struggle  in  Congress, 
the  so-called  Shipping  Act  was  passed  and  be- 
came a  law.  It  is  a  much  less  comprehensive 
measure  than  the  original  bill.  It  established 
a  Shipping  Board  of  five  members  which  was 
authon/ed  to  procure  by  purchase  or  construc- 
tion cargo  ships  to  the  value  of  $50,000,000 
and -to  set  them  at  work,  carrying  American 
merchandise  to  foreign  countries,  and  to  regulate 
the  rates  and  general  business  practices  of  the 
American  merchant  marine,  much  as  is  done  by 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  for  land 
carriers  Other  powers  of  regulation  and  in- 
vestigation were  conferred. 

Emergency  Fleet  Corporation.  On  Apr.  17, 
1917,  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  was  es- 
tablished under  the  provisions  of  the  Shipping 
Board  Act.  This  corporation  was  charged  \\ith 
the  immediate  duty  of  building  up  a  large  com- 
mercial marine  of  standard,  fabi  icated,  and 
other  ships  in  the  shortest  possible  space  of 
time  and  under  the  most  modern  ideas  of  efli- 
ciency  and  economy  in  working,  with  speed  of 
production  as  the  primary  object  The  first  con- 
tract for  new  construction  was  let  on  Apr.  27, 
1917.  The  demands  of  the  Corporation  were 
far  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  existing  shipyards. 
In  19*16  there  were  66  yards,  27  of  them  for 
building  wooden  vessels  only,  in  the  United 
States;  by  the  end  of  1917  there  were  approxi- 
mately 142  yards  in  which  1427  ships  were 
building,  of  which  more  than  200  were  wooden 
steamers  of  2500  tons.  The  contracts  for  the 
wooden  vessels  were  bitterly  opposed  and  caused 
much  friction  between  the  members  of  the  Ship- 
ping Board  and  those  of  the  Fleet  Corporation. 
As  they  were  sold  in  1922-23  for  scrapping,  the 
poor  policy  of  their  construction  seemed  proved 

The  Urgent  Deficiency  Bill,  approved  June  !«., 
1917,  gave  the  President  adequate  power  in 
placing  orders  for  ships  and  ship  materials  and 
to  take  over  for  the  use  of  the  nation  not  only 
the  output  of  the  shipyards  but  the  shipyards 
themselves.  For  several  years  the  principal  ac- 
tivities of  the  Shipping  Board  and  Emergency 
Fleet  Corporation  were  connected  with  the 


SHIPPING 


building  of  ships.  (See  SHIPBUILDING  AND 
NAVAL  ABCHITECTUBE.)  After  the  close  of  the 
War,  the  Shipping  Board  endeavored  to  cancel 
all  building  contracts  where  cancellation  could 
be  effected  without  too  great  loss.  Vessels  were 
offered  to  American  purchasers  at  low  prices, 
and  a  considerable  tonnage  was  sold  Lines  were 
established  to  various  desirable  points,  and  as 
far  as  possible  these  were  subsequently  turned 
over  to  cpmmercial  companies  for  operation. 

The  report  of  the  United  States  Shipping 
Board,  covering  the  activities  of  the  board  itself 
and  of  its  subsidiary,  the  Emergency  Fleet  Cor- 
poration, shows  that  on  June  30,  1023,  the  board 
owned  1325  steel  vessels  of  9,312,884  dead- 
weight tons,  of  which  1187  vessels  of  8,232,605 
deadweight  tons  were  cargo  ships,  in  addition 
it  owned  J)  concrete  vessel 8  and  23  wooden  ves- 
sels. On  the  same  date  there  uere  373  steam- 
ers of  3,172,498  deadweight  tons  in  operation, 
handled  by  42  managing  Hgents  and  covering  78 
services.  There  were  laid  up,  therefore,  984  ves- 
sels of  some  6,000,000  deadweight  tons,  or  about 
4,000,000  gioss  tons.  The  ships  sold  included 
71  steel  cargo  ships  aggiegating  347,799  dead- 
weight tons  and  realizing  $K,725,372;  10  ships 
aggregating  64,011  deadweight  tons  were  sold 
for  conversion  to  Diesel  motor  ships  and 
hi  ought  $504,500;  and  44  steel  tankers  of  412,- 
420  deadweight  tons  were  sold  for  $18,875,004.- 
90.  In  addition  to  these  there  were  sold  8  old 
or  damaged  vessels,  13  ocean-going  steel  tugs, 
and  4  wooden  tugs,  while  233  wood  and  com- 
posite vessels,  alxnit  560,000  gross  tons,  were 
sold  for  scrapping. 

The  total  merchant  marine  of  the  United 
States  is  analyzed  in  the  following  Table  B 
showing  the  trade  in  which  the  ships  were  en- 
gaged, propulsive  power,  material  of  hull. 

TABLE  B 

UNITED  STATES  MERCHANT  MARINE,  JVNE  30,  1923, 
SHOWING  TRAUK  IN  WHICH  ENGAGED,  TYPE  OF 
VESSEL,  MATKRHL  OF  HILL,  KTC 

Registered  (foreign  trade)   Enrolled  and  licensed 
(Coast,  rivers,  etc.) 


1304  SHIPPING 

In  addition  to  the  vessels  added  to  American 
registry  from  other  sources,  the  enemy  vessels 
interned  in  1014  in  American  harbors,  includ- 
ing those  of  the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  and 
Hawaii,  were  seized  and  taken  over  by  the 
United  States  government.  The  total  tonnage 
of  the  95  German  vessels  so  acquired  was  628,- 
837.  Among  them  were  sexeral  of  the  largest 
and  finest  passenger  steamers*  in  the  world, 
the  Lcvtathan,  formerly  Vaterland,  being  actu- 
ally the  largest  steamer  then  completed  for 
service.  Theie  were  14  Austrian  vessels  interned 
in  American  ports  in  1014,  but  8  were  sold  to 
the  Kerr  Steamship  Corporation  before  the 
United  States  declared  war  on  \UHtria. 

In  Table  D  are  shown  the  total  tonnages  of 
vessels,  flying  American  and  foreign  lings,  that 
entered  arid  cleared  in  the  foreign  trade  during 
the  fiscal  years  1U14-23 


JSad 
Wood    .. 
Metal 

Total 
tit  ram 
Wood      . 
Metal 

Total 
Gag 
Wood 
Metal 

No. 
335 
42 

Gioss 

ton.s 

201,235 
77.994 

No 
2,463 
221 

Gross 
tons 

739,551 
235,695 

377 

358 
1,680 

2,038 

1,467 
24 

279,229 

525,302 
8,001,271 

8,526,573 

68,249 
36,813 

2,684 

3,509 
2,513 

6,022 

9,212 

183 

975,246 

769,522 
6,129,745 

6,899,267 

201,809 
88,660 

Total     1,491 
ftaif/ri 
Canal  —  Wood 
Wood         .    1,227 
Metal                  30 

105,092 

140,866 
21,303 

162,169 
9,073,063 

27,017  vessels 

9,395 

361 
3,016 
376 

290,469 

41,862 
820,843 
183,984 

Total 
Total    r<-K 
isterfd 
Totnl     *»n- 
rolh'd 
Grand 

1,257 
5,  16  3 

total 

3,392 

21,854 
18,284,734 

1,004,827 

9,211,671 
tons 

TABLE   C 

UNITKD  STATES  VKSSKLB  AND  TONNAGE  ENGAGED  IN 
THE  FOREIGN  TRADE,  JUNE  30,  1914 


Tyi>o 
.Steam 
Sail 
Barge 

Total 


No 

868 

444 

1,049 

2,361 


Gross  tons 
720,609 
224,073 
121,709 

1,066,391 


TABLE   1) 

TOTAL 

TONN  \GE 

PER 

CtNT 

American 

Foit'ltfll 

American 

Foroign 

1914 

27,470  70  1 

79.101.2HJ 

20 

74 

1915 

26.693,  7  )6 

00,901,  Hlrt 

29 

71 

191(i. 

35.H29.74li 

08,14.*  16  5 

34 

66 

1<)17 

.17,870  404 

61.  (.7*  782 

37 

63 

ion 

38.489  7G3 

52  9H0.156 

42 

58 

1919 

41,020,746 

51,855  601 

41 

56 

1920 

55.239.879 

5.1,25;]  160 

51 

49 

1921 

($7,916,  3.10 

70.124.8'U 

49 

51 

1922 

59.756,486 

(•:Ur>9.285 

48 

52 

1923 

61,293,198 

72.196,133 

45 

r>5 

Merchant  Marine  Act.  Foi  half  a  century 
attempts  ha\e  been  made  by  the  various  presi- 
dents, members  of  Congress,  and  others  who 
saw  the  desirability  of  having  a  large  merchant 
marine  in  the  foreign  tiade  under  the  American 
flag,  to  assist  in  building  it  up  and  maintaining 
it  by  means  of  subsidies.  \N  ith  the  exception 
of  obtaining  special  payments  for  certain  clashes 
of  mail  steamers  for  the  carriage  of  the  mails, 
all  these  attempts  failed.  At  the  end  of  the 
War  in  Europe,  the  United  States  found  itself 
in  possession  of  an  adequate  marine,  but  owin<* 
to  the  greater  cost  of  operating  vessels  under 
the  American  flag  than  under  foreign  flags 
it  seemed  probable  that  the  new  ships  must  he 
laid  up  or  sold  to  foreigners  unless  some  form 
of  government  assistance  was  forthcoming.  Sub- 
sidy bills  were  introduced  but  failed  to  receive 
Congressional  sanction  In  the  Merchant  Marine 
Act  of  June  5,  1020,  known  as  the  Jones  law, 
which  provided  for  the  continuance  of  the  United 
States  Shipping  Board  and  for  other  matters 
connected  with  shipping,  there  was  a  partial 
recognition  of  the  principle  of  giving  subsidies 
for  the  building  and  operation  of  American 
shipping.  In  Section  24  of  this  Act,  limitations 
on  the  rates  and  other  conditions  of  mail  sub- 
sidies were  removed,  leaving  the  matter  of 
compensation  to  the  United  States  Shipping 
Board  and  the  Postmaster  General,  within  the 
appropriations  made  by  Congress.  In  Section  11 
of  the  Act,  it  was  provided  that  there  would 
be  lent  to  shipowners  to  build  new  ships  an 
amount  not  to  exceed  $25,000,000  a  year  for  R 
years,  derived  from  funds  obtained  by  the  sale 
of  government-owned  ships  and  receipts  from 
their  operation.  Provision  was  also  made  for 
the  establishment  of  certain  experimental  steam- 
ship lines  tf>  be  operated  by  the  Shipping  Board 
until  it  was  shown  that  they  could  not  be  made 
self-supporting.  Section  23  permitted  the 
earnings  of  American  vessels  to  be  exempted 
from  excess  profits  taxes  up  to  one-third  the 


SHIPPING  BOABD 


1J05 


SIAM 


cost  of  approved  types  of  new  ships  to  be  built      cultivation,    6,490,000    were   given    up    to   rice, 
in  American  yards.     Section  34  of  the  Act  sought      Cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  and   pepper  received  a 


to  remove  any  restriction  on  the  United  States 
to  impose  discriminating  duties  against  foreign 
ships  by  terminating  any  articles  in  treaties  or 
conventions  in  contravention  of  such  action  and 
directed  the  President  to  give  90  days'  notice 
of  such  intention  President  Wilson  declined  to 
issue  such  notices  or  to  take  steps  toward  the 
abrogation  of  existing  commercial  treaties,  on 
the  ground  that  Congress  had  no  constitutional 
right  to  authorize  or  direct  such  action.  Section 
28  of  the  Act  restricts  preferential  export  and 
import  railroad  rates  to  goods  consigned  to  or 
by  American  vessels.  A  large  part  of  the  Act 
deals  with  ship  mortgages;  the  purpose  was 
to  popularize  shipping  bowls  by  making  a  vessel 
mortgage  a  prior  lien  to  that  of  material-men. 
See  SurrnriLDTNO  AND  NAVAL  ABCHITFCTURE ; 
\YAK  IN  EUROPE,  BLOCKADE,  SUBMABINE. 

SHIPPING  BOABD.  See  SHIPBUILDING, 
Vnited  Ntates;  UNITED  STATES,  History. 

SHIPSTEAD,  IIENBIK  (1881-  ).  United 
States  Senator  from  Minnesota,  horn  at  Bur- 
bank,  Kamliyohi  Co,  Minn,  lie  was  educated 
at  the  State 'Normal  School  at  St.  Cloud,  Minn., 
and  at  the  de?ital  school  of  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity, Chicago,  lie  practiced  dentistry  at 
CJenwood,  Minn  ,  for  several  years,  acted  as 
mayor  of  the  town  one  year,  and  was  elected  to 
the  State  Legislating  of  Minnesota  in  1917.  In 
1920,  he  moved  to  Minneapolis,  and  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Seriate  by  the  Farmer- 
Labor  party  on  Nov  7,  1922. 

SHOES.  See  LEATHER;  LYNN;  BOOTS  AND 
SHOFH. 

SHOOTING.     See  OLYMPIC  GAMES. 

SHOWEBMAN,  GRANT  (1870-  ).  An 
American  philologist.  He  v\as  born  in  Wisconsin 
and  studied  at  the  State  university.  He  was 
in  Home  as  fellow  of  the  Archaeological  Insti- 
tute of  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies 
(1898-1900)  and  on  his  return  to  the  United 
States  in  the  latter  year  became  professor  of 
classics  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  He  is 
the  author  of  With  the  Professor  (1910);  The 
Indian  Stream  Republic  and  Luther  Parker 
(191T>);  .1  Country  Chronicle  (1916);  1  Coun- 
try Child  (1917).'  He  translated  Ovid's  Hero- 
ides  et  A  motes  for  Loeb's  Classical  Library 
(1914). 

SHTJLL,  \ARONFRANKLIN  (1881-  )  An 
American  zoologist  torn  at  Miami  County, 
Ohio.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  and  at  Columbia.  He  was  assistant 
in  /oology  (1905-08)  at  the  University  of 
Michigan;  instructor  (1911-12),  assistant  pro- 
fessor (1912-14),  associate  professor  (1914- 
21),  and  professor  (1921-  )  of  zoology  at  the 
University  of  Michigan.  He  did  important  work 
on  sex  determination  in  rotifers  and  in  in- 
sects, and  was  joint  author  (with  Ruth ven 
and  La  Hue)  of  Principles  of  Animal  Biolo- 
gy (1920). 

SIAM.  An  independent  kingdom  of  south- 
east Asia;  area  195,000  square  miles;  popula- 
tion in  1921,  9,221,000  as  compared  with  8,266,- 
408  in  1910.  Bangkok,  the  capital,  had  628,675 
inhabitants  in  1919  (200,000  Chinese).  Chi- 
nese coolie  immigration  arriving  at  Bangkok 
in  1921-22,  a  typical  year,  numbered  75,242; 
those  emigrating  numbered  46,777. 

Industry  and  Trade.  The  life  of  the  popu- 
lation centred,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  rice 
fields.  In  1922,  of  the  6,770,000  acres  under 


limited  attention.  The  economic  well-being  of 
the  country  was  dependent  on  forces  heyond 
its  control.  Drought  often  played  hnvoc  with 
the  rice  crops,  while  rice  demands  from  Japan 
and  competition  from  Indo-Cliina  and  Burma, 
for  instance,  affected  either  lavorably  or  ad- 
versely the  Siamese  market  Thus,  ex-ports  of 
rice  (in  metric  tons)  reached  1,103230  in 
1913-14,  281,900  in  1920-21  (because  of 
drought);  1,270,535  in  1921-22;  1,275,11)8  in 
1922-23.  Of  the  mineral  resources  of  tin,  tung- 
sten, coal,  iron,  xinc,  manganese,  antimony,  the 
first  received  the  greatest  attention  Produc- 
tion of  tin  was  1918-19,  8834  tons;  1919-20, 
8542;  1920-21,  G201  ;  1921-22,  6249.  The  ad- 
vance in  foreign  trade  over  the  period  1914-24 
may  be  gauged  from  the  following-  imports  and 
exports  for  1913-14,  $32.593,000  and  $42,742,- 
000;  1920-21,  $60.298,000  and  $29,310,000; 
1921-22,  $60,173,000  and  $74,022000,  1922-23, 
$57,498,000  and  $64,525,000.  (Conversions  from 
the  tical  made  at  average  annual  rates  of  ex- 
change). Principal  items  of  export,  1922-23, 
were  rice,  $54,218,000;  teak,  $2,441,880;  stock- 
lac,  $882,000,  wood,  other  than  teak,  $605300; 
tobacco,  $571,200;  salt  fish,  $516,880.  Principal 
items  of  import,  1922-23,  were  manufactured 
articles,  largely  cotton  goods,  $;J6,038,400;  food- 
stuffs, $8,079,050.  metal  manufactures,  $4,769,- 
140;  wines  and  opium,  $2,570,145.  Trade  con- 
tinued to  lie  carried  on  largely  with  Hongkong, 
Singapore,  China,  India,  the  United  Kingdom 
During  the  period  after  the  War  intercourse 
with  the  United  States  increased,  imports  in 
1921  reaching  $1,958,706,  but  dropping  to  $798,- 
540  in  1923.  Railway  building  v\as  considerable 
during  1914-24,  so  that  mileage  increased  from 
97(»  in  1915  to  1485  in  1923.  Work  was  under 
way  on  extensions  out  of  Kovat,  and  from 
Petrin  to  Aran  Pratet  Through  service  from 
Bangkok  to  Penang  was  inaugiuated  in  1922, 
and  a  similar  service  to  Chicngrnai  was  planned. 
The  whole  railway  system  was  being  converted 
to  the  meter  gauge.  Wireless  stations  were 
erected  at  Bangkok  and  Songuora. 

Government  and  History.  There  was  no 
change  in  the  structural  form  of  government  and 
the  king  remained  the  absolute  ruler  The  reve- 
nues increased  from  $27,527,882  in  1913-14  to 
$31,508,990  in  1921-22;  expenditures  from  $23.- 
391,510  in  1913-14  to  $33.223,200;  extraordinary 
expenditures  against  capital  account  from  $5,- 
634,360  to  $6,944,990.  The  national  debt  at  the 
end  of  1914  stood  at  $30,410,060,  in  March, 
1923,  it  was  $46,279,046.  The  use  in  the  price 
of  silver  compelled  the  government  in  1919  to 
change  the  value  of  the  tical  from  13  to  the 
pound  ($0.37)  to  12  to  the  pound  ($0405),  but 
back  again  to  the  normal  rate  in  January,  1923 
In  1922,  it  was  worth  $0.47;  from  Jan.  *3,  192'! 
on  the  bank  selling  rate  on  the  United  State** 
remained  at  $0406.  Under  King  Kama  VI 
progress  was  continuous,  particularly  in  the 
fields  of  sanitation,  law,  municipal  functions, 
etc.  On  July  22,  1917,  Siam  declared  war  on 
the  Central  Powers  and  sent  an  ambulance  de- 
tachment to  the  western  front  late  in  1918. 
As  an  Associated  Power  Siam  had  delegates  at 
the  Peace  Conference  and  became  a  member  of 
the  League  of  Nations.  Thus  politically,  but 
as  well  economically,  with  the  passing  of  Ger- 
many the  British  influence  became  paramount 
in  the  country  after  the  War. 


1906 


SIBERIA  AND  FAB  EASTEBN  BEFTTB- 
LIC.  Although  commonly  taken  to  embrace  all 
of  Russia  in  Asia,  exclusive  of  the  Central 
Asiatic  provinces  of  Kirghizia  and  Turkestan, 
the  geographical  name  Siberia  properly  applies 
only  to  the  territory  east  of  Lake  Baikal  and 
the  Yakutsk  territory  of  eastern  Siberia,  while 
the  territory  to  the  east  of  Yablonoi  mountain 
ridge  and  to  the  south  of  Stanovoi  mountain 
ridge,  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  known 
as  the  Far  East.  The  territory  of  western  Si- 
beria comprises  2,209,660  square  miles,  with  a 
population,  according  to  the  census  of  1920,  of 
9,040,500  souls,  as  against  7,286,100  in  1914. 
The  Yakutsk  province,  in  Eastern  Siberia,  at 
present  known  as  the  Yakutsk  Autonomous  So- 
cialist Soviet  Republic,  represents  a  vast  expanse 
of  practically  uninhabited  timber  land  and  frozen 
marshes,  covering  1,457,070  square  miles,  with 
a  total  population  in  1920  of  but  266,500  souls, 
as  against  311,300  in  1914.  The  territory  of 
the  Far  East,  at  present  known  as  the  Far 
Eastern  Soviet  Republic,  including  Sakhalin, 
has  an  area  of  998.000  square  miles,  with  a 
population  of  1,624,700  souls,  as  against  about 
1,601,000  in  1914.  Grand  total:  area,  4,664,- 
730  square  miles;  population,  10,931,700. 

Western  Siberia,  which  is  part  of  the  Russian 
Socialist  Soviet  Republic,  is  bounded  on  the  east 
bv  the  Yukutsk  Republic  and  Lake  Baikal,  on 
tne  south  by  the  Kirghiz  Republic  and  Tchun- 
garia,  on  the  west  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  and 
on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  com- 
prises the  provinces  of  Altai,  Yenisei,  Irkutsk, 
Novo  Nikoiaevsk,  Omsk,  Tomsk,  Tumen  and 
the  autonomous  territory  of  Oyrat.  With  the 
density  of  population  averaging  only  2.23  souls 
per  square  mile  (as  against  an  average  of  355 
per  square  mile  in  the  United  States),  it  would 
appear  that  a  great  opportunity  would  exist 
for  colonizing.  The  immense  territory,  however, 
was  for  the  most  part  devoid  of  agricultural 
importance,  and  all  the  land  suitable  for  habita- 
tion and  settlement  had  practically  been  taken 
up.  The  agricultural  zone  of  Siberia  did  not 
extend  northward  beyond  the  58-59th  parallel 
and  represented  a  belt  of  about  450  miles  in 
width  and  1600  miles  from  east  to  west,  con- 
stituting a  continuation  of  the  "black  soil"  belt 
of  European  Russia.  The  best  and  most  thickly 
populated  arable  lands  were  situated  along  the 
path  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad,  branching 
off  through  the  valleys  of  the  rivers  arid  extend- 
ing southward  to  the  Chinese  boundary.  The 
total  surveyed  land  area  of  western  Siberia 
amounted  to  but  140,400,000  acres,  or  lens  than 
10  per  cent  of  the  entire  territory.  The  greater 
part  of  this  surveyed  territory  was  covered  with 
forests,  interspersed  by  vast  expanse's  of  marshes, 
and  only  8,100,000  acres  were  estimated,  ac- 
cording to  the  rural  census  of  1923,  to  be  fit 
for  settlement,  of  which  area  two-thirds  would 
require  heavy  pioneer  work.  With  the  elimina- 
tion of  uninhabited  territory,  the  density  of 
Siberian  population  rises  to  about  9  per  square 
mile,  approaching  that  of  Colorado  (9.1),  and 
North  Dakota  (9.2).  The  density  of  the  popu- 
lation in  the  southern  part  of  Siberia  was  esti- 
mated as  high  as  20  to  25  persons  per  square 
mile,  or  approximating  that  of  Kansas  (21.6), 
California  (22),  or  Maine  (25.7).  If  the  terri- 
tory is  further  reduced  to  the  surveyed  land 
only,  which  amounts,  as  above  stated,  to  140,- 
400,000  acres  in  the  six  principal  provinces, 
with  a  total  population  of  6,681,000  souls,  an 


average  of  30.4  persons  per  square  mile  would 
be  arrived  at.  Of  the  above  total  acreage  of 
surveyed  lands,  arable  land,  including  prairies, 
amounted  to  44.8  per  cent;  meadows,  8;  pas- 
tures, 11.6;  timber,  17.1;  and  under  water, 
marshes,  etc.,  18.5. 

According  to  the  census  of  1923  there  were 
in  western  Siberia  3,010,000  head  of  horses, 
3,641,074  head  of  large  horned  rattle,  6,200,800 
sheep,  54,447,000  goats,  and  877,107  swine.  In 
1917,  the  live  stock  of  the  average  Siberian 
farmstead  amounted  to  2.5  draft  horses,  3.2  of 
horned  cattle,  including  1.9  milch  cows,  4.1 
sheep  and  1.5  swine.  In  1922,  the  average 
equipment  fell  to  1.6  draft  horses,  2.2  horned 
cattle,  including  1.2  milch  cows,  3.2  sheep  and 
0.5  swine.  The  Siberian  horse,  generally  small, 
further  deteriorated  as  a  draft  animal.  The 
number  of  horses  below  12  hands  in  height  rose 
to  90  per  cent  of  the  total  equine  stock;  the 
average  weight  of  cattle  on  the  hoof  comparative 
with  pre-war  decreased  from  578  pounds  to  50ft 
pounds,  and  the  annual  yield  of  milk  per  cow 
decreased  by  20  per  cent.  Indufitrial  enterprises 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  (Soviet)  Bureau 
of  Siberian  Industries  numbered  095  and  em- 
ployed 44,236  workmen.  Of  this  aggregate,  233 
(33  per  cent)  were  at  a  standstill.  The  ma- 
jority of  the  bigger  plants — 299,  or  43  per  cent 
of  the  total  number  of  establishments — were 
being  operated  by  the  state,  employing  41,140 
(93.2  per  cent)  of  the  total  number  of  work- 
men. Leased  enterprises  represent  23.4  per  cent 
of  the  total,  with  4.3  per  cent  of  the  employees. 
Besides  the  coal  and  gold  mining  industries,  the 
state  operated  28  tanneries,  5!)  woodworking 
establishments  (of  which  28  wore  at  a  stand- 
still), 5  heavy-woolen  cloth  mills,  1  flax-spinning 
mill,  1  cotton-wadding  factory,  8  felt-hoot  fac- 
tories, 23  alcohol  distilleries  (of  which  only  6 
were  included  in  the  operating  programme  for 
1923),  4  metallurgical  plants,  420  metal-working 
shops,  4  glass  factories,  1  porcelain  factory,  3 
match  factories,  4  oilseed-crushing  mills,  etc. 
Of  the  state  industries,  171  (57  per  cent)  were 
combined  in  "trusts,'*  embracing  cliiofly  the  min- 
ing industries.  Coal  mining  ranked  first  among 
the  industries,  employing  17,290  (39.1  per  cent) 
of  the  labor.  Gold  mining  stood  second,  with 
(5015  workmen,  or  13.59  per  cent  of  the  total. 
Next  in  order  followed  •  the  leather  industry, 
with  3352  workmen  (7.57  per  cent)  ;  woodwork- 
ing, with  3116  (594  per  cent)  ;  and  metal-work- 
ing, with  2468  (3.75  per  cent).  The  output  of 
coal  for  the  operating  year  1922-23  amounted 
to  1,350,000  long  tons,  representing  96  per  cent 
of  pre-war  production.  The  increase  in  coal 
production  was  attributed  to  the  development 
of  the  "Kuzbas"  region  (Kuznetzki  Basin), 
where  the  output  exceeded  that  of  1914.  It 
must  be  noted,  however,  that  the  development 
of  the  vast  resources  of  the  Kuznetzki  Basin 
had  hardly  begun  in  1914.  Only  surveying  and 
preliminary  excavation  were  carried  out  in  that 
year,  in  the  course  of  which  there  were  mined 
about  3,000,000  poods  of  coal  (about  48,000 
long  tons). 

Far  East.  The  Far  Eastern  Republic,  which 
prior  to  1922  was  detached  and  politically  inde- 
pendent of  the  Soviet  regime,  was  gradually 
subjugated  and  absorbed  by  the  latter.  Soviet 
troops  aided  in  the  overpowering  of  the  White 
government  of  the  Maritime  Republic  in  the 
fall  of  1922,  with  the  result  that  the  Far  East- 
ern Republic  and  the  Maritime  Republic  were 


SIBERIA 


1907 


consolidated  into  one  and  affiliated  with  the 
Union  of  Socialist  Soviet  Republics.  As  con- 
stituted in  1924,  the  Far  Eastern  Republic  com- 
prised Transbaikal,  Amur,  Maritime  and  Kam- 
tchatka provinces,  as  well  as  Sakhalin.  It  was 
bounded  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Seas  of 
Okhotsk  and  Japan  on  the  east,  the  Arctic 
Ocean  on  the  north,  the  Yakutsk  Autonomous 
Republic  on  the  west,  Korea,  China,  Manchuria, 
and  Mongolia  on  the  south.  Of  the  total  area 
of  998,000  square  miles,  approximately  350,000 
miles  were  covered  by  timber.  The  remaining 
territory  was  not  yet  thoroughly  explored  but 
roughly  54,000,000  acres  were  suitable  for  agri- 
culture in  one  form  or  another,  of  which  only 
4,797,000  acres,  or  only  8.88  per  cent  of  the 
total,  constituted  arable  land.  According  to  the 
rural  census  of  1923,  the  total  population,  in- 
cluding Kamtchatka,  numbered  1,024,700,  of 
vhich  1,284,800  were  rural  The  area  under  cul- 
tivation reached  its  greatest  extent  in  1917, 
namely,  3,202,400  acres.  By  1922  it  fell,  owing 
to  disorganization  and  civil  strife,  to  1,711,000 
acres.  But,  after  annexation  to  Soviet  Russia 
and  political  settlement,  the  sown  area  began 
increasing  again,  and  in  1923  amounted  to  2,- 
001,000  acres.  The  total  number  of  farmsteads 
registered  was  214,401,  with  the  following  aver- 
age personnel  and  equipment,  number  of 
mouths  per  farmstead,  5.45;  field  acreage,  15.8 
acres;  meadows,  667  acres ;  horses,  2.4  head; 
horned  cattle,  3.G  head;  sheep  and  goats,  2.5 
head;  swine,  1.37  head;  machinery  and  equip- 
ment, 140  rubles'  woith,  at  pre-war  prices. 

Agriculture  throughout  Siberia  was  charac- 
teri/ed  by  the  practical  absence  of  winter  sow- 
ings, all  cereals  being  spring  sown,  and  the 
prc\alcnce  of  grain  over  other  plants.  In  1923, 
of  the  2,001,000  acres  planted  in  the  Far  East, 
30.5  per  cent  was  to  spring  wheat;  13.6  per 
cent  to  spring  rye;  28.6  per  cent  to  oats;  and 
the  balance  of  21.3  per  cent  to  other  plants, 
chiefly  soya  beans,  rice,  flax  and  sunflower  The 
soil  and  climatic  conditions  of  this  region  favored 
the  development  of  such  technical  plants  as 
flax  and  oilseeds  Average  crops  of  cereals  for 
the  10  years  1913-23  showed-  wheat,  27  bushels; 
rye,  27.95  bushels;  oats,  62  15  bushels  Prin- 
cipal industries  of  the  Far  East  were  hunting 
fur  animals,  deep-sea  fisheries,  forestry  and 
coal  mining.  According  to  the  latest  data  of 
1923,  the  total  timber  area  of  the  Far  East  was 
about  222,450,300  acres.  Of  this  territory,  good 
timber  stands  were  estimated  at  123,357,600 
acres,  or  55  per  cent  of  total.  By  comparison 
with  pre-war  data,  which  estimated  the  total 
area  within  the  same  boundaries  at  116,000,000 
clessiatines  (313,200,000  acres)  and  of  good  tim- 
ber stands  at  83,000,000  dessiatines  (224,100,000 
acres),  it  was  evident  that  the  earlier  figures 
were  greatly  exaggerated  The  distribution  by 
administrative  divisions  of  the  1923  data  was 
given  as  follows: 


Provinces 

Maritime     
Sakhalin    Island 

Total  area      Total  timber    Good  forest 
area               land 
(In  arres) 
135,945,000     86,994,000     52,768.800 
8,490,900        6,750,000        4,212,000 
99,079,200     57,304,800     30,<>01.800 

Transbaiknl    .  .  . 
Kamtchatka   ... 

74,007,000      57,145.500     28,647,000 
821,067,800      14,256,000        7,128,000 

Total     

638,595,900  222,450,300  123,357,600 

The   coastline   of   the   Far   Eastern    Republic 
has   a   length   of    11,930   miles,   comprising   the 


great  fisheries  of  the  Okhotsk,  Japan,  and 
Behring  Seas.  These  waters  were  remarkable 
for  the  great  variety  of  fish  inhabiting  them. 
Thus,  in  the  Behring  Sea  165  distinct  species 
of  fish  were  caught.  The  principal  species  of 
commercial  value  in  the  Far  East  were  salmon, 
herring,  codfish,  sturgeon,  and  flounder.  The 
whaling  and  seal-hunting  industries  were  also 
largely  developed,  although  whaling  was  not  or- 
ganized until  1923,  when  a  whaling  concession 
was,  for  the  first  time,  granted  by  the  Soviet 
government  to  a  Norwegian,  Mr.  Christiansen. 
According  to  the  data  of  a  commission  des- 
patched to  Commodore  Islands  in  1923,  the  seal 
herds  of  the  Commodore  Islands  were  estimated 
at  14,000  to  15,000  head,  and  of  beavers  at  250,- 
000.  In  1923,  269  fishing  sectors  had  been  leased 
by  the  Soviet  government  to  Japanese  concerns, 
for  an  aggregate  rental  of  1,102,000  rubles,  in 
addition  to  payment  on  account  of  arrears  of 
1,000,000  rubles.  The  total  catch  of  all  kinds  of 
fish  in  Far  Eastern  waters  averaged  about  193,- 
550  tons,  salmon  amounting  to  about  100,000,- 
000  pieces,  or  160.000-170,000  tons  and  herring 
to  161,300  tons,  of  which  western  Kamtchatka 
yielded  54  per  cent,  eastern  Kamtchatka  15 
per  cent,  the  Amur  River  25  per  cent,  Okhotsk 
and  Sakhalin  district  10  per  cent,  and  Sea  of 
Japan  1  per  cent.  The  Far  East  was  rich  in 
coal  deposits,  of  which  those  of  black  coal  were 
estimated  at  2,305,000,000  tons,  and  lignite  at 
560,000,000  tons.  At  the  end  of  1923  six  coal 
mining  enterprises  were  exploited  by  the  state 
and  14  were  leased,  chiefly  in  the  Maritime 
province.  The  total  production  in  1923,  ex- 
clusive of  the  Russian  part  of  Sakhalin,  which 
was  occupied  by  Japan,  by  virtue  of  Japanese 
claims  for  the  Nikolaevsk  massacre,  was  rep- 
resented as  follows- 


Black  coal    Brown  coal          Total 

(In  tons) 
State  coal  mining 

enterprises      . .    10,721,000     22,312,000     33,033,000 
Leased  coal  mining 
enterprises    .    .      2,482,000     10,227,000     12,709,000 

Total 13,203,000     32,539,000     45,742,000 

History.  Immediately  after  the  Russo- 
Japanese  War  of  1904-05,  a  rapprochement  took 
place  between  Russia  and  Japan.  In  a  series 
of  four  secret  treaties  most  of  which  were  not 
made  public  until  the  time  of  the  Washington 
Conference,  the  two  powers  allocated  each  other 
their  respective  zones  of  interest  in  the  Far  East 
and  agreed  on  friendly  cooperation  in  Far  East- 
ern affairs  The  fourth  and  last  of  these  trea- 
ties, which  was  first  published  by  authority  of 
Trotsky  m  1917,  was  concluded  on  July  3,  1916, 
and  provided  for  what  amounted  to  an  alliance 
between  Russia  and  Japan.  It  was  contempo- 
rary with  an  open  agreement  by  which  the  two 
powers  bound  themselves  to  cooperate  in  the 
regions  which  hitherto  had  been  the  bone  of 
contention  between  them.  Thus  the  former  ene- 
mies had  in  the  darkness  of  secret  diplomacy 
taken  definite  steps  for  the  prevention  of  future 
conflict  over  eastern  Siberia  and  for  a  joint  im- 
perialistic policy  in  China  to  the  prejudice  of 
the  interests  of  all  other  powers  But  hardly 
had  this  policy  matured  when  the  Russian  Revo- 
lution annulled  the  four  secret  treaties  and 
provided  Japan  with  a  pretext  and  an  oppor- 
tunity to  pursue  a  course  of  its  own  in  the 
Far  East. 


SIBERIA 

A  new  chapter  in  the  history  of  Siberia  opened 
when  the  decision  was  reached  in  the  summer 
of  1918  for  Allied  intervention  in  Siberia.  The 
conclusion  of  peace  between  Soviet  Russia  and 
the  Central  Powers  closed  Russia  proper  to  the 
Allies  and  thus  there  remained  to  them  Vladi- 
vostok, the  back  door,  as  the  only  possible  en- 
trance to  render  aid  to  those  Russian  elements 
which  were  still  eager  to  continue  the  war 
against  the  Central  Powers.  The  Allies  were 
also  anxious,  to  prevent  the  large  military  stores 
in  Vladivostok  and  along  the  Siberian  Railroad 
from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  An 
additional  reason  for  the  despatch  of  the  Expedi- 
tionary Force  was  the  desire  to  aid  the  Czecho- 
slovak Legion  which  had  been  slowly  and  labo- 
riously fighting  its  way  to  the  Pacific  in  order 
to  proceed  to  France,  and  which  had  come  in 
conflict  in  Siberia  with  the  Bolshevists  and  the 
armed  German  and  Austrian  prisoners.  These 
were  the  reasons  advanced  by  the  United  States 
in  an  official  announcement  of  Aug.  3,  1918,  for 
its  participation  in  the  venture,  and  there  is  no 
ground  to  doubt  the  sincerity  of  the  American 
government.  How  far  more  selfish  motives,  and 
particularly  the  desire  to  crush  Bolshevism,  en- 
tered into  the  reasoning  of  the  other  participants 
is  a  different  matter.  At  any  rate,  Japan,  as 
became  apparent  from  its  subsequent  action, 
aimed  at  the  exclusion  of  Bolshevism  and  Russia 
from  the  Far  East  and  at  the  extension  of  her 
own  political  and  economic  power  to  eastern 
Siberia,  and  had  concluded  already  on  May  16, 
1918,  a  treaty  with  China  to  this  effect,  al- 
though officially  it  proclaimed  to  be  actuated  by 
the  same  motives  as  the  United  States. 

Meanwhile  a  rather  confused  situation  had 
arisen  in  the  interior  of  Siberia.  Early  attempts 
on  the  part  of  the  Bolshevists  to  spread  their 
power  to  Siberia  were  only  partially  successful 
and  were  blocked  during  1018  by  the  Czecho- 
slovaks and  the  anti-Bolshevik  organizations  of 
various  descriptions  which  sprang  up  during  the 
course  of  the  year.  The  confusion  was  still 
further  increased  by  the  independent  action  of 
the  Japanese  who  landed  troops  at  Vladivostok 
in  the  spring  of  1018  and  thereby  began  their 
policy  of  fishing  in  the  troubled  Siberian  waters. 
During  the  summer  the  Allied  Expeditionary 
Force  arrived  and  at  the  same  time  the  Japa- 
nese ad\anced  along  the  Siberian  Railway. 
Thus  there  were  active  over  the  vast  extent  of 
the  Siberian  territory  an  incoherent  combina- 
tion of  forces  and  movements  each  one  of  which 
was,  with  the  exception  of  the  common  opposi- 
tion to  the  Soviet  government,  actuated  by  dif- 
ferent motives.  At  the  end  of  1918,  Admiral 
Kolchak  succeeded  in  uniting  the  many  counter- 
revolutionary groups  into  a  rather  loose  organ- 
i/ation  which  established  its  headquarters  at 
Omsk  in  western  Siberia.  After  the  elimina- 
tion of  the  moderate  Socialists  and  the  liberal 
elements  through  a  coup  d'etat,  the  Omsk  gov- 
ernment adopted  openly  a  policy  of  monarchist 
reaction.  The  reactionary  and  military  char- 
»)cter  and  the  administrative  inefficiency  of  the 
Kolchak  government  and  particularly  the  preda- 
tory raids  of  such  ruthless  anti- Bolshevik  con- 
dottieri  as  the  Cossack  Attamans  Semenov,  Un- 
gern-Sternberg,  and  Knlmikoff,  who  recognized 
only  nominally  the  authority  of  Kolchak,  served 
to  discredit  the  entire  anti -Bolshevik  movement 
with  the  mass  of  the  Siberian  people.  The  in- 
itial support  which  the  counter-revolutionists 
received  from  the  native  population  was  further 


SIBERIA 

weakened  by  the  fact  that  they  were  backed 
by  foreign  troops  operating  on  Russian  soil  and 
especially  by  tlie  Japanese,  whose  selfish  aims 
became  more  and  more  evident.  The  number 
of  Japanese  troops  in  Siberia  was  temporarily 
reduced  as  a  result  of  the  protest  of  the  Amer- 
ican government  on  Nov  2,  1018.  The  United 
States,  on  the  other  hand,  which  was  the  only 
foreign  government  that  in  a  measure  held  the 
confidence  of  the  Siberian  people,  refused  to  en- 
large its  action  into  military  support  of  the 
West  Siberian  government,  in  spite  of  urgent 
recommendations  of  the  chief  American  repre- 
sentatives in  Siberia  in  favor  of  such  piocedure. 
Also  the  Japanese,  who  acted  from  ulterior  mo- 
tives and  who  had  no  interests  west  of  Lake 
Baikal,  refused  to  make  such  a  mo\e  and  pre- 
ferred to  pursue  a  policy  of  their  own  by  tight- 
ening their  hold  on  Eastern  Siberia  The  mili- 
tary position  of  Kolchak  became  in  consequence 
more  and  more  precarious  and  was  fuither  ag- 
gravated by  the  action  of  General  Semenov,  who 
sat  astride  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  at  Chitn 
and  held  up  at  will  Kolchak's  supply  trains. 
At  the  same  time  the  policy  of  reaction  at  Omsk 
went  its  course  and  succeeded  in  alienating 
completely  the  sympathies  of  the  Siberian  popu- 
lation. After  initial  military  successes  during 

1919,  the   Kolchak    All-Russian    Movement   suc- 
cumbed to  the  Bolshevists  at  the  end  of  the  year, 
a  victim   of   its  own    folly   and  of  the   lethargy 
or  selfishness  of  the  Allies  who  ostensibly   had 
moved  into  Siberia  to  assist  the  Russians  in  the 
formation  of  a  representative  government      This 
debacle  was  followed  in   February,   11)20,  by  the 
withdrawal  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force 
and  the  abandonment  by  the  United  States  of  a 
Siberian   policy  which  Ind  been  a  stenle  ad\en- 
ture    from    the    start.     The    Japanese,    however, 
who  were   in   Siberia   for  icasons  of  their  own, 
remained  and  consolidated  their  powerful  posi- 
tion.    They    issued    a    statement    on    Mar.    31, 

1920,  to    the    effect    that    "the    presence    of    the 
Japanese  forces  in   the  Russian   Fur  East  does 
not  imply  any   political   designs  against  Russia 
and  ...  as   soon   as   the  political   situation   in 
the    Russian    Far    East    has    become    normal    to 
the  extent  that  there  will  be  no  dangei  to  Korea 
and  Manchuria,  and  life  and  property  of  all  our 
nationals    protected    and    normal    railway    com- 
munications restored,  that  then,  after  the  evacu- 
ation of  the  C/echo-Slnvak  forces  has  been  com- 
pleted, our   troops  will   be   withdiawn   from   Si- 
beria   as    early    as  *  possible."     This    statement 
was  followed  in  April  of  the  same  year  by  an 
attack  of  the  Japanese  tioops  on  the  local  Rus- 
sian  foices  and  by  the  Japanese  occupation   of 
the    entire    Maritime    Province.     A    weak    anti- 
Bolshe\ik   government    led    for   a   time   in    this 
region   a   precarious  and    ignominious  existence 
as  a  tool  of  the  Japanese. 

After  the  fall  of  the  All-Russian  government 
Siberia  lapsed  once  more  into  utter  chaos,  but 
the  Bolshevists  advancing  from  the  line  of  the 
Trans-Silurian  Railroad  gradually  established 
their  authority  in  the  greater  part  of  the  coun- 
try. At  Irkutsk  the  Western  Siberian  Revolu- 
tionary Committee  sprang  up,  which  assumed 
control  and  governed  under  direction  from  Mos- 
cow. Local  opposition  in  Eastern  Siberia  to 
the  Committee  gave  birth  to  the  Far  Eastern 
Republic  which  gradually  took  over  control  in 
practically  the  entire  region  east  of  Lake  Baikal. 
The  republic  was  nominally  an  independent 
state  but  in  reality  it  maintained  close  connec- 


8IBBB1A 


1309 


SIEBBA  LEONE 


tiou  with  the  Soviet  government.  In  spite  of 
this  relationship,  however,  which  existed  pri- 
marily in  the  foreign  policy  of  the  two  states, 
the  Far  Eastern  Republic  was  not  organized 
along  Soviet  lines,  but  on  the  basis  of  radical 
democracy.  While  private  property  was  abol- 
ished the  constitution  of  the  new  state  con- 
tained a  bill  of  rights  and  the  Legislature  was 
elected  by  the  universal  f ranch i Re  of  all  the  peo- 
ple. In  short,  the  fundamental  principle  of 
the  Soviet  doctrine,  namely  the  dictatorship  of 
the  proletariat,  was  not  applied  Hut  it  was 
obvious  from  the  beginning  that  the  Far  East- 
ern Republic  was  merely  a  transitional  organ- 
ization and  was  created  to  serve  as  a  "buffer" 
state  between  Soviet  Russia  and  Japan.  This 
became  veiy  evident  from  its  strongly  anti- 
Japanese  policy  and  from  its  vigorous*  action 
against  the  counter-revolutionary  elements, 
which  were  still  operating  within  its  territory 
or  on  its  frontiers.  In  October,  1(J20,  its  forces 
expelled  Semenov  from  Chita,  whereupon  that 
city  became  the  capital  of  the  new  state. 

In  consequence  of  the  successes  of  the  Far 
Eastern  Republic,  the  Japanese  opened  negotia- 
tions with  representatives  of  this  state  and  the 
Soviet  government  during  1020,  which  resulted 
in  the  definition  of  the  frontiers  between  the  ter- 
i  itory  of  the  Chita  government  and  the  Japanese 
/one  Meanwhile  new  complications  arose,  be- 
cause of  the  Japanese  occupation  of  the  northern 
half  of  Sakhalin  and  of  parts  of  Kamchatka,  os- 
tensibly in  reprisal  for  tne  massacre  of  Japanese 
tioops  at  Nikolaevsk.  In  the  early  part  of 
1!)21  the  Chita  government  called  on  Japan  to 
withdraw  from  the  remainder  of  the  Siberian 
teriitory  and  pointed  to  the  Japanese  pledges  in 
this  respect.  When  this  action  produced  no 
icsults  more  vigorous  notes  were  directed  to 
the  Japanese  government,  while  at  the  same 
time  representations  \vere  made  to  the  United 
States  in  which  attention  was  drawn  to  the 
fact  that  the  presence  of  Japanese  troops  in  Si- 
beria was  a  direct  result  of  the  invitation  on  the 
pait  of  the  United  States  to  the  Japanese  gov- 
ernment for  intervention  in  Siberia  and  the 
claim  was  advanced  that  therefore  the  American 
government  was  morally  responsible  for  the 
existing  situation.  This  protest  came  simul- 
taneously with  a  strong  note  from  the  Washing- 
ton government  to  Japan.  The  United  States 
had  grown  apprehensive  as  to  the  intentions  of 
the  Japanese  in  Siberia  and  gave  warning  that 
Japan's  policy  might  lead  to  her  isolation  in 
Far  Eastern  affairs.  Japan,  however,  evaded 
a  direct  settlement  of  the  issue  by  inviting  the 
Far  Eastern  Republic  to  a  conference.  Nego- 
tiations were  begun  in  September,  1921,  at  the 
conference  of  Daireu,  which  dragged  out  till 
April,  1922,  without  producing  any  results. 
Meanwhile  the  Far  Eastern  Republic  was  un- 
officially represented  at  the  Conference  of  Wash- 
ington There  the  Siberian  question  came  up, 
but  was  shelved  after  lengthy  discussions.  This 
Conference,  however,  had  the  indirect  result 
of  convincing  the  Japanese  that  a  policy  of 
closer  adherence  to  international  cooperation 
would  be  more  productive  than  a  policy  dic- 
tated by  national  egotism.  This  consideration, 
together  with  reasons  of  domestic  policy,  in- 
duced the  Japanese  government,  in  the  summer 
of  1922,  following  a  proposal  of  the  Far  Eastern 
Republic  for  renewed  negotiations,  to  express 
its  willingness  to  evacuate  the  Siberian  main- 
land by  the  end  of  October  of  the  same  year. 


A  new  conference  took  place  in  September,  1922, 
at  Changchun  in  Manchuria,  at  which  Soviet 
Russia  was  officially  represented  through  Joffe, 
its  envoy  to  China  After  some  minor  agree- 
ments the  conference  broke  up  because  Japan 
was  yet  unwilling  to  deal  directly  with  the 
Soviets.  In  conformity  with  its  pledge,  the 
Tokyo  government  withdrew  its  troops  from  the 
mainland  in  October,  but  the  northern  half  of 
the  island  of  Sakhalin  remained  under  Japanese 
military  occupation. 

From  the  very  start,  the  connection  between 
the  Far  Eastern  Republic  and  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment had  been  close  und  this  intimate  relation- 
ship grew  in  proportion  to  the  consolidation  of 
the  position  of  the  Chita  government,  to  the 
freeing  of  Siberian  soil  from  foreign  troops  and 
from  counter-revolutionists,  and  to  the  crystal- 
lization of  a  Soviet  Far  Eastern  policy,  espe- 
cially with  regard  to  China.  In  December,  1020, 
a  treaty  had  been  signed  between  the  Far  East- 
ern Republic  and  Soviet  Russia  whereby  Kam- 
chatka was  ceded  to  Moscow.  At  the  same  time 
Communism  came  more  and  more  to  the  fore  in 
the  inner  political  life  of  the  Far  Eastern  Re- 
public and  tended  to  submerge  the  original 
democratic  principles.  The  Communists  ob- 
tained gradually  a  majority  in  the  National 
Assembly  at  Chita  and  the  Far  Eastern  Repub- 
lic became  for  all  practical  purposes  a  part  of 
the  great  Soviet  organization.  With  the  evacua- 
tion of  the  Maritime  Province  by  Japan,  all  of 
the  former  Asiatic  domains  of  the  C/ar  were  in 
the  hands  of  revolutionary  Russia  and  there  was 
no  raiaon  d'etre  for  the  Chita  "buffer"  state. 
The  Far  Eastern  Republic  having  fulfilled  its 
purpose  was  liquidated  on  Nov.  13,  1922,  when 
the  Chita  National  Assembly  voted  to  turn  over 
all  power  to  a  Revolutionary  Committee  which 
operated  as  part  of  the  Soviet  government.  The 
undisputed  authority  of  the  Moscow  government 
stretched  now,  as  fa'r  as  governmental  authority 
goes  in  the  vast,  thinly  populated,  and  unde- 
veloped territory  of  Siberia,  from  the  Ural 
Mountains  to  the  Pacific  Coast. 

The  history  of  Siberia  became  thereafter 
wholly  part  of  the  history  of  Soviet  Russia. 
Soviet  Far  Eastern  policy  included  in  the  suc- 
ceeding years  primarily  negotiations  with  China 
concerning  Mongolia  and  Manchuria  and  with 
Japan  concerning  the  northern  half  of  Sakhalin 
In  the  case  of  China  steady  progress  was  made 
in  the  course  of  lengthy  and  arduous  negotia- 
tions toward  a  closer  relationship.  As  for  re- 
lations with  Japan,  there  was  also  a  turn  rather 
satisfactory  to  Moscow.  While  still  continuing 
her  occupation  of  northein  Sakhalin,  Japan 
gave  a  definite  pledge  for  the  early  evacuation 
of  that  territory.  In  the  summer  of  1924,  more 
or  less  authentic  reports  were  current  to  the 
effect  that  Soviet  Russia  and  Japan  had  reached 
or  were  approaching  an  agreement  for  closer  co- 
operation of  the  two  states  in  Far  Eastern  af- 
fairs to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  powers.  If 
sufficiently  substantiated,  these  reports  would 
mean  that  Moscow  and  Tokyo  had  reached  that 
point  of  alliance  and  joint  action  in  opposition 
to  the  interests  of  the  Western  Powers  which 
was  attained  by  the  governments  of  the  Czar 
and  the  Mikado  at  the  time  when  the  Revolu- 
tion occurred  and  threw  Far  Eastern  affairs  into 
complete  turmoil. 

SIDIS,  BORIS.      See  PSYCHOLOGY,  ABNORMAL. 

SIEBBA  LEONE.  A  British  colony  and 
protectorate  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  between 


ttio 


French  Guinea  and  Liberia.  J&e*.  of  colour, 
about  4000  square  miles;  population  in  1921,  $5y 
163  of  whom  1161  were  Europeans.  In  1911, 
the  population  was  75,572,  of  whom  702  were 
Europeans.  Freetown,  the  chief  town,  had  44,- 
142  inhabitants  in  1921,  as  compared  with  34,- 
090  in  1911.  The  protectorate  has  an  area  of 
27,000  square  miles  and  a  population  (1921) 
of  1,456,148.  The  colony  ana  protectorate  con- 
tinued to  depend  upon  the  export  of  palm  ker- 
nels and  kola  nuts,  which  formed  87  per  cent 
of  the  domestic  exports.  Other  exports  were 
palm  oil,  piassava,  and  rice.  Exports  in  1913 
totaled  £1,731,252;  in  1920,  £2,949,380;  in  1922, 
£1,372,862.  Imports,  consisting  of  manufac- 
tured goods,  food,  drink,  tobacco,  and  coal, 
totaled  £1,750,303  in  1913;  in  1920,  £3,648,478; 
in  1922,  £1,511,496.  Of  total  imports  in  1922, 
the  United  Kingdom  furnished  71  per  cent; 
United  States,  11  per  cent;  West  African  pos- 
sessions, 6  per  cent.  Of  total  exports  in  1922, 
the  United  Kingdom  received  69  per  cent;  the 
United  States,  1.5  per  cent;  West  African  coun- 
tries, the  remainder.  The  important  place  that 
Germany  occupied  in  the  colony's  export  trade 
— it  took  most  of  the  palm  kernels — was  taken 
by  the  United  Kingdom  and  the  United  States. 
That  the  colony's  position  in  1922  was  not 
much  better  than  that  of  1913,  was  reflected  in 
the  tonnage  figures.  In  1913,  2,931,085  entered 
and  cleared;  in  1922,  2,474,226  tons.  Revenues 
and  expenditures  showed  some  increase  over 
1913-23.  Revenues  for  1913  and  1923  were 
£618,383  and  £845,319;  expenditures  for  the 
same  years  were  £622,439  and  £727,661.  The 
public  debt  on  Jan.  1,  1923,  amounted  to  £1,729,- 
848.  After  1912,  the  railway  from  Boia  Junc- 
tion was  extended  to  Kamabai  (104  miles).  The 
natives  gave  excellent  assistance  to  Great  Brit- 
ain during  the  War  and  aided  in  the  reduction 
of  Kamerun.  Their  dependence  for  foodstuffs 
completely  upon  importations  led  to  want  after 
the  War  because  of  prevailing  high  prices. 

SILESIA.    See  CZECHO-SLOVAKIA. 

SILESIA,  UPPER.  This  region  (area  3230 
square  miles)  was  the  seat  of  a  bitter  conflict 
in  the  years  1919-21.  The  population  is  mixed, 
according  to  the  German  census  of  1910,  there 
being  1,253,186  inhabitants  of  Polish  extraction 
and  884,045  Germans.  Because  of  this  pre- 
ponderance of  Polish  nationals,  the  Poles, 
championed  by  the  French,  strongly  pressed  be- 
fore the  Peace  Conference  their  claims  for 
annexation  of  the  whole  region.  There  was  an 
economic  factor,  however,  not  to  be  disregarded. 
The  region  was  responsible  for  one-fifth  of  Ger- 
many's total  coal  production.  The  vast  coal 
basin,  stretching  from  Oppeln  south  and  east 
into  Teschen  and  Galicia,  by  1913  had  produced 
45,000,000  tons  of  coal.  Besides,  great  iron 
fields,  as  well  as  zinc  and  lead  deposits,  con- 
tributed to  make  the  section  one  of  the  most 
important  industrial  centres  of  central  Europe. 
Here  were  located  the  important  towns  of 
Beuthen,  Gleiwitz,  Oppeln,  Konigshtttte  and 
Ratibor,  in  which  Polish  laborers  found  plenti- 
ful employment.  By  the  decision  of  the  Peace 
Conference  the  region  was  constituted  a  plebi- 
scite area  and  an  interallied  commission  was 
provided  for  and  granted  {police  powers.  Prom 
February,  1920,  until  the  ftnal  disposition  of 
the  region  (October,  1921),  th«  Whole  of  Upper 
Silesia  was  in  a  ferment.  The  importance  of 
the  territory  for  both  contestants  and  the  bitter- 
ness that  characterized  every  insignificant  move 


international  attention.  By  the 
Freaeh  *ad  Poles  Germans  were  accused  of 
coloviiifeg  the  area;  the  Allied  Commission,  on 
the  other  hand,  was  charged  by  Germans  with 
showing  partiality  toward  the  Poles  and  per- 
mitting them  to  intimidate  inhabitants  in  the 
southern  and  eastern  districts.  A  course  of  ter- 
ror ization  during  1920  was  systematically  pur- 
sued by  the  Poles ;  voters  were  kept  from  ballot- 
ting,  were  beaten,  and  sometimes  killed.  Non- 
residents were  refused  passage  across  the 
frontier.  On  Mar.  20,  1921,  the  plebiscite  was 
taken.  The  count  showed  717,122  votes  for  Ger- 
many and  483,514  for  Poland.  In  the  chief  in- 
dustrial centres  the  vote  was  preponderantly 
German.  As  the  division  of  the  territory  came 
up  for  consideration  before  the  inter-Allied 
Commission,  the  disorders  increased.  The 
French  representative,  who  had  consistently 
championed  the  Polish  cause,  favored  the  ces- 
sion of  the  whole  of  the  southern  and  eastern 
sections,  i.e.  the  industrial  areas,  to  Poland. 
This  the  representatives  of  Great  Britain  and 
Italy  refused  to  countenance,  with  the  result 
that  affairs  dragged  as  protracted  negotiations 
were  carried  on  by  the  home  governments. 
Polish  patriots  aware  of  this  dissension  col- 
lected a  large  force  and  virtually  possessed  the 
districts  under  dispute.  Meanwhile,  Germans 
had  rushed  to  the  defense  of  their  compatriots, 
with  the  result  that  fighting  took  place  around 
Ratibor  and  Cross-Strehlitz.  In  May,  1921,  M, 
Korfanty,  Polish  high  commissioner,  erected  a 
government  in  the  southeast.  Not  until  Allied 
troops  were  despatched  in  June,  1921,  did  some 
semblance  of  order  appear.  On  June  26,  a  truce 
was  established,  though  the  Polish  troops  shook 
off  control,  turned  brigands,  and  terrorized  the 
German  populations. 

The  impasse  caused  by  the  irreconcilability  of 
the  rival  demands  finally  prompted  the  Supreme 
Council  to  turn  over  adjudication  to  the  League 
of  Nations,  August  12.  A  commission  made  up 
of  representatives  of  Japan,  Brazil,  China, 
Spain,  and  Belgium,  reported  on  October  20. 
The  report,  as  accepted  by  the  League  Council, 
virtually  conceded  all  of  Poland's  claims.  The 
southern  and  eastern  districts,  constituting  an 
area  of  1240  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
891,669,  were  turned  over  to  Poland.  The  new 
boundary,  running  from  Oderberg  in  the  south 
along  the  Oder  River  northwest  to  a  point  a 
little  below  Ratibor,  thence  northeast  to 
Beuthen,  thence,  northwest  to  a  point  west  of 
Lublinitz  aird  finally  northeast  again  to  Lissau, 
gave  to  Poland  the  greater  share  of  the  so-called 
Industrial  Triangle  containing  four-fifths  of  the 
coal  production  and  nearly  all  the  metallurgical 
plants,  viz.,  half  of  the  county  of  Zabrze,  all  of 
the  county  of  Kattowitz,  and  a  little  more  than 
half  of  the  counties  of  Beuthen  and  Konigshiitte. 
Something  of  the  nature  of  the  division  may  be 
seen  in  the  fact  that  of  the  67  collieries  in  opera- 
tion in  Upper  Silesia,  47  were  allocated  to  Po- 
land. These  mines,  in  1920,  had  produced  31,- 
750,000  metric  tons,  of  which  the  47  mines  fall- 
ing to  Poland  were  credited  with  a  production 
of  23,763,740  metric  tons.  In  the  territory  al- 
lotted to  Poland,  510,000  votes  had  been  cast  in 
the  plebiscite,  of  which  285,000  had  been  for 
Poland  and  222,000  for  Germany.  As  a  rule, 
German  votes  had  been  in  a  majority  in  the 
cities.  Because  the  industrial  life  of  the  whole 
region  would  be  dislocated  if  boundary  lines  were 
drawn  immediately,  the  League  Council  provided 


SILICA  GELS 


zaix 


SILK 


a  body  of  administrative  regulations.  All  of 
Upper  Silesia,  for  15  years,  was  to  be  under  the 
supervision  of  a  mixed  commission  of  Poles  and 
Germans.  Railways  were  to  continue  in  opera- 
tion under  their  old  concessions  and  rates  were 
to  be  uniform.  The  existing  systems  of  water 
supply  were  to  be  continued.  The  German  mark 
was  to  remain  the  legal  tender  in  the  plebiscite 
area  over  the  whole  15-year  period.  Though  the 
German  and  Polish  customs  laws  were  to  apply 
forthwith  at  the  new  frontier,  natural  products 
coming  from  one  of  the  two  zones  and  destined 
for  consumption  in  the  other  were  to  cross  the 
frontier  duty-free.  The  same  was  to  be  true  for 
unfinished  products  needing  completion.  For 
15  years  Poland  was  to  permit  exportation  into 
Germany  of  any  of  the  mineral  products  in  the 
Polish  zone,  and  Germany  was  to  reciprocate. 
Pioperty  rights  A\ere  to  be  respected  as  well  as 
the  rights  of  minorities.  On  Oct  27,  1921,  the 
German  government  informed  the  Council  of  Am- 
bassadors of  its  willingness  to  accept  the 
League's  decision,  though  it  protested  against  the 
unfairness  of  the  division  of  territory.  During 
June  and  July,  1922,  the  inter-Allied  forces 
evacuated  the  region,  and  were  replaced  by  Poles 
and  Germans.  The  Germans  proceeded  in  Sep- 
tember, in  their  zone,  to  hold  an  election  on  the 
(jijestion  of  home  rule  as  against  continuance  as 
a  province  in  the  Prussian  state.  By  a  vote  of 
almost  ten  to  one,  the  decision  favored  the  erec- 
tion of  a  self-governing  state.  The  Poles,  on 
their  part,  divided  Polish  Upper  Silesia,  together 
with  Tcschon,  into  three  electoral  districts  for 
elect  ions  to  the  Polish  parliament.  Silesia  hav- 
ing received  local  autonomy,  elections  were  held 
on  September  24  for  the  new  county  council 


The  countries  from  which  it  was  imported  were 
as  follows- 


PoumLs 

France 
Italy        

516,080 
2,449,088 

$4,564,702 
20,720,04'J 

China        

12,2dl,501 

83,395,432 

33  377  971 

275  908  398 

Other    countries 

900,281 

7,347,842 

The  total  imports  of  silk  and  manufactured 
silk  during  the  year  1923  weie  valued  at  $440,- 
210,331.  That  most  of  thin  material  is  consumed 
in  the  United  States  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
in  1923  the  total  manufactures  of  silk  exported 
were  valued  at  $11,136.578. 

The  condition  of  the  silk  manufactures  in- 
dustry in  1914  and  1921  is  bhown  by  the  follow- 
ing census  figures: 

SILK  MVNITFACTVKES  INDUSTRY0 

Number  of     Persons       Salaries 
establish-      engaged  and 

Years  ments b  wages 

1914 856        115.571      $57,615.000 

1921  1,505        131.097      1,14,095,000 

Cost  of  Value  added          Value  of 

uidtenals  by  munu-  products 

Years  fac  ture  ' 

1914          .    .     $144,442,000  $109.569,000  $254,011,000 
19-1  .        337,559.000      245.860,000      58J.419.000 

0  Bureau  of  the  Census  Report  on  Silk  Manufactures, 
1021. 

6  Statistics  for  establishments  with  products  valued 
at  less  than  $5000  are  not  included  m  the  figures  for 
1921;  there  \\ere  109  establishments  of  this  class  which 
reported  225  wage  earners  and  products  valued  at 
$365,500  For  1914,  however,  data  for  such  establish- 
ments are  included  in  the  figures,  with  the  exception 
of  Iho  item  "Number  of  establishments " 

r  Value  of  products  less  cost  of  materials 


WORLD  RAW  SILK   PRODUCTION,  INCLUDING  TUSSAH  SILK" 

1922-23  1921-22  1(»20-'21  1019-20  1918-19  1917-18 

Pounds  Pounds  Pounds  Pounds  Pounds  Pounds 

Kinope          .  8,841,000  7,628,000  H, 038, 000          4,927,000          6,978,000  7,154,000 


Italy            .              .     . 
France 

8,234,000 
437,000 

7,066,000 
430,000 

7,330.000 
551,000 

4  045.000 
397,000 
*  331.  000 

5.942,000 
540,000 
"331,000 

6,217,000 
452,000 
*  331,  000 

Spain 
Levant 
AMM       Tolul  quantity  exported  b 
Vi/ 
China.   Shanghai 
China.    Canton 
Japan.    Yokohama 
India          .    . 

170,000 
1.543,000 
57,439,000 

<•  8.628,000 
7,050,000 
41.541,000 
220,000 

132,000 
1.213  000 
53,941,000 

'6,993,000 
5,735,000 
40,982,000 
231,000 

177,000 
1,054.000 
3r»,  138,500 

••  6.5J  8,500 
4,210,000 
24,300,000 
110,000 

154,000 
d  2,293.000 
51,860,000 

f  10,225,000 
7.093,000 
34,222,000 
320,000 

1  05,000 
*  2,  293,  000 
45.475,000 

c  9,209,000 
3,704,000 
32,308.000 
254,000 

154,000 
*  2,293,000 
48,026,000 

<•  8,563,000 
5,170  000 
34,050,000 
243,000 

Total,    pounds             .    . 
Tussah          .    . 

67,823,000 
2,034,000 

62,782  000 
1,856,000 

44.850.500 
1,650,000 

59,080,000 
1.960,000 

54,746,000 
1,501,000 

57,473,000 
1,534,000 

Grand   total,    pounds. 

69,857,000 

64,638,000 

46.500,500 

61,040.000 

56,307,000 

59,007,000 

»  Compiled  by  the  Statistical  Bureau  of  The  Silk  Association  of  America.  m 

*The  production  of  raw  silk  in  China  and  India  is  unknown.     The   Japan   crop   is   approximately   47,000,000 
pounds. 

*  Excludes    Tussah    silk. 

'In  the  absence  of  statistics  from  Austria  and  the  Levant,  1915  production  is  used  as  an  estimate. 


and  the  first  session  was  opened  on  October 
11 

SILICA  GELS.     See  CHEMISTRY. 

SILK.  By  1924  the  United  States  had  be- 
come  the  largest  and  most  important  silk- 
consuming  and  silk-manufacturing  country  in 
the  world,  taking  approximately  three-quarter's 
of  the  world's  production  However,  it  was 
dependent  entirely  upon  foreign  countries  for 
raw  materials.  Japan  was  the  leading  producer 
of  raw  silk  (see  tables),  so  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  United  States'  silk  imports  came  from 
Japan,  with  China  and  Italy  ranking  second 
and  third  respectively.  In  1923,  the  raw  silk 
imported  into  the  United  States  amounted  to 
49.505,581  pounds,  valued  at  $391,042,417. 


The  crop  years  from  1913-14  to  1916  showed  a 
total  production  as  follows:  1916-17,  59,800.000 
pounds;  1915-10,  53,090,000;  1914-15,  48,468,- 
000;  1913-14,  59,972,000.  The  distribution  fol- 
lowed very  much  the  same  proportions  as  for 
the  years  1918  to  1923  given  more  completely 
in  the  table,  taking  into  consideration,  of  course, 
the  effect  of  the  War  in  Europe  and  Asia  Minor. 
SILK,  ARTIFICIAL.  The  artificial  silk  indus- 
try began  in  the  United  States  about  1910  and 
by  1920  had  reached  an  annual  production  of 
10,000,000  pounds.  After  that  time  the  pro- 
duction of  the  artificial  silk  increased  even 
more  rapidly,  so  that  in  1923  the  six  larger 
companies  engaged  in  this  manufacturing  re- 
ported a  production  of  35,490,000  pounds,  as 


SILK 


1212 


SILVER 


IMPORTS  OF  RAW  SILK  AT  ALL  PORTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  • 

THRU   FISCAL  YEARS,    JULY   1   TO   JUNK    30 


Imports 

Raw  silk,  including  Tuesahe  and  Doppioni,  bales  .  . 
Raw  talk,  including  Tussuhs  and  Doppioni,  pounds 

Haw  silk,   invoice  value,  dollars    

Spun^  silk,   pounds      

Hpun   bilk,    invoice    value,   dollars    

Waste    silk,    pounds    

Waste  bilk,   invoice  value,   dollars   


1922-1923 

391,882 

52,683,604 

9405,796,394 

993,400 

$2,956,169 

10,123,922 

$7.388,144 


1921-1922 
354,363 
48,178,964 
$300,445,363 
1,494,938 
$4,309,531 
9,097,339 
$6,717,210 


1920-1921 

217,910 

29,462,745 

$181,882,615 

2,545,817 

$10,050,857 

5,289,923 

$8,397.986 


Shipping 

bales 
Japans  . 
Cantons  . 
Chinas  . 
Tussahs  . 
All  others 


Bales 

299,941 

48,683 

26,982 

6,299 

9,977 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE  KKOKIPT8   OF   RAW    SILK    IN   THE    UNITED    STATES 

1922-1923  1921-22  1U20-1921 

Pounds           Value  Bales          Pounds  Value  Bales        Pounds  Value 

37,989,046  $298,795,272  282,450  38,590,110  $249,108,057  159,977  20,815,912  $130,078,570 

5,701,381        39,379,547  40,559      4,341,995  23,331,168  20,089      2,846,650  15,311,980 

3,949,922        30,061,518  16,810      2,249,477  13,190,413  21,582      3,1(39,298  20,553,553 

933,645          3,859,829  5,441          737,205  2,277,129  1,406         189,330  770.253 

4,109,610        83,700,288  9,103      2,260,177  12,538,596  8,256      2,441,555  15,159,259 


Totals      391,882   52,683,604  $405,796,394   354,363  48,178.964    $300,445,363   217,910  29,462,745   $181,882,615 
•  Compiled  by  the   Statistical  Bureau  of  The  Silk  As  sooiation  of  America. 


PRODUCTION  OF  PRINCIPAL    CLASSES  OF  SILK  GOODS  » 

Classes  1914  1919 

Broad   silks    ............             ........     yards  216,033,696  310,132,060 

Velvets    ..............................        "  16,318,135  10,150,089 

Plushes     ................             "  9,114,992  5,800,527 

Upholstery    and    tapeMries         .............        "  447,699  510.  2H1 

Silk  threads  and  yarns    ..............        pounds  (1)  11,810,028 

Ribbons    ..........................     value  $38,201,293  $00,186,009 

Braids  and  bindings   ................         "  3,073,648  13,218,284 


1921 

273,455,388 

11,477,143 

5.580,38(J 

973,749 

14,466,167 

$53,597,988 

15,879.046 


•Bureau  of  Census  Report  of  Silk  Manufactures,  1921. 

UNITED  STATES  IMPORTS  OF  SILK  AND  SILK 
MANUFACTURES 


Tears 

1913    
1919      .  . 
1920      .    . 
1921. 
1922 
1923      .  .  . 

Unmanufac- 
tured silks  b 
Pounds 
34,196,662 
55,522,372 
39,600,101 
52,332,325 
58,466,661 
62,017,470 

Silk  fabrics  ° 

Value 
$9,843,637 
29,264,585 
35,514,422 
24,330,602 
17,923,401 
17,930,443 

Silk  manu- 
factures 
Value 
$31,776,299 
54,700,816 
75,327,914 
48,248,777 
37,412,524 
44,345,758 

• Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States  and 
Monthly  Summary  of  Foreign  Commerce  of  the  United 
States,  December,  1922. 

*  Cocoons,   raw   Mlk,   and  waste. 

"  Except  pile  fabrics. 

compared  with  20,000,000  pounds  in  1922,  and 
estimated  that  in  1924  they  would  turn  out 
41,600,000  pounds.  The  Viscose  Company  alone 
which  started  production  in  1911  had  not  only 
a  main  plant  at  Marcus  Hook,  Fa.,  but  other 
factories  at  Lewistown,  Pa.,  and  Roanoke,  Va., 
and  had  an  output  for  1923  of  approximately 
27,500,000  pounds.  It  was  extending  its  facil- 
ities so  that  in  1924  it  was  able  to  turn  out 
more  than  32,000,000  pounds.  As  showing  the 
distribution  of  this  industry  in  the  United 
States  the  accompanying  table  from  the  Textile 
World  is  of  interest. 

1923 

Firm  Production 

Pounds 

Visase  Company        27,500,000 

Du  Pont  Fibresilk  Co 2,750,000 


Tubize  Artificial   Silk   Co. 
Industrial  Fibre  Corp. 

Cupra,    Inc 

Lu  stroii    Co 


3,500,000 
1,200,000 
40,000 
500,000 

Total     35,490,000 

The  United  States  is  fast  becoming  the  most 
important  producer  of  artificial  silk  in  the 
world,  and  while  there  were  no  accurate  statis- 
tics available,  it  was  estimated  that  the  world 
total  for  1922  was  about  80,000,000  pounds  and 
for  1923  about  90,000,000  pounds,  or  about  50 
per  cent  more  than  the  production  of  real  silk. 
Artificial  silk  was  being  used  in  the  United 
States  for  hosiery,  dress  goods,  shirtings,  'and 
in  combination  with  real  silk  for  crepes  and 
ribbons.  Not  only  was  there  an  increased  pro- 


(1)    No  figures   available. 

duction  of  artificial  silk  in  the  United  States 
in  1923,  but  also  increased  imports,  the  total 
"yarns,  threads,  and  filaments"  arriving  in  the 
United  States  during  the  calendar  year  1923, 
amounting  to  3,906,037  pounds  valued  at  $0,738,- 
031  as  compared  with  2,087,775  pounds  valued  at 
$3,908,710  during  1922.  The  exports  of  arti- 
ficial silk  products  during  1923  included  1,113- 
218  dozen  pairs  of  hosiery  valued  at  $4,906,408, 
as  against  1,439,056  dozen  pairs  valued  at  $6,- 
172,550  during  the  corresponding  peiiod  in  1922, 
and  other  manufactures  of  artificial  silk  amount- 
ing to  571.718  pounds,  valued  at  $1,690,044 

SILVER.  On  June  30,  1917,  it  was  esti- 
mated that  the  silver  dollars  in  the  United 
States  Treasury  and  their  circulation  totaled 
$5(58,000,000,  of  which  $497,000,000  were  in  the 
Treasury  and  $71,000,000  in  circulation  and  in 
the  banks.  It  was  proposed  to  melt  these  coins 
and  to  sell  as  bullion  a  quantity  not  in  excess 
of  $350,000,000,  and  to  replenish  the  deficiency 
so  produced  by  the  purchase  from  time  to  time 
of  an  equivalent  amount  of  bullion  at  the  fixed 
price  of  one  dollar  per  ounce,  1000  fine.  This 
was  done  under  the  terms  of  the  Ro-called  Pitt- 
man  Act,  approved  Apr.  23,  1918,  and  the  im- 
mediate effect  was  to  remove  the  free  market  in 
the  United  States  and  in  London,  arid  make  the 
quotations  at  the  former  market  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  one  dollar  per  ounce  for  the  life  of 
the  Act.  The  Pittman  Act  was  considered  the 
most  important  in  the  history  of  silver  since  the 
repeal  of  free  coinage  in  France  and  India,  and 
its  effect  was  to  render  more  profitable  the  min- 
ing and  production  of  silver  in  the  refining  of 
the  baser  ores  under  the  terms  of  the  Pittman 
Act  which  expired  in  1913. 

Purchases  of  silver  were  made  by  the  United 
States  government  as  follows: 

PURCHASES  OF  SILVER  UNDER  THE 
PITTMAN  ACT 

Ounces 

29,907,361 

58,002,527 

62,181,024 

49,834,128 


1920. 
1921. 
1922 
1923* 


Total    200,585.035 

0  Last  purchases  in  June. 


X9X3 


SINGAPORE 


Up  to  June  30,  1923,  222,146,473  silver  dol- 
lars had  been  recoined. 

In  1923  the  exports  of  silver  from  the  United 
States  were  valued  at  $72,463,780  while  the  im- 
ports were  valued  at  $74,453,530. 

PRODUCTION  OP  SILVER  IN  THE  WORLD* 

Calendar  Fine       Commercial 

years  ounces        value 

1914 172,203,596  $95,261,769 

1915 173,000,507     89,911,664 

1910 181,298,645  124,352,374 

1917 186,611,879  166,676,449 

1918 20M,428,148  200,266,876 

1019 179,849,940  201,588,402 

1920  173,260,580  176,621,835 

1921 171,285,542  108,110,295 

1922 213,541,784  145,067,467 

•Bureau  of  the  Mint. 

PRODUCTION    OP  SILVER    IN  THE 

UNITED  STATES 

Calendar  Fine  Commercial 

years  ounces  value 

1014      72,455,100  $40,067,700 

1915  • 74,961,075  37,397,300 

1916 74,411,802  48,953,000 

1917 71,740,362  59,078,100 

1918    67,810,139  66,48r>,129 

1919 56,082,445  63,533,652 

1920    55,361,573  60,801,955 

19131    53,052,441  53052,441 

1022 56,240,048  56.240,048 

1 923    72,611,200  59,541,184 

0  Itacord   production. 

UNITED    STATES    REFINERY    PRODUCTION    OP 
SILVER— 1923  « 

Ounces  Value 
at  821  » 

Alaska     687,900  $564,078 

Anzona     7,239,100  5,936,002 

California     3,740,700  3,0d7,374 

Colorado      5,007,100  4,597,822 

Idaho      7,832,000  6,4122.2*0 

Illinois      8,100  6,642 

Michigan     253,700  208,034 

Mihsuuri     145,200  119,064 

Montana      14,191,500  11,637,030 

fcevadu      10,507,000  8,615,740 

N«v\     Mexico     778,400  638,288 

North   Carolina    100  82 

OrcRon           64.400  52,808 

PfrmsjKama     1,100  902 

South    Dakota    93,400  76,588 

Tennessee     107,600  88,232 

Texas      820,100  672,482 

Utah      20,275,700  16,626,074 

Washington      220,000  180,400 

Wyoming       100  82 

Philippine   Islands    38,000  31,160 

Total     72,611,200  $59,541,184 

0  Estimates  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Mint  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

b  Average  to  Pittman  Act  price  ($1  per  ounce)  Jan* 
uary  to  June,  and  of  New  York  price  July  to  De- 
comber,  inclusive. 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  1923  the  State  of 
Utah  produced  20,275,700  ounces  or  nearly  28 
per  cent  of  the  United  States  production  and  the 
record  silver  production  of  any  single  State  for 
any  year.  This  was  derived  mostly  from  the 
refining  of  lead  ores. 

SIMMEL,  GEORG  (1858-1018).  German  phi- 
losopher  and  historian  (see  VOL.  XXI).  One 
of  tliOjCleareflt  and  internationally  most  respected 
thinkers  before  the  War,  Simmel  took  to  heart 
the  European  catastrophe.  He  sought  refuge  in 
the  philosophy  of  art  and  composed  an  appreci- 
ation of  Rembrandt  (1017).  Shortly  before  his 
death  he  wrote  his  philosophic  testament  in  the 
form  of  a  Lebensanschaiiung  (1918).  A  num- 
ber of  studies  on  Simmel  and  the  various  phases 
of  his  philosophy  were  published  in  Germany 
after  the  master's  death;  among  these  may  be 


mentioned  Max  Adler's  Qeorg  Simmels  Bedeut- 
wngjur  die  Geisteageschichte  (1919). 

SIMMONS  COLLEGE.  A  nonsectarian  tech- 
nical  institution  for  women  at  Boston,  Mass., 
founded  in  1899.  The  student  enrollment  in- 
creased from  1083  in  1915  to  1253  in  1920,  and 
dropped  again  to  1197  in  1923-24.  During  the 
same  time  the  faculty  was  increased  from  118  to 
121  members,  and  the  library  from  22,000  to  36,- 
000  volumes.  An  endowment  campaign  was  be- 
gun in  1921.  Certain  changes  in  the  require- 
ments were  instituted  in  1920;  three  years  in- 
stead of  two  of  language  were  required,  "free 
margin"  subjects  were  accepted  with  limitations, 
and  no  conditions  were  allowed.  President, 
Henry  Lefavour,  Ph.D.,  LLD. 

SIMONDS,  FBANK  H(ERREBT)  (1878-  ). 
An  American  journalist  (see  VOL.  XXI).  In 
1914  he  became  military  editor  of  The  Review  of 
Reviews,  and  was  an  associate  editor  of  the  "New 
York  Tribune  from  March,  1915,  to  December, 
1918.  He  wrote:  They  Shall  Wot  Pass—Ver- 
dun (1916),  and  a  History  of  the  World  War 
(5  vols.). 

SIMONS,  GEOBQE  ALBERT  (1874-  ).  An 
American  clergyman,  born  at  LaPorte,  Ind.,  and 
educated  at  Drew  Theological  Seminary.  He 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  in  1899  and  preached  in  Brooklyn  and 
New  York  City.  In  1907  he  became  superin- 
tendent of  the  Finland  and  St.  Petersburg  Mis- 
sion Conference  and  later  held  several  similar 
positions.  He,  founded  two  publications,  Method- 
ism in  Russia,  and  Christ iansky  Pobornik,  in 
Petrograd.  During  the  War  he  was  chairman  of 
the  Red  Cross  Committee  in  Russia,  and  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1919,  he  testified  before  the  United 
States  Senate  in  regard  the  Bolshevik  rule  in 
Russia.  In  the  winter  of  1920  he  had  charge  of 
the  distribution  of  relief  supplies  sent  by  the 
Methodists  to  Finland,  Russia,  etc.  He  was 
manager  of  the  Russia  Methodist  Book  Con' 
cern 

SIMPLON  TUNNEL.     See  TUNNELS. 

SIMS,  WILLIAM  SOWDEN  (1858-  ).  An 
American  naval  officer  ( see  VOL.  XXI ) .  He  was 
president  of  the  Naval  War  College  in  1917,  be- 
came an  admiral  in  1918,  was  again  appointed 
president  of  the  War  College  in  1919,  and  re- 
tired in  the  same  year  with  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral.  In  1920,  in  an  extensive  report  to  the 
United  States  Senate  subcommittee,  he  alleged 
grave  errors  in  the  management  of  United  States 
naval  operations  during  the  War. 

SINCLAIR,  HARBY  FORD  (1876-  ). 
American  oil  producer,  born  at  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 
lie  was  educated  at  public  schools  in  Kansas, 
and  studied  pharmacy  at  the  University  of 
Kansas.  After  spending  some  years  in  the  drug 
business,  he  turned  his  attention  to  oil  and  be- 
came president  of  the  Sinclair  Oil  and  Refin- 
ing Corporation  and  the  Sinclair  Gulf  Corpora- 
tion which  in  1919  were  consolidated  as  the 
Sinclair  Consolidated  Oil  Corporation,  of  which 
he  became  chairman.  During  1923-24,  the  leas- 
ing from  the  government  of  certain  oil  proper- 
tics  by  this  corporation  led  to  a  Congressional 
investigation  and  a  demand  for  the  annulment 
of  the  leases.  In  1917,  he  was  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  committees  on  oil,  raw  materials, 
minerals,  and  metals  of  the  National  Research 
Council.  In  addition  to  his  oil  interests,  he 
held  office  or  directorships  in  various  fiduciary 
corporations  in  Oklahoma  and  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

SINGAPORE.    See  STRAITS  SETTLEMENTS. 


SINGMA8TBR 


13X4 


SLAVONIC  LITERATURE 


SINGMASTEE,    ELSIE    (MRS.    HABOLD    LE- 

WAKS)  (1870-  ).  Ail  American  author,  born 
at  Scbuylkill  Haven,  Pa.,  and  educated  at  Rad- 
cliffe  College.  She  wrote:  When  Sarah  Saved 
the  Day  (1909);  When  Sarah  Went  to  School 
(1910)  ;  Gettysburg — Stories  of  the  Red  Harvest 
tnul  the  \.f1ct'maffi  (1013);  Katy  tiaumer 
(1914);  Emmeline  (1916);  The  Long  Journey 
(1917);  Life  of  Martin  Luther  (1917);  His- 
tory of  Lutheran  Missions  (1917);  Basil  Ever- 
man  (1920);  John  Baring's  House  (1920);  El- 
len Lettis  (1921);  Bennett  Malm  (1922);  The 
Hidden  Road  (1923).  She  also  contributed 
short  stories  to  magazines. 

SIN-KIANG.  A  Chinese  outer  territory, 
consisting  of  Chinese  Turkestan,  Kulja,  and 
Kashgaria,  thus  comprising  all  Chinese  depend- 
encies lying  between  Mongolia  and  Tibet.  Area, 
550,580  square  miles;  estimated  population, 
(2,500,000).  The  whole  was  regarded  as  a  sepa- 
rate province  and  the  capital,  Urumchi,  was  the 
seat  of  the  Chinese  civil  governor.  A  more  as- 
siduous cultivation  of  the  soil,  in  which  irriga- 
tion helped  greatly,  accounted  for  an  increasing 
prosperity  during  1914-24  Leading  products 
included  cereals,  fruits,  vegetables,  wool,  cotton, 
silk,  jade,  and  gold.  Principal  imports  from 
China  proper  were  tea,  silks,  and  cotton  piece 
goods.  Imports  from  India  were  cotton  piece 
goods,  indigo,  leather,  paints,  silk  piece  goods, 
spices,  etc.  Principal  centres  for  Chinese  trade 
were  Urumchi  and  Kucheng  while  the  principal 
centres  of  British  trade  were  Yarkand,  Kashgar, 
and  Khotan  Before  the  War,  the  Russian  in- 
terest in  the  country  was  keen  and  through  po- 
litical agents  and  traders  from  Russian  Turke- 
stan its  influence  was  spreading  through  the 
population.  This  penetration  for  a  time  ceased 
as  a  result  of  the  Revolution  so  that  in  1924  it 
was  not  yet  evident  whether  the  Soviet  meant  to 
win  over  Chinese  Turkestan's  Turanian  popula- 
tion. 

SINN  FEIN.    See  IRELAND. 

SINO-JAPANESE  AGREEMENT.  See 
JAPAN,  History. 

SISSON,  EDGAE  GBANT  (1875-  ).  An 
American  editor,  born  at  Alto,  Wis,  He  studied 
at  the  Northwestern  University  from  1894  to 
1897  and  was  a  member  of  the  staffs  of  several 
papers  in  Chicago  as  reporter  and  editor,  until 
1911,  when  he  became  managing  editor  of  Col- 
lier's Weekly.  He  was  editor  of  the  Cosmopol- 
itan Magazine,  1914-17,  and  associate  chairman 
of  the  Committee  on  Public  Information  (1917- 
19),  with  general  direction  of  the  foreign  sec- 
tion. He  organized  the*  publication  and  distri- 
bution of  President  Wilson's  speeches  through- 
out Russia  in  1917-18,  and  made  to  President 
Wilson  the  first  report  published  by  tho  gov- 
ernment (1919),  under  the  title  The  Oerman- 
Bolshevik  Conspiracy.  He  became  news  editor 
of  the  New  York  World  in  1921. 

SIXTHS  LETTERS.    See  WAR,  DIPLOMACY 

OF  THE. 

SKATING.    See  SPORTS. 

SKINS.    See  LEATHER. 

SLADEN,  FRED  WINCHESTER  (1867-  ). 
An  American  army  officer,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
and  graduated  from  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1890.  He  was  on  duty  in  Oregon, 
Washington,  Idaho,  and  the  Philippines.  He 
engaged  in  relief  work  in  San  Francisco  after 
the  earthquake  and  fire  in  1906  and  was  in 
China  during  1914  and  1916  and  on  the  Mexican 
border  in  1916-17.  He  was  secretary  of  the 


War  Department  General  Staff  in  1917  am1) 
1918.  He  was  commander  of  the  5th  Infantry 
Brigade  of  the  3rd  Regular  Division  in  France 
and  Germany  in  1918  and  1919  and  was  active 
in  the  Aisne,  Chateau-Thierry,  Muriie,  St.  Mihiel, 
and  Meuse-Argonne  defensives  He  was  ap 
pointed  superintendent  and  Commandant  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy  in  July,  1922 

SLAVONIC  LITERATURE.  In  1914,  the 
literature  of  all  the  Slavonic  peoples  was  feeling 
the  influence  of  the  various  movements  which 
were  agitating  France  and  western  Europe.  Re- 
alism was  giving  place  to  symbolism  and  to 
modernism  of  various  kinds  and  schools.  Then 
came  the  War,  which  radically  changed  the  ex- 
ternal life  of  the  different  peoples.  Poland  be- 
came a  battle  ground;  Czechoslovakia  and  the 
Ju^o-Slavs  saw  themselves  forced  into  a  war  in 
which  their  sympathies  were  on  the  side  of  their 
official  enemies,  and  their  hatred  was  for  their 
superiors.  With  the  end  of  the  War  came  the 
restoration  of  independence  to  these  different 
peoples  and  a  complete  change  in  the  future 
which  they  saw  before  them.  The  great  changes 
in  the  literature  accompanying  this  great  po- 
litical and  social  upheaval  had  hardly  yet  taken 
place  and  it  was  still  too  soon  in  1924  to  define 
with  certainty  the  definite  results  that  would 
be  produced. 

In  Poland,  the  death  of  the  greatest  of  her 
authors,  Sienkiewicz,  in  1916,  removed  the  one 
man  who  had  secured  a  recognized  place  in  the 
international  world  of  letters.  The  other  men 
of  the  younger  geneiations — men  like  Wludyslaw 
St.  Reymont,  author  of  The  Peasants  and  several 
historical  novels;  Stefan  Zeromski,  author  of 
several  historical  no\els,  notably  The  Wind  from 
the  Sea;  and  Andrzej  Strug, 'author  of  Tomb 
of  the  Unknown  Soldi  r,  a  psychological  study — 
continued  the  tradition  of  the  Polish  novel. 
Jozef  Weyssenhof  wan  perhaps  one  of  the  fore- 
most short-story  writers,  although  these  were 
very  numerous  and  among  them  were  several 
women  of  considerable  ability.  In  poetry,  Leo- 
pold Staff,  Jan  Kasprowicz,  Tuwim  and  others 
wrote  lyric  poetry  and  lyric  dramas  which  are 
worth  attention.  The  spirit  of  the  new  Poland 
with  its  promise  for  the  future,  which  was  first 
indicated  by  the  poet -artist  Stanislaw  Wyspian- 
ski,  is  shown  in  its  modern  form  in  the  collec- 
tion of  stories  by  Eugeniusz  Malac/ewski,  The 
Horse  on  the  Hill,  in  which  amid  the  scenes  of 
the  Polish -Bolshevik  war  we  see  the  vision  of 
the  new  country  and  of  the  new  spirit,  as  we  do 
also  in  many  of  the  war  songs  of  the  people. 
Perhaps  we  should  include  here  also  the  account 
of  the  Mongolian  adventures  of  the  Polish  pro- 
fessor Ferdinand  Ossendowski,  which  attained 
wide  circulation  in  its  English  translation  as 
Beasts,  Men  and  Gods.  Amid  all  its  changes, 
Polish  literature  still  maintained  on  the  whole 
its  chivalrous  and  knightly  air  which  is  one  of 
the  chief  features  of  the  Polish  genius. 

The  Czecho-Slovak  situation  was  quite  differ- 
ent. The  people  were  struggling  whole-hearted- 
ly to  break  the  bonds  which  bound  them  to  Aus- 
tria-Hungary and  this  gave  to  much  of  their 
poetry  a  cryptic  and  enigmatic  character.  As  it 
was,  many  of  the  leading  poets,  as  Machar  and 
Dyk,  were  arrested  and  kept  in  prison  for  their 
opposition  to  Austria.  Among  the  other  poets 
who  pleaded  the  cause  of  the  people  more  or 
less  openly,  we  may  mention  Sova  and  Theer 
and  also  Kflcka,  the  author  of  the  first  of  the 
war  songs.  Langer  and  Medek  sang  of  the  ex- 


SLAVONIC  XJTB&ATUBB 

ploits  of  the  Czecho-Slovak  legions  in  Siberia 
and  described  in  verse  the  heroic  exploits  of 
these  wandering  soldiers  After  the  War, 
Czecho-Slovak  poetry  was  optimistic  and  the 
authors  ranged  from  free  verse  to  the  conserva- 
tive forms,  as  in  Otokar  Fischer  and  Josef  Cha- 
loupka.  Among  those  who  progressed  the  fur- 
thest toward  the  left  we  may  mention  Stanis- 
lav  K.  Neumann,  a  brilliant  and  talented  poet. 
The  mystic  Otokar  Bfezina  had  written  little 
and  his  influence  was  still  inconsiderable. 
Among  the  novelists  of  prominence  were  A. 
Jiiasek,  K.  M.  Capek  and  Anna  Marie  Til- 
schovfi.  When  we  seek  for  the  national  inspira- 
tion we  find  it  in  the  writings  and  speeches  of 
President  Thomas  G.  Masaryk  who  himself 
summed  up  and  exemplified  much  if  not  most 
of  the  modern  intellectual  life  of  his  people. 
The  usual  optimistic  mood  of  the  nation,  how- 
ever, ha.d  not  been  expressed  in  the  drama,  where 
Karel  Capek  (q.v.)  with  his  two  plays  R.  U.  R. 
and  The  Insect  Comedy  gave  a  pessimistic  and 
satirical  view  of  life  which  won  for  them  presen- 
tation not  merely  in  his  own  country  but  also 
in  England  and  America.  Finally  we  may 
mention  that  Hviezdoslav  (Pavol  Orszagh),  the 
foremost  singer  of  the  Slovaks,  died  in  1921. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats  and 
Slovenes,  the  same  tendencies  predominated 
The  older  authors,  as  Anton  Tresic  Pavicir,  a 
poet  and  novelist  of  Dalmatia  had  largely 
withdrawn  from  publication  and  had  left  the 
field  to  the  younger  representatives  of  the  mod- 
ernists and  symbolists,  e.g.  the  novelists  Tsankar, 
Kosor  and  Nazor  and  the  poets  Jovan  Dusic, 
Milan  Raktf  and  Miltfic*.  In  addition  to  the 
struggle  of  generations  there  was  also  continuing 
an  interesting  process  of  fusion.  The  Serbs  and 
the  Croats  published  their  works  indifferently 
in  the  Cyrillic  of  the  Serb  and  the  Latin  of  the 
Croatian  but  there  was  still  a  certain  difference 
in  spirit  coming  from  the  long  centuries  of  iso- 
lation and  subjection  to  different  cultures,  the 
Byzantine  of  the  East  and  the  Latin  of  the 
West,  and  the  complete  merging  of  these  two 
streams  of  poetry  and  thought  was  expected  to 
produce  some  interesting  and  valuable  works  in 
the  near  future.  We  must  mention  also  Nikolaj 
Velimirovic,  Orthodox  Bishop  of  Ochrida,  a  dis- 
tinguished preacher  and  writer  whose  books  have 
often  been  translated  and  who  did  much  to 
carry  the  knowledge  of  his  people  outside  his 
country.  During  the  War  he  won  a  name  for 
himself  as  one  of  the  great  preachers  of  Eng- 
land, where  he  went  in  connection  with  the  edu- 
cation of  Serb  refugees  and  where  he  was  fre- 
quently invited  to  preach  in  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, London 

Among  the  poets  and  novelists  of  the  Slovenes, 
may  be  mentioned  Ivan  Cankar,  whose  novel 
Pictures  of  Dreams  reflects  the  unreal  and  ter- 
rible experiences  of  the  War.  Other  authors  are 
Oton  ZupanciS,  Dragotin  Kette,  Josip  Murn, 
and  Ivan  Pregelj. 

Bulgaria  also  lost,  immediately  after  the  War, 
her  greatest  poet,  Ivan  Vazov,  who  died  in 
1921.  He  had  been  associated  with  the  Bulga- 
rian movement  for  independence  from  its  verv 
beginning,  and  his  prose  and  verse  describe  al- 
most every  phase  of  the  life  of  the  people.  In 
1920,  the  nation  gave  him  a  jubilee  on  the  fifti- 
eth anniversary  of  the  commencement  of  his 
writing  arid  it  was  a  fitting  prelude  for  the  mani- 
festation of  national  sorrow  which  accompanied 
his  death.  The  younger  Bulgarian  authors  fol- 
40 


SLOAIT 

lowed  the  usual  schools  of  western  Europe  and 
of  Russia. 

SLEEPING  SICKNESS.  The  popular  name 
of  this  affection,  known  to  the  medical  pro- 
fession as  epidemic  encephalitis,  is  unfortunate, 
because  this  title  is  preempted  by  a  chronic  af- 
fection which  is  endemic  among  the  African 
blacks.  (The  last  named  disease  is  known  tech- 
nically as  trypanomiasis. )  Although  the  acute 
form  of  sleeping  sickness  is  by  no  means  new, 
having  flourished  in  different  localities  under 
various  names  in  the  past,  it  was  not  recog- 
nized as  a  separate  morbid  entity  until  about 
1916  and  since  that  period  it  has  become  fa- 
miliar to  medical  men  throughout  the  temper- 
ate zones.  Nothing  is  known  of  its  intimate  na- 
ture, but  it  stands  in  some  vague  relation  to  in- 
fantile paralysis  and  epidemic  meningitis.  It 
has  a  high  mortality  and  is  apt  to  loavo  its 
victims  badly  damaged.  It  occurs  in  epidemic 
incidence  but  attacks  only  a  relatively  small 
proportion  of  the  community.  The  severity  of 
its  nature  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  attacks 
some  of  the  most  important  portions  of  the 
central  nervous  system.  From  another  view- 
point, it  suggests  an  affinity  with  influenza, 
which  affection  in  rare  cases  attacks  the  brain 
and  causes  a  condition  very  similar  to  sleeping 
sickness.  A  certain  number  of  cases  of  the  lat- 
ter have  occurred  in  individuals  recovering  from 
the  grippe. 

Epidemic  encephalitis  is  characterized  by  a 
great  variety  of  symptoms  and  a  number  of 
clinical  types  have  been  isolated,  some  of  which 
may  appear  in  abortive  form.  Hence  diagnosis 
may  be  difficult  in  the  individual  case  for  somno- 
lence may  be  absent  and  be  replaced  by  excite- 
ment and  constant  muscular  twitching.  In  some 
localities,  this  form  may  predominate,  and  may 
be  recognized  in  a  disease  which  prevailed  in 
Italy  80  years  ago.  This  persisted  for  some 
years  and  at  no  time  was  drowsiness  mentioned 
as  a  characteristic  symptom.  This  is  an  addi- 
tional reason  against  the  use  of  the  term  "sleep- 
ing sickness." 

SLEMP,  C(AMPBELL)  BASCOM  (1870-  ). 
An  American  Congressman,  born  at  Turkey 
Cove,  Lee  Co.,  Va.,  and  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Virginia.  He  taught  mathematics  at 
the  Virginia  Military  Institute  and  later  prac- 
ticed law  in  Virginia,  at  the  same  time  acting  as 
an  officer  in  several  business  concerns.  He  was 
elected  to  Congress  first  in  1907  and  served 
continuously  thereafter  until  he  was  appointed 
secretary  to  President  Coolidge  in  1924. 

SLESVIQ.     See  SCHLESWIG. 

SLOAN,  JOHN  (1871-  ).  An  American 
artist,  born  at  Lock  Haven,  Pa.  He  received 
his  art  education  in  evening  classes  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania Academy  of  Fine  Arts  under  the  late 
Thomas  P.  Anschutz.  He  was  particularly  noted 
for  his  scenes  of  city  life.  His  lithographs  are 
humorous  and  vivid,  as  for  example,  that  of  a 
workingman,  pipe  in  mouth,  hands  in  pockets, 
sitting  on  the  roof  with  his  back  against  a 
chimney  and  his  stockinged  feet  stretched  out 
before  him,  enjoying  solid  Sunday  peace  and 
freedom.  Mr.  Sloan  has  made  many  draw- 
ings for  magazines,  and  his  work  as  an  illus- 
trator included  designs  for  Paul  de  Rock's 
novels.  For  his  painting  "The  Coffee  Line/* 
at  the  Carnegie  Institute,  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
he  received  honorable  mention  in  1905.  "The 
Dust  Storm"  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York  City,  and  examples  of  his  work 


SLOVAKIA 


xai6 


AJtKS 


are  included  in  the  print  collection  at  the  New 
York  Public  Library.  He  was  an  instructor  at 
the  Art  Students'  League  in  New  York  City  and 
director  of  the  Society  of  Independent  Artists. 

SLOVAKIA.    See  CZECHO-SLOVAKIA. 

SLOVENES.     See   JUGOSLAVIA,   History. 

SMALL  ASMS  AND  MACHINE  GUNS. 
If  we  include  under  the  heading  "Small  Arms'1 
(see  also  ORDNANCE),  shoulder  rifles,  pistols,  ma- 
chine guns,  ammunition  and  accessories,  the 
decade  between  1914  and  1924  was  marked  prin- 
cipally by  developments  in  machine  guns.  Prior 
to  the  War,  practically  all  machine  guns  used 
the  same  caliber  ammunition  as  the  shoulder 
rifles  with  which  the  infantry  was  equipped, 
and  were  employed  as  a  means  by  which  a  given 
number  of  individual  soldiers  could  deliver  a 
greater  volume  of  fire  at  the  enemy  than  if 
equipped  with  shoulder  rifles.  Under  stress  of 
actual  combat,  machine  guns  were  soon  divided 
into  different  types  especially  suited  for  particu- 
lar uses.  The  lighter  weight  types  were  adapted 
to  firing  short  concentrated  bursts  of  fire  and 
the  heavier  types  were  developed  for  playing 
the  continuous  leaden  stream  of  the  machine  gun 
barrage.  Special  types  were  developed  for 
mounting  in  tanks  and  in  airplanes  and  special 
mounts  were  developed  for  employing  machine 
guns  in  anti-aircraft  work. 

The  special-type  guns  necessitated  the  devel- 
opment of  special  types  of  ammunition;  for  in- 
stance, armor  piercing  for  use  against  tanks  and 
armored  airplanes,  tracer  and  incendiary  ammu- 
nition for  use  against  observation  balloons  and 
gasoline  tanks  of  airplanes.  The  need  for  larger 
cavities  to  contain  the  special  composition  re- 
quired in  tracer  and  incendiary  ammunition  led 
to  the  development  of  larger  caliber  bullets  for 
which  heavier  and  heavier  machine  guns  became 
necessary,  with  the  result  that  the  sphere  of 
employment  of  the  machine  gun  was  enormously 
increased  and  its  range  of  action  multiplied  two 
and  one-half  to  three  times. 

Shoulder  Rifles.  Prior  to  the  outbreak  of 
the  War,  the  United  States  Army  adopted  the 
Springfield  rifle,  Caliber  0.30,  Model  of  1903,  as 
standard  equipment  for  infantry  and  cavalry 
troops  This  rifle  and  the  standard  ammunition 
for  it  easily  led  the  world,  as  was  repeatedly 
demonstrated  in  international  rifle  matches. 
Its  nearest  competitor  was  the  German  Mauser, 
the  shoulder  rifles  in  use  by  other  armies  being 
relatively  much  inferior.  Under  battle  condi- 
tions, the  Springfield  maintained  its  supremacy 


Unfortunately,  due  to  difficulty  of  production, 
it  was  impossible  to  manufacture  enough  Spring- 
field rifles  to  completely  equip  the  United  States 
troops  or  to  provide  any  for  troops  of  the  Allied 
armies,  much  as  they  desired  this  superior 
weapon.  The  greater  number  of  the  United 
States  troops  were  equipped  with  the  modified 
Enfield  rifle  of  British  design  rechambered  for 
rimless  0.30  caliber  United  States  ammunition 
instead  of  the  older  type  British  0.303  cartridges 
with  projecting  rim  which  tended  to  increase  the 
danger  of  jams.  Incidentally  the  United  States 
ammunition  had  a  much  higher  velocity  than 
the  British  cartridge  and  was  much  more  effec- 
tive at  all  ranges  at  which  rifle  fire  is  employed. 

Pistols.  The  Colt  automatic  pistol,  caliber 
0.45,  was  beyond  question  the  most  effective 
weapon  of  its  kind  in  use  prior  to  the  outbreak 
of  the  WTar  and  no  improvements  in  it  were 
found  necessary  as  the  result  of  battle  experi- 
ence. Unfortunately  the  difficulty  of  manufac- 
turing this  weapon  necessitated  the  issue  of  a 
considerable  number  of  0.45  caliber  revolvers  to 
United  States  troops  which,  even  at  that,  were 
much  better  equipped  in  this  respect  than  the 
troops  of  any  other  nation  engaged  in  the  War. 

Automatic  Rifles.  The  second  type  of  weap- 
on using  standard  small  arms  ammunition  is  in- 
tended to  be  a  portable  arm  for  front-line  troops, 
capable  of  being  fired  from  the  hip  if  necessary, 
and  to  some  extent  even  while  proceeding  for- 
ward to  the  attack.  Its  normal  employment, 
however,  is  from  the  ground  supported  by  a 
light  biped  at  the  muzzle,  the  gunner  taking* the 
prone  position.  For  this  purpose  the  British 
army  used  the  Lewis  gun,  the  Germans  the 
Maxim  08-15,  and  the  French,  the  ("hauchat, 
the  United  States  troops  being  armed  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  with  the  latter  weapon  prior  to 
the  issue  of  the  standard  Browning  automatic 
rifle  developed  contemporaneously  with  the  en- 
trance of  the  United  States  into* the  world  con- 
flict. The  Browning  was  probably  the  most 
successful  weapon  of  its  type  in  use  at  the  end 
of  the  War,  hut  mature  reflection  on  the  relative 
merits  of  the  type  led  to  a  conclusion  that  it 
was  a  misfit,  being  too  light  for  sustained  auto- 
matic fire  and  too  heavy  to  be  fired  from  the 
shoulder.  Later  tendencies  were  toward  provid- 
ing a  much  heavier  barrel  in  order  that  it  may 
1*  fired  for  a  greater  length  of  time  without 
putting  it  out  of  action  by  overheating.  Pro- 
vided in  addition  with  a  substantial  biped  mount, 
it  comes  under  the  classification  of  machine  rifles 


MAXIMUM  RANGE  OFCALIBER.30  MACHINE  GUN 


AXIMUM  RANGE  OF  CAUBER.50  MACHINE  GUN 


0  3300  YARDS  9000  YARDS 

DIAGRAMMATIC    COMPARISON    OF   TRAJECTORIES;    0.50    CALIBER   AND    0.30    CAL1IJKR   BROW  NINO 

MACHINE   GUNS 


and  even  by  1924  was  susceptible  of  further  im- 
provement only  in  minor  particulars,  such  as 
providing  a  large  aperture  sight  to  be  located 
on  the  receiver  near  the  eye,  telescopic  sights 
for  issue  to  individual  sharpshooters,  and  pos- 
sibly a  change  in  the  stock  to  provide  a  pistol 
grip- 


to  which  the  French  Chauchat,  the  British 
Lewis  and  the  German  Maxim  more  nearly  be- 
long than  to  the  class  of  strictly  automatic 
rifles. 

Machine  Guns.  In  1914,  the  principal  types 
of  machine  guns  were  the  Benet-Merde,  the 
Colt,  the  Maxim,  the  Vickers,  the  Lewis  and  the 


SMALL  ABMS 

Hotchkies.  In  May,  1917,  the  Browning  (heavy) 
machine  gun  received  its  initial  test  and  was  at 
once  adopted  as  standard  for  the  United  States 
Army.  The  new  gun  demonstrated  its  superior- 
ity to  all  other  types  of  machine  guns  then  in 
use  by  the  armies  of  the  world.  Although  the 
maximum  range  of  this  gun  was  found  to  be 
less  than  some  types  of  French  and  also  German 
machine  guns,  the  fault  lay  in  the  ammunition 
used  and  not  in  the  gun  itself.  With  improved 
ammunition  this  gun,  which  is  recoil-operated 
and  water-cooled,  is  a  most  effective  weapon  for 
delivering  a  sustained  fire  of  great  volume. 

Aircraft  Machine  Guns.  The  machine  gun 
found  a  new  field  of  employment  in  connection 
with  aircraft,  two  general  types  of  mounting 
being  developed  as  the  result  of  combat  experi- 
ence in  the  clouds.  For  the  use  of  the  pilot, 
two  or  more  guns  are  rigidly  mounted  on  the 
airplane  structure  and  fired  directly  to  the  front, 
the  bullets  being  fired  between  the  rapidly  re- 
volving blades  of  the  propeller  by  means  of  a 
synchronizing  mechanism  connecting  the  motor 
and  the  gun.  For  the  use  of  the  observer,  a 
free  gun  is  so  mounted  as  to  permit  of  fire  in  any 
direction.  Vickers  aircraft  machine  guns  were 
used  to  a  considerable  extent  for  the  pilot  and 
Lewis  guns  for  the  observers.  Marlin  aircraft 
guns  were  later  adopted  when  Vickers  became 
unavailable,  due  to  great  care  necessary  in  the 
manufacture  of  ammunition  for  this  gun. 
Browning  machine  guns  were  modified  for  air- 
craft use  but  were  not  entirely  satisfactory, 
duo  to  the  haste  in  which  they  were  developed. 
Se\eral  attempts  to  improve  this  gun  have  been 
made  recently  but  up  to  1924  none  has  been  en- 
tirely satisfactory. 

Anti-Aircraft  Machine  Guns.  At  first  it 
was  thought  that  anti-aircraft  machine  gunnery 
involved  merely  providing  a  simple  mount  which 
would  permit  all-around-traverse  and  elevation 
of  85  or  90  degrees.  The  usual  type  of  mount 
used  by  anti-aircraft  machine  gunners  during  the 
War  consisted  of  an  adapter  head  with  a  pintle 
at  the  lower  part  of  the  bracket  which  revolved 
freely  on  the  head  of  a  tripod.  The  upper  part 
of  the  bracket  was  provided  with  a  U-shaped 
opening  in  which  the  machine  gun  was  mounted, 
thus  making  it  possible  to  elevate  the  gun  about 
its  transverse  axis  and  to  traverse  it  by  rotating 
the  entire  mount  adapter  about  the  pintle.  The 
anti-aircraft  machine  gun  made  a  place  for  it- 
self in  the  equipment  of  all  armies,  and  con- 
siderable effort  has  been  expended  in  the  devel- 
opment of  more  satisfactory  mounts  for  this  type 
of  weapon.  In  order  to  increase  the  volume  of 
fire,  it  is  probable  that  more  than  one  gun  will 
be  mounted  on  each  tripod.  A  serai-ball  mount 
adapter  has  been  manufactured  and  tested  since 
the  Armistice  and  future  design  was  tending  to- 
ward this  type. 

The  effective  range  of  0.30  caliber  ammunition 
limits  the  employment  of  the  ordinary  machine 
gun  to  attack  upon  the  personnel  of  aircraft  or 
upon  the  structure  of  low-flying  unarmored 
planes.  The  development  of  the  super-machine 
gun  of  0.50  calilwr  bids  fair,  however,  to  dis- 
place the  earlier  0.30  caliber  gun  not  only  on  ac- 
count of  its  greater  range  but  because  its  much 
larger  bullet  permits  the  development  of  more 
satisfactory  armor-piercing,  incendiary  and 
tracer  varieties. 

Super-Machine  Guns.  The  Browning  0.30 
caliber  machine  gun  was  brought  out  contempo- 
raneously with  the  entrance  of  the  United 


SMALLPOX 

States  into  the  world  conflict.  It  proved  so 
successful  from  its  first  tests  that  early  effort 
was  made  to  apply  its  principles  to  the  design 
of  a  machine  gun  to  fire  0.50  caliber  ammunition. 
The  first  design  fired  a  bullet  of  600  grains  at 
a  muzzle  velocity  of  2450  feet  per  second.  About 
this  time  several  German  anti-tank  guns  were 
captured.  Inasmuch  as  the  13-mm.  ammunition 
for  these  guns  fired  an  800-grain  bullet  at  a  muz- 
zle velocity  of  2500  feet,  a  second  design  of  0.50 
caliber  machine  gun  was  brought  out  firing  an 
812-grain  bullet  at  a  muzzle  velocity  of  6200  feet 
per  second. 

A  water-cooled  0.50  caliber  machine  gun  has 
been  designed  for  ground  use  by  infantry  troops, 
but  it  develops  so  much  energy  in  firing  that  it 
is  impossible  to  hold  it  steady  for  horizontal  fire, 
using  a  tripod  of  such  light  weight  as  can  be 
conveniently  transported  by  infantry.  An  air- 
cooled  type  for  mounting  on  aircraft  has  proved 
very  successful  and  bids  fair  to  be  universally 
adopted  as  a  synchronized  weapon.  A  water- 
cooled  type  has  also  been  developed  for  anti- 
aircraft use.  This  gun  has  a  maximum  range 
of  approximately  9000  yards,  its  armor-piercing 
bullet  will  penetrate  one  inch  of  armorplate  at 
short  ranges,  and  the  tracer  bullet  will  give  a 
brightly  illuminated  trace  for  approximately 
2500  yards. 

Small  Arms  Ammunition.  The  War  vastly 
increased  the  ranges  at  which  small  arms  am- 
munition was  expected  to  be  used  effectively. 
In  order  to  meet  insistent  demands  for  greater 
range,  extensive  test  firings  we~e  continually 
held  in  all  armies  and  every  effort  made  to  im- 
prove the  shape  of  the  bullet  and  increase  the 
effectiveness  of  the  powder  charge.  In  general, 
it  has  been  found  desirable  to  further  sharpen 
the  nose  of  the  bullet  in  order  to  reduce  the 
effect  of  air  resistance  and  also  to  "boat-tail"  or 
taper  the  base,  in  order  to  eliminate  or  greatly 
reduce  the  drag  caused  by  the  vacuum  at  the 
base.  The  improved  contour  of  the  bullet  has 
permitted  an  increase  in  weight,  and  with  the  in- 
creased remaining  velocity  at  any  given  range, 
a  considerable  increase  in  hitting  power  has 
been  obtained.  See  STRATEGY  AND  TACTICS. 

SMALLPOX.  During  the  10  years  1914-24, 
much  information  was  gained  about  this  affec- 
tion. The  conviction  is  growing  that  there  arc 
different  strains  of  the  disease,  one  of  which  is 
naturally  mild  and  the  other  severe.  Should 
this  dualistic  view  obtain  a  permanent  foothold 
many  peculiarities  of  the  disease  may  be  ex- 
plained. A  severe  type  of  disease  may,  of  course, 
have  its  virulence  modified  and  appear  alternate- 
ly in  mild  or  severe  form;  but  there  may  be  a 
mild  form  which  is  never  severe  under  any  cir- 
cumstances. This  appears  to  be  the  case  with 
the  alastrim  of  the  West  Indies,  which  is  believed 
to  be  the  same  as  the  mild  smallpox  of  western 
Africa,  from  which  it  was  originally  derived. 
The  latter  has  long  been  regarded  as  distinct 
from  the  severe  smallpox  of  eastern  Africa.  The 
severity  of  the  latter,  as  of  other  virulent 
strains  of  the  disease  in  the  tropics,  makes  it 
difficult  to  control  by  vaccination,  to  which  must 
be  added  the  great  difficulty  of  obtaining  fresh 
virus,  and  the  difficulty  in  enforcing  vaccina- 
tion decrees  in  primitive  communities. 

The  alleged  failure  of  vaccination  in  the  Phil- 
ippines was  readily  shown  to  have  been  due  to 
lax  enforcement  of  the  laws,  the  turning  in  of 
bogus  returns  and  other  irregularities.  The  un- 
vaccinated  were  the  sufferers  and  the  country 


SMAULWOOD 


1218 


SMITH 


later  was  properly  revaccinated,  with  resulting 
return  of  immunity.  During  the  War,  there 
were  numerous  striking  examples  both  of  im- 
munity of  vaccinated  troops  exposed  to  virulent 
disease  and  the  spread  of  the  disease  among 
the  unvaccinated. 

Paul  Test.  A  new  diagnostic  test  was  in 
force  in  some  localities  which  will  prevent  the 
long  quarantine  of  suspects.  This  consists  in 
the  inoculation  with  the  suspicious  matter  of 
the  rabbit's  cornea,  cock's  wattles,  etc  Small- 
pox pus  provokes  a  peculiar  reaction  not  ob- 
tained with  the  use  of  any  other  substance. 
This  is  known  as  the  Paul  test. 

SHALL  WOOD,  WILLIAM  MARTIN  (1873- 
).  An  American  zoologist  born  at  Warsaw, 
N.  Y  He  was  educated  at  Syracuse  University 
and  at  Harvard.  He  was  instructor  in  biology 
at  Syracuse  (1896-08),  professor  of  biology 
and  geology  at  Allegheny  College  (189f£- 
1902),  and  associate  professor  of  zoology 
(1903-07),  and  professor  of  comparative  anat- 
omy (1907-  )  at  Syracuse  University.  He 
published  papers  on  the  embryology  of  mol- 
lusca,  and  A  Text  Book  of  Biology  (1913;  2d 
ed.,  1920),  Practical  Biology  (1910),  Biology  for 
High  Schools  (1920);  Man  the  Animal  (1921). 

SMELL.    See  PSYCHOLOGY,  EXPERIMENTAL 

SMILLIE,  ROBERT  (1859-  ).  A  British 
labor  leader,  born  at  Belfast,  of  Scottish  parents. 
At  14  years  of  age  he  went  to  work  in  a  ship- 
yard at  Govan,  and  two  years  later  went  to 
Lanarkshire  where  he  worked  in  the  mines  for  16 
years.  He  was  an  active  trade  unionist,  and 
through  his  efforts  the  Lanarkshire  Miners' 
Union  reached  a  membership  of  30,000  He  pos- 
sessed so  much  organizing  ability  that  he  was 
promoted  steadily  until  in  1912  he  was  elected 
to  the  presidency  of  the  Miners'  Federation  of 
Great  Britain.  In  March,  1921,  ill  health  com- 
pelled  him  to  resign  from  the  Federation. 

SMITH,  ALFRED  EMANUEL  (1873-  ).  An 
American  public  official,  born  in  New  York 
City.  He  was  educated  in  the  parochial  schools 
of  the  city  and  from  1895  to  1903  was  clerk  in 
the  office  of  the  Commission  of  Jurors  in  New 
York  City.  He  was  4  member  of  the  Democratic 
organization  and  served  in  the  New  York*  As- 
sembly from  1903  to  1915  In  191J,*he  was 
Democratic  leader  and,  in  1913,  Speaker  in- that 
body.  From  1915  to  1917,  he  was  sheriff  of  New 
York  County  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  Board  of  Aldermen  and  in  1919, 
governor  of  New  York  State  He  was  reelected 
to  this  office  in  1922,  defeating  Charles  S.  Whit- 
man, Republican  candidate.  Governor  "Al" 
Smith  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  candi- 
dates for  the  Democratic  nomination  for  the 
Presidency  in  1924.  See  UNITED  STATES,  His- 

°^MITH,  ALFRED  H(OLLAND)  (1864-1924) 
An  American  railway  president  (see  VOL.  XXI). 
During  the  War  he  was  appointed  assistant  di- 
rector-general of  railroads  in  charge  of  trans- 
portation in  trunk-line  territory  east  of  Chi- 
cago and  north  of  Ohio  and  the  Potomac  Rivers, 
and  regional  director  of  the  Eastern  District 
On  June  1,  1919,  he  was  reappointed  president 
of  the  New  York  Central  lines  It  was  gener- 
ally conceded  that  he  was  one  of  America's  most 
progressive  and  far-sighted  captains  of  industry. 
SMITH,  DAVID  STANLEY  (1K77-  ).  An 
American  composer,  born  at  Toledo,  O.  While 
pursuing  his  regular  academic  studies  at  Yale, 
he  also  took  the  course  in  composition  there 


under  Professor  Parker.  When  he  graduated  in 
1900,  his  Commencement  Ode  for  baritone,  male 
chorus  and  orchestra  was  produced  as  part  of 
the  commencement  exercises  From  1901  to 
1903,  he  was  in  Europe,  continuing  his  studies 
under  Thuille  in  Munich  and  Widor  in  Paris 
In  1903,  he  was  appointed  instructor  in  the 
theory  of  music  at  Yale;  in  1909,  assistant  pro- 
fessor; in  1910,  full  professor;  and  in  1920,  dean 
of  the  Department  of  Music,  succeeding  Prof. 
Horatio  Parker.  For  many  years  he  was  also 
organist  at  various  churches  in  New  Haven 
In  1917,  he  became  conductor  of  the  Horatio 
Parker  Choir;  in  1918,  conductor  of  the  Choral 
Art  Club;  and  in  1919  he  succeeded  Parker  as 
conductor  of  the  Oratorio  Society  and  the  New 
Haven  Symphony  Orchestra.  His  works  consist 
of:  two  symphonies;  a  symphonic  poem.  Dark- 
ness and  Dawn;  the  overtures,  Joyeuse,  Sericuse, 
and  Prince  Hal;  Symphonic  Ballad,  Allegro 
giocosot  Commemoration  March,  ISAllegero,  II 
Pensieroso,  and  Impressions;  Prelude,  Chorale 
and  Fugue  for  organ  and  orchestra;  the  choral 
works  with  orchestra,  The  Windswept  Wheat, 
The  Fallen  Star,  The  Dark,  Pan,  and  Rhapsody 
of  St.  Bernard;  two  string  quartets;  a  piano 
trio,  anthems;  and  part-songs  and  songs 

SMITH,  FREDERICK  EDWIN,  first  VISCOUNT 
BJRKENIIEAD  (1872-  ).  An  English  lawyer 
and  statesman  (sec  VOL.  XXI).  He  was 
a  member  of  Parliament  from  1906  to  1919. 
In  1915,  he  served  as  solicitor-general  and  from 
1915  to  1919  as  attorney-general.  During  the 
War  he  served  with  the  Indian  Corps  in  France 
In  1919,  he  was  appointed  Lord  High  Chancel- 
lor of  Great  Britain  but  later  resigned  that 
office.  He  was  created  Baron  in  1919  and  Vis- 
count in  1921.  He  visited  the  United  States  in 
1910  and  again  in  1923.  His  later  books  include 
Destruction  of  Merchant  Ships  (1917);  My 
American  1  iaif  (1918),  and  The  Indian  Corps 
in  France  (1919). 

SMITH,  HERBERT  BOOTH  (1883-  ).  An 
American  clergyman,  born  at  St  Louis,  Mo.,  and 
educated  at  Princeton  Theological  Seminary. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry 
in  1909  and  held  pastorates  in  Rochester,  N.  Y, 
Knoxville,  Tenn.,  and  Los  Angeles,  Cal  In  the 
last-named  city  he  ministered  to  a  congregation 
of  3000.  He  wrote  Five  Sermons  on  Democracy 
(1918)  and  The  New  Earth  and  Other  Sermons 
(1920) 

SMITH,  HUGH  MCCORMICK  (1805-  ).  An 
American  ichthyologist  born  at  Washington, 
D.  C.  He  was  educated  at  Georgetown  Univer- 
sity (M.D.,  1888)  He  was  assistant  in  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission  (1880-92),  in 
charge  of  the  division  of  fisheries  (1892-90),  in 
charge  of  scientific  inquiry  (1897-03),  Deputy 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Fisheries  (1903- 
13)  ;  and  Commissioner  of  Fisheries  (1913-22). 
As  deputy  commissioner  and  commissioner  of 
fisheries  he  directed  the  activities  of  the  Bureau 
of  Fisheries  and  published  various  papers  on 
the  commercial  fisheries  and  aquatic  resources  of 
the  United  States 

SMITH,  JOHN  MERLIN  Powis  (1866-  ). 
An  English  educator.  He  was  born  in  London, 
came  to  America,  and  studied  at  the  University 
of  Chicago  He  was  graduate  student  and  fellow 
of  the  university  (1895-99)  and  literary  secre- 
tary to  President  VVm  R  Harper  (1899-1906). 
After  1915,  he  was  professor  of  Semitic  lan- 
guages and  literature  He  is  the  author  of  Bib- 
Heal  Ideas  of  Atonement,  with  E.  D.  Burton 


SMITH  COLLEGE 

and  G.  B.  Smith  (1900);  Commentaries  on 
Micah,  Zephaniah,  Nachum  and  Malachi  (1911- 
12)  ;  Commentaries  on  Amos,  Hosea  and  Mioah 
(1914)  ;  The  Prophet  and  his  Problems  (1914) ; 
A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  Christian  Religion, 
with  G.  B.  Smith  (1016);  Religion  of  the 
Psalms  (1922);  and  has  collaborated  on  Har- 
per-Smith's Hebrew  Method  and  Manual  (1921) 
and  Harper-Smith's  Elements  of  Hebrew 
(1921). 

SMITH  COLLEGE.  A  n  on  sectarian  institu- 
tion for  women  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  founded 
in  1871.  The  enrollment  of  the  college  increased 
from  1638  in  1914  to  2153  in  the  year  1923-24, 
the  faculty  was  increased  from  146  to  208  mem- 
bers, and  the  library  from  50,000  to  107,000 
volumes.  Largely  through  an  endowment  cam- 
paign conducted  in  1920,  the  productive  funds 
of  the  college  were  increased  from  $1,695,892  to 
$4,264,567.  In  1918,  a  School  of  Social  Work 
was  established,  and  in  1921  an  Experimental 
School  for  the  Training  of  Teachers  of  Retarded 
Children.  Kn trance  examinations  for  all  stu- 
dents were  required,  beginning  with  the  fall  of 
1919.  Marion  LeRoy  Burton  was  succeeded  by 
William  Allan  Neilson,  Ph.D.,  LL  D.,  as  presi- 
dent in  1917. 

SMITH-LEVER  ACT.  See  AGKICUITURAL 
KXIENSIOX  WORK;  EDI  CATION  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES. 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION.  An  in- 
stitution in  Washington,  I).  (/.,  created  in  1846 
for  the  increase  arid  diffusion  of  knowledge 
among  men.  Throughout  the  decade  1914—24, 
geological  explications  were  carried  on  in  the 
Canadian  Rocky  Mountains  by  the  secretary  of 
the  Institution.  Chniles  D.  \\alcott.  Tie  in- 
vestigated the  Lower.  Middle  and  Upper  Cam- 
brian formations  at  Wonder  Pass,  the  great  in- 
terval of  non-deposition  of  sedimentary  rock- 
forming  material  along  the  front  range  of  the 
mountains  west  of  Calgary,  Alberta,  and  the 
pre- Devonian  stiata  of  Sawback  Range  as  far 
as  the  headwaters  of  the  Xorth  Fork  of  the 
Saskatchewan  Rner.  Dr.  R.  S.  Ba^sler,  curator 
of  paleontology,  carried  on  explorations  between 
1014  and  1921  to  deteimine  the  geological  his- 
torv  of  the  Appalachian,  Ohio,  and  Mississippi 
valleys.  Frank  Springer  made  collections  of 
fossil  echinoderms  along  the  new  Erie  Canal  in 
western  New  York  State  and  also  in  the  Ohio 
valley.  Flagmen tary  remains  of  a  fossil  bird 
related  to  Hatpcronift  in  the  Judith  River  forma- 
tion wrere  discovered  in  Montana.  Dr.  Wherry 
completed  the  areal  mapping  of  various  forma- 
tions in  Pennsylvania,  and  a  geological  survey 
was  made  of  the  Canal  Zone  in  1014. 

Arthur  Sowerby  went  on  a  zoological  explora- 
tion trip  in  China  and  Manchuria  in  1917,  and 
was  again  in  that  region  at  the  close  of  1923. 
H.  C.  Haven  collected  zoological  specimens  in 
Borneo  and  in  Celebes,  Dutch  East  Indies;  col- 
lections of  corals,  birds,  cacti,  and  invertebrates 
were  gathered  in  the  Danish  West  Indies,  east 
Cuba  and  Haiti.  Two  expeditions  were  sent  to 
Africa.  The  Collins-Garner  Congo  Expedition 
collected  many  specimens  of  apes  ana  about 
2500  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes  and  in- 
vertebrates for  the  National  Museum  in  1917. 
The  Smithsonian  African  Expedition,  organized 
under  the  direction  of  Edmund  Heller,  spent 
1919-21  in  the  interior  of  the  continent  collect- 
ing specimens  for  use  in  comparison  in  working 
up  the  collections  made  in  Africa  by  Theodore 
Roosevelt,  Paul  Rainey,  and  others.  Charles  M. 


SMOKE  SCREEN 

Hoy  directed  an  expedition  to  Australia  in  1920 
and  1921  to  study  the  fauna,  which  was  rapidly 
being  exterminated. 

Dr.  A.  3.  Hitchcock  made  botanical  explora- 
tions in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  in  1917;  studied 
the  grasses  of  the  Adirondacks  and  White  Moun- 
tains in  1918;  conducted  an  expedition  to  Brit- 
ish Guiana  in  1920;  and  spent  several  months 
in  the  Orient  in  botanical  work  under  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  Dr.  J.  N.  Rose,  with 
the  cooperation  of  the  Carnegie  Institution,  made 
explorations  in  South  America.  Botanical  col- 
lections were  also  made  in  Santo  Domingo  and 
Haiti  by  Dr.  W.  L.  Abbott  and  Emery  C.  Leon- 
ard, and  in  Jamaica  by  William  R.  Maxon. 

The  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnol- 
ogy, Dr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes,  was  engaged  during 
the  decade  in  the  excavation  and  repair  of  the 
large  prehistoric  Indian  ruins  in  Mesa  Verde 
National  Park  and  of  ruins  in  neighboring  val- 
leys. Ale§  Hrdlicka  was  sent  in  1920  to  the 
Far  East  to  pursue  his  researches  on  the  origin 
of  the  American  Indian  and  the  peopling  of 
eastern  Asia.  Anthropological  expeditions  were 
sent  also  to  Africa  and  to  Siberia  in  1915  and 
in  1923  to  the  Paleolithic  regions  of  France  and 
Spain.  The  American  School  of  Archaeology  was 
organized  in  China  in  1914.  Prof.  W.  H. 
Holmes  participated  in  an  exploration  by  the 
Carnegie  Institution  in  1916  of  the  ancient 
Maya  cities  in  Guatemala  and  Honduras, 
and  in  1919  archaeological  investigations  were 
begun  by  Philip  A.  Means  in  Peru  and  Bo- 
livia. 

The  Langley  Aerodynamical  Laboratory  was 
opened  in  1914  for  the  study  of  the  principles 
of  aerodromics,  especially  those  of  aerodynamics, 
and  for  research  to  increase  the  safety'  and  ef- 
fectiveness of  aerial  locomotion.  In  the  astro- 
physical  laboratory  a  balloon  pyrheliometer  was 
designed  in  1910  to  measure  the  heat  of  the  sun 
at  high  altitudes,  and  during  the  10-year  pe- 
riod, great  advances  were  made  in  the 'methods 
of  observing  the  solar  radiation,  including  the 
establishment  of  two  new  observing  stations,  one 
in  Arizona,  the  other  in  Chile.  In  1917,  F.  G. 
Cottrell  invented  a  method  of  electrical  precipita- 
tion of  suspended  particles  which  was  used 
commercially  by  smelting  and  refining  com- 
panies. 

The  Institution  continued  to  publish  the 
results  of  its  investigations,  distributing  1,600,- 
000  publications  during  the  10  years  to  libraries, 
educational  institutions  and  individuals.  A 
Congressional  appropriation  in  1920  made  pos- 
sible the  establishment  of  the  National  Gallery 
of  Art  as  an  independent  bureau  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
The  Freer  Gallery  of  Art  was  established  under 
the  administration  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion in  the  year  succeeding,  under  the  provisions 
of  the  will  of  Charles  L.  Freer,  who  gave  it  his 
large  and  varied  collection.  The  National  Mu- 
seum made  great  progress  during  the  10-year 
period,  large  additions  being  made  to  its  col- 
lections through  gifts,  bequests,  and  transfers 
from  the  Federal  agencies.  Many  of  the  ob- 
jects in  its  collections,  new  to  science,  were 
studied  and  described  by  the  members  of  its 
technical  staff,  and  the  results  were  made  known 
through  the  Museum  Proceedings  and  Bulletins. 
See  EXPLORATION.  

SMOKELESS   POWDER.    See   EXPLOSIVES. 

SMOKE  SCREEN.  See  WAR  IN  EUROPE, 
Naval  Operations. 


8X009 


1*46 


SHYBKA 


$XOO£,  HEED  (1862-  ).  An  American 
legislator  (see  VOL.  XXI),  United  States  Sena- 
tor from  Utah.  He  was  first  elected  in  1909 
and  was  reflected  in  1914  and  in  1920.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  Public  Lands  and  Service,  the 
Appropriations,  Finance  and  the  Pensions  Com- 
mittees in  the  Senate.  He  was  conceded  to  be 
the  first  authority  on  finance  and  governmental 
expenditures,  and  had  much  to  do  with  the  prep- 
aration of  the  various  tariff  bills  passed  during 
his  time  of  service. 

SMUTS,  JAN  CHRISTIAN  (1870-  ).  A 
South  African  statesman  (see  VOL.  XXI).  As 
commander-in-chief  of  all  the  British  Imperial 
forces  in  German  East  Africa,  he  showed  great 
vigor  and  before  the  end  of  1916  had  entirely 
broken  the  German  power  there.  He  was  then 
summoned  to  London  by  Lloyd  George  for  the 
deliberations  of  the  Imperial  War  Cabinet,  of 
which  he  became  the  only  permanent  Dominion 
member.  He  represented  South  Africa  at  the 
Peace  Conference.  In  1919,  he  became  prime 
minister  of  the  South  African  Union  and  was 
faced  by  the  Nationalist  agitation  led  by  Gen- 
eral Hertzog.  At  the  general  election  of  1920 
he  failed  to  obtain  a  majority  for  his  party  in 
Parliament.  Faced  with  the  necessity  of  a  un- 
ion with  either  the  Nationalists  or  the  Union- 
ists, he  turned  to  the  Unionists,  as  the  Na- 
tionalists were  unwilling  to  give  up  their  hopes 
of  a  republic.  With  the  Unionists'  help,  his 
party,  called  the  Sotfch  African  party,  obtained 
a  good  majority  in  the  election  of  "1921.  The 
Labor  party  and  the  Nationalists  joined  forces 
against  him,  however,  and  on  June  23,  1924,  he 
was  forced  to  resign  and  a  coalition  of  the 
Nationalist-Labor  party  came  into  power  with 
General  Hertzog  as  prime  minister. 

SMYRNA.  By  the  Treaty  of  Sevres  (Aug. 
10,  1920),  Greek  diplomacy,  largely  the  work 
of  Venizelos,  achieved  a  triumph  when  this  im- 
portant region  of  Anatolia  (Asiatic  Turkey) 
was  assigned  to  Greece.  But  it  was  won  only 
to  be  lost  again,  and  by  the  definitive  Treaty 
of  Lausanne  (July  24,  1923)  it  reverted  again 
to  Turkey.  The  artificial  nature  of  the  earlier 
settlement,  the  defeat  at  home  of  Venizelos 
(December,  1920)  and  the  triumph  of  Nation- 
alist Turkey  (1921-22),  all  contributed  toward 
hastening  the  downfall  of  Greek  power  in  Asia. 
Venizelos,  in  his  memorandum  of  Dec.  31,  1918 
to  the  Peace  Conference,  had  asked  for  the  cre- 
ation of  an  autonomous  Smyrna,  made  up  of 
the  Turkish  vilayets  of  Aidin  and  Brusa;  this 
region,  he  claimed,  was  inhabited  by  Greek 
majorities  and  was  set  off  topographically  from 
eastern  Asia  Minor.  But  earlier  Allied  commit- 
ments, notably  those  to  France  and  Italy,  pre- 
vented the  erection  of  such  a  territory,  with 
the  result  that  the  Smyrna  region  awarded  to 
Greece  by  the  Treaty  of  Sevres  was  indefensible 
on  ethnographic,  economic,  and  geographical 
grounds.  The  Smyrna  of  the  Treaty  of  Sevres 
was  made  up  of  the  entire  sanjak  of  Smyrna 
and  certain  districts  of  the  sanjaks  of  Manisa 
and  Akhissar.  On  the  north,  its  frontier  went 
to  the  Bay  of  Adramyti,  on  the  south,  to  Kemer. 
The  zone  possessed  a  population,  according  to 
the  best  1914  figures,  of  1,057,000  divided  into 
509,000  Greeks,  470,000  Moslems,  and  78,000 
others.  The  city  of  Smyrna,  in  which  the  whole 
region  centred,  had  ranked  before  the  War  as 
the  second  largest  part  of  the  Ottoman  Empire 
and  in  exports,  its  trade  had  surpassed  even 
that  of  Constantinople.  It  served  a  vast  hinter- 


land extending  east  as  far  as  the  Ushak  and 
Karahissar  uplands,  north  to  the  Dardanelles, 
and  south  to  Adalia.  Its  railway  communica- 
tions were  the  best  in  Turkey,  for  the  Smyrna- 
Kassaba  line  connected  with  Afiun  Karahissar 
on  the  Bagdad  system,  and  branches  ran  north 
and  south.  This  region  was,  in  1920,  created 
an  autonomous  Turkish  province  under  Greek 
administration  The  treaty  required  Greece  to 
establish  a  local  parliament  in  Smyrna  with  an 
electoral  law  to  be  approved  by  the  Council  of 
the  League  of  Nations.  After  five  years,  this 
local  parliament  was  to  have  the  right,  if  it 
desired,  to  petition  the  League  for  the  absolute 
and  definitive  incorporation  of  the  Smyrna  area 
into  the  Greek  kingdom,  but  no  provision  was 
made  for  a  petition  in  favor  of  reunion  with 
Turkey.  Practically,  the  treaty  clauses  meant 
that  Smyrna  was  to  be  under  the  provisional 
Greek  administration  for  five  years,  as  a  transi- 
tional stage,  and  then  to  be  annexed  to  Greece. 
The  settlement  was  attacked,  etlmographically, 
on  the  following  grounds.  It  did  not  solve  the 
Greek  problem  in  Anatolia  for  at  least  6G  per 
cent  of  the  Greeks  lived  outside  the  zone. 
Again,  it  would  be  impossible  to  move  the  other 
Greeks  to  this  enclave  for  they  consisted  largely 
of  traders  and  the  like,  and  therefore  had  fixed 
economic  interests  in  their  places  of  residence. 
From  the  economic  point  of  view,  the  settlement 
was  a  poor  one  because  Smyrna  was  not  es- 
sentially a  Greek  city  but  a  great  entrepot  of 
trade  linking  the  West  with  Anatolia,  and  scat- 
ing  a  commercial  class  that  included  French, 
Dutch,  and  British  merchants  and  capitalists 
as  well  as  Greek.  As  for  geography,  it  was  at 
once  recognized  that  the  frontiers,*  as  created, 
cut  across  rivers,  valleys,  and  railways,  and 
only  in  the  south  followed  a  natural  "line  of 
division.  The  hostility  of  the  Turks  to  the 
cynical  Realpohtik  of  the  Allies  in  the  whole 
matter  of  the  Greek  programme  requires  no 
further  explanation.  Smyrna,  originally,  had 
been  promised  to  Italy  by  the  secret  agreement 
of  St.  Jean  de  Maurienne  (April,  1917)  ;  but 
the  reluctance  of  the  Italian  people  to  counte- 
nance a  costly  imperialistic  adventure  accounted 
largely  for  the  failure  of  the  Italian  government 
to  push  its  claims  or  stand  in  the  way  of  the 
Greek  aspirations.  Therefore  the  Greek  occupa- 
tion of  Smyrna  at  the  invitation  of  the  "Big 
Three"  proceeded  unopposed  (May  15,  1919). 
But  not  unopposed  by  Turkey,  for  the  occupa- 
tion was  attended  by  dramatic  results.  Spurred 
on  by  Greek  excesses  in  the  Smyrna  zone  and 
their  deep-seated  hatred  of  the  Greeks,  whom 
they  regarded  as  inferiors,  Turks  throughout  the 
whole  of  Anatolia  sprang  to  their  nation's  de- 
fense, and  gave  support  to  the  newly  organized 
Nationalist  government  located  at  Angora.  Both 
sides  mobilized  for  war,  until  by  1921  there 
were  200,000  Turks  and  as  many  Greeks  under 
arms.  The  Powers  made  little  effort  to  inter- 
fere except  for  an  attempt  at  the  London  Con- 
ference of  Mar.  11,  1921,  to  rewrite  the  Sevres 
clauses  respecting  Smyrna.  Military  interfer- 
ence was  out  of  the  question,  and  in  May,  1921, 
the  Powers  declared  their  neutrality,  and  as  was 
at  once  evident,  abandoned  the  Greeks  to  their 
fate.  The  war  in  Anatolia  was  waged  during 
1921-22  with  varying  fortunes  (see  GREECE), 
and  suddenly  terminated  in  September,  1922, 
when  the  Greeks  fleeing  to  the  coast  entered 
the  city  of  Smyrna  to  make  for  their  ships. 
The  Allies  took  over  the  city  on  September  8, 


SNEDDEN 


xaai 


SOCIAL  INSURANCE 


the  Turks  entered  September  11,  and  on  Septem- 
ber 14  a  fire  broke  out  that  almost  gutted  the 
city  and  accounted  for  the  loss  of  thousands  of 
lives.  The  course  of  the  war  had  been  marked 
by  an  unusual  ferocity  during  which  the  atroc- 
ities of  the  Greeks  matched  if  they  did  not  sur- 
pass those  of  the  Turks.  In  fact,  it  was  even 
contended  that  Smyrna  had  been  fired  by  the 
Greeks  to  shake  the  West  out  of  its  apathy. 
But  Europe  had  looked  on  the  whole  Greek  ad- 
venture askance:  the  Greeks  in  Anatolia  had 
complicated  the  problem  of  a  Turkish  peace  and 
had  made  possible  the  resurgence  of  a  Nation- 
alist Turkey.  Italy  had  naturally  enough  dis- 
approved the  Greek  adventure  from  the  outset, 
and  had  made  separate  amicable  bargains  with 
the  Turkish  Nationalists  in  1021-22;  France, 
after  the  Peace  Conference,  had  looked  on  Greek 
aims  with  unfriendly  eye,  and  had  likewise  made 
terms  with  Nationalist  Turkey;  while  the  Brit- 
ish government,  though  at  first  willing  enough 
to  utilize  Greece  as  a  pawn  in  Near  Eastern 
politics  had  lost  enthusiasm  after  the  overthrow 
of  the  ingratiating  Veni/elos,  and,  in  view  of 
French  and  Italian  coolness,  was  willing  enough 
to  see  the  pawn  swept  off  the  board  The  Greeks 
wore  out  of  Anatolia  in  19:22,  and  the  strength 
of  Turkey  as  against  the  impotence  of  Greece, 
made  the  question  of  Smyrna's  disposition  now 
relatively  simple.  The  ultimate  character  of  the 
settlement  was  foreshadowed  in  the  Armistice 
of  Mudania  (Oct  10,  1922)  between  Turkey  and 
Great  Britain,  France  and  Italy,  which  among 
other  things  assured  Turkey  of  complete  sov- 
ereignty over  Anatolia.  A  preliminary  step  was 
taken  in  the  Lausanne  Agreement  (May,  1923) 
between  the  Turks  and  Greeks  by  which  the 
question  of  Greek  damages  in  Smyrna  was 
amicably  settled  on  the  basis  of  compensation 
in  Thrace  (q.v.).  Finally,  in  the  Treaty  of 
Lausanne  (July  24.  1923),  the  Greek  loss  of 
Smyrna  was  confirmed.  One  of  the  most  brutal, 
and  yet  possibly  necessary  elements  rising  out 
of  the  Greek  defeat  was  the  arrangement  made 
for  the  exchange  of  Greek  and  Turkish  popula- 
tions. From  August,  1922,  when  the  flood  of 
Greek  refugees  from  Asia  Minor  began  to  pour 
into  Greece,  into  1924,  the  process  of  colonizing 
Greeks  (some  500,000)  in  the  home  lands  went 
on  steadily.  But  for  the  aid  rendered  by  the 
Kefugee  Commission  which  was  created  by  the 
League  of  Nations  Council  and  headed  by  Mr. 
Henry  Morgentlmu  of  New  York,  the  task  might 
well  have  liecn  insuperable 

SNEDDEN,  DAVID  (1868-  )  An  Ameri- 
can educator,  born  at  Havilah,  Cal  He  was 
graduated  from  St  Vincent's  College  in  1889 
arid  took  postgraduate  courses  at  Stanford  and 
Columbia  Universities.  For  several  years  he 
served  as  principal  of  schools  in  California  and 
from  J901  to  1905  was  assistant  professor  of 
education  at  Stanford  University  In  the  latter 
year  he  was  appointed  adjunct  professor  of  edu- 
cation at  Columbia,  serving  until  1909,  when 
he  became  State  Commissioner  of  Education  in 
Massachusetts  In  1916,  he  became  professor  of 
education  in  Columbia.  Professor  Snedden  was 
a  member  of  many  learned  societies  and  pub- 
lished, among  other  works:  Administration  of 
Education  for  Juvenile  Delinquents  (1906); 
Educational  Administration  in  the  United 
States  (1908);  Problems  of  Vocational  Educa- 
tion (1911);  Problems  of  Secondary  Education 
(1917);  Vocational  Education  (1920);  Socio- 
logical Determination  of  Objectives  in  Education 


(1921).  From  1918  to  1920,  he  was  president 
of  the  National  Society  for  Vocational  Educa- 
tion. 

SNOWDEN,  PHILIP  (1864-  ).  An  Eng- 
lish public  official  (see  VOL.  XXI).  During  the 
War  he  was  a  member  of  the  Liquor  Control 
Board,  and  in  1924  he  was  appointed  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  in  Ram«ay  Macdonald's  cab- 
inet. His  first  budget  reduced  the  customs  on 
sugar,  tea,  cocoa,  etc.,  and  abolished  the  duties 
on  automobiles.  He  wrote  Through  Bolshevik 
Russia  (1920)  and  A  Political  Pilgrim  in  Europe 
(1921). 

SNOW  REMOVAL.  See  ROADS  AND  PAVE- 
MENTS. 

SNYBER,  VIBGIL  (1869-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can mathematician,  born  at  Dixon,  Iowa.  He 
studied  at  Iowa  State  Univerbity,  and  then  held 
a  fellowship  at  Cornell,  after  which  he  studied 
abroad,  receiving  his  Ph.D  at  Gottingen  in 
1894.  He  returned  to  Cornell  as  instructor  of 
mathematics  and  in  1910  became  professor 
His  original  investigations  include  studies  on 
the  geometry  of  the  line  and  sphere,  configura- 
tions of  ruled  surfaces,  and  birational  trans- 
formations, the  results  of  which  he  published 
He  became  editor  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  Amer- 
ican Mathematical  Society  in  1903.  Besides 
various  scientific  papers,  he  wrote  Differential 
Calculus,  with  James  McMahon  (1898);  Differ- 
ential and  Integral  Calculus  (1902)  :  Elementary 
Text-book  on  the  Calculus  (1912);  Analytic 
Geometry  of  Space  (1913).  He  also  edited 
Plane  Geometry  (1910),  and  Solid  Geometry 
(1912). 

SOAPSTONE.     See  TALC  AND  SOAPSTONE. 

SOCCER.     See  FOOTHALL. 

SOCIAL  DEMOCRATIC  PARTY.  See  SO- 
CIALISM*, Germany. 

SOCIAL  INSURANCE.  An  increasingly 
important  phase  of  social  legislation  was  the 
application  of  the  insurance  principle  to  various 
classes  of  misfortunes  that  handicap  working- 
men,  to  afford  relief  in  case  of  unemployment,  ac- 
cident during  employment,  occupational  disease, 
sickness,  and  invalidity  and  old  age.  See 
WORKMEN'S  COMPENSATION;  OLD  AGE  PENSIONS, 
and  MOTHERS'  PENSIONS. 

The  problem  of  unemployment,  in  its  relation 
to  the  worker's  welfare,  was  first  attacked  on  a 
national  scale  in  Great  Britain  in  1911,  when  a 
compulsory  unemployment  insurance  act  was 
passed,  affecting  2,225,000  people  in  specified 
trades,  and  encouraging  voluntary  insurance  in 
other  trades.  This  scheme  was  extended  to  af- 
fect 3,725,000  people  in  1918;  in  1920,  to  include 
all  over  16  years  of  age,  with  certain  exceptions 
In  1922,  a  compromise  plan  was  under  consid- 
eration, combining  the  State  plan  with  one 
providing  for  insurance  by  industry.  Admin- 
istrative cooperation  with  the  labor  exchanges 
greatly  minimized  the  genuine  problem  of  de- 
tecting those  unemployed  because  of  laziness. 
In  other  countries,  the  measures  taken  had  pro- 
vided generally  either  for  voluntary  funds  man- 
aged by  societies  or  unions,  and  compulsory  or 
voluntary  municipal  funds,  subsidized  by  the 
state,  provincial  or  municipal  governments. 
The  municipal  unemployment  fund  plan  was 
adopted  in  Italy  ( 1910) /Germany  and  Holland; 
insurance  through  subsidized  societies  was  more 
general  in  France,  Norway,  Denmark,  Spain 
(1919),  and  Switzerland.  Switzerland  in  1919 
adopted  a  temporary  Federal  measure  provid- 
ing for  unemployment  insurance;  and  in  1020 


SOCIALISM 


xaaa 


SOCIALISM 


Italy  established  a  compulsory  system.  See 
UNEMPLOYMENT. 

Compulsory  insurance  against  sickness  and  ac- 
cidents had  been  established  for  several  decades 
in  Germany,  Austria  and  Hungary.  It  covered 
a  wide  range  of  occupations.  The  National 
Health  Insurance  Act  passed  by  Great  Britain 
in  1911,  which  was  compulsory,  and  universal 
with  a  few  specified  exceptions,  and  provided 
for  sickness,  disablement,  maternity,  medical 
and  sanatorium  benefits,  was  amended  several 
times  during  and  after  the  War,  changing  the 
amounts  )K>th  of  weekly  contributions  and  bene- 
fits. In  1912,  Switzerland  adopted  an  insur- 
ance law  covering  sickness  and  accidents,  for 
the  latter  compulsory,  for  the  former  generally 
voluntary.  Italy's  compulsory  insurance  law  of 
1920  (see  OLD  AGE  PENSIONS)  also  provided 
against  sickness  or  accident.  Health  insurance 
legislation  had  been  adopted  in  Poland;  and  in 
1922  such  protection  was  legislated  in  LaUia 
and  Jugo-Slavia.  The  question  of  health  insur- 
ance received  considerable  attention  in  the 
United  States  in  1916-18,  when  commissions 
were  appointed  by  a  number  of  States  to  inves- 
tigate the  need  and  possibilities  of  such  legisla- 
tion, but  the  movement  met  with  considerable 
opposition  on  the  ground  that  compulsory  pay- 
ment was  an  infringement  of  personal  liberty, 
and  that  sufficient  means  for  health  insurance 
were  already  available  in  various  friendly  or- 
ders, unions,  corporations,  and  commercial  in- 
surance companies. 

SOCIALISM.  The  history  of  socialism  after 
1914  did  not  bring  forth  any  noticeable  change 
in  principle.  The  great  struggle  in  the  socialist 
ranks  during  1914-24  was  concerned  primarily 
with  tactics,  for  throughout  these  years  the  so- 
cialist principle  retained  its  solid  Marxian 
basis.  While  there  was  much  debate  among  the 
three  foremost  groups,  the  communists  under 
Lenin,  the  orthodox  socialists  under  Kautflky, 
and  the  "revisionists"  under  Bernstein,  none  of 
these  groups  ever  seriously  questioned  the 
fundamental  Marxian  doctrine.  In  regard  to 
procedure  two  distinct  camps  appeared,  the  one 
favoring  the  attainment  of  the  socialist  aim 
through  the  dictatorship  of  the  proletariat, 
and  the  other  striving  for  the  same  end  by 
utilizing  the  existing  political  and  economic 
institutions.  In  addition  socialism  came  to 
lean  more  and  more  on  organized  labor  and 
adopted  under  the  influence  of  syndicalism,  in- 
dustrial unionism,  and  jruild  socialism,  tactics 
of  a  more  strictly  industrial  character.  Tactics, 
the  disruption  of  international  socialism,  and 
the  final  reconstitution  of  the  International 
mark  the  years  from  1914  to  1924. 

The  Socialist  International.  Early  in  1914 
plans  had  been  made  to  hold  an  International 
Congress  on  Aug.  23,  1914,  in  Vienna  for  the 
commemoration  of  the  founding  of  the  Interna- 
tional Workingmen's  Association  50  years  be- 
fore. This  congress  was  never  held  because 
with  the  outbreak  of  the  War  international  so- 
cialism broke  up  into  its  component  national 
parts.  The  general  strike  against  war  was  not 
called  in  spite  of  all  previous  plans  for  such  ac- 
tion, and  the  War  swept  international  socialism 
away  regardless  of  individual  mass  meetings 
and  protests  against  war  in  various  countries. 
Most  socialists  placed  their  country's  needs 
ahead  of  their  socialistic  principles.  The  Bel- 
gian, the  French,  many  of  the  British,  and  most 
of  the  German  socialists  supported  their  respec- 


tive governments.  Only  the  Russian,  some  of 
the  British,  and  a  small  minority  of  the  Ger- 
man socialists  remained  passive.  During  1915 
more  or  less  determined  efforts  were  made  to 
reconstruct  the  disrupted  International,  and  to- 
ward this  end  a  conference  was  held  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  Scandinavian  socialists  during 
January,  1915,  in  Copenhagen.  Only  the  Scandi- 
avian*  and  the  Dutch,  16  delegates  in  all,  at- 
tended. In  February  of  the  same  year  the  so- 
cialists of  the  Allied  countries  held  a  conference 
in  London,  which,  however,  concerned  itself  with 
victory  rather  than  with  peace  and  criticized 
the  imperialism  of  all  the  warring  countries 
only  perfunctorily.  More  important  than  cither 
of  these  two  was  the  conference  held  at  Zimmer- 
wald,  Switzerland,  in  September,  1915,  at  the 
imitation  of  the  Italian  socialists,  at  which 
were  present  representatives  of  all  the  irn>or- 
tant  socialist  parties,  exclusive  of  the  British 
to  whom  passports  had  been  refused  This  con- 
ference emphasised  the  international  solidarity 
of  all  socialists  and  issued  a  manifesto  condemn- 
ing the  War.  Nothing  definite,  however,  was 
accomplished,  and  the  effoits  at  welding  to- 
gether the  broken  up  International  proved 
equally  unsuccessful  in  1916.  The  Interna- 
tional Socialist  Bureau,  which  had  been  re- 
moved at  the  outbreak  of  the  War  from  Brus- 
sels to  the  Hague  and  which  was  now  under  the 
direction  of  the  Dutch  socialists,  held  a  con- 
ference at  its  seat  July  30-Aug.  2,  1916,  which 
was  attended  by  representatives  from  Sweden, 
Denmark,  Holland,  the  United  States,  and  Ar- 
gentina and  at  which  resolutions  \vere  adopted 
placing  the  responsibility  for  the  War  on  the 
capitalist  system.  The  Locialists  of  belligerent 
and  neutral  countries,  who  had  convened  dur- 
ing the  previous  year  at  ZimmerwHld,  met 
again  in  August,  1916  at  Kienthal,  Switzerland. 
The  majority  of  the  40  delegates  at  this  con- 
ference represented  the  Italian  Official  Socialist 
party,  and  the  Swiss  and  Russian  socialists. 
Only  two  Germans  and  three  Frenchmen  at- 
tended, and  hence  the  conference  accomplished 
very  little.  Renewed  efforts  at  international 
unity  brought  about  the  so-called  ^eace  Con- 
ference of  Stockholm  in  June,  1917  The  plan 
initiated  with  the  Russian  Workmen's  and  Sol- 
diers' Council  and  found  response  among  the 
Hermans  and  Austrian  socialists  who  drew  up 
an  elaborate  peace  programme  on  the  basis  of 
"no  annexations  and  no  indemnities "  Of  all 
the  important  socialist  parties,  only  the  Ger- 
inans  attended,  and  the  conference  was  therefore 
an  utter  failure.  More  concrete  results  were 
produced  by  the  Inter-Allied  Labor  and  Socialist 
Conference  of  Feb.  21-23,  1917,  at  London.  It 
voted  a  declaration  of  war  aims,  commonly 
called  the  London  Memorandum,  which  en- 
dorsed President  Wilson's  four  principles  es- 
sential to  peace  and  the  British  Labor  party's 
programme  as  to  war  aims,  and  advocated  a 
League  of  Nations.  On  that  basis,  however, 
unity  with  the  enemy  socialists  was  hardly  pos- 
sible at  that  time.  Another  Inter-Allied  So- 
cialist Congress  met  in  London  during  Septem- 
ber, 1918.  A  majority  resolution  approved  ef- 
forts to  aid  revolutionary  Russia  against  Ger- 
many, while  a  minority,  which  wished  to  go 
much  further  in  support  of  the  Soviet  govern- 
ment, was  condemned  as  pro-Bolshevik.  Amid 
continued  attempts  during  1019  to  revive  the 
disrupted  Second  International,  12  radical  so- 
cialist parties  met  at  the  instance  of  the  Rus- 


SOCIALISM 


1223 


SOCIALISM 


sian  Soviet  government  at  Moscow,  Mar.  2-6, 
1010,  and  formed  the  Third  International,  a 
strictly  communist  organization.  The  Interna- 
tional Socialist  Bureau,  the  only  remnant  left 
of  the  Second  International,  summoned  the 
Berne  Conference  of  February,  1019,  at  which 
26  countries  were  represented.  The  Conference 
nettled  a  number  of  points  of  conflict  and  ex- 
pressed its  opposition  to  the  Communist  Inter- 
national. In  the  following  August  the  commit- 
tee for  the  reconstruction  of  the  Second  Inter- 
national held  a  session  at  Lucerne,  at  which 
further  progress  was  made  and  a  congress  for 
the  following  year  was  decided  on.  At  the 
Congress  of  Genoa,  August,  1920,  international 
socialism  was  finally  reconstituted  after  six 
years  of  discord.  The  organization  was,  how- 
ever, by  no  moans  complete,  for  many  socialist 
units  remained  outside  its  fold.  The  Congress 
declared  emphatically  against  the  acts  and  pro- 
gramme of  Lenin  and  Soviet  Russia  and  adopted 
in  the  main  British  Labor  party  features  and 
principles.  A  score  of  socialist  parties  attended 
the  Conference  and  affiiliated  with  the  new  in- 
ternational body.  Amsterdam  was  chosen  as 
the  permanent  seat.  The  Third  International 
held  a  Congress  at  Moscow  in  1021  which  was 
attended  by  several  hundred  delegates  from  42 
countries.  *  The  result  of  this  meeting  was  the 
maintenance  of  the  Soviet  doctrine  in  all  its 
purity  Socialist  groups  that  were  opposed 
both  to  the  nationalist  tendencies  of  the  Second 
International  and  the  centralism  and  exclusive 
communist  character  of  the  Third  International 
organ  i?cd  in  Vienna,  Feb.  2,  1021,  the  Interna- 
tional Working  Union  of  Socialist  Parties,  or, 
as  it  was  commonly  termed,  the  Second  and  a 
Half  International  The  chief  adherents  of  this 
body  were  the  Independent  Labor  party,  the 
(ipiman  Independent  socialists,  the  Socialist 
party  of  France,  the  Austrian,  Swiss,  and 
Rumanian  socialists,  and  the  Russian  Men- 
sheviks.  This  intermediary  organization  soon 
manifested  a  desire,  however,  to  cooperate 
with  the  other  Internationals,  and  at  its  in- 
stance a  conference  of  the  three  Internationals 
was  held  in  the  Reichstag  building  in  Berlin, 
Apr.  2-5,  1022,  at  which  a  basis  for  common 
procedure  was  discussed  While  the  Conference 
and  the  subsequent  meeting  of  its  Committee  of 
Nine,  Berlin,  May  23,  1022.  ended  in  failure  as 
far  as  the  Moscow  International  was  concerned, 
it  succeeded  in  bringing  the  other  two  organiza- 
tions closer  together.  This  rapprochement  con- 
tinued during  the  remainder  of  the  year  and 
at  the  meeting  of  the  executives  of  the  two 
bodies  at  The  Hague,  Dec.  10,  1022,  it  was  de- 
cided to  call  a  congress  at  Hamburg  for  May 
20  of  the  following  year,  in  order  to  bring  about 
united  socialist  action.  At  this  congress  424 
delegates  from  30  countries,  representing  43  so- 
cialist parties  or  groups,  were  present.  The  Vi- 
enna International  and  the  Second  International 
merged  and  formed  the  Labor  and  Socialist  In- 
ternational with  its  permanent  seat  in  London. 
Thus  the  socialist  parties  of  the  world,  with  the 
exception  of  the  communist  groups,  were  united 
for  the  first  time  since  August,  1914.  The  new 
organization  and  the  Third  International  con- 
tinued their  hostility  to  each  other. 

France.  The  elections  of  1014  increased  the 
number  of  seats  of  the  socialists  in  the  French 
Chamber  to  101.  The  outbreak  of  the  War 
found  the  French  socialists  giving  uniform  sup- 
port to  their  government.  They  regarded  the 


War  as  a  war  of  defense  on  the  part  of  France 
and  dropped  the  antimilitarist  plank  from 
their  platform.  During  1915  and  the  greater 
part  of  1910  they  continued  this  solid  indorse- 
ment of  the  government,  but  late  in  1010  a 
steadily  growing  minority  element  sprang  up 
which  opposed  the  War  At  the  Socialist  Con- 
gress of  Bordeaux,  October,  1917,  it  became  ap- 
parent that  the  majority  had  swung  over  to  the 
minority  viewpoint;  but  a  fusion  of  the  two 
groups  did  not  take  place,  since  no  agreement 
could  be  reached  on  the  question  of  war  credits. 
In  April,  1010,  the  French  Socialist  party  voted 
to  remain  in  the  Second  International,  protested 
against  the  Peace  Treaty  of  Versailles,  and  con- 
demned the  League  of  Nations.  At  the  elections 
of  1019  it  polled  1,750,000  votes,  a  gain  of  40 
per  cent,  but  its  representation  in  the  Chamber 
was  reduced  to  55  seats.  In  1921  the  com- 
munist element  seceded  from  the  Socialist 
party  and  founded  an  independent  organization, 
which  polled  321,444  votes  against  578,460  for 
the  socialists,  in  the  elections  of  May,  1922.  At 
its  national  congress  at  Lille,  1023,  the  French 
Socialist  party  rejected  a  proposal  from  the 
communists  for  united  action  against  the  oc- 
cupation of  the  Ruhr  and  the  danger  of  an  im- 
perialist war.  On  the  same  occasion  it  voted 
for  recognition  of  Russia.  In  the  May  elections 
of  1924,  it  increased  its  membership  in  the 
Chamber  from  55  to  101  seats.  With  the  seces- 
sion of  the  communist  element,  the  party  be- 
came more  moderate,  this  being  manifested  by 
its  apparent  willingness  to  support  a  Radical 
Socialist  government,  without,  however,  actu- 
ally participating  therein.  See  COMMUNISM. 

Germany.  While  the  War  was  still  im- 
minent, the  German  socialists  voiced  their  pro- 
test against  it  in  organized  mass  meetings,  but 
once  war  was  declared  the  Social  Democratic 
party  in  the  Reichstag,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
supported  the  government  and  voted  the  war 
credits.  As  the  \\ar  progressed,  dissatisfaction 
with  the  party's  attitude  toward  the  government 
and  the  War  appeared  in  the  Reichstag  group 
and,  although  few  in  numbers  during  1014  and 
1015,  the  dissenters  were  strong  enough  in  1010 
to  break  with  the  party  and  form  a  new  organ- 
ization, the  Socialist  Union  of  Labor,  which 
mustered  20  members  in  the  Reichstag  and 
adopted  a  programme  uncompromisingly  op- 
posed to  the  War.  Thus  the  conflict  between 
internationalism  and  nationalism  had  split  the 
great  German  Social  Democratic  party.  Dur- 
ing 1017,  the  new  organization  grew  in  strength 
and  called  itself  the  Independent  Social  Demo- 
cratic party.  It  demanded  immediate  peace 
and  branded  the  War  as  capitalistic  through- 
out, while  the  adherents  of  the  old  party,  now 
called  the  Majority  Socialists,  supported  the 
government  and  sought  internal  economic  and 
political  reforms  and  a  peace  honorable  to  Ger- 
many. With  the  disastrous  close  of  the  War, 
and  the  revolution,  the  Majority  Socialists  took 
over  the  government.  When  the  Independent 
Socialists  seemed  to  be  willing  to  support  them, 
a  minority  among  them,  which  had  been  most 
outspoken  in  its  hostility  to  the  War,  seceded 
and  expressed  sympathy  with  the  Soviets.  The 
Sparta  cists,  as  these  ultra  radicals  called  them- 
selves, began  an  uprising  in  January,  1919, 
which  was  forcibly  suppressed  by  the  Majority 
Socialist  government.  As  a  resuli  of  the  elec- 
tions of  1019,  the  government  passed  completely 
into  the  hands  of  the  Majority  Socialists,  but 


SOOIAU8K 

the  Independents  made  also  considerable  gains. 
Of  the  three  socialist  groups  which  thus  existed 
in  Germany,  the  Majority  and  Independent  So- 
cialists favored  the  Second  International  and 
the  Spartacists  the  Third  International.  In 
October,  1920,  however,  the  Independents  pro- 
nounced their  adherence  to  the  Moscow  body. 
At  their  annual  national  congress  at  Goerlitz 
in  September,  1921,  the  Majority  Socialists  de- 
cided to  cooperate  with  the  bourgeois  parties. 
In  September,  1922,  in  the  Convention  of  Ntir- 
emberg,  the  Majority  Socialists  and  the  Inde- 
pendents combined  into  the  United  Social  Demo- 
cratic party.  A  small  minority  of  the  Inde- 
pendents held  aloof  and  joined  ultimately  the 
communists.  The  Reichstag  group  of  the  com- 
munists joined  in  1923  the  Reichstag  group  of 
the  United  Socialists  and  formed  with  some  of 
the  former  Independents  the  left  wing  of  that 
party,  but  in  the  Reich  the  socialists  lost  many 
members  to  the  communists.  This  leftward 
trend  within  the  socialist  rank  and  file  became 
clearly  apparent  in  the  elections  of  May,  1924, 
when  the  seats  in  the  Reichstag  of  the'  United 
Socialists  were  reduced  from  1C6  to  100,  while 
the  communists  obtained  60  seats  against  15 
in  the  old  Reichstag.  As  a  result  of  this  left- 
ward movement  and  of  the  great  Nationalist 
gains,  the  active  or  passive  participation  of  the 
socialists  in  the  government  was  doubtful  in 
the  summer  of  1924. 

Great  Britain.  Early  in  1914,  the  three  out- 
standing British  socialist  societies,  the  British 
Socialist  party,  the  Independent  Labor  party,  and 
the  Fabian  Society,  drew  up  a  plan  for  closer 
cooperation,  but  here,  as  elsewhere,  socialist 
progress  was  checked  by  the  advent  of  the  War. 
In  England,  as  in  Germany,  there  was  at  first 
organized  socialist  protest  against  the  WTar. 
This  changed  once  the  conflict  had  become  a 
reality.  The  Labor  party,  only  partially  social- 
ist in  character  and  composition,  gave  full  sup- 
port to  the  government  while  the  Independent 
Labor  party  remained  aloof.  Thus,  on  the 
whole,  British  socialism  and  the  Labor  party 
remained  loyal  to  the  government  throughout 
the  War  (except  for  a  group  of  British  social- 
ists) and  in  the  closing  years  of  the  struggle 
socialist  members  of  the  Labor  party  accepted 
posts  in  Lloyd  George's  War  Cabinet.  After 
the  War,  in  1919,  unsuccessful  attempts  were 
made  to  bring  together  the  British  Socialist 
party,  the  Independent  Labor  party,  and  the 
Fabian  Society.  There  had  been  a  fourth  group, 
the  former  Social  Democratic  Federation,  now 
called  the  National  Socialist  party,  which  in 
1920  assumed  its  old  name  and  joined  the  Labor 
party.  The  latter,  still  only  partially  a  reflec- 
tion of  socialist  views  and  principles,  became 
in  the  post-war  period  increasingly  socialist  in 
character  and  its  gains  in  the  elections  of  1919 
were  regarded  as  socialist  gains.  In  1920,  it 
expressed  itself  as  opposed  to  the  Third  Inter- 
national. At  the  same  time  the  radical  British 
Socialist  party  became  the  British  Communist 
party  (see  COMMUNISM)  and  was  joined  by  the 
Socialist  Labor  party,  an  offshoot  of  the  Amer- 
ican Socialist  Labor  party.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  War,  guild  socialism  (q.v.)  and  syndical- 
ism, (q.v.),  two  nonpolitical  and  strongly  in- 
dustrial movements,  began  to  exert  an  ever  in- 
creasing influence  on  British  socialism  and  in 
the  post-Armistice  years  these  movements  be- 
came even  more  powerful.  The  elections  of  1922 
made  the  Labor  party,  with  142  members  in 


SOCIALISM 

the  Commons,  the  chief  party  of  opposition  and 
after  the  elections  of  1923,  which  increased  its 
strength  to  191  seats,  the  Labor  party  took 
over  the  government  with  the  passive  support 
of  the  Liberals.  The  Labor  party  was  affiliated 
with  the  Labor  and  Socialist  International  of 
which  it  was  the  leading  spirit. 

The  United  States.  The  American  Socialist 
party  lost  rather  than  gained  during  1914. 
Although  it  elected  Meyer  London  to  Congress, 
it  polled  at  the  November  elections  over  200,000 
votes  less  than  in  1912.  During  1915,  there  was 
a  great  deal  of  strife  in  the  party  over  the  non- 
participation  of  the  American  socialists  in  the 
Copenhagen  Conference.  The  party  was  rather 
successful  in  that  year  in  electing  candidates 
to  State  and  local  offices.  At  the  presidential 
election  of  1916,  however,  it  polled  over  150,000 
votes  less  than  in  1912.  America's  entrance 
into  the  War  in  1917  had  the  same  disrupting 
effect  on  the  American  Socialist  party  that  the 
War  had  had  on  the  socialist  parties  of  other 
countries.  After  endeavoring  in  vain  to  have 
the  party  repeal  its  expression  of  opposition  to 
the  War,  a  patriotic  group  seceded  and  formed 
the  Social  Democratic  League  in  1918.  During 
the  same  year  the  American  government  sup- 
pressed many  antiwar  activities  of  the  social- 
ists by  imprisoning  a  number  of  them,  includ- 
ing Kugene  Debs.  New  factional  disputes  arose 
in  1919  after  the  Chicago  Convention,  at  which 
the  party  declared  in  favor  of  the  Third  Inter- 
national. The  radical  elements  left  the  party 
and  formed  the  groups  subsequently  known  as 
the  Communist  party  and  the  Communist  Labor 
party  (see  COMMUNISM)  Thu«  the  American 
Socialist  party  lost  considerable  influence  due 
to  HH  middle-course  policy.  On  the  one  hand  it 
alienated  the  more  conservative  elements,  while 
on  the  other  hand  it  lost  those  \\lio  wore  com- 
munist in  sympathy  and  wished  to  stand  square- 
ly on  the  Moscow  programme.  In  1J)20,  the 
American  socialists  took  a  definite  stand  against 
Moscow  by  insisting  on  uning-  their  own  judg- 
ment as  to  their  principles  and  tactics.  That 
year  was  also  maiked  by  the  suspension  of  the 
five  socialists  elected  to  the  New  York  State 
Assembly.  When  these  were  reflected,  three  of 
them  were  again  suspended  in  December  of 
the  same  year.  At  the  national  elections  in 
1020,  the  party  polled  about  one  million  votes. 
In  1021,  the  sentences  of  Debs  and  a  number  of 
other  socialists,  imprisoned  during  the  War  un- 
der the  Espionage  Act  and  other  war-time  meas- 
ures, were  commuted.  At  the  Convention  of 
1922,  the  Socialist  party  voted  for  affiliation 
with  the  Vienna  International  and  for  unre- 
served recognition  of  Russia.  In  Wisconsin  the 
Socialists  sent  Victor  Berger  to  Congress  in  the 
elections  of  1922,  while  Daniel  W.  TToan  became 
mayor  of  Milwaukee  for  a  third  term.  In  New 
York  City  the  Socialist  party  joined  in  the  elec- 
tions with  The  Farmer-Labor  party  to  form  the 
American  Labor  party.  An  invitation  from  the 
Workers'  party,  the  successor  of  the  Communist 
party,  for  cooperation  in  various  matters  was 
rejected  unanimously  at  the  annual  convention, 
May  19-23,  1923.  In  the  elections  of  the  same 
year  the  Socialist  party  in  New  York  City  co- 
operated again  with  the  Farmer-Labor  party. 
The  American  Socialist  party  was  represented 
at  the  Unity  Conference  of  the  Vienna  and 
London  Internationals  and  affiliated  subsequently 
with  the  Labor  and  Socialist  International. 

Italy.    The  Italian  Socialists  were  opposed  to 


SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


1335 


SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


the  War  and  voiced  their  protest  against  it 
in  various  ways,  making  plain  their  hostil- 
ity even  after  Italy's  entry  and  throughout 
the  duration  of  the  War.  The  post-war  period 
saw  the  same  internal  dissension  in  the  Italian 
party,  communists  and  reformists  forming  sepa- 
rate organizations.  The  growth  of  Fascism 
weakened  the  socialist  movement,  the  elections 
of  May,  1024,  indicating  a  marked  retrogres- 
sion. 

Russia.  The  Russian  socialists  were  al- 
most uniformly  opposed  to  the  War  and  suffered 
severe  persecution  from  the  Russian  government. 
For  further  details  see  COMMUNISM. 

SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY.  Like  all  the  new 
sciences,  social  psychology  had  to  struggle 
against  the  tendency  to  conceive  science  on  the 
literal  model  of  mathematical  physics  It  is 
hard  for  the  human  mind  to  escape  the  fascina- 
tion of  rigid  laws  and  absolute  predictability, 
even  when  such  a  prospect  destroys  the  very 
purpose  of  the  scientific  research  If  social 
psychology  were  reducible  to  a  mechanical  sys- 
tem, it  would  be  a  monstrosity,  and  no  one 
would  be  interested  to  Rtudy  it.  And  yet  be- 
cause the  scientific  intelligence,  in  its  ordinary 
workings,  divides  and  classifies  into  pigeon- 
holes, more  than  one  social  psychologist  found 
himself  embarking  on  vain  constructions  until 
lie  was  awakened  by  the  complexity  of  the  sub- 
ject matter. 

In  this  connection,  a  short  repression  into  the 
history  of  social  psychology  is  instructive  The 
new  science  was  called  into  being  to  supplement 
the  science  of  individual  psychology  Tbe  latter 
science,  being  investigated  on  an  experimental, 
physiological  basifl,  was  powerless  to  bring  to- 
gether the  complex  facts  and  tendencies  of  human 
life,  and  it  was  therefore  necessary  to  add  a  new 
member  to  the  intellectual  encyclopaedia.  But 
no  sooner  was  this  member  added  than  the  prob- 
lem came  up  of  finding  a  specific  method  for  it 
By  scientific  method  most  persons  understand 
positive  method,  a  method  that  gives  results 
that  anybody  can  understand  without  the  neces- 
sity of  a  cultural  initiation  or  direct  sympathy. 
But  it  was  the  insistence  upon  such  a  positive 
and  objective  method  that  had  impoverished  the 
science  of  individual  psychology  and  had  robbed 
it  of  all  the  hopes  aroused  by  the  literary  psy- 
chologists arid  the  authors  of  the  naturalistic 
novel.  A  similar  insistence  was  bound  to  bring 
about  an  analogous  disappointment  with  social 
psychology. 

The  best  illustration  of  this  development  is 
to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Wilhelm  Wundt 
For  nearly  half  a  century,  the  director  of  the 
Lein/itf  laboratory  dominated  the  science  of  psy- 
ch oiojjy  in  Germany.  In  his  later  years  he 
turned  from  individual  psychology  to  Volkpsy- 
chologie,  but  he  continued  to  apply  the  same 
"structural"  formula — the  search  for  elements 
and  laws.  He  defined  the  social  mind  as  an  in- 
dividual synthesis  possessing  actuality,  although 
in  his  physiological  psychology  actuality  was 
regarded  as  immediacy  of  experience  and  was 
therefore  personal.  Moreover,  in  dealing  with 
the  group  mind  as  a  synthesis,  Wundt  entangled 
himself  in  the  same  difficulty  as  in  his  apper- 
ceptive  synthesis  of  the  individual  mind.  The 
apperceptive  synthesis  was  a  union  of  psycho- 
physical  sensations,  and  yet  it  had  a  reality 
over  and  above  its  component  atoms. 

So,  too,  the  group  mind  was  a  synthesis  of  in- 
dividual minds  and  seemed  to  have  a  substantial 


existence  of  its  own.  Wundt  held  that  the  at- 
tributes of  the  group  mind  were  to  be  deter- 
mined bv  the  analysis  of  its  products;  thus 
the  attributes  of  the  German  mind  were  to  be 
formulated  by  an  analysis  of  the  collective  acts 
of  the  German  people,  those  of  the  French  mind 
by  an  analysis  of  French  acts,  etc  But  in 
practice  Wundt's  laws  of  folk  psychology  were 
hut  applications  of  individual  psychology;  just 
as  in  practice  his  analysis  of  immediate  psy- 
chological experience  tended  to  be  degraded  more 
and  more  into  mere  physiology. 

In  Germany,  Wundt's  folk  psychology  met  the 
opposition  or  those  who  approached  collective 
phenomena  from  the  study  of  history  and  the 
evolutionary  development  of  peoples.  Krtiger 
was  the  leader  of  this  group — the  school  of 
Entwicklungspaychologie  or  developmental  psy- 
chology of  groups.  The  conflict  paralleled  the 
historic  quarrel  in  France  between  the  objective 
sociologists  and  psychologists  like  Gabriel  Tarde 
who  hoped  to  explain  all  social  phenomena 
through  the  mechanism  of  the  instinct  of  imi- 
tation. 

In  the  United  States  and  in  England,  the 
issues  were  never  so  sharply  drawn;  for  one 
reason,  because  no  rigorous  discipline  was  de- 
veloped for  the  study  of  social  facts  Mc- 
Doiigall's  Kocial  Psychology  served  for  many 
years  as  a  model  for  all  students  of  the  sub- 
ject. Its  method  was  thoroughly  empirical — 
empirical,  that  is,  in  the  Britibh  sense,  without 
being  objective.  Inspired  largely  by  tbe  Dy- 
namic Sociology  of  Ward,  Professor  McDougall 
had  undertaken  to  put  into  relief  the  component 
individual  motivations  which  go  to  make  up 
the  movement  of  life  which  \\e  call  society. 
Because  this  system  of  motivations  was  elabo- 
rated in  the  form  of  a  textbook  treatise  in- 
stead of  a  novel,  as  Thackeray's  Vanity  Fair, 
both  the  author  and  his  critics  tried  to  judge 
the  work  as  objective  science  in  the  manner 
of  physics.  Professors  disagreed  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  instincts  and  inherited  dispositions  man 
possessed  at  birth;  whether  these  instincts  were 
immutable  or  could  be  propitiated  by  a  favor- 
able environment;  and  finally  as  to  the  rela- 
tion of  these  instincts  to  ethics  and  religion. 
Some  even  attempted  to  verify  the  existence  of 
the  instincts  by  the  aid  of  a  physiological  micro- 
scope and  discovered  only  simple  and  conditioned 
reflexes. 

It  is  significant  that  in  setting  about  to  study 
the  same  social  phenomena  from  another  angle, 
Professor  McDougall  arrived  at  the  conception  of 
a  group  mind.  Such  a  conception  is,  after  all, 
another  way  of  expressing  the  literary  notion 
of  a  national  genius,  or  a  national  spirit,  with 
fairly  definite  characteristics.  The  difficulty 
comes  in  the  attempt  to  put  such  conceptions 
on  the  level  of  objective  visibility  and  precision, 
and  the  difficulty  is  involved  in  the  very  notion 
of  objectivity.  We  may,  in  this  connection, 
qualify  as  objective  any  judgment  which  re- 
mains true  or  is  capable  of  becoming  true  for 
all  men  regardless  of  their  psychological  motiva- 
tion, or  their  personal  or  moral  caprice.  Such 
a  definition,  it  is  obvious,  applies  only  to  the 
world  of  matter  and  the  world  of  numbers. 
When  we  step  outside  of  these  relatively  simple 
fields,  we  are  compelled  to  rely  on  metaphors — 
metaphors  which  are  more  or  less  adequate  to 
the  artistic  task  of  expression.  A  recognition 
of  this  fundamental  relationship  between  the 
objective  and  the  nonobjective  at  once  clarifies 


SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


xart 


80KOLOV 


the  task  of  the  social  sciences,  and  indicates 
a  natural  division  between  social  psychology, 
sociology,  and  practical  ethics. 

The  simplest  field  oi  the  three  is  sociology, 
or  the  study  of  social  statics.  This  science  deals 
with  facts  and  figures  which  do  not  lie  but 
which  are  quite  misleading  when  they  are  re- 
garded as  the  whole  story.  The  function  of 
social  psychology,  on  the  other  hand,  is  to  or- 
ganize a  marionette  show  capable  of  explain- 
ing and  interpreting  any  set  of  objective  statis- 
tics that  we  may  pick.  Social  psychology,  then, 
cannot  be  a  rigorous  science  that  can  be  added 
to,  brick  by  brick.  It  is  rather  an  imaginative 
conception  of  a  hypothetical  structure,  and  gives 
as  it  were  the  local  color  setting  to  the  drama 
of  practical  action  Whether  we  call  this  ac- 
tion applied  sociology  or  applied  social  psychol- 
ogy* or  social  ethics,  docs  not  really  matter, 
so  long  as  we  do  not  presume  by  any  theoretical 
or  imaginative  schematism  to  close  the  system 
of  experience  and  shut  out  the  necessity  or 
the  possibility  of  practical  action.  Of  the  two 
theoretical  sciences,  sociology  is  the  more  ob- 
jective, the  more  universally  true;  but  for  that 
very  reason,  the  practical  applications  of  sociol- 
ogy are  less  deductible  from  the  data  and  more 
dependent  upon  what  Prof  Roscoe  Pound  calls 
"the  prerogatives  of  the  expert"  But  in  the 
case  of  social  psychology,  its  imaginative  schem- 
atism is  something  already  interpretative  and 
subjective,  something  already  foreshadowing  a 
practical  goal.  Thus  Professor  MeDougall's 
Social  Psychology  contains  within  it  a  moral- 
ity; as  does  also  the  more  daring  and  imagina- 
tive treatise  of  Mr.  Trotter  Professor  Dewey's 
Human  Nature  and  Conduct  is  frankly  couched 
in  terms  of  a  pragmatic  idealism,  and  for  that 
reason  the  analysis  and  discussions  are  in- 
structive even  to  those  who  do  not  accept  all 
.  the  premises  of  that  philosophy. 

If  our  characterisation  of  the  essence  of  social 
psychology  is  correct,  it  follows  that  it  can- 
not be  taught  in  the  dogmatic  manner  of  text- 
books. And  yet  because  of  the  insistent  demand 
tor  positive  principles,  more  textbooks  were 
written  during  the  decade  under  consideration 
than  works  of  a  stimulating  intellectual  char- 
acter. The  behavioristic  revolt  in  general  psy- 
chology led  to  a  similar  manifestation  in  our 
field,  and  there  was  more  than  one  attempt 
to  simplify  the  complexities  of  social  life  to  the 
mechanism  of  stimulus  and  response.  Such  a 
scheme  gives  only  an  imitation  of  knowledge 
and  does  not  bite  into  the  actual  movement  of 
things.  M.  Bergson  has  said  that  the  human 
intelligence,  as  it  comes  out  of  the  hands  of 
nature,  is  capable  of  dealing  only  with  the  un- 
organized solid.  Such  a  judgment  goes  far  to 
explain  the  naTve  constructions  produced  by 
some  of  the  students  of  the  youthful  science 
of  social  psychology.  They  went  at  the  science 
with  heavy  marching  boots  and  failed  to  un- 
derstand the  subtleties  involved  in  human  cul- 
ture. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  social  sci- 
ences all  took  their  rise  as  part  of  a  reaction 
against  polite  literary  culture,  with  its  conven- 
tional phrases  and  moral  homilies.  This  re- 
action was  born  of  an  excessive  faith  in  the 
methods  of  physical  science,  which  was  set  up 
in  opposition  to  humanism.  The  social  sciences 
were  to  replace  cultural  studies  and  were  to 
give  a  positive  solution  to  the  problems  which 
cultural  tradition  had  been  able  to  pose  only 


in  vague  terms.  Now  despite  the  exaggerated 
tendencies  of  the  new  sciences,  they  have  had 
a  salutary  effect  in  toughening  our  cultural 
values.  In  teaching  us  to  resort  to  conscious 
reflection  and  analysis  instead  of  to  react  pas- 
sively to  the  suggestion  of  traditions,  they  have 
done  their  task  well.  Where  they  have  failed 
is  in  not  always  applying  the  artistic  finesse 
necessary  to  the  subject.  This  is  the  future 
task  of  social  psychology. 

SOCIETY  ISLANDS.  See  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
ISLANDS. 

SOCIOLOGY.    See  SOCIAL  PSYCHOLOGY. 

SOIL.  The  highly  important  role  which  col- 
loids play  in  soils  was  emphasized  by  investi- 
gations, and  much  new  light  was  thus  thrown 
on  the  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  soils. 
The  colloids,  which  appear  to  be  not  a  group 
of  substances  but  matter  reduced  to  a  certain 
degree  of  fineness,  have  been  shown  to  occur  in 
soils  in  larger  proportions  than  was  formerly 
realized,  and  to  modify  profoundly  their  ab- 
sorptive power  for  water  and  other  constituents, 
flocculation  and  deflocculation,  and  solution  and 
precipitation  of  soil  constituents.  The  soil  sur- 
vey of  the  United  States  now  covers  over  750,- 
000,000  acres,  as  compared  with  489,000,000 
acres  in  1914.  It  furnishes  in  large  measure  the 
fundamental  data  necessary  for  classifying  the 
tillable  lands  with  reference  to  fertility  and 
crop  adaptation. 

Bibliography.  The  following  books  on  «.oil 
cover  recent  investigations  and  new  material. 
T.  L  Lyon  and  H.  0.  Buckman,  The  Nature  and 
Properties  of  Soils  (New  York,  1922);  Sir 
A.  D  Hall,  The  Soil,  3d  ed  (London,  1920); 
M.  Fleischer,  Die  Bodenkunde,  5th  ed.  (Berlin, 
1922)  ;  Edward  J  Russell,  Soil  Conditions  and 
Plant  Growth,  4th  ed  (London  and  New  York, 
1921)  ;  Sir  John  Russell,  Farm  Soil  and  Its  Im- 
provement (London,  1923)  ;  F.  E.  Bear,  Soil 
Management  (New  York,  1924);  H  H.  Bennett, 
The  Soils  and  Agriculture  of  the  Southern 
States  (New  York,  1921);  F.  V.  Coville,  The 
Agricultural  Utilization  of  Acid  Lands  by  Means 
of  Acid-Tolerant  Crops  (U  S  Hnpt  of  A#r  Bui. 
69  1913)  ;  Sir  E.  John  Russell,  The  Micro-organ- 
isms of  the  Soil  (London,  1923)  ;  Edmond  Kay- 
ser,  Microbes  et  Fertility  du  Sol  (Paris,  192'i)  ; 
P.  Ehrenberg,  Die  BodenKolloide,  3d  ed  (Hies- 
den  and  Leipzig,  1922)  ;  F.  S.  Harris,  Soil  Allah 
(New  York,  1920).  There  are  two  scientific 
periodicals  devoted  entirely  to  soilH;  viz,  Roil 
Science  and  Internationale  Mitteilungen  fur 
Bodenkunde,  and  certain  aspects  of  the  subject 
are  dealt  with  extensively  in  Journal  of  Ecoloqy, 
as  well  as  in  the  older  agricultural  periodicals 

SOISSONS.  See  WAR  IN  EUROPE,  Westetn 
Front. 

SOKOLOV,  NIKOLAI  (1886-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican violinist  and  conductor,  born  at  Kiev,  Rus- 
sia, Having  received  his  first  instruction  from 
his  father,  he  entered  the  Yale  University 
School  of  Music  in  1899,  studying  the  violin 
under  C.  M.  Loeffler.  Tn  1903,  he  became  a 
violinist  in  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra. 
His  career  as  a  virtuoso  began  in  1911  with  a 
tour  of  England  and  France.  For  a  time  he 
lived  in  San  Francisco,  where  he  organized  a 
string  quartet  in  1910  and  made  his  dtfmt  as 
conductor  with  the  Philharmonic  Orchestra 
there,  which  he  conducted  during  the  summer 
of  1916.  In  1918,  he  became  conductor  of  the 
Cleveland  Symphony  Orchestra,  which  he 
brought  to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  He  also 


SOLAB  CONSTANT 

appeared  as  guest  conductor  with  several  of 
the  great  American  orchestras  and  with  the  Lon- 
don Symphony  Orchestra.  In  1919,  he  formed 
a  string  quartet  with  Edlin,  Kalodkin  and  de 
Gomez,  members  of  the  Cleveland  orchestra. 

SOLAB  CONSTANT.  See  ASTRONOMY; 
METEOROIOGY. 

SOLAB  SYSTEM.    See  ASTRONOMY. 

SOLE,  WILHELM  (1862-  ).  A  German 
public  official,  born  in  Berlin.  He  was  much 
interested  in  the  Oriental  languages,  studied 
Sanskrit,  and  lived  a  long  while  in  Calcutta. 
Returning  to  Germany,  he  studied  political  sci- 
ence and  was  appointed  governor  of  German 
Samoa  in  1900  and  German  colonial  secretary  in 
1911.  He  achieved  much  success  in  the  reform 
of  German  colonial  administration.  He  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs 
in  October,  1918,  and  in  this  capacity  conducted 
the  negotiations  for  the  Armistice.  He  con- 
tinued to  hold  this  office  under  the  revolution- 
ary Socialist  government  until  December,  1918, 
when  he  resigned.  Later  he  was  appointed  am- 
bassador to  Tokyo.  He  wrote  Wcllpolitik  und 
Kolonialpolitik  (1918)  and  Kolonialpolitik, 
Mein  Pohtisches  Vermachtniss  (1919). 

SOLOMON  ISLANDS.  See  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
ISLANDS. 

SOLS.     SEE  CHEMISIBY,  PHYSICAL. 

SOMALILAND.  A  Biitish  Afiican  protec- 
torate comprising  the  Somali  Coast  on  the  Gulf 
of  Aden,  extending  from  Labadu  to  Bandar 
Ziyada.  Its  area  is  l>8,000  square  miles;  its 
population  about  300,000,  for  the  most  part  Mo- 
hammedan and  nomadic  in  character.  The  chief 
towns  had,  by  the  1921  census,  the  following 
populations:  'Berbera,  30,000;  Zeyln,  7000;  Bnl- 
har,  7300.  The  exports  were  largely  pastoral 
in  nature,  i.e.  skins  and  hides,  cattle  and  sheep. 
Tho  imports  were  foodntufTR  and  textiles.  Ex- 
ports for  1921  were  £317,659  as  compared  with 
1216,596  in  1913-14.  Imports  for  1921  and 
1913-14  were  £349.003  and  £238,218.  Expendi- 
tures still  continued  in  excess  of  revenues  and 
imperial  grant s-in-a id  were  necessary  to  make 
up  deficits.  Revenues  for  1921-22  were  £120,- 
405  (largely  from  customs)  :  expenditures,  £263,- 
128.  In  1921-22,  a  grant  of  £100,000  was  made 
in  the  form  of  a  loan.  Transport  still  depended 
for  the  most  part  on  the  camel.  In  1920,  the 
Mullah  Mahommed,  who  for  20  years  dominated 
the  interior  and  consistently  fought  off  the  at- 
tempts at  British  penetration,  was  completely 
broken  when  an  attack  from  the  air  by  British 
aeroplanes  wrecked  his  camp  and  killed  great 
numters  of  his  followers.  He  himself  died  in 
hiding  soon  afterward,  and  with  him  passed  the 
power  of  the  dervishes.  British  rule  was  thus 
triumphant. 

French  Somali  Coast.  A  French  colony  ly- 
ing between  Italian  Eritrea  and  British  Somali- 
land  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  Area,  5790  square 
miles;  population  (estimate  of  1921)  208,000. 
Jibuti,  the  largest  town  in  1921  had  8366  in- 
habitants of  whom  354  were  Europeans.  Chief 
exports  included  hides  and  skins,  ivory,  salt, 
and  fish;  total  in  1921,  109,361,080  francs. 
Chief  imports  were  cotton  goods  and  food- 
stuffs; total  in  1921,  129,840,325  francs.  A 
large  share  of  the  trade  was  in  transit  to  and 
from  Abyssinia  via  the  railway  from  Jibuti  to 
Addis- Abeba  (590  miles).  The  influence  of  the 
railway  (completed  in  1917)  on  trade  was  seen 
in  the  increased  tonnage  entering  Jibuti.  In 
1912,  247  ships  of  737,748  tons  entered;  in  1921, 


SOROLLA  T  BASTTDA 

484  ships  (307  French)  of  1,529,989  tons.  The 
local  budget  for  1922  balanced  at  4,595,000 
francs.  As  a  result  of  the  enlightened  colonial 
policy  the  natives  continued  orderly. 

Italian  Somaliland.  A  colony  and  three 
protectorates  of  Italy  extending  along  the  east 
coast  of  Africa  from  British  Somaliland  to  the 
Juba.  Area,  139,430  square  miles;  population 
about  450,000.  Mogadiscio,  the  capital  of  the 
colony,  had  16,000.  Attempts  were  made  in  the 
south,  in  the  colony,  to  turn  the  native  Somali 
from  pastoral  pursuits  toward  agriculture.  In 
1922,  under  the  Duke  of  Abruz/i,  7500  acres 
were  put  under  cotton.  In  the  north,  however, 
the  native  products  continued  to  be  cattle,  sheep 
and  skins.  Exports  for  1921  were  12,130.000 
lire;  imports,  71,112,000  Leading  imports 
were  cotton  goods,  sugar,  rice,  petroleum,  yarn. 
Leading  exports  were  hides  (from  75  to  80  per 
cent),  dura,  maize,  gum,  butter,  cotton  The 
budget  for  1922-23  called  for  revenues  of  19,- 
664,000  lire  of  which  8,422,000  lire  was  to  be 
an  imperial  contribution.  The  military  expendi- 
ture was  to  be  3,281,700  lire  to  maintain  an 
armed  force  of  about  3000  men.  There  were  no 
railways.  Mileage  of  roads  in  1922  was  1135 
miles  Communications  were  maintained  by  13 
wireless  stations.  A  wireless  station  at  Mo- 
gadiscio was  in  touch  with  Italy  via  Mas^awa 
By  the  secret  treaty  of  1915,  to  facilitate  Italy's 
entry  into  the  \Var.  Great  Britain  promised  to 
augment  Italy's  territories  to  the  right  of  the 
Juba  River  in  order  to  assure  Italian  control 
of  this  important  watercourse.  By  1924,  how- 
ever, no  settlement  had  been  reached  liecausc 
of  Italy's  excessive  demands.  See  AFRICA,  His- 
tory. 

SOMME,  BATTLES  OF  THE.  See  WAR  IN  EU- 
ROPE, Western  Ft  out. 

SONIC  SOUNDING.      See  NAVIGATION. 

SONNINO,  SIDNEY,  BARON  (1847-1921). 
An  Italian  statesman  (see  VOL.  XXI).  He  was 
asked  by  Premier  Salandra  in  1914  to  take 
charge  of  the  foreign  office.  His  conduct  of 
the  office  showed  wide  knowledge  of  international 
affairs,  patriotism,  and  high  principles.  He 
also  acted  as  foreign  minister  under  Orlando 
during  the  Peace  Conference,  which  he  attended 
as  second  Italian  delegate  from  January  18  to 
June  19,  1919,  when  he  retired  on  the  Orlando 
cabinet's  going  out  of  office.  Sonnino  was 
blamed  in  some  quarters  for  the  Allies'  policy 
toward  Italy  at  the  Peace  Conference.  He  was 
later  made  a  senator. 

SOBEL,  GEORGES  (1847-1922).  A  French 
engineer  and  social  philosopher  (see  VOL.  XXI) 
During  the  War  he  temporarily  left  the  syndical- 
ist ranks  and  seemed  to  accept  the  iiltranation- 
alistic  philosophy  of  Maurras.  The  Kussian 
Revolution,  however,  brought  back  his  faith  in 
social  reform  through  violence,  and  in  a  new 
edition  (1920)  of  his  celebrated  Reflexions  sur 
la  Violence  he  included  a  brilliant  plea  for  the 
"Russian  dictator  Lenin.  Among  his  writings 
published  since  the  War  is  a  collection  of  es- 
says under  the  general  title  De  rUtilitti  du 
Pragmatisme  (1919). 

SOROLLA  Y  BASTIDA,  JOAQUIX  (1803- 
1923).  A  Spanish  painter  (see  VOL.  XXI). 
His  work  for  the  Hispanic  Society  of  America, 
which  included  a  series  of  portraits  of  Spanish 
writers  and  a  "Panorama  of  the  Forty-Nine 
Provinces  of  Spain,"  was  finished  in  1920,  and 
was  the  last  work  done  before  he  became  para- 
lyzed. 


808MAN 

6OSMAN,  RoBEET  BROWNING  (1881-  ). 
An  American  physicist,  born  at  Chillicothe,  Ohio. 
He  studied  at  Ohio  State  University  and  received 
his  Ph.D.  (1907)  at  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology.  During  1906-08  he  was  at 
the  laboratory  of  the  A.  D.  Little  Company  of 
Boston,  but  in  1908  entered  the  service  of  the 
Geophysical  Laboratory  of  the  Carnegie  Institu- 
tion in  Washington  as  assistant  physicist;  he 
was  physicist  (1911-18)  and  acting  director 
(1918-20).  He  was  consulting  chemist  of  the 
nitrate  division  of  the  Ordnance  Bureau  of  the 
United  States  Army  during  the  War.  His  spe- 
cial investigations  included  studies  of  the  elec- 
tromotive force  of  solutions,  conductivity  and 
ionizations  of  aqueous  solutions  0°-300°,  spe- 
cific volume  of  minerals  at  fusion  temperatures, 
and  other  similar  topics  pertaining  to  mineral 
chemistry  and  physics. 

SOUND.  See  AUDITION;  PSYCHOLOGY,  EX- 
PERIMENTAL. 

SOUNDING,  DEEP-SEA.    See  NAVIGATION. 

SOUND  BANGING.     See  PHYSICS 

SOUTH,  UNIVERSITY  OF  THE.  An  institution 
founded  at  Sewanee,  Tenn.,  in  1857,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church. 
The  student  enrollment  increased  from  about 
160  in  1914  to  272  in  the  year  1923-24  and 
44  in  the  summer  session  of  1923,  the  members 
of  the  faculty  increased  from  20  to  25,  and 
the  library  from  35,000  to  40,134  volumes.  The 

? reductive  funds  were  increased  from  $400,000  in 
914  to  $1,368,639  in  1923,  largely  through  an 
endowment  campaign  carried  on  in  1919,  and  the 
income  from  $125,000  in  1915  to  $279.650  in 
1923.  A  new  stone  dormitory  was  opened  in 
1921,  and  courses  in  forestry  were  added  to 
the  curriculum  in  1923.  Benjamin  Ficklin  Fin- 
ney  succeeded  Albion  Williamson  Knight,  D.D., 
as  president  in  1922. 

SOUTH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF.  A  self-govern- 
ing British  Dominion,  constituted  by  the  South 
African  Act  of  September,  1909,  as  a  legislative 
union,  comprising  the  provinces:  The  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  Natal,  Transvaal,  and  the  Orange 
Free  State.  Total  area:  473,089  square  miles. 
Total  population,  in  1921,  was  6,928,580  as 
compared  with  5,973,394  in  1911,  a  gain  of 
15.99  per  cent  Whites  increased  from  1,276,- 
242  to  1,519,488,  a  gain  of  19.06  per  cent.  In 
1921,  Europeans  included  21.93  per  cent  of  the 
total  population.  Of  the  white  population 
(1921),  847,508  were  classed  as  urban  and  671,- 
980  as  rural;  urban  colored  numbered  888,177 
and  rural  4,520,915.  The  provincial  censuses 
showed: 


SOUTH  AFRICA. 

Hope,  207,404  of  which  113,302  were  white;  Dur- 
ban, Natal,  146,310  of  which  57,095  were  white; 
Pretoria,  Transvaal,  74,052  of  which  45,361 
were  white;  Port  Elizabeth,  Cape,  46,094  of 
which  25,982  were  white;  East  London,  Cape, 
34,673  of  which  20,374  were  white. 

Religion  and  Education.  In  1918,  whites 
professed  the  following  faiths:  Dutch  churches, 
800,178;  Anglicans,  265,149;  other  Protestants, 
200,673;  Catholics,  55,552;  Jews,  58,741.  In 
1913  there  were  4286  schools  for  whites  with 
203,421  pupils  which  increased  by  1920  to  4746 
schools  with  303,255  pupils;  in  1913  there  were 
2363  schools  for  colored  pupils  with  167,708 
pupils  which  increased  by  1920  to  3129  schools 
with  238,137  pupils.  Expenditure  for  educa- 
tion increased  from  £2,268,026  to  £5,940,037. 
Primary  and  secondary  education  were  controlled 
by  the  four  Provincial  Administrations.  In 
1921  there  were  nine  institutions  of  higher  learn- 
ing with  3292  students  and  378  instructors.  In 
1918,  the  University  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
was  divided  into  three  universities,  viz.,  Uni- 
versity of  Cape  Town,  University  of  Stellen- 
bosch,  University  of  South  Africa.  The  other 
six  institutions  became  constituent  colleges. 

Agriculture.  This  industry  made  great  ad- 
vances during  the  decade  1911-21,  partly  as  a 
result  of  the  stimulus  of  high  prices  during  the 
War,  but  as  much  because  of  the  enlightened 
interest  manifested  by  the  Union  agriculture  de- 
partment which  coordinated  the  activities  in 
all  four  provinces.  The  maize  crop  increased 
from  863,252  tons  in  1911  to  1,334,724  tons  in 
1921.  Similarly  wheat  increased  from  181.032 
tons  in  1911  to  228,401  tons  in  1921.  The  1918 
crops  were  304,485  tons  wheat  and  1,264,009  tons 
mai/e.  Other  crops  included  oats,  barley,  kaftir 
corn,  potatoes,  citrus  and  deciduous  fruits,  and 
tobacco.  Droughts  and  locusts  were  frequent, 
those  of  1919  having  been  particularly  severe. 
Cotton  culture  gained  in  popularity.  In  1910, 
22  bales  were  produced;  in  1920-21,  7153  bales 
(500  pounds  each).  In  1920-21,  Transvaal's 
cotton  acreage  was  16,144,  yield  5405  bales; 
Natal,  acreage  2764,  yield  1725  bales.  In  Natal 
the  growing  was  concentrated  in  the  Pongola 
Valley  (250  miles  from  Durlian)  and  was  thriv- 
ing because  of  the  abundance  of  cheap  native 
labor.  Sugar,  in  Natal  and  the  native  reserves, 
yielded  1,627,403  tons  in  1920-21.  Tea  and  to- 
bacco showed  little  or  no  advances.  The  pas- 
toral industries  ranked  high  in  importance. 
Stocks  increased  from  1911  to  1921  as  follows: 
sheep,  30,656,000  to  31,729,512;  cattle,  5,796,000 
to  8,557,089.  In  1921,  there  were  920,468 


Cape  of  Good  Hope 
Natal     

Area 
Square  miles 
.  .     276,966 
35,284 

Total 
population 
1911 
2,564,965 
1,194043 

Total 
population 
1921 
2,782,719 
1,429,398 

Increase 
per  cent 
8.49 
19.71 

European 
population 
1911 

628,377 
98  114 

European 
population 
1921 
650,609 
136  838 

Increase 
per  cent 
1172 
39  47 

110  450 

1  686  212 

2  087  636 

23  81 

420  562 

543  4ft5 

29  °1 

Orange  Free  State 

50,889 

528,174 

628,827 

19.06 

175,189 

188,556 

7.03 

Total     

.  .      473,089 

5  973  394 

6,928,580 

15.99 

1  276  242 

1  519  488 

19  06 

There  were  115.92  white  males  to  100  white 
females  in  1911  and  106.05  to  100  in  1921.  The 
following  record  the  marriage,  birth,  and  death 
rates  of  whites,  per  1000  of  the  white  popula- 
tion for  1913  and  1921 :  marriage  rate,  9.08  and 
8.48;  birth  rate,  31.68  and  28.42;  death  rate, 
10.27  and  10.41.  Principal  towns  in  1921  were: 
Johannesburg,  Transvaal,  288,131  of  which  151,- 
836  were  white;  Cape  Town,  Cape  of  Good 


horses,  261,828  ostriches,  7,836,696  goats,  914,- 
769  pigs.  Wool  production,  measured  in  ex- 
ports, showed  gains.  In  1913,  176,971,000 
pounds  were  exported;  in  1922,  209,783,144 
pounds.  Mohair  (derived  from  the  Angora 
goat)  maintained  its  important  position.  In 
1922,  25,792,749  pounds  were  exported.  Prices 
fluctuated  wildly,  dependent  on  the  demand  in 
England,  and  the  competition  with  Turkey.  In 


SOUTH  APBICA 


xaag 


SOOTH  AFRICA 


1921,  the   value  of  the   mohair   exported  was 
£683,643;    in    1022,    £1,152,470.     By    1921,    the 
Union  was  self -sufficing, as  regards  its  meat  and 
dairy  supplies  and  was  even  beginning  to  export 
considerable   quantities   of   both     Ostrich-farm- 
ing, which  had  been  hard  hit  during  the  War, 
recovered   to  some   extent  after  the   Armistice. 
The  great  yield  of  1913  of  1,023,000  pounds  of 
ostrich  feathers  glutted  the  market  so  that  pro- 
duction during  the  ensuing  years  dropped.     By 

1922,  only  303,092  pounds  were  exported.     The 
number    of    ostriches    dropped    off   almost    two- 
thirds      Irrigation    projects    from    1912    on    be- 
came the  interest  of  the  government     In  1921- 
22,  a  total  of  £1,010,000  was  spent.     In    1022, 
the  works  in  the  Lake  Mentz  region  along  the 
lower  course  of  the  Sundays  River  were  opened. 
These  serve  4900  acres.     The  project  aimed  ulti- 
mately to  reach  40,000  acres.     In  1921,  the  total 
area  under  irrigation  was  808,899  acres. 

Manufacturing.  The  War  gave  an  impetus 
to  local  industries  The  number  of  establish- 
ments increased  from  .3998  in  1910  to  7005  in 
1921.  Leather  tanning  extract,  tobacco,  cement 
showed  the  greatest  advances.  Value  added  to 
products  by  manufacture  in  1921  was  £40,343,- 
000,  gross  value  of  manufactured  products,  £98,- 
308,000  Average  number  of  persons  employed 
was  179,819  of  which  G2,9G2  were  whites.  Local 
industries  were  encouraged  by  tariffs  and  rebate 
during  1914-19,  and  from  1921  on  the  govern- 
ment applied  itself  to  aiding  industrial  develop- 
ments. Bounties  were  offered  for  pig  iron  manu- 
factured, for  steel  produced  from  native  ores, 
and  for  meat  exported 

Mining1.  The  gold-mining  industry  was  the 
dominating  factor  in  the  economic  life  of  the 
ITnion  of  South  Africa.  The  40  large-scale  pro- 
ducing mines  had  an  output  of  9,133,000  fine 
ounces  in  1923,  n  figure  which  was  only  reached 
once  before  in  the  history  of  the  industry — in 
1910,  when  it  was  100,000  ounces  greater — al- 
though in  the  three  years  of  1912,  1915  and 
1917,  the  total  waa  slightly  more  than  9,000,000 
ounces.  The  official  valuation  of  the  gold  out- 
put as  declared  by  the  Transvaal  Chamber  of 
Mines  for  1923  was  £40,178,170,  which  repre- 
sented an  increase  of  £8,000,000,  or  26  per  cent, 
over  1922.  The  £40,000,000  level  was  exceeded 
in  only  two  previous  years — 1920,  when  the  total 
\alue"  was  £44,705,384  and  1921,  when  it  was 
£42,529,31)0  A  large  measure  of  the  prosperity 
of  the  gold-mining  industry  prior  to  1923  was 
due  to  the  gold  premium,  which  amounted  to 
£1,383,397  in  1923;  £2,009,031  in  1922;  18,323,- 
954  in  1921;  and  £10,080,000  in  1920  Owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  United  States  was  in  1924  the 
only  free  gold  market,  the  rate  of  exchange  on 
New  York  was  the  measure  of  the  premium 
which  gold  commanded  over  British  and  South 
African  currency.  Karly  in  1922,  the  diamond 
mines  resumed  production,  after  nearly  two 
years  of  idleness.  In  the  first  six  months  of 
1923,  755,200  metric  carats  were  produced,  or 
more  than  in  the  entire  year  of  1022.  The  coal 
mines  were  making  a  slow  recovery,  nnd  copper 
mines  were  again  operating.  The  total  value  of 
the  principal  minerals  produced  in  the  Union 
from  the  earliest  dates  of  existing  records  to 
Dec  31,  1922,  was  £1,000,002,350  Of  this,  gold 
represented  71  per  cent,  diamonds  21  per  cent, 
coal  5.4  per  cent  For  1922,  the  total  mineral 
output  was  valued  at  £38,014,081  as  compared 
with  £52,025,840  in  1912,  and  £68,332,127  in 
1920.  The  fall  in  value  was  due  to  the  drop  in 


diamond  output  caused  by  the  world-wide  de- 
pression following  1920.  In  1919,  £11,734,495 
in  diamonds  was  mined;  in  1921,  £3,103,448; 
in  1922,  £2,260,031.  Coal  production  increased 
from  7,694,944  tons  in  1911  to  11,396,905  tons 
in  1921.  In  1922,  coal  mined  was  9,725,479 
tons.  Most  of  this  was  used  in  the  gold  and 
diamond  mines,  but  a  considerable  quantity  was 
being  exported  via  Delagoa  Bay,  mainly  for 
bunkering  purposes  (1,477,054  tons  in  1922). 
Diamonds  were  found  principally  in  the  Cape 
Province  and  in  the  Transvaal;  gold  in  the 
Transvaal;  coal  in  Natal  and  the  Transvaal; 
copper  in  the  Cape  Province;  tin  in  the  Trans- 
vaal. Other  minerals  of  importance  besides 
those  mentioned  were:  asbestos,  coke,  lime,  salt, 
silver,  cement,  etc. 

Commerce.  The  following  are  total  import 
and  export  figures  for  selected  years: 

1911  1919  19J2 

Imports  .  .  .  £3H,orj  5,000  £50,791,000  t'51.'irJ7,^71 
Exports  .  .  £57,308,000  ±104,561,000  A'GO,3:n,7f>5 

The  depression  of  1921  and  1922  is  retlected 
in  the  above.  Leading  imports  were,  in  1922, 
by  order  of  value:  foodstuffs,  cotton  piece  goods, 
machinery,  oils,  wood,  hardware,  iron  and  steel 
manufactures,  leather  goods  Leading  exports 
were,  in  order:  gold,  wool,  diamonds,  hides  and 
skins,  corn,  mohair,  coal.  Proportions  of  the 
merchandise  import  trade  by  countries  of  ori- 
gin, for  1910  and  1922,  were:  Great  Britain, 
70  and  535  per  cent;  United  States,  8  and  11.8 
per  cent  In  1920,  American  imports  were  18.2 
per  cent  and  in  1921,  15.fi.  In  1922,  German 
imports  were  6.1  per  cent  (9  per  cent  in  1913). 
Proportions  of  export  trade  by  countries  of 
destination,  for  1910  and  1922,  were:  Great 
Britain,  81  and  78.2  per  cent;  United  States, 
17  and  3.0  per  cent  Exports  to  Germany  for 

1922  were  4  7  per  cent.     Imports  into  the  Union 
during  the  first  six  months  of  1923  totaled  £25,- 
343,417;    exports   were   £30,398,591,  an    increase 
of  £11,000,000  over  the  first  half  of  1922.     Prin- 
cipal imports  from  the  United  States  were  oils, 
automobiles,  cotton   piece  goods,   hardware  and 
cutlery,    lumber    and    agricultural    and    mining 
machinery      The  leading  portw  were  Cape  Town, 
Durban,  Port  Elizabeth,  and  East  London.     Tn 
1912,    4106   vessels    of    12.205,300   tons   entered, 
and  4080  vessels  of   12,103,081  tons  cleared  the 
ports.     In    1921,  these  were     entered,  3567  ves- 
sels of  10,210,000  tons,  cleared,  3532  of  10,217,- 
000  tons     A  drydock  at  Durban,  said  to  bo  the 
largest  south  of  the  equator,  was  begun  in  1919. 
Its  length  was   1150  feet. 

Transportation.  In  May,  1910,  the  provin- 
cial railways  were  amalgamated  into  a  single 
system  denominated  the  South  African  Railways 
under  the  control  of  the  Union.  To  this  were 
added  the  railways  of  Southwest  Africa  in 
April,  1922.  On  Deo.  31,  1913,  the  total  govern- 
ment mileage  was  8282;  in  March,  1923,  this 
was  10.987  miles  (Cape — 4254  miles.  Orange 
Free  State — 1342  miles,  Transvaal— 2644  miles, 
Natal— 1415  miles,  Southwest  Africa— 1331 
miles)  New  lines  built  were  from  Prieska  to 
Kalkfontein,  for  military  purposes;  Krugers- 
dorp  to  Mafeking;  the  completion  in  the  Cape 
Province  of  the  Mossel-George-Oudtshoorn  line 
connecting  Cape  Town  and  Port  Elizabeth.  In 

1923  projects  were  under  way  for  the  addition  of 
853  miles,  and  for  electrification  of  250  miles  of 
track,  principally  between  the  Natal  coal  fields 


SOUTH  AFBICA 


1930 


6OTJTH  A7&ZOA 


and  Maritzburg.  The  first  section  of  the  elec- 
trical railway  was  opened  in  May,  1924.  In 
1913,  earnings  of  the  railways  were  £13,214,000; 
in  1022-23  they  were  £20,140,797.  The  operat- 
ing ratio,  i.e.  expenditures  over  earnings,  was 
77  per  cent  in  1922-23  as  compared  with  54 
per  cent  in  1910.  The  railways  were  running 
behind,  as  was  evinced  by  the  fact  that  the 
end  of  the  fiscal  year  1922-23  saw  an  accumu- 
lated deficit  of  £2,220,511. 

Finance.  Revenues  and  expend  itures  for 
1911-12  were  £17,309,030  and  £13,234,C05  and 
for  1922-23  (estimates)  £28,095,000  and  £24,- 
827,940.  To  the  last  figure  must  be  added  £10,- 
763,000  charged  to  the  loan  account.  These 
figures  excluded  the  railway  and  harbor  ac- 
counts which  were  managed  separately.  Chief 
sources  of  revenue  were  income,  super  excess 
profits,  and  dividend  taxes,  custom**  and  excise, 
interest,  posts,  telegraphs  and  telephones.  Na- 
.  tive  taxes  were  hut  and  poll  taxes.  The  public 
debt  in  1912  was  £117,260,534;  in  1922,  £191,- 
784,930.  Expenditures  for  war  purposes  raised 
by  loans  during  1915-22  totaled  £23,173,985 
After  1913  the  provinces  were  made  to  depend 
for  their  finances  upon  assigned  revenues  made 
to  them  by  the  Union  together  with  annual 
subsidies  limited  to  50  per  cent  of  their  normal 
expenditures.  Expenditures  were  primarily  for 
education.  For  1913-14  and  1920-21,  the  sub- 
sidies to  the  pro\inces  were  as  follows:  Cape, 
£862,000  and  £1,701,000;  Natal,  £361,000  and 
£621,999;  Transvaal,  £629,000  and  £1,539,000; 
Orange  Free  State,  £341,000  and  £615,1)99.  In 
June,  1921,  a  central  Reserve  Dank  was  ewtab- 
lished  at  Pretoria  with  branches  at  Cape  Town 
and  other  important  centres.  The  subscribed 
capital  was  £1,000,000  and  on  Oct.  31,  1923,  the 
Bank  had  issued  £10,644,613  in  notes.  On  June 
30,  1922,  the  note  issuing  powers  of  the  Joint 
Stock  Banks  had  come  to  an  end.  In  addition 
to  its  functions  as  a  bank  of  issue,  and  the 
principal  holder  of  the  gold  reserves  of  the 
country,  the  Reserve  Bank  operated  as  a  bank 
of  discount.  The  rate  of  exchange  of  the  pound 
fluctuated  as  follows  over  the  period  discussed: 
average,  1914,  $5.14;  1920,  $3.66;  1922,  $4.43; 
1923,  $4.57.  \\holesale  prices  were  (1010  = 
100):  1914,  109;  1919,  185.4;  1920,  251.2; 
1922,  144.5;  October,  1923,  125.3  Retail  (cost 
of  living)  prices  (1914=100):  1921,  162;  1922, 
135,  October,  1923,  132. 

History.  The  generation  of  Boer*  who  had 
fought  against  Great  Britain  in  1002  was  alive 
when  the  War  broke  out  in  Europe.  Many  of 
the  Boers  still  entertained  nationalistic  aspira- 
tions and  saw  in  the  War  an  opportunity  to 
gain  release  from  the  domination  of  the  British 
Empire.  However,  the  moie  important  Boer 
leaders  like  Botha  and  Smuts  wero  true  to  the 
British  purpose  and  by  the  weight  of  their  ex- 
ample gained  thi»  Union  for  the  Allies  and  gave 
material  assistance  in  subjugating  the  German 
African  colonies  Tim  Dutch  nationalistic  cause 
was,  nevertheless,  real,  and  in  1014  assumed 
serious  proportions.  The  immediate  reason  for 
the  disaffection  was  the  decision  of  the  govern- 
ment to  send  a  force  against  German  Southwest 
Africa.  In  October,  1914,  a  serious  rebellion 
was  launched  by  Boer  irreconcilable*?  most  of 
whom  sought  to  further  their  own  aims  rather 
than  the  purposes  of  Germany.  The  leaders 
were  General  de  Wet  and  General  Beyers,  while 
the  man  to  whom  all  looked  for  inspiration  was 
General  De  La  Rey.  Unfortunately  for  the 


rebels,  General  De  La  Rey  was  shot  and  killed 
by  a  police  patrol  on  Sept.  15,  1914,  while  on 
his  way  to  join  the  insurgent  camp.  The  re- 
bellion broke  out  actively,  however,  under  de 
Wet  and  Beyers,  and  General  Botha  was  obliged 
to  take  the  field  against  his  erstwhile  com- 
panions in  arms.  After  some  desultory  fighting 
the  Boers  were  dispersed  and  de  Wet  surren- 
dered (Dec.  1,  1914)  while  Beyers  was  drowned 
in  the  Vaal  river  while  trying  to  evade  capture 
(Dec.  9,  1914).  The  losses  were  not  heavy  al- 
though the  forces  engaged  were  considerable. 
In  all  10,000  reliels  had  taken  up  arms.  Only 
one  of  the  leaders,  Fourie,  was  sentenced  to 
death  for  his  part  in  the  insurrection.  Clemen- 
cy was  shown  to  the  others  in  the  way  of  light 
prison  sentences,  so  that  by  December,  1915,  de 
Wet  was  free.  With  active  opposition  gone  the 
move  on  German  Southwest  Africa  went  through 
successfully,  with  the  result  that  by  July,  1915, 
the  colony  was  subjugated.  Considerable  aid  was 
also  rendered  by  Briton  and  Boer  alike  in  the 
European  and  East  African  campaigns,  150,000 
South  Africans  seeing  service.  Throughout  the 
war  period  the  Dutch  nationalists,  led  by 
General  Hertzog,  continued  in  opposition  and 
a  coalition  of  the  South  African  party  (Botha- 
Smuts)  and  the  Unionists  was  necessary  to 
carry  on  the  government.  Republican  propa- 
ganda became  more  and  more  virulent  and 
by  1917  the  Nationalists  were  outspoken  in 
favor  of  a  republic.  They  appealed  to  Presi- 
dent Wilson  to  intercede;  in  fact  General 
Hcrt/og  made  a  trip  to  Paiis  via  New  York 
to  lay  the  matter  before  the  President,  but 
without  success.  At  Versailles,  Botha  and 
Smuts  signed  the  treaty  for  the  Union.  Botha 
having  died  in  1919,  Smuts  became  prime  minis- 
ter. The  election  of  1020  indicated  that  the 
Nationalists  had  gained  ground  rather  than 
lost.  The  poll  showed:  Nationalists,  45;  South 
Africans,  40;  Unionists,  25;  Labor,  21.  The 
only  hope  for  a  strong  government  was  a  perma- 
nent alliance  between  the  two  pro- British  parties, 
and  this  Smuts  was  able  to  effect  after  manv 
pourparlers  in  1920.  The  election  of  1921  could 
therefore  be  held  on  the  frank  issue  of  repub- 
licanism. The  result  gave  Smuts  a  clear  ma- 
jority, the  poll  showing  returned  76  of  the  en- 
larged South  African  party,  47  Nationalists,  10 
Labor.  In  1022,  the  Nationalists  and  Lahorites 
came  to  an  understanding  by  which  the  urban 
districts  were  to  be  contested  exclusively  by 
Labor  candidates  and  the  rural  districts  by  Na- 
tionalists, the  condition  being,  however,  that 
the  Republican  agitation  was  to  cease  for  the 
life  of  the  existing  parliament.  However,  the 
Nationalists  openly  set  forth  their  secessionist 
principles  the  following  year  with  the  result 
that  two  of  the  most  important  Labor  leaders, 
Colonel  Crcswell  and  Mr.  Barlow,  were 
estranged.  Inherently  weak  as  the  Labor-Na- 
tionalist alliance  was,  it  harried  the  govern- 
ment during  three  uneasy  yearn,  reduced  the 
government's  parliamentary  majority,  little  by 
little,  until  it  was  finally  only  four,  and  eventu- 
ally provoked  General  Smuts  to  dissolve  the 
Union  Parliament  on  Apr.  7,  1924  and  appeal  to 
the  electorate  in  a  general  election.  From  1921 
on  the  government  had  been  steadily  losing 
ground,  for  a  variety  of  reasons.  The  Nation- 
alists still  smarted  under  the  defeat  of  1914; 
the  Laborites  resented  the  severity  with  which 
strikes  had  been  suppressed;  there  was  gen- 
eral complaint  over  the  fact  that  Smuts  nad 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


1231 


SOUTH  ATJSTBAUA 


consistently  neglected  dominion  affairs  because 
of  his  international  interests.  The  result  was, 
in  the  elections  of  June,  1024,  a  decisive  de- 
feat for  the  government  party  and  the  return 
of  the  Labor-Nationalist  alliance.  Even  Smuts 
himself  lost  his  seat.  General  Smuts  resigned 
on  June  23  and  was  succeeded  by  a  Labor- 
Nationalist  coalition  headed  by  General  Hertzog. 
Colonel  Creswell,  leader  of  the  Laborites,  joined 
the  cabinet  with  the  portfolio  of  Minister  of 
Defense  and  Labor.  Particularly  significant  was 
the  pact  of  April  21  between  the  two  govern- 
ment gioups  \\hich  was  to  serve  as  the  basis 
of  the  coalition.  By  it,  the  Nationalists  prom- 
iHed  to  relinquish  their  secessionist  agitation 
for  five  years  while  the  Labor  ites,  for  the  same 
period,  pledged  themselves  to  refrain  from  so- 
cialist propaganda. 

The  vexatious  problem  of  the  status  of  im- 
migrants from  India  was  very  acute  on  the  eve 
of  the  War,  but  was  allowed  to  rest  during 
the  world  conflict,  partly  for  the  sake  of  patri- 
otic solidarity,  and  partly  because  of  the  agree- 
ment which  had  been  readied  in  1014  between 
General  Smuts  and  Mohandas  K.  G.  Ghandi 
(who^e  leadership  of  the  passive  resistance 
movement  among  the  Indians  of  South  Africa 
before  the  War  served  as  training  for  Lis  sub- 
sequent and  more  prominent  career  in  India). 
By  this  agreement,  the  government  promised 
that  the  existing  laws  relative  to  the  rights  of 
Indians  in  the  Union  would  be  enforced  in  a 
just  manner  and  with  due  regard  to  vested 
rights;  this  was  generally  understood  to  mean 
that  the  rights  of  Indian  residents  would  not 
bo  fuitber  curtailed  by  legislation  or  by  ad- 
ministrative interpretation  of  the  laws.  Dur- 
ing the  war  period,  however,  this  interpretation 
was  challenged.  In  the  Transvaal,  where  by  a 
state  law  Indians  were  foi bidden  to  purchase 
land,  as  individuals,  the  Indian  merchants  evaded 
this  restriction  by  forming  joint  stock  compa- 
nies to  aoquiie  real  estate.  The  frequency  of 
their  purchases  alarmed  the  white  community, 
who  insisted  on  the  prohibition  of  this  prac- 
tice by  new  legislation,  and  accordingly  an  act 
of  the  Union  Parliament  in  1919  forbade  cor- 
porations of  Asiatics  to  acquire  realty.  Once 
more  race  hatred  burst  into  flames.  Curiously 
enough,  the  most  fren/ied  agitation  against  the 
"Asiatic  peril"  was  riot  in  Natal,  where  about 
four-fifths  of  the  150,000  Indians  in  the  Union 
were  concentrated,  outnumbering  the  whites,  but 
in  Transvaal,  where  the  number  was  relatively 
small.  The  explanation  of  the  seeming  paradox 
is  that  in  Natal  the  greater  number  of  the  In- 
dians were  coolie  laboreis  on  sugar  and  tea 
plantations,  whereas  in  Transvaal  the  Indians 
were  merchants  and  traders,  often  prosperous 
and  aggressive  businessmen  whose  competition 
was  feared,  perhaps  in  an  exaggerated  degree. 
The  Union  government  in  1020  appointed  an 
Asiatic  Inquiry  Commission  to  go  into  the  whole 
matter.  The  Commission's  report,  dated  March, 
1921,  sustained  the  1919  law  and  recommended 
that  in  Natal  Asiatic  landownership  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  should  be  confined  to  the  coast- 
al zone,  while  elsewhere  a  policy  of  voluntary 
segregation  should  be  pursued.  This  expression 
of  anti-Indian  sentiment,  though  couched  in  the 
most  restrained  terms,  was  sufficiently  pointed 
to  evoke  a  protest  from  the  Government  of 
India,  which,  by  the  way,  was  at  this  time  mani- 
festing crave  concern  regarding  the  rights  of 
Indiana  in  Kenya  Colony  (see  KENYA).  When, 


in  the  summer  of  1921,  the  problem  was  aired 
in  the  British  Imperial  Conference  at  London, 
the  determined  efforts  of  the  Indian  government 
to  secure  the  adoption  of  a  general  principle  of 
equal  rights  for  natives  of  India  were  met  by 
an  even  more  determined,  and  successful,  op- 
position by  the  South  African  delegates,  General 
Smuts  and  Sir  Thomas  Smartt.  There  the  mat- 
ter rented.  In  1924,  a  fresh  outburst  of  racial 
antipathy  was  caused  by  agitation  for  and 
against  a  Class  Areas  Bill,  which  proposed  to 
impose  drastic  restrictions,  amounting  almost 
to  prohibition,  on  the  holding  of  property, 
leases,  and  trading  licenses  by  Asiatics,  out- 
side of  designated  areas. 

Internal  problems  that  provoked  the  most  at- 
tention during  the  period  1914-24  were  the 
status  of  the  natives  and  the  growing  articulate- 
ness  of  labor.  The  pressing  demand  for  citizen- 
ship and  equality  of  treatment  of  the  native 
Bantus,  many  of  whom  were  in  the  professions 
and  had  been  under  the  tutelage  of  native  ag- 
gressive churches,  was  a  point  of  serious  con- 
sequence. Around  the  question  of  segregation 
of  natives  in  restricted  areas,  the  whole  conten- 
tion  crystallized.  The  Nationalists  and  South 
Africans  favored  the  proposal,  the  Unionists 
were  opposed.  In  1920,  a  segregation  act  was 
passed,  applicable  to  the  rural  districts  It 
stood  frankly  for  the  policy  of  white  supremacy 
over  the  blacks  and  though  it  granted  the  natives 
some  autonomy,  it  held  out  no  hope  for  the  pos- 
sible fusion,  politically,  of  the  two  races.  In 
1923,  an  act  was  passed  allowing  natives  to  settle 
in  urban  districts.  During  the  War  period,  na- 
tive outbreaks  were  frequent.  Strikes  occurred 
on  the  Rand  and  elsewhere  during  1917-20,  and 
blood  was  spilled  at  Port  Elizabeth  in  1920.  On 
May  24,  1921,  at  Bulhoek,  a  body  of  natives 
calling  themselves  Israelites,  on  refusing  to  dis- 
perse and  leave  for  their  homes,  were  fired  upon 
and  400  casualties  were  the  result.  Labor  un- 
rest, due  to  the  closing  of  the  diamond  mines 
after  the  depression  of  1021.  was  equally  acute, 
in  1922,  a  strike  in  the  gold,  coal,  and  diamond 
mines  took  on  serious  pioportions  and  led  to 
open  warfare  A  general  strike  was  called  on 
one  hand,  and  martial  law  was  declared  on  the 
other;  Fordsburg,  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the 
strikers,  was  shelled  and  finally  taken.  Though 
hostilities  were  brief,  the  losses  on  both  sides 
were  183  killed  and  f>24  wounded.  Financial 
losses  were  placed  at  $25,000,000.  The  miners 
contended  that  the  owners  were  attempting  to 
introduce  wholesale  native  labor  and  cut  wages 
radically;  the  owners  and  the  government 
charged  the  outbreaks  to  the  extremists  who  had 
communistic  leanings. 

The  governor  general  of  South  Africa  for 
1914-20  was  Lord  Buxton ;  he  was  succeeded  by 
Prince  Arthur  of  Connaught. 

SOUTH  AMERICA,  EARLY  CIVILIZATION 
OF.  See  ETHNOGRAPHY. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA.  A  state  of  the  AUB- 
tralian  Commonwealth  occupying  the  central 
and  southern  part  of  the  continent.  Area,  380,- 
070  square  miles;  population  (excluding  aborig- 
ines) in  1911,  408,558;  in  1922,  r>05,009;  average 
annual  increase,  2.45  per  cent.  Adelaide,  the 
largest  city,  including  suburbs,  had  260,542  in- 
habitants in  1921  (200,117  in  1913).  The  area 
under  cultivation  continued  to  increase,  wheat 
in  particular  showinsr  gains.  From  16,938,088 
bushels  of  wheat  in  1913-14,  production  mounted 
to  34,258,914  bushels  in  1920-21.  Other  crops 


SOUTH  CABOLZNA 


1232 


SOUTH  CABOLXNA 


were  barley,  oats,  bay,  and  vines.  Pastoral  ac- 
tivities continued  to  occupy  a  prominent  rdle. 
Mineral  production  in  1921  amounted  to  £944,- 
052  (£034,318  in  1913);  copper,  the  most  im- 
portant, was  valued  at  £106,370  in  1921.  Value 
of  production  for  1920-21:  agricultural,  £19,- 
981,471;  pastoral,  £5,624,217;  manufacturing, 
£7,837,340;  mining,  £1,154,742;  dairying,  £3,- 
498,101;  total,  £39,054,203,  Imports  and  ex- 
ports for  1913  were  £7,348,340  and  £9,809,763; 
for  1921-22,  £9,047,242  and  £14,761,915.  Gov- 
ernment accounts  showed:  revenues  and  expendi- 
tures for  1913-14,  £4,822,766  and  £4,604,129; 
for  1921-22,  £7,771,752  and  £7,826,241.  The 
public  debt,  from  £33,564,332  in  1914  mounted 
to  £62,496,585  in  1923. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA.  South  Carolina  i«  the 
thirty -ninth  State  in  size  (30,989  square  miles), 
and  the  twenty-sixth  in  population;  capital, 
Columbia.  The  population  increased  from  1,- 
515,400  in  1910  to  1,683,724  in  1920,  a  gain  of 
11  1  per  cent.  The  white  population  increased 
from  679,161  to  818,538;  the  Negro  (which,  it 
will  be  noted,  considerably  surpasses  the  white) , 
from  835,843  to  864,719;  native  white,  from 
673,107  to  812,137:  foreign-born  white,  from 
6054  to  6401.  Both  urban  and  rural  popula- 
tions rose  during  the  decade;  the  former  from 
224,832  to  293,987,  the  latter  from  1,290,568 
to  1,389,737.  The  growth  of  the  principal  cities 
was  as  follows:  Charleston,  58,833  in  1910  to 
67,957  in  1920:  Columbia,  20,319  to  37,524; 
Greenville,  15,741  to  23,127. 

Agriculture.  As  South  Caiolina  is  one  of 
the  most  important  cotton-producing  States,  ag- 
ricultural conditions  in  the  decade  1910-20  re- 
flected, as  in  the  case  of  other  cotton-producing 
States,  the  ravages  of  the  boll  weevil  which 
reached  the  State  in  1918  or  1919.  This  is  in- 
dicated by  a  comparison  of  the  acreage  and  pro- 
duction of  cotton  for  the  various  years:  1913, 
acreage  2,790,000,  production  1,378,000  bales; 
1915,  acreage  2,516,000,  1,134,000  bales;  1917, 
2,837,000  and  1,237,000  bales;  1920,  2,964,- 
000  and  1,623,000  bales.  The  acreage  in 

1922  was  2,058,000;  and  the  production  fell  to 
530,000    bales.     The    estimated    production    of 

1923  was   783,000   bales     For   a  discussion   of 
conditions  resulting  from  the  ravages  of  the  boll 
weevil,    and    of    general    conditions   relating   to 
cotton -growing  in  the  decade,  see  BOLL  WEEVIL 
and  COTTOX.     While  the  population  of  the  State 
increased  11.1  per  cent  in  the  decade,  the  num- 
ber of  farms  increased  9.2  per  cent   (from  176,- 
434   in    1910    to    192,693    in    1920).     The    total 
acreage  in  farms  decreased  from   13,512,028  to 
12,426,675,  or  8  per  cent;  but  the  improved  land 
in  farms  increased  from  6,097,999  to  6,184,159 
acres.     While  the  percentage  of  total  land  area 
used   for  agricultural   purposes  decreased   from 
69.2   to  63.7,   the   percentage  of  land  improved 
increased  from  45.1  to  49.8  per  cent.     The  total 
value  of  farm  property  showed  an  apparent  in- 
crease, from  $392,128,314  in   1910  to  $953,064,- 
742  in  1920,  or  143  per  cent;  the  average  value 
per  farm,  from  $2223  to  $4946,  or  122.5  per  cent. 
In  interpreting  these  values  and  all  comparative 
values  in   the  decade   1914-24,  the  inflation  of 
currency  in  the  latter  part  of  that  period  is  to  be 
taken  into  consideration.     The  index  number  of 
prices  paid   to  producers  of  farm  products  in 
the  United  States  was  104  in  1910  and  216  in 
1920.     Of  the  total  of   192,693  farms  in   1920, 
67,724  were  operated  by  owners,  738  by  man- 
agers, and  124,231  by  tenants.    The  comparative 


figures  for  1910  were  64,350,863,  and  11,221. 
White  farmers  in  1920  numbered  83,683,  of 
whom  83,542  were  native;  the  Negro  farmers 
numbered  109,005.  White  farmers  in  1910  num- 
bered 79,636  and  the  Negro  farmers  96,772. 
Farms  free  from  mortgage  in  1920  numbered 
42,847,  compared  with  47,535  in  1910;  those 
under  mortgage  14,299,  compared  with  15,020. 
Dairy  cows  in  1920  numbered  228,569;  180,842 
in  1910.  The  number  of  hugs  also  increased 
from  665,211  to  844,981.  "Beef  cows'*  decreased 
to  64.949,  from  65,319;  sheep  from  27,926  to 
23,581.  The  estimated  production  of  the  prin- 
cipal farm  crops  in  1923  was  as  follows:  corn, 
32,432,000  bushels;  wheat,  1,925,000  bushels; 
oats,  10,192,000  bushels;  potatoes,  2.882,000 
bushels;  sweet  potatoes,  9,050,000  bushels; 
tobacco,  66,730,000  pounds;  hay,  362,000  tons; 
peanuts,  32,832,000  bushels.  Comparative  fig- 
ures, for  1913,  are:  corn,  38,512,000  bushels; 
wheat,  972,000;  oats,  8,460,000;  potatoes,  800,- 
000;  hay,  244,000  tons;  and  tobacco,  33,288,000 
pounds. 

Manufactures.  The  industrial  development 
of  South  Carolina  has  been  slow  but  steady.  The 
chief  increase  in  recent  years  was  in  the  various 
phases  of  cotton  manufacturing.  In  1920,  there 
were,  in  the  State,  six  cities  with  more  than 
10,000  inhabitants,  having  10.3  per  cent  of  the 
total  population  of  the  State.  These  cities,  in 
1919,  reported  21.3  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the 
State's  manufactured  products.  There  were  in 
the  State,  1854  manufacturing  establishments 
in  1909;  1885  in  1914;  and  2004  in  1919.  Per- 
sons engaged  in  manufacture  numbered  78,040, 
77,603,  and  86,360;  and  the  capital  invested 
amounted  to  $173,220,870,  $203,210,875,  and 
$374,537,636  in  those  years  The  value  of  the 
products  in  1909  was  $113,235,945;  in  1914, 
$138,891,202;  and  in  1919,  $381,452,984.  The 
abnormal  increase  in  value  of  products  being  to 
a  great  extent  due  to  the  change  in  industrial 
conditions  produced  by  the  War,  statistics  of 
this  item  cannot  be  used  as  an  exact  measure- 
ment of  the  growth  of  manufactures  between  the 
industrial  censuses  of  1014  to  1910,  but  a  com- 
parison of  the  number  of  establishments  and 
persons  engaged  in  those  years,  shows  a  con- 
siderable increase  in  the  manufacturing  activ- 
ities of  the  State.  The  first  industry  in  point 
of  value  of  product  is  the  manufacture  of  cotton 
goods,  valued  in  1909  at  $65,930,000;  in  1914, 
at  $78,446,000;  and  in  1919,  at  $228,440,000 
The  manufacture  of  cotton-seed  oil  and  cake  is 
second  in  this  respect,  with  a  product  valued  in 
1909  at  $10,903,000;  in  1914,  $16,380,000;  and 
in  1919,  $38,675,000.  Fertilizers,  ranking  third, 
in  1909  were  valued  at  $9,025,000;  in  1914,  $13,- 
824,000;  and  in  1919,  $30,412,000.  The  produc- 
tion of  mineral  and  soda  waters  was  next  in 
order:  in  1909,  $740,000;  in  1914,  $1,541,000; 
and  in  1919,  $5,351,000.  The  chief  manufactur- 
ing cities  of  the  State  are  Charleston  and 
Columbia. 

Education.  South  Carolina  has  undoubtedly 
a  more  difficult  educational  problem  than  most 
of  the  other  States,  due  to  the  extremely  large 
Negro  population  and  to  the  large  rural  popula- 
tion. In  spite  of  these  difficulties,  great  progress 
was  made  in  the  decade  1913-23.  This  is  in- 
dicated by  the  fact  that  while  South  Carolina 
still  has  the  largest  percentage  of  illiteracy  of 
any  of  the  States,  it  also  showed  the  largest 
decrease  in  the  decade  1910-20.  The  Legisla- 
ture, during  the  period,  passed  many  important 


SOUTH  CABOLINA 


1333 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


laws  designed  to  improve  educational  conditions. 
Among  these  were  the  compulsory  educational 
law  passed  in  1018  and  revised  in  1920,  which 
proved  a  great  stimulus  and  incentive  to  school 
attendance  and  added  thousands  of  pupils  to  the 
enrollment  list.  The  general  assembly  of  1922 
made  unusually  liberal  appropriations  for  pub- 
lic education.  The  State  has  an  excellent  rural 
graded-Rchool  Act,  supplemented  by  an  equaliz- 
ing Act  guaranteeing  the  seven-months  term. 
Great  progress  was  made  in  vocational  educa- 
tion, especially  in  agriculture,  textiles,  home 
economics,  and  training  of  teachers.  Coopera- 
tion is  given  by  Clemson  College,  Winthrop  Col- 
lege and  the  State  Colored  College.  The  total 
enrollment  in  town  schools  for  whites  in  1922 
was  115,709;  in  country  schools  for  whites, 
120,844;  in  Negro  town  schools  were  enrolled  64,- 
379;  and  in  Negro  country  schools  101,888,  mak- 
ing a  total  white  enrollment  of  236,013  and  a 
Negro  enrollment  of  226,267,  or  a  total  enroll- 
ment in  the  State  of  402,880.  In  1913,  the 
total  enrollment  was  301,161;  167,914  white, 
193,247  colored.  The  enrollment  in  the  high 
schools  in  1022  was  113,461  Expenditures  for 
schools  in  1922  was  $9,517,908.  The  percentage 
of  illiteracy  in  the  State  decreased  from  29.6 
per  cent  in  1910  to  23  per  cent  in  1920  Among 
the  native  whites  it  decreased  from  11.4  to  8.5 
per  cent;  among  the  colored  population,  from 
46.9  to  38.7.  Among  the  foreign-born  whites, 
it  remained  for  both  periods  6.5. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  South  Caro- 
lina, consistently  Democratic  since  the  Civil 
War,  remained  HO  in  the  decade  1914-24.  Elec- 
tions were  held  in  1914  for  governor,  State  of- 
ficers, repiesentatives  to  Congress  and  U.  S. 
senator.  Ellison  D.  Smith  was  a  candidate  for 
icclection  to  the  Senate  and  was  opposed  for 
the  nomination  by  Governor  Cole  1.  Blease 
Senator  Smith  was  elected  and  Kichard  I.  Man- 
ning was  elected  governor.  Governor  Blease, 
whose  term  was  a  sensational  one,  brought  it  to 
a  close  by  wholesale  pardon  of  State  prisoners. 
At  the  expiration  of  his  term  he  had  freed  more 
than  3000  prisoners  as  a  protest  against  the 
prison  laws  of  the  State.  In  January,  1915, 
prior  to  his  leaving  office,  he  disbanded  the  or- 
ganized militia  of  the  State,  as  a  result  of  a 
difference  with  the  Federal  War  Department 
over  its  administration.  Mr.  Manning  took  tho 
office  of  governor  on  January  11.  He  at  once 
revised  the  order  disbanding  the  militia.  State- 
wide prohibition  was  adopted  by  a  majority  of 
the  people,  to  go  into  effect  Jan.  1,  1916.  Gov- 
ernor Manning  was  reflected  in  1916,  defeating 
former  Governor  Blease  for  the  nomination.  It 
was  necessary  to  hold  two  primaries,  as  under 
the  South  Carolina  primary  system,  a  nominee 
must  receive  a  majority  of  all  the  votes  cast, 
otherwise  a  second  primary  must  follow.  In 
the  first  primary,  Blease  led  by  more  than  20,- 
000  votes  but  lacked  500  of  the  majority.  In 
the  second  primary,  however,  Governor  Manning 
received  the  majority  of  the  votes  and  later  was 
elected.  In  the  presidential  voting  of  that  year. 
President  Wilson  received  61,846  votes  and 
Charles  E.  Hughes,  1550.  As  a  result  of  the 
death  of  Senator  Tillman,  in  1918,  Christie 
Benet  was  appointed  by  the  Governor  to  fill  out 
the  unexpirea  term.  In  November,  N.  B.  Dial 
was  elected  as  successor.  R.  E.  Cooper  was 
elected  governor.  On  May  20,  1922,  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  the  Federal  Farm  Loan 


Board,  and  was  succeeded  by  Lieutenant-Gover- 
nor Wilson  G.  Harvey.  In  1922,  Thomas  G. 
McLepd  defeated  Governor  Blease  in  the  Dem- 
ocratic nomination  for  governor  and  was  elected. 
He  was  inaugurated  in  January,  1923.  In  his 
inaugural  address  he  favored  efficiency  and  econ- 
omy in  the  government  and  the  enforcement  of 
the  prohibition  law. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of  the 
Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  indicated 
below.  In  1915,  several  important  measures  re- 
lating to  the  regulation  of  the  liquor  traffic  were 
enacted.  The  Legislature  in  1916  passed  a 
measure  creating  a  State  system  of  rural  credits. 
Liquor  laws  were  amended,  as  were  the  laws 
relating  to  insurance  and  public  utilities.  The 
Legislature  of  1919  put  further  restrictions  on 
child  labor.  It  also  passed  a  law  requiring  com- 
pulsory school  attendance  of  children  under  14. 
The  Legislature  of  1921  provided  for  a  State 
Board  of  Fisheries  and  passed  an  act  regulating 
the  storage,  grading  and  marketing  of  cotton 
and  other  nonperishable  farm  products.  It  also 
amended  the  laws  of  1912  relating  to  exemp- 
tion from  jury  duty,  by  including  female  electors 
in  the  exempt  class.  The  Legislature  of  1923 
passed  a  measure  under  which  cities  with  popu- 
lations between  20,000  and  50,000  are  permitted 
to  adopt  the  manager  plan  of  city  government. 
A  bill  prohibiting  the  public  wearing  of  masks 
was  defeated. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A 
nonsectaiian  coeducational  State  institution  at 
Columbia,  S.  C.,  founded  in  1801.  The  enroll- 
ment of  students  increased  from  540  in  1915  to 
909,  of  whom  192  were  women,  for  the  scholastic 
year  1923-24.  The  faculty  consisted  of  50  pro- 
fessors and  27  instructors  and  assistants.  New 
dormitories  for  men  and  a  new  dormitory  for 
women  were  completed  during  the  year  1923-24, 
besides  other  improvements  and  additions. 
There  were  approximately  90,000  volumes  in  the 
main  library  in  1924  and  about  12,000  in  the 
library  of  the  School  of  Law  of  the  university. 
Wm.  Dtivis  Melton,  LL.D.,  succeeded  Wm.  S. 
Currell,  LL.l) ,  as  president  in  1922 

SOUTH  DAKOTA.  South  Dakota  is  the 
fourteenth  State  in  size  (77,615  square  miles), 
and  the  thirty-seventh  in  population;  capital, 
Pierre.  The  population  increased  from  583,888 
in  1910  to  636,547  in  1920,  a  gain  of  about  9 
per  cent.  The  white  population  increased  from 
563,771  (1910)  to  619,147  (1920);  and  the  na- 
tive white,  from  463,143  to  536,756.  The  In- 
dian population  decreased  from  19,137  to  16,384 
and  the  foreign-born  white  from  100,628  to 
8'2,391.  The  urban  population  rose  from  76,- 
673  to  101,872,  and  the  rural  from  507,215  to 
534,675.  There  are  only  two  important  cities 
in  the  State,  Sioux  Falls  and  Aberdeen.  The 
former  increased  from  14,094  in  1910  to  25,202 
in  1920,  and  the  latter,  from  10,753  to  14,537. 

Agriculture.  As  South  Dakota  is  almost  en- 
tirely an  agricultural  State,  it  was  greatly  af- 
fected by  conditions  which  prevailed  during  and 
after  the  War.  From  1917  to  1920  there  was 
a  period  of  prosperity  due  to  the  world-wide  de- 
mand for  wheat  and  other  grains  which  are  the 
chief  agricultural  products  of  the  State.  This 
period  was  succeeded  by  one  of  depression  caused 
apparently  by  financial  conditions,  but  more  es- 
pecially by  overproduction  of  wheat,  which 
resulted  in  a  lowering  of  the  price  to  an  extent 
which  made  it  unprofitable  to  farmers.  These 
conditions  prevailed  in  1921-23.  While  the 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 

population  of  the  State  increased  9  per  cent  in 
the  decade  1910-20,  the  number  of  farms  de- 
creased 3.9  per  cent  (from  77,644  to  74,637). 
The  acreage,  however,  increased  from  26,016,892 
to  34,630,491,  or  33.1  per  cent;  and  the  improved 
land  in  farms  increased  15  per  cent,  or  from 
15,827,208  to  18,199,250  acres.  The  percentage 
of  the  total  land  in  farms  rose  from  52.9  per 
cent  in  1910  to  70.4  per  cent  in  1920,  but  the 
percentage  of  improved  land  in  farms  decreased 
from  00.8  per  cent  to  52.5.  The  total  value  of 
farm  property  increased  142.2  per  cent  in  the 
decade,  or  from  $1.166,096,980  to  $2,823,870,- 
212;  the  average  value  of  farm  property  from 
$15,018  to  $37,835.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  these  values  do  not  represent  the 
actual  increase;  there  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration the  decreased  purchasing  power  of 
money  and  other  economic  and  financial  condi- 
tions following  the  \Var.  Of  the  total  of  74,- 
637  farmers  in  1920,  47,815  owned  their  own 
farms,  781  were  managers  and  26,041  were 
tenants.  In  1910,  the  owners  numbered  57,984, 
the  managers  431  and  the  tenants  19,231.  It 
will  be  noted  that  there  was  a  considerable  de- 
crease in  the  number  of  owners  in  the  decade, 
while  the  number  of  both  managers  and  tenants 
tihowed  an  increase.  The  white  farmers  in  the 
State  in  1920  numbered  73,025,  compared  with 
74,836  in  1910;  in  1920,  there  were  16.037  farms 
free  from  mortgage,  and  27,262  mortgaged;  in 
11)10,  35,101  farms  were  free  and  21,691  mort- 
gaged. The  acreage,  production  and  value  of 
the  principal  crops,  in  1923,  was  as  shown  in 
the  table. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 

Jaw  providing  State  aid  to  consolidated  stand- 
ard and  rural  schools,  and  State  inspection 
of  rural  and  consolidated  schools  was  also 
established.  A  new  compulsory  attendance  law 
was  enacted,  and  legislation  provided  for 
State  supervision  of  its  enforcement,  as  a  result 
of  which  the  average  attendance  per  rural 
pupil  enrolled  increased  from  102  to  127  days 
per  year.  The  law  provides  for  at  least  an 
eight-month  term  in  every  school  in  the  State. 
The  total  enrollment  below  the  grade  of  high 
school  in  1912  was  90,389;  in  1921  it  was  133,- 
343.  In  the  high  schools,  in  1921,  there  were 
16,584  pupils  enrolled.  Total  expenditures  for 
schools  in  the  latter  year  were  $15,054,924.  The 
percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State  decreased 
from  3.7  in  1910  to  2.2  in  1920;  in  the  native 
white  population  it  remained  at  0.4  per  cent , 
among  the  foreign-born  white  it  decreased  from 
5  per  cent  to  4.9;  among  the  colored,  from  6.8 
to  6.7. 

Finance.  For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES 
Political  and  Other  Events.  Political  events 
in  South  Dakota  in  the  decade  1914-24  were 
marked  in  the  latter  part  of  the  period  by  the 
influence  of  the  Non -Partisan  League,  which 
gained  considerable  strength  in  the  State,  al- 
though lacking  the  power  which  market!  its 
growth  in  North  Dakota.  The  Republicans  in 
1914  reelected  Governor  Byrne,  but  Senatoi 
Crawford  was  defeated  for  reelection  by  E.  S. 
Johnson,  Democrat.  The  Republicans  elected 
representatives  in  all  three  districts  of  the 
State.  In  1916,  Peter  Norbeck,  Republican  can- 
didate, was  elected  governor.  At  this  election 


Crop 
Corn     

Acres 
,  4,20ft,  000 

1923 

Bushels 
145,176,000 
25,982,000 
924,000 
20,025,000 
2,414,000 
78,336,000 
3,490,000 
7,744,000 
1,732.000  • 

Value 
175,492,000 
21,045,000  I 
748,000  j 
8,010,000 
5,021,000 
24,284,000 
1,713,000 
3,872.000 
14,029,000 

Acres 
2,640,000 
3,775,000  » 
958,000 

1,590,000 
50,000 
60,000 
460,000 

1913 
Bushels 
67,320,000 
33,975,000 
16,765,000 

42,135,000 
060,000 
4,680,000 
552,000  • 

Value 
$37,099,000 
24,122,000 
7,712,000 

14,326,000 
330,000 
2,948,000 
3,588,000 

2,735,000 

77,000 

Barley      

890,000 

284  000 

Oats     

2,304  000 

Rie          

304,000 

Potatoes    

88,000 

Hay     

1,050,000 

"Tons  instead  of  bushels. 

*  Given  as  wheat  only,  not  differentiated  into  spring  and  winter. 


Manufactures.  See  UNITED  STATES,  Manu- 
factures. 

Education.  Educational  progress  in  South 
Dakota  in  the  decade  1913-23  was  steady  and 
consistent.  Not  only  was  the  number  of  teach- 
ers increased  at  a  more  rapid  rate  than  in  many 
States,  but  large  sums  were  spent  in  a  State- 
wide building  piogramme  for  fine  rural  and  city 
schools.  Teaching  requirements  were  consider- 
ably raised  and  general  teaching  conditions 
vastly  improved.  Among  the  specific  accom- 
plishments was  the  establishment  of  a  high- 
school  division  with  a  director  in  charge.  In 
1019,  there  were  only  112  accredited  high  schools 
in  the  State;  in  1923  there  were  249,  with  much 
more  rigid  requirements.  Another  feature  was 
the  establishment  of  Americanization  work. 
The  total  enrollment  in  the  evening  schools  after 
the  introduction  of  that  work  exceeded  3000. 
Home  economics  and  agricultural  courses  were 
established  in  high  schools  under  the  Smith- 
Hughes  Act,  and  the  rehabilitation  of  disabled 
civilians  was  also  undertaken.  A  "Better  School 
Drive"  in  1919  produced  excellent  results,  in- 
cluding the  erection  of  dozens  of  fine  consoli- 
dated schools  and  hundreds  of  modern  one- 
teacher  schools.  The  Legislature  passed  a 


a  constitutional  amendment  prohibiting  liquor 
traffic  and  a  woman  suffrage  amendment  were 
defeated.  The  State  celebrated  the  anniversary 
of  its  settlement  in  July,  1910.  In  the  presi- 
dential voting  of  this  year,  Charles  E.  Hughes 
received  04,261  votes;  President  Wilson,  59,191 
Governor  Norbeck  was  reflected  in  1918.  In  this 
year  the  so-called  Non-Partisan  League  acquired 
great  political  strength  and  cast  over  25,000 
votes  for  a  candidate  for  governor.  Thomas 
Sterling,  Republican,  was  elected  to  the  Senate. 
In  the  elections  of  1920,  the  Republican  candi- 
date for  governor,  W.  H.  McMaster,  was  elected, 
and  Peter  Norbeck,  former  governor,  was  elected 
to  the  Senate.  In  the  presidential  voting  of  this 
year,  Warren  G.  Harding  received  109,874  votes; 
James  M.  Cox,  35,938.  T.  P.  Christiansen,  the 
Farmer-Labor  and  Non-Partisan  candidate  for 
the  presidency,  received  over  34,000  votes.  Gov- 
ernor McMaster  was  reelected  in  1922,  together 
with  the  entire  State  ticket  and  three  members 
of  Congress.  The  State  was  seriously  affected 
during  this  year  by  a  bituminous  coal  strike  and 
by  a  strike  of  railroad  shopmen,  which  continued 
from  July  1  until  the  autumn.  As  a  result, 
elevators  and  granaries  were  for  a  long  period 
congested  with  crops,  while  the  impossibility  of 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


1235 


SOUTHWEST  AFBICA 


moving  the   crops   broke  down   the   market   to      tion   was  organized   in    1020,   and  in    the  first 


such  an  extent  that  much  of  the  produce  was 
sold  at  a  loss.  Various  amendments  proposed 
were  defeated  in  1922.  Governor  McMaster  was 
inaugurated  on  Jan.  2,  1923.  In  his  inaugural 
address  he  dealt  chiefly  with  the  agricultural 
problems  of  the  State.  Presidential  primary 
elections  were  held  in  April,  1924.  Hiram  John- 
son was  endorsed  as  the  Republican  candidate. 
Senator  Sterling  was  defeated  for  reelection  to 
the  Senate  by  Governor  McMaster. 


three  years  of  its  existence  increased  more  than 
200  per  cent  in  enrollment;  an  extension  divi- 
sion was  organized  in  1922.  and  in  1923,  the 
School  of  Social  Welfare  under  the  direction  of 
Dr.  Emory  S.  Bogardus.  One  building  of  the 
science  unit,  for  the  College  of  Pharmacy  and 
the  department  of  chemistry,  was  expected  to 
be  begun  in  1924,  and  the  cornerstone  of  the 
first  unit  of  the  women's  building  was  to  be  laid. 
This  first  unit  was  to  be  a  residence  hall;  the 


and  a  home  economics  building.  President, 
Rufus  B.  von  Kleinsmid,  A.M.,  Sc.D.,  J.D., 
D  M.C.P.,  Ph.  et  Litt.D. 

SOUTH  POLE.     See  POLAR  RESEARCH. 

SOUTHWEST  AFBICA  PROTECTORATE. 


Legislation.     The  most  important  acts  of  the      other  buildings  were  to  be  a  women's  gymnasium 

Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted  be-  '          '  -      ..     . 

low.  The  Legislature  of  1915  passed  a  bill 
abolishing  the  death  penalty.  The  Supreme 
Court  of  the  State  in  this  year  declared  the  so- 
culled  "blue  sky"  law  of  the  State  unconstitu- 
tional.  In  1917  a  budget  system  was  created.  Formerly  German  Southwest  Africa  (q.v  )  but 
A  new  primary  law  was  enacted,  and  a  prohibi-  since  1920  a  mandate  territory  of  the  British 
tion  law  was  passed,  to  become  effective  in  Feb-  Empire  administered  by  the  'Union  of  South 
,»io  r,-i__  T  __:.,„, .._„  _,..„  _...,  _  Africa.  It  has  an  area  of  322,400  square  miles, 

and  an  estimated  native  population  of  208,307. 
The  European  population,  according  to  the  1921 
census,  was  19,432  of  which  78o5  were  Germans 
and  the  remainder  South  Africans.  The  capital, 
\Vindhoek,  had  3460  Europeans  and  4399  na- 
tives. Only  the  German  soldiers  (about  6000) 
were  repatriated,  the  civilians  being  permitted 
the  possession  of  their  holdings.  Many  of  the 
British  soldiers  settled  on  the  land  and  took 
up  stock  raising  and  farming,  with  the  result 
that  the  British  population  was  soon  consider- 
able. The  Germans,  howe\cr,  after  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  War,  maintained  their  efforts  to 
gain  autonomy  and  remained  hostile  to  the 
British -Dutch  penetration  which  not  only  ex- 
tended to  administration  but  to  currency,  schools 
and  the  like.  The  Germans  continued  to  sup- 
port their  own  schools  in  disregard  of  the  ten- 
ders of  the  government.  Diamond  mining,  ex- 
ploited by  British  capital,  continued  the  most 
important  activity  and  was  the  largest  factor 
in  the  protectorate's  foreign  trade.  In  1922, 
£343,930  in  diamonds  were  exported  to  the 
United  Kingdom.  Other  exports  were  li\c 
stock,  copper  ore,  vanadium,  lead  and  tin.  In 
1913,  exports  were  valued  at  £3.446,220:  in 
1919,  £1,679,534;  in  1920,  £5,401,385  (of  which 
£4,265,294  were  diamonds)  ;  in  1922,  £1,247,229. 
Countries  of  destination  of  1922  exports  by 
proportions  were :  United  Kingdom,  28  per  cent , 
South  Africa,  34  per  cent;  Belgium,  26  per 
cent;  Germany,  6  per  cent;  United  States,  1.2 
per  cent.  Leading  imports  in  1922  were  food- 


inary,  1918.  The  Legislature  also  passed  a 
workmen's  compensation  law  and  amended  the 
banking  laws  of  the  State.  A  special  commis- 
sion was  appointed  to  make  a  survey  of  the  edu- 
cational system.  The  Legislatuie  of  1919 
passed  measures  forbidding  the  display  of  the 
red  flag  calculated  to  excite  hostility  or  violence 
to  the  government.  It  also  passed  a  measure 
providing  for  a  land  settlement  commission  to 
encourage  and  to  assist  former  soldiers  and 
sailors  to  build  homes  and  to  own  farms. 
Provision  was  made  in  1921  for  the  loan  of 
money  for  urban  home  building  under  the  Rural 
Credits  Board.  The  primary  law  was  simpli- 
fied and  bills  were  initiated  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  State  bank  and  for  the  development 
of  hydroelectric  power  Amendments  providing 
for  the  two  latter  wore  defeated  in  the  election 
of  1922.  The  Legislature  of  1923  passed  a 
measure  piohibiting  expenditures  in  excess  of 
appropriations.  It  also  made  provision  for  a 
constitutional  convention,  passed  a  uniform 
ilaij  act,  and  enacted  a  measure  to  facilitate  the 
cooperative  marketing  of  agricultural  products. 
Provision  was  made  for  the  creating  of  associa- 
tiori8  for  this  purpose. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A  co- 
educational State  institution  at  Vei million,  S 
Dak  ,  founded  in  1882.  During  the  decade  1914- 
24,  the  university  increased  200  per  cent  in  the 
number  of  students,  added  200  courses  to  its 
curriculum,  and  completed  three  buildings.  The 
student  enrollment  in  1913-14  was  421  as  com- 
pared with  1239  in  1922-23,  the  faculty  num- 


bered 50  members  as  compared  with  90,  and  the      stuffs,  apparel,  cotton  goods,  mineral  oils,  etc. 


library  contained  20,500  volumes  as  compared 
with  45,000  volumes  The  women's  building,  en- 
gineering shops  and  observatory,  and  the  chem- 
istry building  were  completed,  and  the  stadium 
and'  administration  building  were  begun.  De- 
partments in  journalism  and  commerce  were 
opened  in  1915.'  Robert  L.  Slagle,  PhD.,  LL.D., 
succeeded  Franklin  P.  Oault,  Ph.D.,  as  president 
in  February,  1914. 

SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA,  UNIVERSITY 
OF.  A  coeducational  institution  at  Los  Angeles, 
Cal.,  founded  in  1879.  The  student  enrollment 


Under  the  Germans,  in  1913,  imports  were  val- 
ued at  £2,171,230;  in  1919,  £1,135,116;  in  1920, 
£2,180,183;  in  1922,  £1,147,637.  Countries 
participating  were:  Union  of  South  Africa,  do- 
mestic produce,  32  per  cent;  foreign  produce, 
Union  of  South  Africa,  32.0  per  cent;  Germany, 
18.0  per  cent;  United  Kingdom,  2.8  per  cent; 
United  States,  2  per  cent.  In  1922,  there  were 
908  miles  of  railway  of  3-foot  6-inch  gauge  and 
475  miles  of  2-foot  gauge.  The  most  important 
port,  Walvis  Bay,  was  opened  up  when  the 
British  built  a  22-mile  line  from  Walvis  Bay  to 


increased  from  2049  in  1913-14  to  7840  in  1922-      Swakopmund,  the  western  terminus  of  the  ter- 

r»n      ~.  -.  J      OOftCt      in      4  V>  A      &-~r,4-      nnMn  A«4-Mw      ~t      1  ft  O*3 Of  i«i4-<-\i«TT*ej     vvis\cit     imrvrtixfo  n  4     TO  lltirO'V  T'Vin     TTnirm     rff 


23  and  0802  in  the  first  semester  of  1923-24. 
The  teaching  staff  increased  correspondingly 
from  207  to  403  members  and  the  library  from 
21,000  to  55,000  volumes.  The  productive  funds 
rose  from  $412,548  to  $2,014,792,  and  the  total 


ritory's  most  important  railway.  The  Union  of 
South  Africa  was  linked  to  the  protectorate 
when  a  line  was  built  for  military  purposes 
from  Prieska  to  Kalkfontein.  In  1922,  a  line 
of  132  miles  was  in  the  course  of  construction 


yearly  income  from  $100,700  to  $800,000.     The      from  Windhoek  to  Gobabis. 

School  of  Commerce  and  Business  Administra-          In   Octol>er,    1915,   after  the   military   forces 


SOVIET  BEPTTBUCS 


1936 


SPAIN 


had  occupied  the  country,  a  civil  administration 
was  established,  though  martial  law  was  main- 
tained until  1921.  Germany,  in  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles,  renounced  her  sovereignty,  with  the 
result  that  Southwest  Africa  was  assigned  to 
the  Union  of  South  Africa  as  a  mandate  ter- 
ritory in  May,  1919.  The  mandate  was  ap- 
proved by  the  League  of  Nations  Council  on 
Uec.  17,  1920.  The  governor  general  delegated 
his  powers  to  a  local  administrator  who  was  to 
be  assisted  by  a  nominated  council  of  nine  made 
up  of  four  Germans,  four  South  Africans,  and 
one  official.  For  the  fiscal  year  1922-23,  reve- 
nues amounted  to  £870,930  (in  1917-18  they 
were  £650,000).  The  principal  source  of  reve- 
nue was  the  tax  on  diamonds,  while  £75,000  was 
paid  annually  as  revenue  from  customs  by 
the  Union  Customs  Department.  The  laws 
of  the  Union  were  gradually  being  introduced 
into  the  country. 

SOVIET  REPUBLICS,  UNION  OF  SOCIAL- 
IST. See  RUSSIA. 

SOVIETS,  AIX-RUSSIAN  CONGBESS  OF.  See 
COMMUNISM. 

SO  WEBBY,  LEO  (1895-  )  An  Ameri- 
can composer,  born  at  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  He 
received  his  entire  musical  education  in  Chi- 
cago, studying  with  C.  F.  Lamport,  P.  Grainger 
(piano),  E.  Delamarter  (organ)  and  A.  O.  An- 
derson (composition).  In  1918-21,  he  taught 
theory  at  the  American  Conservatory  there,  and 
was  also  organist  at  the  South  Congregational 
Church  and  critic  for  the  Inter-Ocean  In  1921, 
he  was  awarded  a  special  fellowship  by  the 
American  Academy  in  Rome,  where  he  spent  the 
following  two  years.  He  appeared  as  soloist  in 
his  own  works.  As  a  composer  he  is  a  decided 
futurist,  although  he  himself  claims  affinity  with 
the  neoclassicista  (Franck-d'Indy).  His  'works 
comprise:  a  symphony;  a  symphonic  sketch, 
The  Sorrow  of  Mydath;  an  overture,  Comes 
Autumn  Time:  Suite  in  the  Old  Style;  Rhapsody 
on  British  Folk-Tunes;  The  Ballad  of  King  Est- 
mere  for  two  pianos  and  orchestra :  a  violin 
concerto,  a  cello  concerto  and  a  piano  concerto; 
a  quintet  for  wind  instruments;  besides  other 
chamber  music,  piano  pieces,  and  choruses. 

SPA  CONFERENCE.  Sec  PEACE  CONFER- 
ENCE AND  TREATIES;  REPARATIONS. 

SPAETH,  (Jo TIN)  DUNCAN  ERNEST  (1868- 
).  An  American  philologist.  He  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  studied  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  and  at  Leipzig,  then  in 
Italy  and  France.  He  was  professor  of  English 
at  several  colleges  and  lecturer  on  the  Univer- 
sity Extension  Course  of  the  New  York  Board 
of  Public  Education.  After  1911,  he  was  pro- 
fessor at  Princeton.  He  is  the  author  of  Chris- 
tian Theology  in  Browning9 s  Poetry  (1916) 
and  Old  English  Poetry  ( 1921 )  ;  and  editor, 
with  Henry  S.  Pancoast,  of  Early  English  Po- 
etry (1921).  During  the  War,  he  was  educa- 
tional director  of  Camp  Wheeler  and  Camp 
Jackson  and  edited  a  Camp  Reader  for  Ameri- 
can Soldiers,  adopted  by  the  War  Department 
for  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces. 

SPAIN.  A  constitutional  monarchy  of  south- 
western  Europe.  Continental  Spain  has  an  area 
of  190,050  square  miles;  Greater  Spain  (includ- 
ing the  Balearic  and  Canary  Islands  and  the 
Spanish  possessions  in  the  north  and  west  coast 
of  Africa)  has  194,800  square  miles.  Popula- 
tion in  1910  was  19,950,817:  in  1920,  21,347,- 
335;  average  annual  increase,  0.65  per  cent; 
density  of  population  in  1920,  109.5  per  square 


mile;  maximum  density  in  proyince  of  Biscay, 
490.1  per  square  mile;  minimum  density  in 
province  of  Soria,  38  per  square  mile.  Prin- 
cipal cities  with  population  in  1920,  were:  Ma- 
drid, 751,362;  Barcelona,  710,335;  Valencia, 
243,783;  Sevilla,  205,527;  Malaga,  150,584; 
Murcia,  141,175;  Saragossa,  141,350.  For  the 
period  under  discussion,  vital  statistics  were 
as  follows  (per  1000  inhabitants)  :  marriages, 
1914  and  1921,  6.5  and  7.8;  births,  30  and  30.5; 
deaths,  22.2  and  21.5.  Emigration,  after  the 
War,  took  on  large  proportions  once  more,  101,- 
980  Spaniards  quitting  the  country  in  1919; 
185,918  in  1920;  92,504  in  1921;  93,591  in 
1922;  and  123,804  in  1923,  as  compared  with 
129,576  in  1914.  Their  destinations  were  for 
the  most  part  the  Argentine,  Cuba,  Brazil, 
Uruguay,  and  Mexico.  It  should  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  these  emigrations  were  largely  sea- 
sonal, covering  the  period  of  the  harvest  only, 
and  that  most  of  the  emigrants  returned  im- 
mediately after.  In  1910,  59.3  per  cent  of  the 
population  was  illiterate.  Education  in  the 
primary  grades  made  slow  progress,  though  in- 
stitutions for  higher  education  were  fairly  well 
attended.  On  Dec.  31,  1921,  there  were  27,429 
primary  schools  in  Spain.  In  1920-21,  215  sec- 
ondary schools  had  52,288  pupils,  and  the  11 
universities  in  the  country  with  the  university 
section  of  Canary  Islands,  23,508  students.  In 
1920-21,  the  total  expenditure  on  education  and 
the  fine  arts  was  143,180,762  pesetas  as  com- 
pared with  62,584,378  in  1914. 

Industry.  Agriculture  continued  the  main- 
stay of  the  country.  Areas  under  cereal  crops 
increased  little:  wheat,  9,676,879  acres  in  1914 
and  1(),488,SOO  in  1923;  rye,  1,886,206  in  1914 
and  1,801,500  in  1923;  barley,  3,402,553  and  4,- 
539,600.  The  acreage  under  \ines  remained 
about  the  same  (3,315,400  in  1923)  though  pro- 
duction in  gallons  was  582,801,120  in  1923  to  the 
432,617,000  in  1913.  Similarly,  the  production 
of  olive  oil  was  265,422  tons  in  1913  and  298,- 
859  metric  tons  in  1923.  Other  important  prod- 
ucts were  rice,  beans,  peas,  lentils,  tares, 
vetches,  flax,  hemp,  pulse,  esparto,  oranges, 
hazel  nuts,  onions,  almonds.  The  sugar  in- 
dustry received  attention,  there  being  26  cane 
sugar  factories  and  44  beet  sugar  factories  in 
1921.  Production  of  cane  sugar  fell  off  between 
1913  and  1920,  for  in  1913,  13,231  metric  tons 
of  cane  sugar  were  produced  as  compared  with 
6760  tons  in  1920;  in  1921  there  was  a  revival 
to  12,033  tons.  Production  of  beet  sugar  was 
slightly  higher  than  before  the  War  and  was  in- 
creasing; in  1913  there  was  an  exceptionally 
large  production  of  148,394  tons,  and  during  the 
War  production  slumped,  reaching  a  minimum 
of  101,258  tons  in  1915;  after  then  the  increase 
was  steady  and  gradual,  and  production  reached 
159,722  tons  in  1921.  Pastoral  activities  were 
once  more  on  the  increase,  sheep  increasing  in 
number  from  14,500,000  in  1913  to  20,522,000 
in  1921;  goats,  3,394,000  to  4,298,000;  horses, 
540,000  to  722,000;  mules  and  asses,  1,824,000 
to  2,432,900;  cattle,  2,878,000  to  3,718,000;  hogs, 
2,750,000  to  5,152,000.  The  fishing  industry 
likewise  advanced  over  the  period,  for  89,000 
fishermen  were  engaged  and  brought  in  a  catch 
valued  at  about  60,000,000  pesetas  in  1913,  while 
in  1920  the  number  of  fishermen  was  148,700 
and  the  value  of  the  catch,  374,080,000  pesetas. 
Some  689  factories  prepared  sardines  and  fish 

S  reserves    for    the   home    and    export   markets, 
uring  the  War  interest  in  mining  was  stimu- 


SPAIN  M37  SPAIN 

lated,  but  except  for  coal,  soon  flagged.  All  the  ing  vessels  of  101,285  tons.  There  was  there- 
principal  minerals  in  1921  showed  smaller  fore  a  substantial  increase  in  spite  of  the  war 
yields  than  those  of  1012.  Iron  dropped  from  losses  by  submarine  and  mine.  Throueh  the 
9,139,000  tons  to  2,602,000  tons  in  1921.  Total  middle  of  1918,  51  vessels  of  123,176  tons  were 
values  of  mineral  products  at  the  mine  mouths  torpedoed  and  6  vessels  of  16,731  tons  were 
were,  for  typical  years:  1910,  453,000,000  pe-  sunk  by  mines.  (These  figures  exclude  boats  of 
aniaa.  ioT7  i  ooQ  t\t\f\  nnn .  i oo i  Af\o  Af\a  f\f\r\  less  than  250  tons  } 

Railways.  In  1913,  total  length  of  railways 
open  was  9310  miles;  in  1920,  9504  miles.  The 
railway  service  was  severely  taxed  during  the 
War  because  of  the  increased  traffic  caused  by 
the  cessation  of  the  coasting  trade  The  con- 
tinued depreciation  of  equipment,  the  higher 
wages,  and  only  the  slight  rate  increase  of  15 
per  cent  allowed,  put  the  railroads  in  a  sorry 
condition.  It  was  incumbent  on  the  government 
to  increase  annually  the  state  subsidies,  so  that 
168,000,000  pesetas  had  to  be  paid  over  durin<r 
1922  In  1923,  rumors  to  the  effect  that  the 
government  planned  to  discontinue  the  subsidies 
served  to  disorganize  completely  railroad 
finances.  Schemes  for  the  greater  use  of  water 
power  and  the  electrification  of  railways  were 
considered  during  the  period.  In  1919,  the  first 
Spanish  subway,  that  of  the  Madrid  tubes  cov- 
ering a  length  of  3  miles,  was  opened. 

Finance  and  Economic  Conditions.  The 
revenue  in  1914  was  1,343,000,000  pesetas  and 
the  expenditure  1,430,000,000.  By  1922-23,  the 
revenue  had  mounted  to  2,453,000,000  pesetas 
(exclusive  of  loans)  and  the  expenditure  to  3,- 
375,090,000.  Estimates  for  1923-24  were:  ex- 
penditure, 3,048,386,000  pesetas,  and  revenue, 
2,617,000,000.  Deficits  thus  steadily  rose,  for 


setas;  1917,  1,323,000,000;  3921,  402,608,000. 
The  number  of  workers  likewise  dropped  from 
149,812  in  1912  to  102,452  in  1921.  The  War 
had  a  heightening  influence  on  the  manufactures 
of  the  country,  which,  because  of  the  dearth  of 
capital  and  Spain's  inexperience,  was  also  only 
temporary.  There  were  2,614,500  spindles  in  the 
cotton  establishments  in  1910  and  only  1,252,- 
000  in  1922;  340,410  spindles  in  the  wool  fac- 
iones  in  1922  as  compared  with  662,000  in  1910. 
Cork  production  and  paper  increased  slightly. 

Trade.  The  years  1913  and  1914  saw  an 
excess  of  imports  over  exports,  but  with  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  period  and  the  heavy  de- 
mands made  on  Spain  for  her  products,  the  bal- 
ance turned  favorable  and  continued  so  through 
11)19.  From  thence  on,  imports  once  more  ex- 
ceeded exports  The  figures  for  typical  years 
in  thousands  of  dollars  at  the  prevailing  rates 
of  exchange  are  (excluding  treasure)  : 


Imports 
Exports 


1913 

252,067 
204,123 


1918 
109,773 
170,626 


1921 
382,449 
211,488 


1922 
470,143 
224,622 


Lending  exports  were,  of  course,  alimentary  sub- 
stances, including  grain,  sugar,  and  wine,  metals 
and  their  manufactures,  wool,  timber,  and  cot- 


ton.    Imports    were    machinery,    drugs,    metals,      the  most  part  because  of  the  refusal' of  the  gov- 

foodst ufTs.  etc.     The  following  indicates  the  dis-      A  x-  ; •"--  »~- -j  —     *  J- ---••    * 

trilitition  of  the  foreign  trade  by  countries. 
Imports  for  1013  and  1920  (in  thousand  pe- 
setas) •  Great  Britain,  244.669  and  213,815; 
France,  204,268  and  219,229;  United  States, 
167,486  and  331,346;  (Germany,  185,370  and  86,- 
MiO  Exports  for  lf)13  and  1*920:  France.  327,- 
744  and  280,078;  Croat  Britain,  231,571  and 
218,704;  United  States,  72,195  and  77,952;  Ger- 
many, 74.410  and  15.883;  Cuba,  64.53')  nnd  81,- 
024  While  the  figures  indicate  a  healthy  state 
of  affairs  in  tho  post-war  year,  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  peseta  was  worth  onlv  15.9 
cents  in  1920.  and  19.3  cents  in  1913,  and  that 
wholesale  prices  in  1920  were  more  than  twice 
those  of  the  earlier  year.  The  following  anal- 
ysis of  Spain's  trade  with  the  United  States 
will  serve  as  key  to  the  situation.  Figures  are 
in  millions  of  dollars.  The  index  figures  are 
based  on  the  value  of  the  average  imports  and 
exports  for  1910-14. 


ernment  to  increase  the  burden  of  direct  taxa- 
tion. Whereas  in  1915,  direct  taxes  were  38.3 
per  cent  of  the  total  revenues  and  indirect  taxes 
33  per  cent,  in  1922-23,  direct  taxes  were  36 
per  cent  and  indirect  taxes,  40  per  cent.  For 
1921-22,  the  final  deficit  was  put  at  1,101,000,- 
000  pesetas;  the  deficit  of  1922-23  was  922,- 
000,000;  and  the  initial  budget  estimates  of 
1923-24  carried  a  deficit  of  431,386,000.  In 
1922-23  alone,  the  interest  on  loans  contracted 
to  meet  current  expenses  was  47,000,000  pe- 
setas The  national  debt  over  the  period 
showed:  External  debt,  1915,  1,028,070,000  pe- 
setas; 1923,  1)10,000.000  pesetas.  (This  last  was 
merely  nominal,  however,  for  about  800.000.000 
pesetas  of  the  external  debt  was  held  by  Span- 
iards.) Internal  debt,  1915,  8,118,263,000  pe- 
setas; 1023,  14,659,000,000.  In  1914,  there  were 
1,985,847,000  paper  notes  in  circulation,  by 
June,  1023,  these  had  increased  to  4,134,000,- 
000  However,  the  metallic  reserves  of  the  Bank 


Average 
1910-14. 
1920 

1921  . . 

1922  .  .  . 


IMPORTS   PROM   TUB   UNITED    STATES 

Millions  of  Index 

dollars  number 


26 

151 

69 

71 


EXPORTS   TO    THE    I'NITED    STATES 

Millions  of  Index 

dollars  number 


100 
577 
2G4 
271 


22 
42 
26 
29 


100 
197 
121 
133 


Tn  1914,  18,915  vessels  of  22,229,159  tons  en- 
tered and  16,482  of  19,265,265  tons  cleared 
Spanish  ports.  In  1918,  the  figures  were-  en- 
tered, 12,475  of  6,745,084  ions;  cleared,  13,936 
of  7,204,843  tons.  In  1921:  entered,  19,121  of 
20,107,592  tons;^  cleared,  16,688  of  15,979,977 
tons.  The  Spanish  merchant  marine  consisted 
of  628  steamers  of  844,322  tons  and  236  sailing 
vessels  of  32,000  tons  in  1914;  in  1922,  there 
were  621  steamers  of  912,817  tons  and  581  sail- 


of  Spain  were  2,525,000,000  pesetas.  The  pe- 
riod of  the  War  saw  a  quickening  of  interest  in. 
internal  affairs  and  an  increased  prosperity. 
Many  joint  stock  companies,  particularly  dur- 
ing 1916-17,  were  formed  for  industrial  enter- 
prises and  the  government  aided  by  the  cre- 
ation of  a  commission  for  the  promotion  of  in- 
dustry. Also,  the  external  loan  placed  abroad 
was  taken  up  by  Spaniards  so  that  the  great 
majority  of  the  bonas  were  held  at  home.  The 


SPAIN 


1338 


SPAIN 


application  to  the  domestic  coal  fields  saw  a. 
doubling  of  pre-war  production  in  anthracite 
and  lignite,  and  though  the  coal  was  of  an  in- 
ferior quality,  it  served  very  well  for  the  use 
of  the  electrified  railways  which  were  being  ex- 
tended. The  demands  for  raw  materials  and 
foodstuffs  from  belligerents  caused  home  strin- 
gencies and  necessitated  strict  governmental 
regulation.  From  1914  on,  the  government  ap- 
plied itself  to  the  regulation  of  cereal  exports, 
the  control  of  domestic  prices,  the  removal  of 
import  duties  from  foodstuffs,  the  stimulation 
of  agriculture  by  bounties,  etc.  In  1017,  a  gen- 
eral agricultural  law  was  passed  for  the  en- 
couragement of  the  industry  through  the  cre- 
ation of  a  central  agricultural  loan  bank.  In 
1918,  after  the  failure  of  local  boards  of  supply 
to  control  the  traffic  in  provisions  adequately, 
full  powers  were  given  to  a  commissary  general. 
The  rise  of  prices,  the  growing  intransigency 
of  labor,  profiteering,  etc.,  all  contributed  to  a 
general  industrial  unrest  that  took  on  a  revolu- 
tionary character.  Based  on  the  wholesale  prices 
of  1913  as  an  index  of  100,  prices  averaged  221 
in  1920  and  then  fell  to  190  for  1921,  176  for 
1922,  and  172  for  1923;  for  December,  1923,  the 
index  was  176.  The  period  of  rising  prices  was 
therefore  accompanied  by  strikes,  many  very  bit- 
ter in  character.  In  1916  a  general  strike  pro- 
claimed in  Valencia  by  the  railroad  workers 
necessitated  the  calling  out  of  the  soldiery;  in 
1917,  the  prevailing  food  shortage  led  to  an- 
other general  strike  with  the  result  that  con- 
stitutional guarantees  were  suspended  and  mnny 
labor  centres  ordered  closed.  In  1919  some  100,- 
000  workers  downed  tools  in  Barcelona,  not  only 
in  industrial  plants  but  in  all  public  services 
as  well.  Terrorism  was  resorted  to  and  syn- 
dicalist agitation  was  particularly  prevalent. 
The  government  declared  martial  iaw  and  at- 
tempted to  mobilize  the  strikers,  but  so  threat- 
ening was  the  situation  that  a  hasty  compromise 
was  agreed  on  which  in  effect  granted  all  the 
workers'  demands.  In  retaliation,  the  employ- 
ers declared  a  lockout  in  the  year  which  threw 
out  of  work  some  1,000,000  employees  including 
professional  workers  and  teachers.  In  subse- 
quent years,  with  Barcelona  as  the  centre, 
strikes  were  sporadic  in  Saragossa,  Bilbao,  and 
Corunna,  and  even  reached  the  agricultural 
workers  in  Andalusia  and  other  regions.  In 
1922,  the  postal  workers  went  on  strike;  in 
1923  the  transport  workers  went  out  in  Barce- 
lona for  66  days,  and  even  bank  clerks  in  Ma- 
drid left  their  desks.  After  1920,  economic 
conditions  took  a  turn  for  the  worse;  the  bal- 
ance of  trade  became  unfavorable;  the  costs  of 
the  unhappy  Moroccan  campaign  were  severely 
felt.  The  threatening  aspect  of  labor  in  this 
year  foreshadowed  the  coup  d'etat  of  1923.  The 
economic  condition  was  reflected  in  the  falling 
rate  of  exchange:  par  value,  $.193;  1919 
average,  $.198;  1920,  $.159;  1921,  $.135;  1922, 
$.155;  June,  1923,  $.146.  A  tendency  for  the 
better  was  to  be  seen  in  the  formation  of  the 
Catholic  Syndicates,  a  group  of  cooperative  as- 
sociations, in  1918.  By  1921,  in  4000  local 
syndicates,  some  600,000*  workers  were  enrolled. 
History.  The  outbreak  of  the  War  strongly 
divided  Spanish  opinion  into  two  groups:  the 
pro-French  Spaniards,  who  were  largely  liberal 
in  their  tendencies,  as  well  as  antimonarchical 
and  anticlerical;  and  the  conservatives,  who,  be- 
cause of  French  expansion  in  Morocco  and  the 
separation  of  churcn  and  state  in  France,  were 


pro-German  in  their  sympathies.  This  cleavage 
and  the  fact  that  Spain  could  not  possibly  gam 
anything  from  war  led  to  the  decision  to  remain 
aloof  from  hostilities.  The  Cortes,  meeting  in 
October,  1914,  endorsed  the  general  policy,  with 
the  result  that  the  country  settled  down,  flrit 
to  a  state  of  uncertainty  because  of  the  fear  of 
suspended  food  imports,  and  then  to  one  of 
complacency  as  orders  for  materials  began 
to  pour  in  from  France.  A  steady  stream  of 
metals,  clothing,  and  pack-animals,  crossing  the 
frontier  during  the  whole  period  1914-18, 
brought,  in  return,  increased  prosperity  to  cer- 
tain classes.  Shipbuilding  flourished  as  well  as 
trading  with  Allied  ports,  with  the  inevitable 
increase  of  vessels  lost  by  torpedoing  and 
mines.  In  1915  the  Dato  ministry,  in  power 
since  1913,  fell  and  was  succeeded  by  a  cabinet 
made  up  of  the  liberal  elements  headed  by 
Count  Romanones.  The  new  government  was 
generally  characterized  by  a  pro-Allied  attitude, 
although  it  took  no  active  steps  to  lead  Ger- 
many to  a  war  declaration.  On  Apr.  20,  1917, 
Count  Romanones  resigned,  to  be  followed  by 
Garcia  Prieto,  leader  of  another  wing  of  the 
Liberals,  who  was  more  nearly  neutral  in  his 
tone.  The  Liberal  stay  in  power  was,  however, 
very  brief.  The  demands  for  a  more  aggressive 
policy  toward  Germany,  because  of  the  inten- 
sification of  its  submarine  campaign  and  tho 
unsuccessful  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Spanish 
government  to  cause  the  dissolution  of  the  mil- 
itary juntas  which  had  rapidly  spread  among 
the  infantry  officers,  hastened  the  crisis  In 
June,  1917,  Dato  (Conservative)  was  once  more 
called  to  head  a  cabinet,  and  he  immediately  ac- 
ceded to  the  revolutionary  demands  of  the  mil- 
itary cliques.  Their  agitation,  fed  by  the  in- 
efficiency of  the  bureaucracy  on  the  one'hand  and 
the  increasing  arrogance  of  the  military  on  the 
other,  was  to  culminate  in  the  events  of  1923 
Three  movements  wore  to  march  side  by  side  in 
the  subsequent  years:  the  increasing  distemper 
of  the  laboring  classes,  manifesting  itself  in  in- 
dustrial struggles  of  growing  bitterness;  tho 
larger  part  in  affairs  that  the  military  juntas 
assumed;  and  the  regional ist  movement,  centring 
in  Catalonia,  whose  purpose  was  a  greater 
measure  of  local  autonomy.  From  all  this  agita- 
tion it  was  to  be  expected  that  the  parties  of 
the  Left  should  adopt  an  uncompromising  at- 
titude. An  extensive  programme  was  an- 
nounced, including  greater  decentralization, 
popular  election  of  senators,  elimination  of  tho 
right  of  the  government  to  suspend  the  con- 
stitutional guarantees  and  to  prorogue  Parlia- 
ment at  will,  annual  meetings  of  parliament, 
etc.  Labor  troubles  wore  frequent  through- 
out 1917,  and  the  demands  of  the  Catalans 
took  on  more  insistency.  Most  of  the  Ca- 
talan members  of  the  Cortes  met  in  an  as- 
sembly at  Barcelona  on  July  19,  1917,  to  press 
for  reforms.  The  general  strike  that  followed 
(July-August)  and  the  forced  resignation  of  the 
war  minister  as  a  result  of  the  intrigues  of 
the  Military  Committee  hastened  the  fall  of  tho 
government.  Prieto  again  formed  a  cabinet  of 
Maurists  (extreme  Conservatives),  Liberals,  and 
Catalan ists.  A  general  election  took  place  early 
in  1918;  the  government  fell  at  the  first  meet- 
ing of  the  Cortes  on  March  18.  The  high- 
handed conduct  of  the  war  department  under 
La  Cierva  had  precipitated  the  crisis.  Only 
through  the  personal  influence  of  the  King 
could  a  new  cabinet  be  formed.  This  was  made 


SPAIN 


1*39 


SPAIN 


UP  of  the  strongest  men  in  public  affairs: 
Maura  (Premier),  Da  to  (Foreign  Office),  Ma- 
nna (War),  Besada  (Finances),  Alba  (Educa- 
tion), Ronmnones  ( Justice'),  It,  too,  foil  (No- 
vember 0) ;  it  wan  followed  by  a  short-lived 
Prieto  ministry  which  in  turn  was  succeeded 
by  a  Romanones  government  on  December  3. 

The  end  of  the  War  and  the  popularity  of  the 
democratic  doctrines  which  reverberated  around 
the  world  were  reechoed  significantly  in  Spain. 
The  ministry  of  public  works  announced  an  ex- 
tensive programme  of  economic  reconstruction. 
In  December,  11)18,  a  Catalan  parliamentary 


ministration  stirred  a  country  which  had  al- 
ready been  aroused  over  the  great  loss  of  life 
and  the  expenditure  of  500,000,000  pesetas.  By 
the  middle  of  1023  parliamentary  commissions 
investigating  the  conduct  of  the  campaign  were 
prepared  to  bring  charges  against  the  ministry 
and  the  high  officers  in  command  as  concessions 
to  public  opinion.  The  fear  of  a  coup  d'etat 
forced  the  government  to  prorogue  the  Cortes, 
for  the  leaders  of  the  hostile  movement  were 
military  men  generally.  The  further  reverses 
of  September,  1923,  brought  the  matter  to  a 
head.  This,  together  witli  the  continued  labor 


delegation  issued  a  manifesto  demanding  home  troubles  and  the  increasing  Catalan  agitation 
rule.  A  general  strike  broke  out  in  Barcelona  "*"1  +l>"  ~" — ""  ~*  **«— ~i:-:»»  j..*..* — u:_  ,•„ 
early  in  1919,  hastened  on  by  syndicalist  prop- 
aganda. The  attempt  to  mobilize  the  strikers 
on  the  one  hand,  and  the  desire  to  propitiate 
them,  on  the  other,  by  the  appointment  of  lib- 
eral civil  authorities  at  Barcelona,  brought  the 
civil  and  military  officials  into  conflict.  The 
government  therefore  resigned  and  a  cabinet 
formed  by  Maura  (Apr  15,  1919)  effected  a 
dissolution  of  the  Cortes  and  a  new  general 
election.  But  Maura  was  compelled  to  retire 
soon  after,  and  the  following  ministries  could 
maintain  only  a  brief  tenure.  The  machinations 
of  the  juntas  and  the  continued  industrial  con- 
flicts made  any  permanent  civil  government  an 
impossibility.  In  April,  1920,  Dato  once  more 
headed  a  ministry  His  attempt  to  conciliate 
the  extreme  conservatives  of  his  party,  i.e. 
Maura  and  La  Cierva,  and  the  Liberals  by  a 
programme  of  social  reform  including  arbitra- 
tion, insurance,  and  land  measures,  was  unavail- 
ing, for  as  a  result  of  the  December  elections  he 
was  left  without  a  majority  in  the  Cortes.  His 
endeavors  to  reconcile  all  Conservative  elements 
were  occupying  him  when  he  was  assassinated 
on  Mar.  8/1921. 

From  1921  on,  the  conduct  of  the  war  in  Mo- 
rocco (q.v. )  became  the  leading  question  in 
Spain.  The  increasing  taxation  and  the  intol- 
erable censorship,  together  with  reports  of  dis- 
asters that  began  to  drift  in,  served  to  antag- 
onize further  all  classes  of  opinion  against  the 
ruling  political  leaders.  Cabinets  continued  to 
change  with  lightning  rapidity.  The  Maura 
ministry,  embarrassed  by  the  juntas  in  its 
handling  of  the  Moroccan  War,  attempted  to 
force  their  dissolution  and  was  compelled  to  re- 
sign when  the  King  refused  to  sign  the  decree 
(./an.  11,  1922).  Maura  was  called  back,  to 
last  only  another  two  months,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  Liberal  coalition  under  Guerra 
The  latter  immediately  became  popular  by  re- 
storing the  constitutional  guarantees,  suspended 
three  years  earlier,  and  by  moving  against  the 
military  juntas  On  Nov.  14,  1922,  a  decree 
was  promulgated,  ordering  their  abolition.  A 
prolonged  discussion  over  the  responsibility  for 
the  disasters  of  1921  in  Morocco  (q.v.),  an  at- 


and  the  success  of  Mussolini's  dictatorship  in 
Italy,  paved  the  way  for  a  military  revolu- 
tion On  September  13,  Capt-Gen.  Ferdinando 
Primo  de  Rivera,  in  charge  of  the  military  at 
Barcelona,  sei/ed  the  civil  administration  of  the 
city  and  forced  the  resignation  of  two  cabinet 
ministers  offensive  to  him,  and  eventually  that 
of  the  whole  Prieto  government.  It  was  evi- 
dent at  once  that  the  revolution  was  not  directed 
at  the  throne  but  at  the  prevailing  political 
methods.  The  King  accepted  the  situation  in 
this  light,  for  on  lus  arrival  in  Madrid  he  re- 

r»stcd  General  Rivera  to  head  the  military 
ectorate  and  form  a  government.  Parlia- 
ment was  dissolved  by  decree  on  September  10; 
the  ministerial  departments  were  placed  under 
the  permanent  undersecretaries;  the  separatist 
movement  was  denounced  in  a  royal  decree;  trial 
by  jury  was  suspended,  and  a  strict  censorship 
imposed.  The  military  directorate  headed  by 
General  Rivera  and  made  up  of  Generals  Adolfo 
Espasno,  Luis  Navarro,  Luis  Uermoso,  Dalmacio 
Rodriguez,  Antonio  Mayenda,  Gome/  Jordana, 
Ruiz  Portal,  and  Mario  Muslera,  with  Admiral 
Marquis  Mavez,  exercised  the  real  functions  of 
government  First  measuies  were  character- 
istically severe.  All  local  officials  were  dis- 
missed and  new  elections  ordered.  Decrees  were 
promulgated  abolishing  the  salaries  of  life  sen- 
ators, amending  judicial  procedure,  and  estab- 
lishing a  commission  for  the  review  of  railway 
administrative  methods.  The  support  of  the 
middle  classes  was  demanded  under  a  veiled 
threat  of  compulsion  The  result  was  the  over- 
subscription on  November  5  of  350,000,000  pe- 
setas of  treasury  bonds  That  the  dictatorship 
did  not  contemplate  a  brief  stay  in  power  was 
indicated  when  Count  Romiiiiones  and  Don 
Alvarez,  speakers  respectively  of  the  Senate  and 
the  late  Chamber  of  Deputies,  were  removed 
from  their  posts  for  petitioning  the  King  to 
convoke  the  new  Cortes.  The  lot  of  the  dic- 
tatorship was  not  an  easy  one.  Hostility  was 
evoked  by  the  dissolution  of  the  provincial  legis- 
latures, the  exile  of  the  popular  Professor  Un- 
amuno  to  the  Canary  Islands,  and  the  failure 
of  the  directorate  to  cope  with  the  repeated 
Moroccan  disasters.  By  the  summer  of  1924  it 


tempt  to  impeach  the  Allende-Salazar  ministry      became  increasingly  evident  that  de  Rivera  had 


under  which  they  had  taken  place,  and  demands 
for  such  reform  of  the  constitution  as  would  end 
the  suspension  of  the  guarantees,  caused  the 
overthrow  of  the  ministry.  After  great  dif- 
ficulty a  new  Liberal  government  was  formed 
under  Prieto  on  December  7.  In  December  a 
sensation  was  caused  when  the  former  high  com- 
missioner of  Morocco,  General  Berenguer,  as- 
sumed full  responsibility  and  demanded  a  trial 
in  order  that  the  whole  matter  might  be  aired. 
His  charges  of  inefficient  equipment  and  a  gen- 
eral lack  of  foresight  on  the  part  of  the  ad- 


neither  the  ability  nor  the  resources  to  effect 
the  long-hoped-for  restoration  of  his  country. 
In  fact,  that  a  demarche  was  contemplated  was 
hinted  at  in  the  royal  decree  of  July  4  which 
demilitarized  the  directorate  and  modified  the 
dictatorial  powers  of  de  Rivera. 

Catalan  Question.  The  Catalan  question, 
which  had  agitated  Spain  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree  for  50  years,  came  to  a  head,  as  indicated 
above,  in  the  years  1917-19.  At  first  purely 
sentimental  and  literary,  the  movement  for 
home  rule  had  taken  on  a  political  and  eco- 


SPAIN 


X940 


SPANISH  LITERATURE 


nomic  character.  The  Catalan  language  was  re- 
vived, and  the  particularistic  tone  of  the  agita- 
tion became  more  pronounced.  An  assembly 
met  in  Barcelona  in  1017  in  defiance  of  the 
government  and  voted  resolutions  asking  for 
drastic  reforms  in  the  constitution.  In  spite 
of  the  arrest  of  the  members  attending,  the 
agitation  continued.  In  1918  a  parliamentary 
delegation  of  Catalans  presented  to  the  Madrid 
government  a  full  statement  of  demands.  This 
included  delimitation  of  Catalan  territory,  to 
take  in  the  existing  four  Catalan  provinces; 
definition  of  the  respective  limits  of  the  powers 
of  the  central  government  and  those  of  the 
Catalan  and  the  calling  of  a  Catalan  constituent 
assembly;  political,  economic,  and  financial 
autonomy  through  the  organization  of  a  Catalan 
government  with  two  chambers;  regional  con- 
trol of  taxes  on  mines,  forests,  railways,  and 
water  courses;  a  court  of  arbitration  for  the 
settlement  of  disputes  between  the  central  and 
regional  authorities.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
place  this  manifesto  before  President  Wilson 
and  the  Peace  Conference,  but  the  nation-wide 
hostility  which  it  aroused,  together  with  the 
threats  of  the  military  to  apply  force  and  of 
the  middle  class  to  declare  an  economic  boycott, 
softened  the  ardor  of  the  intransigents.  In- 
cidentally a  large  mass  of  the  supporters  of  the 
movement  fell  away  when  the  workers  lost  in- 
terest and  became  'absorbed  in  the  trade  union 
movement.  Yet  the  undercurrent  continued  to 
be  felt  from  time  to  time.  From  1921  to  1924 
it  appeared  from  the  disorders  and  propaganda 
prevalent  that  the  movement  had  lost  none  of 
its  vitality.  Even  the  decree  of  Sept.  18,  1923, 
which  at  the  instance  of  the  military  dictator- 
ship inveighed  against  the  separatist  movement, 
had  no  real  effect  Whether  the  Rivera  ad- 
ministration meant  to  apply  more  forceful 
measures  was  not  plain  in  1924,  but  it  was 
known  that  the  flamboyant  nationalism  which  it 
represented  did  not  look  kindly  on  anything 
but  a  diffuse  localism.  At  any  rate,  Catalans 
were  openly  hostile  to  the  directorate,  going  so 
far,  in  April,  1924,  as  to  appeal  to  the  League 
of  Nations  for  intervention. 

Foreign  Affairs.  Domestic  concerns  during 
1914-18  distracted  attention  from  foreign  af- 
fairs. The  result  was  that  the  tone  of  the  nego- 
tiations carried  on  with  Germany  over  subma- 
rine sinkings  never  became  obstreperous.  In 
1918  an  agreement  was  reached  with  Germany 
for  a  ton-for-ton  indemnity  to  cover  nil  losses. 
In  1919  Count  Romanones  attended  the  Peace 
Conference  and  succeeded  in  obtaining  for  Spain 
a  place  in  the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations. 
All  talk  of  a  Franco-Spanish  alliance,  which  was 
current  rumor  in  1919  and  1920  and  was 
quickened  by  Count  Romanones's  presence  at 
the  Peace  Conference  and  the  King's  visit  to  Pa- 
ris in  1919,  came  to  naught  because  of  the 
Spanish  pretensions  in  Tangiers.  Spain's  de- 
sire to  assume  an  important  place  in  foreign  af- 
fairs and  in  the  Mediterranean  in  particular 
was  not  to  be  frustrated,  for  with  the  assump- 
tion of  the  reins  of  government  by  the  Directo- 
rate, pourparlers  were  at  once  commenced  with 
Italy.  In  November,  1923,  the  Queen  and  King, 
accompanied  by  General  Rivera,  were  enter- 
tained by  Italian  royalty.  A  commercial  treaty 
was  at  once  effected,  and  it  appeared  certain 
that  Mussolini  and  Rivera  meant  to  hasten  a 
rapprochement  of  the  two  powers  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  an  equilibrium  in  the  Mediterranean. 


Another  question  discussed  over  the  period  was 
the  negotiation  of  commercial  treaties  with 
France,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Portugal,  and 
the  United  States.  Considerable  hard  feeling 
was  engendered  by  the  fact  that  France  in  1920 
increased  all  tariffs  considerably.  The  matter 
was  debated  in  1921  and  1922  and  seemed  on  the 
way  to  solution  in  1923  when  the  government 
was  authorized  to  negotiate  a  treaty,  but  the 
coup  d'e"tat  ended  all  discussion  for  the  time. 
The  same  was  true  of  the  German  and  United 
States  treaties  which  had  lapsed  in  1922  and 
1923  respectively.  For  Spain's  part  in  the 
Tangier  discussions,  see  TANGIER  CONTROVERSY. 
See  also  MOROCCO;  ITALY;  NAVIES  OF  THE 
WORLD. 

SPANISH  LITERATURE.  Spanish  liter- 
ature in  the  nineteenth  century  had  a  veritable 
renaissance  in  the  drama,  the  novel,  and  in  lyric 
poetry,  three  fields  in  which  Spain  had  been  su- 
preme in  the  heyday  of  her  Golden  Age.  To 
these  she  added  an  excellent  school  of  criticism. 
In  all  four  of  these  forms  of  literary  activity 
Spain  continued  to  shine  during  the  first  quar- 
ter of  the  twentieth  century.  The  "generation 
of  1898"  was  the  name  applied  to  the  forward- 
looking  group  which,  while  preserving  all  that 
was  best  in  their  native  inheritance,  wished  to 
profit  by  all  that  was  best  beyond  the  borders 
of  their  own  land.  Keen  observers  saw  the  les- 
sons to  be  learned  from  foreign  experience,  and 
patriotic  hearts  and  minds  adapted  those  lessons 
to  the  native  needs,  so  that  Spanish  literature 
of  the  first  quarter  of  the  century  was  racially 
Spanish  and  typical. 

In  the  novel,  two  old  favorites  went  into  new 
fields:  Blanco  Ilmne/  gave  a  series  of  novels 
about  the  War,  one  of  which,  Los  Cuatro  Gmetes 
del  Apocalipsis,  is  remarkable  for  its  grasp  of 
the  extent  of  the  racial  problems  involved;  and 
Pfo  Haroja  gave  a  series  of  novels  that  tend  to 
show  the  dexelopment  of  liberal  ideas  in  Spain 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  These  have  been 
compared,  mutatis  mutandis  \\it\\  the  Episo- 
dios  Nacionales  of  P£rez  (Jaldos. 

The  novel  appears  in  several  attractive  fields: 
the  historical  novel,  the  regional  novel,  the  real- 
istic novel,  the  latter  sometimes  showing  keen 
analysis  of  modern  problems  Ilamon  Marfa  del 
Valle-Jnclftn  wrote  about  30  cucntott,  and  three 
historical  novels  dealing  with  the  Carlist  War  in 
(jalicia.  Alejandro  Pe"rez  Lugfn  made  a  great 
furore  with  his  La  Casa  de  la  Troya  (Fastenratli 
prize),  which  portrays  the  life  of  Santiago  de 
Compostela.  His  subsequent  novels  (lurrito  dc  la 
Cruz  and  La  Corredoira  y  la  Rua  also  deal  with 
Galicia,  as  do  those  of  Francisco  Camba,  whose 
Rmoluci6n  de  Laitio  won  the  Fastenrath  prize 
( 1022 ) .  Mauricio  Lrtpez  Koherts  won  the  Fasten- 
rath prize  (1017)  with  his  El  Verdadcro  Hoyar, 
and  his  El  Avc  Rlanca  (1022)  deals  attractively 
with  a  strange  Basque  legend.  Guillermo  Dfaz- 
Caneja  won  the  Fastenrath  prize  (1018)  with 
his  El  Robre  en  Blanco,  while  his  later  novel, 
La  Virgen  Paleta,  was  considered  his  most 
beautiful  work  up  to  that  time.  Without  in- 
tending to  be  so  he  is  a  moralist.  The  Pueyo 
prize  (1022)  was  awarded  to  M.  D.  Ben av ides, 
whose  Lamestaci6n  revealed  a  young  author  of 
great  promise.  Ricardo  Le6n  was  considered 
by  many  as  being  stylistically  the  author  most 
nearly  entitled  to  be  considered  the  successor  of 
Juan  Valera.  In  subject  matter  and  in  manner 
of  treatment  he  continued  the  traditions  of 
Alarc6n  and  Pereda.  His  El  Amor  de  IOB 


SPANISH  LITEBATTTBE 

Amores  is  a  kind  of  reve  -sal  of  Pepita  Jimenez. 
Among  his  latest  novels  were  Amor  de  Caridad, 
Cuentos  de  Antano  y  de  Hooano,  and  Humos  de 
Key.  Beatriz  Galindo  (Mrs.  Isabel  0.  de  Palen- 
cia)  wrote  one  of  the  most  effective  books  of  the 
year  1923,  El  Sembrador  8embr6  su  Semilla  .  .  .  , 
a  fascinating  novel  and  a  medically  sound  study 
of  eugenics.  Concha  Espina  de  la  Serna,  after 
winning  the  Fastenrath  prize  for  1914  with  her 
La  Esfinge  Naragata,  was  forging  rapidly  to  the 
front,  with  La  Rosa  de  los  Vientos,  Ruecas  de 
Mdrfil,  El  Metal  de  los  Mucrtos,  Despcrtar  para 
Morir,  Dulce  Nombre,  and  El  Caliz  Rojo. 
In  1923,  the  Royal  Spanish  Academy  awarded 
her  the  Castillo  de  ('hirel  prize,  and  she 
was  already  being  spoken  of  for  the  Nobel 
pri/e. 

During  the  period  under  consideration,  poetry 
gave  us  not  only  the  editions  of  the  complete 
works  of  such  poets  as  Jose"  Marfa  Gabriel  y 
Galnn,  Vincente  Medina,  and  Antonio  Machado 
y  Ruiz,  but  new  works  of  very  real  worth  and 
inspiration,  which  drink  deep  from  the  fountain 
of  the  national  life.  Francisco  Villaespesa  gave 
us  Andalucia,  La  Maja  de  Ooya,  and  Paz.  J.  M. 
Bello's  Cantigas  de  Juglaria  exhibit  a  surprising 
variety  of  rhymes  and  meters;  and  the  polished 
verse  and  beautiful  thoughts  of  E.  Carballo's 
Cancioncro  de  Amor  met  with  favor.  The  Ruta 
de  Ensueno  (1917)  of  F.  Perez  Mem'ndez  Ma- 
turana  was  deemed  better  than  any  of  his  previ- 
ous work.  The  Poemas  (1918)  of  A.  Torre- 
Ruiz  caused  him  to  be  hailed  as  a  new  poet  of 
real  inspiration.  Juan  de  Contreras,  Marque's 
de  Lozoya,  showed  himself  to  be  a  graceful 
versifier  with  a  real  inspiration  in  Poemas  de 
Anoranzas  (1915),  Honctas  Espirituales  (1918), 
and  Poemas  Castellatioft  (1920),  the  last  of 
which,  treating  of  ftegovian  legends,  won  the 
Fastenrath  prize.  The  great  poetic  event  of  1922 
was  the  discovery  of  a  real  poet  in  the  person  of 
an  authentic  shepherd  of  Castile,  Julian  San- 
chez Prieto,  whose  book  En  cl  Clwso  was  writ- 
ten in  the  fields  among  his  sheep. 

The  drama  flourished  as  one  would  expect, 
and  some  of  the 'best  work  was  done  in  verse, 
verse  whose  charm  yields  in  no  respect  to  the 
verse  of  earlier  periods.  Francisco  Villaespesa 
produced  La  Lcona  de  CastiJla  (1915),  Aben- 
humeya.  El  Key  (ialaor,  La  Maja  dc  Goya,  and 
Judith,  the  last  a  Biblical  subject  which  has  been 
fairly  popular  in  Spanish  literature.  Eduardo 
Marquina  gave  us  El  Gran  Capitan,  La  Morisca, 
La  Eatrana  (1921),  El  Pavo  Real  (the  most 
beautiful  production  of  the  year  1922,  and  deal- 
ing with  an  exquisitely  dainty  legend  of  Brit- 
ish India),  and  in  1923,  Una  Norhc  en  Venecis 
(a  happy  combination  of  profound  love  and 
sound  thinking,  set  to  verse  that  needs  no 
musical  accompaniment).  Antonio  Rey  Soto, 
although  a  churchman,  ranks  well  as  a  poetic 
dramatist,  as  shown  by  his  Amor  quo  Vence  al 
Amor  (1917)  and  'his  mystic  tragedy  Cuento  del 
Lar  (1918).  Next  to  Eduardo  Marquina,  the 
most  graceful  dramatic  poet  was  probably  Luis 
Fernandez  Ardavfn,  whose  works  La  Drama  del 
Armiilo  (1921),  El  Doncel  Romdntico  (1922), 
and  Romance  de  Dona  Blanca  (1923),  were  all 
very  well  received.  In  the  non poetic  drama 
there  is  also  much  excellent  work  to  record. 
Despite  his  jyreat  age  Benito  Perez  Gald6s  won 
a  triumph  with  his  tragicomedy  Santa  Juana  de 
Castilla  (1918),  as  had  in  1917  the  almost 
equally  aged  Catalan  dramatist  Angel  Guimera 
with  his  peace  play  Jesus  que  Vuelve. 


SPANISH  LITEBATUBB 

The  Alvarez  Quintero  brothers  continue  to 
keep  the  Spanish  stage  supplied  with  their 
clean,  witty  light  comedies  and  with  occasional 
pieces  of  a  more  serious  nature  such  as  Malva- 
loca  (crowned  by  the  Academy),  La  Calumni- 
ada,  Ramn  de  Locitra,  La  Prisa,  and  Cristalina, 
all  of  which,  without  losing  any  of  the  usual 
charm  of  the  authors,  deal  with  serious  ques- 
tions. Two  other  authors  of  note  belong  to 
this  lighter  school,  Carlos  Arniehes  (whose  La 
Tragedia  de  Manchu  arid  La  Mala  Hora  were 
very  successful),  and  Pedro  Mufioz  Seca,  who 
keeps  his  public  in  gales  of  laughter  by  his  un- 
expected quips  and  flashes  of  repartee  ( for  ex- 
ample, in  El  Conflioto  de  Mercedes),  but  who 
can  also  write  for  children,  as  shown  by  his 
beautiful  La  Muerte  del  Drag6n. 

There  still  remain  four  great  names  connected 
with  the  drama  in  the  quarter-century.  Jacinto 
Benavente,  from  the  nature  of  his  work,  has 
been  called  the  Spanish  Shakespeare.  After 
1916  (when  he  produced  La  Ciudad  Alegre  y 
Confiada,  which  is  an  exquisite  allegory  treating 
the  question  of  national  civic  preparedness  as 
against  personal  selfishness)  he  gave  us  La  1m- 
maculada  de  Dolores,  Mefistdfela,  Los  Cachorros, 
La  Ley  de  los  Hijos,  La  Vestal  de  Occidente,  and 
Por  ser  con  Todos  Leal  ser  para  Todos  Traidor. 
He  was  awarded  the  Nobel  prize  for  1922.  Man- 
uel Linares  Rivas  won  a  succession  of  triumphs 
with  his  careful  studies  of  vital  problems:  Co- 
bardias  (1918,  attacking  all  kinds  of  moral 
cowardice),  El  Calallero  Lolo  (1919),  Almas 
Brujas,  Lo  Pasado,  Como  Dios  nos  Hizo,  Frente 
a  la  Vida  (problem  of  educating  middle-class 
girls  to  economic  efficiency  ao  as  to  avoid  neces- 
sity of  loveless  marriages),  and  his  success  of 
1923,  La  Ma  la  Ley,  which  is  a  piercing  study  of 
a  bad  inheritance  law.  In  the  later  years, 
Gregorio  Martfnez  Sierra  was  devoting  a  great 
deal  of  his  time  and  talent  (and  he  was  ably 
seconded  therein  by  his  talented  wife)  to  stag- 
ing with  exquisite  taste  the  plays  of  others 
(e.g.  El  Pavo  Real  and  Una  Xocne  en  Venecia  by 
Marquina,  and  El  Conflicto  de  Mercedes  by 
MfiSoz  Seca)  ;  but  that  did  not  prevent  him 
from  doing  some  creative  work,  as  witness  El 
Corazon,  Ciego,  Don  Juan  de  Espana  (a  new 
treatment  of  an  old  legend),  and  El  Orillo  del 
Tlogar,  which  is  a  dramatization,  with  delicate 
touches,  of  Dickens's  Cricket  on  the  Hearth.  J. 
Lflpez  Pinillos,  who  wrote  under  the  pen  name 
of  Parmeno,  worked  indefatigably  during  his 
last  years,  as  witness  Los  Senderos  del  Mai,  and 
Esclavitad  (Piquer  prize  for  1918),  El  Conde- 
nadoy  La  Red  (1919,  Academy  prize  in  1921), 
Como  cl  //i/mo,  La  Tierra,  and  El  Caudal  de 
los  Hijos  (all  produced  in  1921,  all  studying  seri- 
ous problems  and  the  last  one  treating  honor 
as  a  spiritual  inheritance  that  parents  must  hand 
down  unsullied  to  their  children ) :  and  then 
went  to  his  reward,  leaving  behind  him  two 
works  for  posthumous  production:  Los  Mal- 
casados  and  Enbrujamiento,  which  latter  was  a 
tremendous  success. 

The  school  of  criticism  following  in  the  foot- 
steps of  Clarfn,  Men6ndez  y  Pelayo  and  Valera 
shows  such  names  as  Azorfn,  Blanca  de  los  Rlos 
de  Lamperez,  Carmen  de  Burgos,  E.  Dfez  Canedo, 
Miguel  de  Unamuno,  Ram6n  Perez  de  Ayala, 
Ricardo  Le6n,  Luis  Astrana  Marfn,  and  the 
two  special  followers  of  Mene"ndez  y  Pelayo: 
Ramon  Meneridez  Pidal  and  Adolfo  Bon  ill  a  y 
San  Martfn,  each  of  whom  had  in  turn  devel- 
oped a  following. 


SPABTACI8T8 

SPABTACISTS.  See  COMMUNISM;  GER- 
MANY. 

SPATJLDING,  EDWARD  GLEASON  ( 1873-  ) . 
An  American  philosopher,  born  at  Burlington, 
Vt.,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Vermont 
and  at  Bonn  in  Germany.  He  taught  philoso- 
phy in  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 
from  1900  to  1914  and  then  became  a  member  of 
the  faculty  of  Princeton  University.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  lectured  at  Woods  Hole,  Mass.  He 
collaborated  with  six  others  in  The  A'cir  Realism 
in  1912  and  also  wrote  The  New  Rationalism  in 
1918.  He  served  in  the  Engineers  Corps  of  the 
United  States  Army  during  the  War. 

SPECTEOHELlOGKAPH.     See  ASTRONOMY. 

SPELLACY,  THOMAS  JOSEPH  (1880-  ). 
An  American  lawyer,  born  at  Hartford,  Conn. 
He  was  graduated  from  the  Law  Department  of 
Georgetown  University  in  1901,  and  from  1903 
practiced  law  in  Hartford.  He  was  active  in 
Democratic  politics  and  from  1915  to  1919  was 
United  States  District  Attorney.  He  was  Demo- 
cratic candidate  for  governor  in  1918,  and  in 
1919  served  as  legal  adviser  in  Europe  in  the 
settlement  of  naval  affairs  growing  out  of  the 
War.  From  1919  to  1921,  he  was  Assistant  At- 
torney General  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
election  of  1924,  he  was  one  of  John  W.  Davis's 
managers. 

SPENCER,  ARTHUB  COE  (1871-  ).  An 
American  geologist,  born  at  Carmel,  N.  Y.  He 
studied  at  the  Case  School  of  Applied  Science, 
and  in  1890  received  his  Ph.D.  at  Johns  Hooking. 
Later  entering  the  service  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  as  assistant  geologist,  he  at- 
tained the  rank '  of  geologist  in  1902.  In  his 
official  capacity  he  studied  the  general  geology 
and  ore  deposits  of  Virginia,  Colorado,  Wyoming, 
Alaska,  and  Cuba,  and  more  particularly  the 
zinc  and  iron  deposits  in  the  pre-Cambrian  rocks 
of  New  Jersey,  as  \vell  as  those  of  Texas,  in- 
cluding the  iron  ores,  and  the  Triassic  iron  ores 
of  Pennsylvania.  Later  he  was  given  charge 
of  the  investigation  of  lands  in  the  Appalachian 
and  White  Mountains  to  determine  whether 
Federal  control  of  lands  would  promote  navi- 
gability of  dependent  streams. 

SPlfNCEB,  KOBERT  (1879-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican landscape  painter,  born  at  Harvard,  Neb., 
and  educated  at  The  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign in  New  York  and  at  the  New  York  School 
of  Art.  He  studied  under  Chase,  DuMond, 
Henri,  Garber,  Francis  Jones,  and  F.  Luis  Mora. 
Among  his  numerous  awards  were  the  George 
Tunes  gold  medal  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Design  (1914),  the  gold  medal  of  the  Boston 
Art  Club  (1915),  and  the  gold  medal  of  the 
Panama-Pacific  Exposition  (1915).  His  paint- 
ings are  permanently  hung  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art  in  New  York  City  and  in  the 
most  important  collections  of  the  United  States, 
including  those  of  Chicago,  Washington,  Pitts- 
burgh, Detroit,  and  Buffalo.  He  became  a 
National  Academician  in  1920. 

SPENGLEB,  OSWALD  (1880-  ).  A  Ger- 
man scholar  and  writer  on  philosophical  topics. 
He  received  international  notoriety  through  the 
publication  of  his  Untergang  des  Abendlandes, 
Umrisae  evner  Morphologic  der  Weltgeschichte 
(2  vols.,  1920-22).  In  this  work  he  attempted 
to  trace  a  philosophy  of  history  and  to  predict, 
on  the  basis  of  the  postbellum  disorganization 
of  Europe,  the  eclipse  of  western  civilization. 
TTis  other  works  include  a  study  of  the  phi- 
losophy of  HeraclitUB  (1904)  and  a  sociologi- 


SPITSBERGEN 

ciil     tract    on    Preusscntum    ttnd    Socialism's 
(1922). 

SPIKDEN",  HERBERT  JOSEPH  (1879-  ). 
An  American  anthropologist  who  was  born  in 
Huron,  S.  D.  He  did  field  work  for  the  Peabody 
Museum  of  Harvard  University  in  the  western 
States,  Mexico,  Central  America,  etc.,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History  in  New  York,  He  specialized  on  ancient 
art  and  was  in  charge  of  the  exhibit  of  industrial 
art  in  1919.  He  conducted  an  archaeological 
expedition  to  Venezuela,  which  was  financed  by 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  in  1915,  and 
published  a  work  on  Ancient  Civilizations  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America  (1917). 

SPIRE,  ANDR£  (1868-  ).  A  French 
writer  of  Jewish  extraction.  He  was  the  leader 
of  a  group  of  Franco- Jewish  poets  and  writers 
in  Paris,  who  wanted  to  cany  forward  the  Jew- 
ish tradition  regardless  of  language.  This 
school  included  such  men  as  Henri  Franck  (died 
in  1912)  and  Edmond  Fle£,  the  author  of 
Ecoutet  Israel.  Spire's  published  works  include. 
Et  J'ai  Voulu  la  Paix,  Fournisseurs  (war 
poems)  ;  Verse ts:  Et  Vous  Ricz,  Potmes  Juifs; 
Les  Juifs  et  la  Guerre  and  Quelqnes  Juifs  (criti- 
cal essays).  As  a  poet  Spire  reflects  a  restless 
and  powerful  lyricism  best  characterised  in  his 
own  words  as  of  a  man  who  "does  not  know  ho\v 
to  love  in  a  drv  manner — like  a  priest." 

SPIBITUAtlST  ASSOCIATION,  NATION  \L 
An  association  incorporated  in  1893  for  the 
union  of  local  spiritualist  societies  of  the  United 
States  into  an  organization  for  mutual  help  and 
cooperation  in  charitable,  educational,  religious, 
and  missionary  activity  relating  to  the  objects 
and  phenomena  of  spiritualism.  Annual  con- 
ventions are  held  in  which  matters  relating  to 
spiritualism  are  discussed.  The  Association 
made  progress  in  membership  and  financially  in 
the  decade  1914-24.  Many  local  churches  were 
built,  and  a  vigorous  propaganda  was  carried  on. 
Ministers  to  a  large  extent  took  the  place  of  the 
itinerant  system  in  local  societies  and  churches 
At  the  annual  meeting  in  1919,  legislation  in  all 
States  for  the  protection  of  the  spiritualists  as 
a  religious  denomination  was  strongly  urged. 
An  advance  toward  securing  a  national  temple 
in  Washington  was  made  in  1921  by  payment  in 
full  for  a  prominent  building  site.  The  Associa- 
tion maintains  a  Spiritualist  school,  the  Morris 
Pratt  Institute,  at  Whitewater,  Wis.  Its  peri- 
odicals include  The  Progressive  Thinker,  The 
Weekly  Banner  of  Life,  and  The  National  Spirit- 
ualist (a  monthly).  It  has  a  membership  about 
000,000,  with  some  000  affiliated  churches.  Its 
ministers  number  about  500  and  its  mediums 
about  1200.  The  president  is  Dr.  George  B. 
Warne.  The  general  offices  of  the  Association 
are  in  Washington,  D.  C. 

SPITZBEBGEN.  An  Arctic  archipelago 
with  a  total  area  of  25,000  square  miles,  be- 
longing to  Norway  since  1919.  The  summer 
population  (1921)  was  1315;  the  winter  popu- 
lation (1921-22),  895.  The  permanent  popula- 
tion was  made  up  of  inhabitants  of  five  mining 
camps  engaged  in  the  collieries.  The  interest 
in  the  exploitation  of  the  resources  of  the  is- 
lands led  to  considerable  scientific  research, 
mainly  geological  and  topographical.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  activities  of  Norwegian  explorers, 
the  mapping  of  the  country  was  rapidly  pushed, 
while  oceanographic  research  was  aided  by  the 
interest  of  the  Prince  of  Monaco.  A  wireless 
station  was  established  by  the  Norwegian  gov- 


SPITZKA 


1243 


SPOUTS 


eminent  at  Green  Harbor  in  1911;  the  Germans 
established  a  meteorological  station  near  Cross 
Bay  in  1010.  Other  wireless  stations  were 
erected  by  the  English  and  Swedes  in  the  period 
10 J  4-24.  The  discovery  of  coal  on  the  archipel- 
ago was  the  initial  stimulus  to  an  active  inter- 
est in  the  region  on  the  part  of  British,  Amer- 
ican, Swedish,  Norwegian,  and  Russian  nation- 
als. Further  reconnaissances  showed  the  pres- 
ence of  deposits  of  iron  ore,  asbestos,  alluvial 
gold,  gypsum,  colored  marble,  phosphates,  and 
platinum.  Up  to  1024  coal,  the  only  mineral 
regularly  worked,  had  five  mines,  located  at 
Braganza  Bay,  Green  Harbor,  Coles  Bay,  and 
Advent  Bay  (two  mines).  Prior  to  the  annexa- 
tion to  Norway,  the  output  mined  and  exported 
averaged  20,000  tons;  in  1922,  297,000  tons  were 
mined.  Coal  areas  preempted  and  claimed  by 
the  various  nationals  were  approximately  as  fol- 
lows: British  companies,  4000  square  miles; 
Norwegian,  900;  Swedish,  350;  Russian,  100; 
Dutch,  10.  The  large  American  interests  had 
been  sold  to  European  companies,  and  the  Ger- 
man holdings,  seized  by  the  British  during  the 
War,  were  added  to  the  British  estates.  Settle- 
ments were  being  regularly  laid  out;  the  latest 
census  (1920)  showed  seven  principal  towns 
with  the  following  summer  populations:  Long- 
year  City,  400;  Iliorthavn,  70;  Coles  Bay,  21; 
Green  Harbor,  209;  Cape  Boheman,  90;  Ny 
Aalesund,  King's  Bay,  321;  Bell  Sound,  240. 
A  postal  service  was  maintained  by  Norway, 
and  Scandinavian  and  German  tourist  boats 
touched  at  the  harbors  during  the  summer  sea- 
son, June  to  September. 

Partly  as  a  result  of  Norwegian  agitation,  the 
political  status  of  Spitzbergen  came  frequently 
before  the  attention  of  Europe.  Conferences 
uere  held  in  1910,  1912,  and  1916,  but  without 
result.  Finally,  in  1919,  Spitzbergen,  together 
with  Bear  Inland,  was  granted  to  Norway  by 
the  Supreme  Council,  but  under  a  series  of  guar- 
antees in  the  interests  of  other  nationals  hold- 
ing property.  rlhe  archipelago  was  not  to  be 
used  for  any  military  purpose.  The  ships  of  all 
signatories  to  the  treaty,  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States,  France,  Italy,  Japan,  Holland, 
Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  were  to  enjoy 
fishing  and  hunting  privileges  in  territorial 
waters  as  well  as  the  right  to  touch  at  Norway 
en  route  to  and  from  Spitzbergen.  A  Danish 
commissioner  was  to  examine  claims  with  re- 
gard to  disputed  estates,  and  a  tribunal  of  the 
interested  powers  was  to  make  final  settlements. 

SPITZKA,  EDWARD  ANTHONY  (1870-  ). 
An  American  physician,  anatomist  and  psychia- 
trist, son  of  Edward  C.  Spitzka.  Born  in  New 
York  City,  he  was  educated  at  the  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York  and  received  his  medical 
degree  from  Columbia  University  in  1902.  His 
early  years  after  graduation  were  devoted  to 
anatomy  and  especially  to  brain  study.  He  was 
connected  with  the  anatomical  department  of 
Jefferson  Medical  College  from  1904  and  was  di- 
rector of  the  Daniel  Baugh  Institute  of  Anatomy 
from  1911  to  1914,  when  he  removed  to  New 
York  to  enter  upon  the  practice  of  neurology 
and  psychiatry.  He  was  for  many  years  identi- 
fied with  brain  study  in  general,  with  especial 
reference  to  comparative  anatomy  of  the  Drain, 
including  research  into  the  brains  of  distin- 
guished and  abnormal  individuals  such  as  Czol- 
gosz,  the  assassin.  He  studied  especially  the  ac- 
tion of  high -volt  age  currents  on  the  brain,  the 
effects  of  electrocution,  of  reanimation  after 


electric  shock,  etc.,  and  wrote  many  papers  on 
these  and  allied  subjects.  During  the  War,  he 
was  very  active  both  abroad  and  at  home  and 
was  appointed  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  Medical 
Corps  and  Medical  Reserve  Corps.  His  only 
large  contribution  is  an  American  edition  of 
dray's  Anatomy  with  notes  (1908). 

SPLEEN.     DISEASES  OF  THE.    See  AN/EMIA. 

SPOKANE.  A  city  of  Washington.  The 
population  increased  slightly  from  104,402  in 
1910  to  104,437  in  1920  and  to  127,000  for  the 
metropolitan  area  by  the  estimate  of  the  Bureau 
of  Census  in  1921.  A  comprehensive  industrial 
expansion  took  place  during  the  10  years  1914- 
24,  bringing  the  number  of  manufacturing  plants 
up  to  325  with  an  estimated  output  value  of 
$100,000,000.  Building  permits  and  values  rose 
from  687  with  a  value  of  $982,227  in  1914  to 
2508  with  a  \alue  of  $2,48(>,56H  in  1924.  Bank 
clearings  increased  from  $202,665,540  in  1914  to 
$578,855,533  in  1923  and  deposits  increased  dur- 
ing the  same  period  from  $31,655,855  to  $51,- 
844,945.  Postal  receipts  rose  from  $539,500.98 
to  $l,f!6,046.17.  In  1914  the  jobbing  output  of 
Spokane  was  less  than  $50,000,000;  in  1923  the 
estimate  was  placed  at  $181,000,000. 

SPONDYLOTHEBAPY.  See  ABEAMS,  AL- 
BERT. 

SPOBTS.  The  major  sports  such  as  athletics, 
baseball,  football,  golf,  tennis,  etc.,  will  be 
found  treated  under  their  separate  heads. 
This  article  will  confine  itself  to  a  brief  review 
of  the  more  important  minor  sports  with  special 
reference  to  their  progress  during  the  10  years 
ending  with  1924. 

Billiards.  Every  type  shared  in  the  gene- 
ral sport  "advance."  William  F.  Hoppe  re- 
mained at  the  top  in  the  18.2  balk  line  game, 
successfully  defending  his  championship  honors 
against  Jacob  Sohaefer  in  a  challenge  match 
following  the  international  tournament  held  in 
1923  at  New  York  City  which  resulted  in  a  tie. 
Ralph  Green  leaf  retained  his  title  in  pocket  bil- 
liards but  in  1923  ClilT  Denton  wrested  the 
three-cushion  championbhip  from  Johnny  Layton. 
Edgar  T.  Appleby  was  the  international  amateur 
18.2  balkline  title  holder.  It  will  be  noted  that 
all  these  leading  billiard  players  are  Americans. 
France,  Germany  and  Belgium  were  all  repre- 
sented in  recent  tournaments  but  failed  to  make 
impressive  showings. 

Chess.  Dr.  Emanuel  Lasker  of  Germany  re- 
gained his  title  as  champion  of  the  world  from 
Jose"  R.  Capablanca  in  an  international  tourna- 
ment held  in  New  York  City  early  in  1924. 
This  marked  the  first  time  in  many  years  that  so 
representative  a  gathering  of  chess  masters  had 
been  held  in  the  United  States  and  served  to 
stimulate  interest  in  the  game  The  usual  in- 
tercollegiate chess  tourneys  in  the  United  States 
and  the  customary  cable  matches  between  the 
universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  in  Eng- 
land and  Yale  and  Harvard  in  America  continued 
to  be  held  annually. 

Cricket.  Great  Britain  remained  the  centre 
for  this  game,  although  it  seemed  to  be  growing 
in  popularity  in  the  United  States,  particularly 
in  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  The  Free  For- 
esters from  England  visited  the  United  States 
and  Canada  in  1923,  winning  seven  games,  draw- 
ing two  and  losing  none. 

Cycling.  As  a  recreation,  cycling  apparently 
is  regaining  its  former  hold  on  public  favor  de- 
spite the  advent  of  the  automobile.  Cycle  rac- 
ing attracts  thousands  of  spectators  especially 


SPBINGFIELD 


1244 


8QUIER 


in  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States.  Velo- 
dromes devoted  to  bicycle  competitions  of  various 
sorts  with  seating  capacities  of  from  15,000  to 
20,000  have  been  constructed  in  recent  years  in 
New  York  City  and  Newark,  N.  J. 

Fencing  and  Gymnastics.  Fencing  in  mak- 
ing slow  progress,  the  sport  being  chiefly  confined 
to  a  few  American  colleges  and  athletic  clubs  al- 
though it  has  become  an  attractive  feature  of 
the  Olympic  (James  (q.v.).  The  United  States 
leads  in  gymnastics,  colleges  and  athletic  clubs 
featuring  this  sport  during  the  winter  months. 

Hockey.  Hockey  is  popular  in  many  coun- 
tries, notably  Great  Britain,  Switzerland,  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  Several  women's  teams 
have  been  organized  since  1!>20  and  in  1024 
American  women  players  made  a  tour  through 
Gieat  Britain  and  France,  meeting  various  teams 
in  those  countries.  Professional  hockey  flour- 
ishes in  Canada  and  in  1024  steps  were  taken 
to  establish  a  professional  hockev  league  in  the 
United  States,  with  teams  in  tfew  York  City, 
Boston  and  other  large  centres  in  the  Eastern 
States. 

Skating.  Both  as  a  recreation  and  sport, 
skating  showed  growth  in  popularity  and  in  a 
sense  handicapped  the  advance  of  hockey  inas- 
much as  the  rinks  in  the  larger  cities  have  such 
a  large  patronage  that  they  have  proved  more 
profitable  for  skating  alone  than  for  hockey. 

Bowing.  College  rowing  in  the  United  States 
retains  its  grip,  the  annual  regattas  on  the  Hud- 
son and  the  Thames  attracting  throngs  of  50,- 
000  spectators  The  victories  scored  at  Pough- 
keepsie  in  1023  and  1024  by  the  oarsmen  from 
the  University  of  Washington  served  to  produce 
nation-wide  interest  in  the  sport  Rowing  con- 
tests afTord  one  of  the  most  entertaining  features 
of  the  Olympic  Games  (q.v.) 

Shooting.  The  United  States,  Switzerland, 
France  and  Argentina  all  pay  considerable  at- 
tention to  shooting,  the  team  from  the  United 
States  being  victorious  in  the  international 
championships  held  in  1024,  prior  to  the  Olympic 
Games  of  that  year. 

Wrestling.  'Ibis  had  a  large  following  of 
college  men  and  amateurs  in  the  United  States 
but  the  professional  "game"  appears-  to  be  los- 
ing in  popularity.  Ed  "Strangler"  Lewis  holds 
the  professional  world's  championship. 

Yachting.  The  last  races  in  this  period  for 
the  America's  Cup.  emblematic  of  the  world's 
yachting  championship,  were  held  in  July,  1020, 
off  Sandy  Hook  The  defending  yacht  was  the 
Resolute,  owned  by  members  of  the  New  York 
Yacht  Club,  and  the  challenger  was  the  Sham- 
rock IV.  owned  by  Sir  Thomas  Lipton  of  the 
Royal  lister  Yacht  Club  of  Belfast,  Ireland. 
Five  races  were  sailed,  of  which  the  Resolute  cap- 
tured three  and  the  Shamrock  two.  The  six- 
meter  team  race  regatta  between  British  and 
United  States  teams  of  four  boats  each  was  held 
off  the  Isle  of  Wight  during  August,  1023,  the 
British  craft  triumphing  by  a  score  of  120  points 
to  86. 

SPBINGFIELD.  A  manufacturing  city  of 
Massachusetts.  The  population  rose  from  88,- 
926  in  1910  to  120,614  in  1020  and  to  145,000 
by  local  estimate  in  1924.  A  zoning  ordinance 
dividing  the  city  into  distinct  use  districts  was 
adopted  in  1921.  In  1022,  a  new  concrete  bridge 
across  the  Connecticut  River  was  completed  at 
a  cost  of  approximately  $6,000,000,  including  the 
site;  the  following  year  a  steel  bridge  was  erected 
at  a  cost  of  $873/000  on  the  site  of  the  North 


End  bridge,  destroyed  bv  fire.  The  annual  East- 
ern States  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Exposi- 
tion was  established  at  Springfield  in  1916. 
The  number  of  industries  increased  from  280  in 
1014  to  540  in  1024,  and  the  value  of  output  from 
$31,773,000  to  $228,000,000 

SPBOTJL,  WILLIAM  CAMERON  (1870-  ). 
An  American  public  official,  born  at  Lancaster,  Pa. 
lie  was  graduated  from  Swarthmore  College  in 
1801  and  for  several  years  was  engaged  in  farm- 
ing. He  afterwards  organized  se\eral  important 
iron  and  steel  plants  and  developed  numerous 
railroads,  mining,  traction  and  power  enterprises 
in  West  Virginia.  In  180C,  he  was  elected  to 
the  Pennsylvania  Senate.  He  was  five  times  re- 
elected.  In  1010,  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Pennsylvania,  serving  until  1023.  lie  took  spe- 
cial interest  in  the  development  of  highways  and 
was  known  as  "the  father  of  good  roads  in 
Pennsylvania."  Governor  Sproul  built  and  en- 
dowed the  Sproul  Observatory  at  Swarthmore 
College  and  restored,  at  his  own  expense,  the 
ancient  Chester  Courthouse,  the  oldest  public 
building  in  Pennsylvania. 

SPBOULE,  WILLIAM  ( ?-  )  An  Amer- 
ican railway  president.  He  began  in  the  rail- 
road business  with  the  Southern  Pacific  in  1882, 
and  after  holding  various  positions  in  the 
freight  department  of  the  Pacific  system,  be- 
came general  traffic  manager  in  1808  In  1010 
he  became  president  of  Wells  Far#o  and  Com- 
pany and  from  September,  1011,  to  July,  1018, 
he  was  director  and  president  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Company.  During  the  War  the  govern- 
ment commandeered  his  services,  and  lie  was  put 
in  chaige  of  western  railways  This  \\ork  oc- 
cupied him  until  December/ 1010.  In  1020  he 
resumed  the  office  of  director  and  president  of 
the  Southern  Pacific  Company. 

SPURR,  JOSIAII  KIIWARD  (1870-  ).  An 
Ameiioan  geologist,  born  at  Gloucester,  Mass. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  University  and 
also  studied  in  Berlin  During  1803,  he  was  an 
assistant  geologist  on  the  Minnesota  Geological 
and  Natural  History  Survey,  and  later  wag 
connected  with  the  United  States  Geological  Sur- 
vey as  assistant  geologist  until  1807;  thereafter 
as  geologist  During  1006-11,  he  was  in  consult- 
ing practice  and  in  the  latter  year  became  vice- 
president  and  consulting  engineer  of  the  Tono- 
pah  Mining  Company  of  Nevada.  During  the 
War  he  served  on  the  committee  of  mineral  im- 
ports with  the  United  States  Shipping  and  the 
War  Trade  Boards,  after  which  he  was  chief 
engineer  of  War  Minerals  Investigations  for  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Mines.  In  1010,  he 
became  editor-in-chief  of  the  Engineering  and 
Mining  Journal.  In  1807,  he  was  a  delegate  to 
the  International  Congress  of  Geology  held  in  St. 
Petersburg  and  in  1021  was  president  of  the 
Mining  arid  Metallurgical  Society  of  America. 
He  is  the  editor  of  Political  and  Commercial 
Geology  (1021),  and  the  author  of:  The  Iron- 
Rearing  Rocks  of  the  Mesabi  Range  in  Minne- 
sota (1804)  ;  Through  the  Yukon  (fold  Diggings 
(1000)  ;  Geology  Applied  to  Mining  (1004). 

SQUIER,  GEORGE  OWEN  (1865-  ).  An 
American  military  engineer,  born  at  Dryden, 
Mich.  He  studied  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  and  entered  the  Army  as  second  lieu- 
tenant of  the  3d  Artillery,  continuing  in  the 
military  service  until  his  retirement  on  Dec.  23, 
1023.  Meanwhile  having  shown  a  decided  in- 
terest in  electromagnetic  phenomena,  especially 
as  applied  to  its  uses  in  telegraphy  and  teleph- 


STAFF 


1245 


STANFORD  UNIVERSITY 


ony,  he  studied  at  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Among  his  military  assignments  were  an  ap- 
pointment as  instructor  of  electricity  and  mines 
at  the  United  States  Artillery  School  at  Fort 
Monroe  (1805-98);  command  of  the  United 
States  cable -uli ip  Burnxide  during  the  laying  oi 
the  Philippine  cable  telegraph  system  (1900- 
02)  ;  service  as  chief  signal  officer,  department 
of  California  (1902),  as  chief  of  signal  corps 
witli  rank  of  brigadier-general  (1917);  and 
charge  of  army  air  service  with  rank  of  major- 
general  (1916-18).  General  Squier's  own  re- 
searches and  inventions  included  studies  on  the 
sine  waves  systems  of  telegraphy,  multiplex 
telephony  and  telegraphy  over  open  bare  wires 
laid  in  the  earth  or  air,  tree  telephony  and  teleg- 
raphy, and  the  absorption  of  electromagnetic 
waves  by  living  organisms.  His  attainments 
were  recognized  by  the  John  Scott  gold  medal 
(1890)  and  the  *  Elliott  Treason  gold  medal 
(1912)  of  the  Franklin  Inntitute  For  his  serv- 
ices in  the  War  he  received  the  Distinguished 
Service  Medal  from  the  United  States  and  was 
made  a  Knight  Commander  of  St.  Michael  and 
St.  George  by  Great  Britain  lie  has  written  a 
number  of  books  on  aeronautics,  including  Mili- 
tary Aeronautics  (1008),  and  Aeronautics  in  the 
Vnitcd  States  (1918). 

STAFF,  GENKRAL.  See  ARMIES  AND  ARMY 
ORGAXTZ  \TJOX 

STAMBULISKY,  ALEXANDER  ( 1 879-1 923 ) . 
A  Pulgariun  statesman,  born  at  Slavovitsa,  Bul- 
gaiia,  and  educated  at  Sofia  and  Halle  He  IK»- 
came  a  journalist  and  in  1902  edited  a  news- 
paper of  the  Agrarian  League  Later  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Bulgarian  Assembly,  and  boon 
acquired  great  influence  in  the  Agrarian  party, 
lie  strongly  opposed  most  of  King  Ferdinand's 
policies.  For  this  and  for  his  public  statement 
that  if  Kiii#  Ferdinand  led  the  country  into  war 
again  he  would  lose  his  throne,  Stambuliftky  was 
sentenced  to  prison  for  life  He  was  released 
in  1918,  however,  helped  subdue  a  revolutionary 
movement  among  the  Bulgarian  troops,  and  later 
became  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  although  his 
party  did  not  then  have  a  majority  in  the 
cabinet  In  April,  1920,  he  headed  a  cabinet 
consist m«r  entirely  of  his  own  followers,  and 
immediately  began  putting  into  effect  his  plans 
for  boh  in#  the  economic  and  financial  problems 
that  confronted  the  government.  In  October, 
1921,  under  a  law  enacted  by  the  Stambulisky 
government,  the  trial  of  the  war  ministers 
charged  with  responsibility  for  Bulgaria's  par- 
ticipation in  the  War  as  Germany's  ally  was 
stinted.  The  trial  dragged  through  most  of 
1922  and  resulted  ih  the  conviction  of  22  minis- 
ters. Stambulisky's  government  announced  that 
the  constitution  would  be  revised  in  such  a  way 
as  to  curtail  royal  privileges.  This  aroused  the 
leaders  of  all  the  parties,  except  the  Agrarian, 
and  they  combined  with  the  army,  'and  with  the 
help  of  the  King,  overthrew  the  government. 
Stambulisky  escaped  arrest  only  by  hurried 
flight,  at  first  being  accompanied  by  a  guard  of 
2000  men,  but  later  being  obliged  to  proceed 
almost  alone  He  was  shot  and  killed  as  he  was 
crossing  an  open  field  on  June  15,  1923. 

STANDARDIZATION  OF  EQUIPMENT 
See  RAILWAYS,  Equipment 

STANDARDIZATION  OF  FARM  PROD- 
UCTS. See  AGRICULTURE;  CORN;  OATS. 

STANDARDIZATION  OF  LUMBER.  See 
FORESTRY 

STANDARDS.    See  COTTON. 


8TANFORD-BINET  SCALE,  foe  MENTAL 
MEASUREMENT. 

STANFORD  UNIVERSITY.  A  nonsectari- 
an,  coeducational  institution  at  Stanford  Uni- 
versity, Cal.,  founded  in  1891.  The  university 
grew  with  great  rapidity  during  the  decade 
1914-24,  both  in  the  size  of  its  student  body  and 
in  its  physical  equipment  and  resources.  The 
enrollment  rose  from  1879  at  the  beginning  of  the 
period  to  3564  at  the  close,  and  the  faculty  from 
229  to  408  members.  The  library  increased  from 
239,122  to  350,000  volumes;  Herbert  Hoover  pre- 
sented to  the  university,  in  1919,  a  collection  of 
material  on  the  War,  including  the  official  rec- 
ords of  the  American  Relief  Association,  the 
Commission  for  Relief  in  Belgium  and  other 
great  relief  organizations  headed  by  him;  to 
these  were  added  government  documents  and 
publications  and  archives  and  collections  made 
for  the  Food  Research  Institute.  By  the  be- 
ginning of  1924,  the  Hoover  War  Library,  as  it 
was  called,  contained  over  125,000  titles,  and  the 
work  of  cataloguing  the  material  was  progress- 
ing rapidly. 

The  Food  Research  Institute  was  founded  at 
Stanford  in  1920-21  on  endowment  from  the 
Carnegie  Corporation  of  New  York  of  approxi- 
mately $700,000  to  be  given  in  annual  install- 
ments for  the  succeeding  10  years.  Its  purpose 
was  the  intensive  scientific  study  of  the  prob- 
lems of  the  production,  distribution  and  con- 
sumption of  food  from  the  wide  national  and 
international  viewpoint.  Three  new  schools  and 
three  new  departments  also  were  established  and 
the  system  of  undergraduate  instruction  was 
reorgani/ed.  The  School  of  Biology  was  organ- 
ized in  1922-23  from  the  departments  of  anato- 
my, bacteriology  and  experimental  pathology, 
biochemistry,  botany,  entomology,  palaeontology, 
psychology,  physiology  and  zoology,  and  the 
Food  Research  Institute  and  the  Hopkins  Marine 
Station.  The  School  of  Education  was  estab- 
lished in  1917  and  the  School  of  Nursing  was 
opened  in  1922.  The  department  of  mining  and 
metallurgy  was  separated  from  the  department 
of  geology  and  mining,  and  the  department  of 
political  science  was  established  in  1918-19 
The  departments  of  Greek  and  Latin  were  com- 
bined in  1922  to  form  the  department  of  clas- 
sical literature. 

Many,  buildings  were  put  up  during  the  dec- 
ade, including  the  Thomas  Welton  Stanford  Art 
Gallery,  the  new  building  on  the  new  site  of 
the  Hopkins  Marine  Station,  and  the  Stanford 
Hospital,  costing  $500,000,  in  1917;  a  laboratory 
building  for  aircraft  investigation,  and  Roble 
Hall,  a  dormitory  for  women,  in  1918;  a  library 
with  capacity  of  about  700,000  volumes  forming 
the  central  structure  of  a  new  quadrangle,  in 
1919;  the  stadium  in  1921;  the  Stanford  Union 
and  the  basketball  pavilion  in  1922;  and  in  1923 
a  series  of  dining  halls  for  Encina  Hall  and  two 
dormitories  for  men,  Toyon  Hall,  and  Branner 
Hall,  which  was  erected  by  the  board  of  athletic 
control  from  the  earnings  of  the  stadium.  In 
1919,  the  Stanford  Home  for  Convalescent  Chil- 
dren was  installed  in  the  old  Stanford  residence, 
and  an  endowment  of  $100,000  was  subscribed  in 
memory  of  Mrs  Stanford.  Through  the  gift  of 
$40.000  of  Mrs.  Henry  Crocker,  another  unit  for 
20  beds  was  in  process  of  construction  at  the 
close  of  1923. 

During  the  War,  the  Stanford  Naval  Base 
Hospital  saw  active  service  in  France.  In  1915, 
Dr.  John  Casper  Branner  became  president  sue- 


STANOE 


1946 


STATE  FINANCES 


oeeding  Dr.  David  Starr  Jordan,  who  was  made 
chancellor.  Dr.  Branner  was  retired  in  1916  and 
was  succeeded  by  Ray  Lyman  Wilbur,  M.D. 

STANCE,  CARL  (1870-  ).  A  German 
Protestant  theologian  and  author  (see  VOL. 
XXI. )  Among  his  later  works  are :  Dcr  Weg  eu 
(tott  (1915);  Wundcr-  and  ffeiligengcschichten 
(1017);  Die  Religion  ala  Erfahrung  (1919); 
lather  und  das  Mttliche  Ideal  (1910)-,  Zwm 
Verstandniss  des  Christentuma  (1920);  Die 
Ethik  Kants  (1920). 

STARCH.    See  CHEMISTRY,  ORGANIC. 

ST ABB,  FREDERICK  (1858-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can anthropologist  (see  VOL.  XXI).  He  edited 
many  scientific  works  and  is  the  author  of 
Mexico  and  the  United  States  (1914);  Diction- 
ary of  the  Choctaw  Language  (1917) ;  An  Early 
Account  of  the  Choctaw  Indian  (1918);  The 
First  Mew  (1919);  The  Orioin  of  Religion 
(1919);  Korean  Buddhism:  History,  Condition, 
Art  (1919). 

STABS.    See  ARTBONOMY. 

STATE  FINANCES.  The  subject  of  State 
finances  occupied  much  attention  in  the  decade 
1914-24,  especially  during  the  latter  part  of 
that  period.  The  immense  increase  in  the  ex- 
penditures of  the  State  governments  and  their 
constantly  expanding  debt  were  among  the  most 
striking  features  of  the  financial  history  of  the 
country.  The  passage  of  the  Income  Tax  Law 


by  the  provisions  of  which  State  and  municipal 
bonds  were  exempted  from  taxation  (see  TAXA- 
TION) resulted  in  a  demand  for  these  bonds  for 
the  investment  of  money  which  met  with  a  ready 
response  by  the  creation  of  an  immense  body  of 
bonded  indebtedness  on  the  part  of  the  States. 
In  addition  to  this,  legitimate  expenses  and  ex- 
penditures increased  during  the  period.  Ex- 
panftion  in  educational  and  social  directions 
called  for  large  additional  sums,  and  the  in- 
creasing use  of  automobiles,  both  as  pleasure 
and  commercial  vehicles,  demanded  great  expen- 
ditures for  the  construction  of  highways.  For 
these  and  other  purposes,  many  of  the  States 
greatly  increased  their  bonded  indebtedness 
during  the  decade. 

Comparison  is  made  below  of  the  financial 
condition  of  the  States  in  two  representative 
years  of  the  period,  1916  and  1922.  The  former 
date  is  chosen  because  it  reflects  the  condition 
that  prevailed  before  the  causes  that  produced 
the  greatly  increased  expenditures  wont  into  ef- 
fect, and  1922  represents  the  latest  year  for 
which  complete  figures  are  available.  Both  sets 
of  figures  are  from  reports  of  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census.  The  assessed  valuation  of  property 
subject  to  general  property  tax  increased  from 
$70,056,003,286  in  1916  to  $106,878,258,410  in 
1922.  This  includes  real  property,  personal 
property  and  other  property  subject  to  taxation. 


Stale 
For  all  States 

Year 
191(5 

Total  Receipts 
$783,775,905 

Total  Expenditures 
$780  550  5GO 

Net  Debt 
$459  661  269 

Per  Capita 
$4  59 

Alabama   

1922 
.    .      1916 

1,159,445,130 
11,229,066 

1,280,237,898 
11  028  578 

879,075,619 
13  563  937 

812 
5  91 

Arizona  .  .  . 

1922 
1916 

15,H82,249 
3  715  998 

16,773,944 
8  475  417 

14,491,198 

841  158 

605 
H  'U5 

1922 
1916 

9,427,044 
4,857,418 

8,206,435 
4  919  167 

(Sinking  fund 
funded  and 
1  238  879 

assets  exceed 
floating  debt  ) 
0  72 

California    
Colorado   

1922 
..     ..           1916 
1922 
...    .      1916 
1922 
1916 

7,499,970 
53,444,236 
59,620.129 
10,205,038 
13,858,357 
13  340,761 

6,968,667 
50,830,629 
69,311,583 
10,117,055 
16,269,101 
12  257  454 

2,530,062 
33,375,559 
76,243,994 
3,753,226 
9,508,529 
13  064  100 

1  11 
11  58 
2093 
4  02 
9.75 
10  72 

Delaware    

1922 
1916 

21,815,841 
1,440,533 

20,050,565 
1,362,769 

6,045,358 
79(>  194 

4.21 
3  76 

Florida    

1922 
1916 

4,854,791 
3,844,604 

5,683,129 
4  092  623 

5,798i370 
601  567 

25  39 
0  69 

Georgia    

1922 
1916 

10,548,273 
13,318,510 

11,448,418 
13,187,541 

48f>!o85 
6  322  202 

0  47 
2  24 

Idaho        

1922 
...     .           1916 

17,316,714 
8,789,023 

15,864,279 
3  915,046 

6,HH1,702 
1  711  537 

1.81 

4  20 

Illinois    .         .  . 

1922 
1916 

5,767,233 
24  442,206 

5,301,916 
24  974  127 

5,515,766 
2  Ofifi  920 

12  OH 
0  34 

Indiana       

1922 
1916 

45,041,665 
15,333,355 

52,118,260 
14.H26.858 

12,737,468 
767  531 

1  91 

0  27 

Iowa         

1922 
1916 

25,588,250 
13,544,484 

24,157,674 
13,622,490 

425,615 

0.14 

Kansas    .    

1922 
1916 

31,907,084 
11.428,589 

32,392,946 
11,070,652 

185,000 

0.08 

1922 

12,380.184 

11.529,645 

Kentucky      

1916 

14,047,997 

13,827,737 

2  607  021 

1  10 

Louisiana     .    . 

1922 
.  .      1916 

17,916,665 
10,722,581 

12,887,368 
10  412,455 

2,447,*309 
13  479  470 

1.01 
7  48 

Maine     

1922 
1916 

20,087.477 
9,016,596 

20,295,482 
8,666,050 

13,678,819 
2  637  591 

745 
3  44 

Maryland    ...      . 
Massachusetts    .  .  . 

1922 
1916 
1922 
1916 

13,076,072 
15,025,146 
18,463,312 
54,966,665 

15,690,788 
15,519,078 
17.9iy.835 
51,739,460 

12,653/743 
16,575,297 
21,928,588 
86,042  691 

16.36 
12/J9 
11.7H 
23  52 

Michigan    

1922 
1916 

51,839,317 
36,875,278 

42,967,490 
33  839,338 

75,968,247 
6  014  614 

1912 
2  28 

1922 
1916 

61,788,256 
26  370  145 

92,538,443 
26  845  930 

49,205,551 
1  515  800 

12.80 
0  gg 

Mississippi   

1922 
1916 

42,262,517 
6,018,694 

41,823,616 
6,414,751 

19,475,800 
5,126,542 

706 
2  67 

Missouri     

1922 
1916 

11,150,513 
11,803,505 

14,057,383 
12  694  102 

12,342,501 
7  032  839 

6.80 
2  07 

Montana   

1922 
1916 

26,870,572 
13,825,167 

42,232,270 
14,075,218 

80,307,'839 
1,186  416 

8.83 
2  67 

1922 
1916 

8,457,688 
8  277  261 

8,281,224 
7  818,660 

4,312,551 

7,20 

1922 

14044186 

12,667,948 

.... 

Nevada     .  . 

.    ...      1916 

1  023  377 

1  813,000 

680  000 

6  62 

New    Hampshire 

1922 
1916 

3;237,516 
3  783  185 

8,208,069 
8,077,575 

1,  602^000 
1  051  187 

20.70 
4  48 

1922 

6,537,382 

5,196,100 

8,017)800 

6.77 

STATE  SOVEBEK 

State                      Tear 
New   Jersey    1  01  « 

3NTY                  1247                      STEAM 

Total  Receipts          Total  Expenditures 
24,304,053                     22,431,268 
42,000,608                    55,525,897 
5,864,934                       4,602,492 
5,954,809                       6,554,988 
114,702,602                   121,864,197 
134,681,260                   141,871,167 
7,695,456                       7,858,743 
13,164,249                     25,364,112 
10,479,612                       9,558,727 
8,751,592                      11,894,102 
23,709,230                      25,214,972 
53,688,447                      67,681,926 
25,479,809                      24,255,894 
14,973,656                      15,095,030 
6,686.579                        6,408,308 
19.447,935                     28,563,652 
38,524,289                     41,354,099 
86,447.839                     88,794,424 
4,285.803                         4,348,131 
7,392,814                        7,343,800 
5,230,863                        5,118,178 
8,398,811                         7,039,493 
6,402,987                        6,141,044 
11,058,909                      18,074,858 
18,063,932                      18,804,555 
15,464,758                       15,130,292 
22,746,723                      23,843,152 
41,858.571                       45,842,985 
6,532,583                        7,105,334 
8,531,166                        8,933,404 
5,530,106                        5,456,425 
5,053,236                        5,027,900 
14,310,915                       13,852,503 
26,501,327                      25,132,233 
15,231,624                       14,203  784 
22,484,807                      22,214,909 
11,239,593                       10,530,537 
12,347.621                      11,968,895 
18,031.202                       18,250,397 
37,554,933                       34,802,118 
2,032.642                        2,023,156 
6,598,575                         4,990,174 

ENGINES 

Net  Debt 
116,000 
16,348,603 
2,561,565 
4,560,668 
148,740,465 
186,515,461 
8,883,544 
33,325,898 
511,160 
5,014,230 
5,341,429 
29,583,581 
6,416,890 
3,526,121 

38,927,223 
472.639 
48,993,640 
(5,390,951 
9,338,359 
5,380,729 
5,225,4.76 

14,420,602 
15,803,535 
17,553,509 
4,547,694 
4,102,200 
2,091,206 
9,020.000 
611,400 
2,111,532 
23,772,497 
21,205,303 
1,209,337 
12,260,432 

24,180,665 
2,151,000 
2.163,700 
108,000 
3,776.452 

Per  Capita 
0.04 
4.98 
6.47 
12.37 
14.81 
17.52 
3.75 
12.59 
0.70 
8.49 
1.04 
4.96 
2.99 
1.68 

48.12 
0.07 
5.45 
10.00 
lr>  05 
3  35 
3.03 

22  27 
698 
741 

1  05 
0  85 
6.35 
19  20 
1  08 
5  99 
1098 
8  90 
0  83 
8  72 

1597 
0  86 
0  80 
0  f>3 

18  37 

New   Mexico    . 

1922 
1916 

New  York    .  .  . 

1922 
1916 

North  Carolina 
North  Dakota 
Ohio   

1922 
1916 

1922 
1916 

1922 
.  .  .  .       .              1910 

1922 
1916 

1922 
1916 

Pennsylvania    . 

1922 
1916 

Rhode   Island 
South  Carolina 
South   Dakota 

1922 
1916 

1922 
1916 

1922 
1916 
1922 
1916 

Texas      

1922 
1916 

Utah   

1922 
1916 

Vermont      .    .  . 
Virginia 

1922 
1916 
1922 
1910 

Washington     . 
West    Virginia 
Wisconsin 
Wyommp 

1922 
1916 

1922 
...     .                1916 

1922 
1916 
1922 
1916 
1922 

STATE   SOVEBEIGNTY. 

RKSH    OF    THE,    PohcC    J'oiVfT. 

STEAM.     See   BOJLERS. 
STEAM   AUTOMOBILES. 

See  LAW,  PBOQ- 
See  MOTOR  VE- 

pression  begins.     The  ste-am  passes  out  through 
terminal  exhaust  slots,  and  with  the  piston  act- 
ing as  a  valve  almost  full  vacuum  can   be  ob- 
tained with  the  least  possible  back  pressure,  so 

JIIl'LKH. 

STEAM  ENGINES  AND  STEAM  TUR- 
BINES. Jn  the  interval  between  1014  and 
11)24,  it  was  conclusively  demonstrated  that  the 
reciprocating  steam  engine,  at  least  in  its  larger 
sizes,  practically  had  been  supplanted  by  the 
steam  turbine  and  the  internal-combustion  en- 
gine (qv.),  especially  for  central-station  vork 
where  the  increased  capacity  per  unit  demanded 
made  it  unsuitable  for  such  work  under  modern 
conditions.  There  were,  however,  notable  excep- 
tions to  this  rather  broad  statement  as  to  the 
passing  of  the  steam  engine,  as  will  appear  in 
the  consideration  of  the  power  plants  considered 
later  and  of  such  uses  as  when  direct-connected 
to  the  rolls  in  a  steel  mill,  a  large  reciprocating 
engine  being  so  installed  as  late  as  1022.  The 
building  of  a  4200  horse-power  twin  tandem  com- 
pound drop-valve  engine  with  a  Corliss  detached 
valve  gear  for  a  corn -syrup  factory,  however,  was 
noted  in  1022  as  the  largest  direct-connected 
engine-generator  unit  that  had  been  built  for 
some  time  in  the  United  States  and  this  was 
not  exceeded  up  to  1024. 

Furthermore,  there  were  important  develop- 
ments and  applications  in  connection  with  the 
type  of  steam  engine  known  as  the  Uniflow  or 
Unaflow  engine  devised  in  Germany  by  Profes- 
sor Stumpf  and  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  1014.  This  engine  was  distinguished  by 
a  cylinder  of  special  design  where  the  flow  of 
steam  masses  into  it  on  admission  and  out  of  it 
on  exhaust  with  minimum  changes  of  direction. 
In  this  way  much  of  the  initial  condensation  of 
the  steam  is  obviated,  as  considerable  of  the 
moisture  in  the  expanded  steam  is  eliminated  at 
the  end  of  the  working  stroke  and  before  com- 
41 


that  especially  in  the  case  of  a  condensing  en- 
gine, there  results  a  substantial  economy.  In 
other  words,  the  steam  can  be  compressed  to 
boiler  pressure  with  a  minimum  amount  of  work 
expended  during  such  compression. 

In  units  of  less  than  1000  kilowatts,  the  uni- 
flow  engine  often  showed  greater  economy  than 
a  steam  turbine,  and  for  capacities  of  less  than 
8000  kilowatts  it  usually  was  preferable.  These 
engines,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  found  wide 
range  of  application,  from  compressors  in  re- 
frigerating plants,  pumps,  and  electric  gener- 
ators to  iron  and  steel  mills.  In  ttic  year  1020 
alone,  40,OT)0  horse  power  in  such  engines  was 
said  to  have  been  sold  in  the  United  Slates.  In 
1022,  a  2500  horse  power  uniflow  engine  was 
installed  in  a  steel  plant,  while  textile  mills  and 
other  plants  were  being  similarly  equipped.  In 
Germany,  Professor  Stumpf  made  a  number  of 
successful  experiments  with  locomotives  to  which 
he  had  fitted  uniflow  engines. 

Growth  of  the  Steam  Turbine  in  the  United 
States.  In  1007,  the  total  rating  of  steam 
engines  in  the  central  electric  light  and  power 
stations  in  the  United  States  was  1,810,040  horse 
power,  while  but  708,025  horse  power  was  cred- 
ited to  steam  turbines.  In  1017  according  to 
the  United  States  Census,  out  of  a  total  rating 
of  8,440,076  horse  power  in  central-station  equip- 
ment, 1,701,077  horse  power  was  credited  to 
steam  engines  and  (5,747,30$)  horse  power  to 
steam  turbines.  In  1020,  out  of  an  estimated 
total  installation  of  11,476.000  horse  power,  1,- 
781,100  horse  power  or  15  5  per  cent  was  credited 
to  steam  engines  and  0,605,500  horse  power  or 
84.5  per  cent  to  steam  turbines. 

During  this  period  there  was  also  a  marked 


STEAM  ENGINES 


1348 


8TEBBIN8 


increase  in  the  size  of  the  individual  units,  while 
there  was  a  corresponding  decline  in  the  capacity 
as  well  as  the  number  of  reciprocating  engines. 
Thus  in  the  1917  census  report  referred  to,  it 
was  stated  that  practically  all  the  steam  engines 
in  both  commercial  and  municipal  central  sta- 
tions were  to  be  found  in  the  lowest  grouping, 
namely  "500  horse  power  or  under,"  and  the 
average  size  of  these  machines  was  well  under 
200  horse  power 

The  statistics  quoted  above  apply  only  to 
central  stations,  but  9,000,000  horse  power  ca- 
pacity of  the  various  industries  in  the  super 
power  zone,  exclusive  of  steam  and  electric  rail- 
ways and  central  lighting  station  loads,  was 
analyzed  in  the  Superpower  Survey  report  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  in  1921.  It 
was  found  that  of  this  total  two-thirds  was 
privately  generated  and  one-third  was  pur- 
chased. Excluding  the  central  stations  from 
consideration,  68  per  cent  were  steam  engines, 
19  per  cent  steam  turbines,  8.5  per  cent  water 
wheels,  and  4.5  per  cent  internal-combustion  en- 
gines. 

In  1914,  the  30,000  kilowatt  steam  turbine  had 
Income  recognized  practice  for  central-station 
installations  and  the  record  unit  at  that  time 
was  a  35,000-kilowatt  machine  for  the  Phila- 
delphia Electric  Company.  This  was  a  13-stagc 
horizontal  Curtis  turbine,  63  feet  2  inches  long, 
21  feet  7  inches  wide  and  15  feet  10  inches  high, 
weighing  600  tons,  and  taking  steam  at  215 


more  rigid,  would  be  secured,  also  the  arrange- 
ments for  bleeding  were  standardized  and  the 
emergency-governing  devices  were  improved.  A 
recent  development  was  the  increased  use  of  the 
cross-compound  type,  which,  while  originally 
brought  out  in  the  United  States,  had  been 
rather  more  employed  in  Europe.  In  fact,  by 
1924,  there  were  under  construction  cross-com- 
pound units  of  both  reaction  and  impulse  types 
of  approximately  40,000  to  30,000-kilovvatt  ca- 
pacity. With  steam  being  used  at  1200  pounds 
pressure,  it  was  found  feasible  to  design  an  im- 
pulse high-pressure  unit  on  the  cross-compound 
principle,  where  the  exhaust  at  350  pounds  pres- 
sure was  supplied  to  the  othci  units  of  the  sta- 
tion. A  notable  installation  was  a  50,000-kilo- 
watt  reaction  unit  in  the  form  of  a  threc-rylinder 
machine  where  the  high -pressure  and  mtri  medi- 
ate-pressure elements  were  connected  in  tandem 
to  a  generator,  while  the  low-pi cssuie  element 
was  a  double-flow  unit  operating  at  1SOO  revolu- 
tions per  minute  and  dio\e  a  geneiator,  being 
really  a  separate  element  cross-compound  with 
the  other  two.  Heie  twin  \crtical  surface  con- 
densers were  installed  on  either  side  of  the  tur- 
bine with  their  upper  waterhoxes  above  the  en- 
gine room  floor.  There  was  reheating  of  the 
steam  to  700  degrees  Fahrenheit  after  it  left 
the  high-pressure  tuibine,  this  process  taking 
place  in  the  boiler.  With  such  an  arrangement 
special  governing  arrangements  are  employed  to 
prevent  over  speed  ing  where  the  load  is  reduced 


pounds  pressure  and   150°  super  heat,  exhaust-      suddenly. 

ing  against  an  absolute  pressure  of  1.5  inches  of           For  use  with  steam  pressures  of  1000  to  1200 


ing  against  an  absolute  pressure 
mercury.  At  that  time,  however,  it  was  clearly 
realized  that  steam  turbines  of  as  large  capacity 
as  50,000  kilowatts  were  feasible  and  designers 
then  or  soon  after  were  working  on  such  units. 
Even  then  it  was  apparent  that  steam  turbines 
could  be  used  with  reduction  gearings  on  land 
as  well  as  on  steamships,  and  in  1915  a  low- 
pressure  turbine  was  employed  as  a  source  of 
power  for  a  rolling  mill  by  the  use  of  a  helical 
involute  gear. 

The  steam  turbine  at  that  time  had  demon- 
strated its  economy  but  aside  from  gaining 
wider  applications  the  main  features  now  were 
the  constant  increase  in  capacity  of  the  units  as 
built  and  the  tendency  to  use  ever  higher  pres- 
sure, 300  to  350  pounds  being  the  prevailing 
practice  for  turbines  installed  in  1916  and  pres- 
sures of  500  to  1000  being  considered  for  new 
designs.  This  was  accompanied  by  the  tendency 
to  use  steam  at  higher  temperatures.  By  1918, 
two  triple-cylinder  compound  units  of  60,000- 
kilowatts  normal  rating  and  70,000-kilowatts 
maximum  output,  were  built,  one  for  the  74th 
Street  Station  of  the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit 
Company  in  New  York  City,  and  the  other  for 
the  Muscle  Shoals  plant  of  the  Air  Nitrates  Com- 
pany. At  this  time  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  on  account  of  the  War  all  orders  for  steam 
turbines  rated  at  700  horse  power  and  over  re- 
quired the  approval  and  supervision  of  the  War 
Industries  Board,  the  military  departments  of 
the  government  and  the  munition  industries  re- 
ceiving preference. 

The  War,  however,  interfered  but  slightly 
with  the  development  of  the  steam  turbine,  and 
by  1924  a  number  of  interesting  forms  of  steam- 
turbine  units  were  developed.  Higher  pressures 
and  temperatures  were  used  in  the  effort  to  se- 
cure maximum  efficiency.  Changes  were  made 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  blading  so  that  ma- 
chines of  greater  capacity,  more  efficient  and 


pounds  the  General  Electric  Company  had  built 
two  turbines  of  novel  design  of  2600  and  4000 
kilowatts  respectively,  where  the  exhaust  \\as 
used  to  supply  other  turbines  at  fiom  250  to 
300  pounds.  These  machines,  while  simple  in 
design  and  lending  themselves  to  ready  use,  re- 
quired special  boiler  equipment. 

Small  auxiliary  turbines  were  developed  so  as 
to  employ  higher  steam  pressures  and  tempera- 
tures. There  was  a  tendency  to  employ  steel 
casings  in  place  of  those  of  cast  iron,  so  sup- 
porting them  that  expansion  would  have  com- 
paratively less  effect  in  changing  alignments 
with  changing  tempeiatures.  These  smallei  tur- 
bines were  also  given  improved  speed  regula- 
tion. 

Reference  has  been  made  elsewhere  to  the 
mercury  boiler  developed  by  the  (<Vm*rnl  Klec- 
tric  Company  and  installed  at  the  plant  of  the 
Hartford  Electric  Light  Co.  (see  HOILEUS).  In 
this  connection,  a  mereuiy-vapor  turbine  was 
devised  as  an  essential  element  of  this  arrange- 
ment. See  SmPBriLDiS'G,  Propelling  Machinery. 

STEAMSHIP.  See  SHIPPING  ;  NiiirutiLDiNc; 
etc. 

STEBBINS,  JOEL  (1878-  ).  An  Ameii- 
can  astronomer,  born  at  Omaha,  Neb.  He  stud- 
ied at  the  University  of  Nebraska,  and  while 
holding  a  fellowship  at  Lick  Observatory,  ob- 
tained his  Ph.D.  at  the  University  of  California 
in  1903.  He  was  assistant  in  astronomy  at  the 
Washburn  Observatory  of  Wisconsin,  but  in 
1903  accepted  a  call  to  Illinois,  where  in  1913 
he  became  professor.  He  made  a  specialty  of 
stellar  photometry,  publishing  the  results  of  his 
investigations  in  various  astronomical  journals. 
The  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
honored  him  with  the  Rtimford  medals  in  1913 
and  he  received  the  Draper  medal  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1915,  Dr.  Stebbins 
served  on  the  Lick  Observatory  eclipse  expedi- 


the 


STEELE 

tion   to   Labrador    in    1905   and   also   with 
similar  expedition  to  Wyoming  in  1018. 

STEELE,  Rt'FUs  (  MIL  AS)  (1877-  ).  An 
American  author,  born  at  Hope,  Ark.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Pacific  Methodist  College,  Santa  Rosa, 
Cal.  He  edited  various  newspapers  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  among  them  the  San  Francisco 
Call  and  the  San  Francisco  Chronicle.  During 
the  War  he  was  appointed  editor  of  the  division 
of  films  of  the  United  States  Committee  on  Pub- 
lic Information  (1918-10).  He  has  written 
many  motion  picture  scenarios  and  has  been 
associated  in  producing  the  pictures.  He  wrote 
The  City  That  Is  (1909);  The  Fall  of  Ug—A. 
Masque  of  Fear,  produced  in  the  Bohemian 
Grove  in  Califoinia  (1913);  Rule  O  (1913); 
Aces  for  Industry  (1919). 

STEELE,  WILBUR  DANIEL  (1886-  ).  An 
American  author,  born  at  Greensboro,  N.  C., 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Denver,  the 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston,  and  the 
Academic  Julien  in  Paris.  Tie  published  many 
short  stories  in  magazines,  and  in  1914  Storm 
appeared,  followed  by  Land's  End  in  1918.  The 
O.  Henry  Award  Committee  awarded  him  the 
second  pri/e  in  1919  for  They  Know  \ot  What 
They  Do,  and  in  1921  he  received  a  special  award 
from  the  same  committee  for  "maintaining 
highest  level  of  merit  for  three  years  among 
American  short  story  writers/' 

STEFANSSON,  "VILHJALMUB  (1879-  ). 
An  Arctic  explorer  (see  VOL.  XXI).  In  1914 
he  made  a  000-mile  sled  journey  over  broken 
and  mo\ing  ice  from  Martin  Point,  Alaska,  to 
Banks  Island,  and  in  1915  discovered  new  land 
north  of  Prince  Patrick  Island.  The  next  year 
he  discovered  new  islands  west  of  Heiberg  Is- 
land, and  in  1917  found  that  the  polar  ocean  is 
shallow  in  the  region  northwest  of  Cape  Isach- 
sen.  He  wrote-  The  Friendly  Arctic  (1921); 
do  \orth,  Young  Man  (1922)';  The  Northward 
Course  of  Empire  (1922)  ;  Hunters  of  the  Great 
yorth  (1922),  etc. 

STEIN ACH,  EUGEN  (1862-  ).  An  Aus- 
trian physiologist  who  l>ecame  famous  in  con- 
nection with  the  possibility  of  rejuvenating  el- 
derly animals  and  men  through  grafting  the 
sexual  glands  of  young  animals  and  latterly 
through  simple  division  or  ligation  of  the  ef- 
ferent duct.  Born  at  Hohen  Ems,  Vorarlberg, 
Steinach  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Vi- 
enna (M.D.  188C)  and  in  1893  was  appointed 
professor  of  physiology  in  the  German  Univer- 
sity of  Prague.  He  fitted  up  a  laboratory  for 
the  study  of  comparative  physiology — the  first 
of  its  type  in  the  German-speaking  countries 
Building  on  a  foundation  laid  by  the  labors  of 
two  French  scientists,  Ancel  and*  Bouin,  he  per- 
formed many  experiments  on  rats  with  extraor- 
dinary results.  When  made  professor  of  physi- 
ology in  Vienna  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
a  special  biological  research  institute  and  con- 
tinued his  labors.  Steinach  is  not  himself  a 
surgeon,  and  gland  operations  on  men  were  per- 
formed by  Viennese  surgeons  who  also  reported 
the  cases.  Steinach's  only  book  is  his  small 
manual  dealing  with  experiments  on  rats  only, 
Verjunoung  durch  Experiment  ell  e  yeubelebung 
der  Aelternden  Pubertatsdrusen  (1920).  Books 
on  Steinach's  work  have  been  written  by  sev- 
eral authors.  See  SECRETIONS,  INTERNAL. 

STEINEB,  EDWARD  ALFRED  (1806-  ). 
An  American  sociologist,  horn  at  Vienna,  Aus- 
tria. He  was  educated  in  the  public  schools 
of  that  city  and  at  Heidelberg  University.  He 


1949 


D  JL  JfiJLJl  JDJfiXZ 


also  took  postgraduate  courses  at  other  German 
universities  and  at  Oberlin  College.  In  1891, 
he  was  ordained  to  the  Congregational  ministry 
and  was  pastor  of  several  churches  in  Ohio  and 
Minnesota.  In  1903,  he  became  professor  of  ap- 
plied Christianity  at  Grinnell  College,  Iowa. 
Professor  Steiner  wrote:  Tolstoy  the  Man 
(1903)  ;  On  the  Trail  of  the  Immigrant  (1900)  ; 
Against  the  Current  (1910);  From  Alien  to 
Citizen  (1914);  Nationalizing  America  (1910); 
Old  Trails  and  Xew  Borders  (1921). 

STEINER,  RUDOLPH  (1801 -192.'))  (Herman 
social  philosopher.  He  was  born  at  Krajevic, 
Jugo-Slavia.  He  wab  a  commentator  and  editor 
of  Goethe  and  an  enthusiast  for  Hindu  philos- 
ophy and  mysticism.  He  became  the  German 
exponent  of  what  is  popularly  known  as  theos- 
ophy  but  what  he  preferred  "to  call  anthropos- 
ophy.  He  founded  several  centres  for  the  spread 
of  this  learning,  of  which  the  most  important 
is  the  Goetheanum  in  South  Germany,  and  a  pe- 
riodical, Lucifer-Gnosis.  Like  the  French  phi- 
losopher Comte,  he  sought  to  make  humanity  an 
emotional  object  of  worship,  in  imitation  of  the 
established  religions.  His  followers  were  sub- 
ject to  mild  persecution  After  the  War,  Steiner 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  democratic  in- 
tellectuals. He  preached  international  recon- 
ciliation and  the  renunciation  on  Germany's 
part  of  any  attempt  at  world  dominion.  Stein- 
er's  works  included:  Goethe  als  Va-ter  einer 
Seven  Aesthetik  (1889);  Wahrheit  vnd  Wisscn 
(1892)  ;  Philosophic  der  Freiheit  (1894)  ;  Fried- 
rich  Metzsche  (1895);  Goethes  Weltnnttchau- 
ung  (1897)  ;  Haeckcl  und  Seine  Gegner  (1908)  ; 
Lyrik  der  Gegcnwart  (1900)  ;  Welt  und  Lcbens- 
ansohauung  der  l!)cn  Jahrunderts  (1900); 
Die  Mystik  (1904);  Theosophie  (1904);  Die 
Kernpunkte  der  Sozialen  Frage  in  den  Lebens- 
notwendigkeitcn  der  Gegenuart  und  Zukunft 
(1921);  Die  Hetze  gegcn  das  Goetheanum 
(1921).  Two  volumes  of  Mystery  Plays  were 
published  in  English  (1920). 

STEINMAN,  DAVID  BARNARD  (1880-  ). 
An  American  civil  engineer,  born  in  Ne\v  York 
City.  He  studied  at  the  College  of  the  Citv  of 
New  York  and  at  Columbia  University.  Dur- 
ing 1910-14,  he  was  professor  of  civil  engineer- 
ing at  the  University  of  Idaho,  then  had  charge 
of  the  department  of  civil  and  mechanical  en- 
gineering at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York 
(1917-20).  In  1921,  he  identified  himself  with 
consulting  practice  in  New  York  City,  and  made 
a  specialty  of  constructing  bridges.  Among  his 
notable  works  are  the  continuous  bridge  of  1550 
feet  at  Sciotoville,  Ohio,  the  Hell  Gate  arch 
bridge  over  the  East  River,  New  York  City, 
and  the  suspension  bridge  at  Florianopolis, 
Brazil.  He  was  also  the  engineer  in  charge  of 
the  Detroit-Windsor  suspension  bridge.  He  was 
awarded  the  gold  medal  (1920)  of  the  Ameri- 
can Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  In  addition  to 
numerous  articles  contributed  to  the  journals 
of  his  profession,  he  is  the  author  of  Suspension 
Bridges  and  Cantilevers  (1911);  Theory  of 
Arches  and  Suspension  Bridges  (1914);  Plain 
and  Reinforced  Conn  etc  Arches  (1915)  ;  Design 
and  Construction  of  Suspension  Bridges  (1922). 

STEINMETZ,  CHARLES  PROTEUS  (1865- 
1923).  An  American  electrical  engineer  (see 
VOL.  XXI).  Among  his  later  publications  are 
America  and  the  Few  Epoch  (1916);  Theory 
and  Calculation  of  Electric  Circuits  (1917); 
Theory  and  Calculation  of  Electrical  Apparatus 
(1917). 


STEXEIi 


1250 


STIDGER 


8TEKEL,  WILHELM  (1868-  ).  An  Aua* 
trian  psychiatrist  and  psychoanalyst,  one  of 
the  best  known  of  Freud's  disciples.  Born  at 
Bojan,  Bukowina,  he  received  his  medical  degree 
from  the  University  of  Vienna.  Since  1908,  he 
has  shown  almost  unparalleled  literary  activity 
and  announced  several  years  ago  that  he  had 
subjected  over  10,000  individuals  to  psycho- 
analysis. Of  his  numerous  writings,  the  major- 
ity nave  been  translated  into  English  although 
with  more  or  less  change  in  title.  Most  of  the 
following  are  numbers  in  a  series  of  volumes 
still  incomplete:  Nervoae  Aengstzuatande  und 
ihre  Behandlung  (1908);  Die  Sprache  der 
Traume  (1911);  Die  Traume  der  Dichter 
(1912);  Der  Will  zum  Schlaf  (1915);  Onanie 
and  Homosexualttat  (1917);  Die  Geschlccht- 
skalte  der  Frau  (1920);  Die  Impotenz  dea 
Mannes  (1920);  Psychosexuelle  Infantilismus 
(1922).  These  volumes  are  part  of  a  great 
system  which  deals  with  all  disorders  of  affec- 
tive and  impulsive  life. 

STELLAR  EVOLUTION.  See  ASTRONOMY; 
PHYSICS. 

STEPHENS,  JAMES  (1882-  ).  An  Irish 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  County  Dublin.  He 
became  a  solicitor's  clerk  in  London.  In  his 
spare  time  he  wrote  verse  and  fiction  and  showed 
marked  ability  in  both.  His  writings  include: 
Insurrections  (1909);  The  Hill  of  Visions 
(1912);  The  Charwoman's  Daughter  (1912); 
Here  Are  Ladies  (1913);  The  Rocky  Road  to 
Dublin  (1915),  Songs  from  the  Clay  (1915); 
Reincarnation  (1918),  etc. 

STEREOCHEMISTRY.  See  CHEMISTRY, 
ORGANIC. 

STERN,  L.  WILLIAM  (1871-  ).  A  Ger- 
man psychologist  (see  VOL.  XXT).  His  work 
after  the  War  was  devoted  chiefly  to  mental 
testing  and  to  the  psychology  and  philosophy  of 
personality.  Both  of  these  interests,  though 
largely  ignored  by  the  Wundtian  psychology  of 
the  last  generation,  were  quite  popular  in  post- 
war Germany.  Stern's  works  after  1914  in- 
clude: Vorgcdanke  zu  Weltanschauung  (1915) ; 
Die  Psychologic  und  das  Persona  lismus  (1917)  ; 
Grundgedanke  der  Personalistische  Philosophic 
(1918)  ;  Die  Jntelligens  der  Kinder  und  Jugend- 
hche  (1920). 

STERNE,  ELAINE  (1894-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can photoplay  writer,  born  in  New  York  City, 
and  educated  at  Columbia  University  She 
wrote  more  than  60  photoplays,  among  them  the 
Sunny  Jim  series  and  The  Gang.  Her  photo- 
play The  Sins  of  the  Mothers  brought  her  a 
prize  of  $1000  in  1914,  and  Without  Hope  a  sec- 
ond prize  of  $500.  In  the  Collier  short-story 
contest  of  1914  she  won  a  prize  of  $250.  She  is 
the  author  of:  Sunny  Jim  (1916);  The  Road 
of  Ambition,  a  novel  (1917) ;  and  Over  the  8eas 
for  Uncle  Sam  (1918). 

STEVENS,  EDWARD  FLETCHER  (1860-  ). 
An  American  architect,  born  at  Dunstable, 
Mass.  He  studied  design  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  and  in  several  offices  in 
Boston  and  New  York.  After  practicing  in 
Rome  for  several  years  he  became  a  member  of 
the  firm  of  Stevens  and  I^ee  of  Boston  and 
Toronto.  He  planned  over  one  hundred  hos- 
pitals and  institutions  in  various  cities  and  de- 
signed also  overseas  hospitals  during  the  War 
and  was  a  member  of  the  special  committee  ap- 
pointed to  revise  the  plans  of  army  hospitals. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Architects,  and  other  organizations,  and  was  the 


author  of  The  American  Hospital  of  the  Twen- 
tieth Century  (rev.  ed.,  1921). 

STEVENS,  GORHAM  PHILLIPS  (1876-  ). 
An  American  architect,  born  in  Staten  Island. 
He  studied  architecture  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  and  in  Europe.  After 
a  year's  service  with  McKim,  Mead  and  White, 
he  was  Carnegie  fellow  in  architecture  at  the 
American  School  of  Classical  Studies  in  Athens 
(1903-05).  In  1911  and  again  in  1918  he  was 
director  of  the  American  Academy  in  Rome,  and 
from  1912  to  1918  was  director  of  the  School 
of  Fine  Arts  at  that  institution.  From  the  lat- 
ter year  he  was  professor  in  charge.  Besides 
being  a  member  of  many  societies,  he  was  the 
author  of  Life  of  Charles  F.  McKim,  and  of  con- 
tributions on  Greek  architecture  to  various 
scientific  journals 

STEVENS  INSTITUTE  OP  TECHNOLO- 
GY. A  nonsectarian  institution  for  men  at 
Castle  Point,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  founded  in  1870. 
The  enrollment  of  the  institute  increased  from 
453  in  1915  to  614  in  1922,  and  dropped  again 
to  530  in  1923;  the  faculty  was  increased  from 
37  to  55,  and  the  library  from  11,000  to  16,000 
volumes,  all  on  technical  subjects  A  United 
States  Navy  Steam  Engineering  School  was  CH- 
tablished  in  1918;  the  department  of  electrical 
engineering  was  moved  in  1921  to  the  larger  of 
the  two  barracks  buildings  bought  from  the  gov- 
ernment, and  the  space  so  vacated  in  the  mum 
laboratory  building  was  given  to  the  depart- 
ment of  physics;  comprehensive  examinations  in 
elementary  and  advanced  mathematics  were 
made  requirements  for  entrance  for  applicant 
offering  certificate  credits  for  admission.  Four 
scholarships  were  endowed  for  $40,000  by  the 
alumni  in  memory  of  Stevens  men  who  had  died 
in  the  service  during  the  War,  and  an  endow- 
ment campaign  for  increase  of  salaries  was  be- 
gun.  A  new  gymnasium  was  built,  and  two 
acres  adjoining  the  main  buildings  bought  in 
1915,  making  in  all  about  22  acres  and  includ- 
ing the  original  "Stevens  Castle."  President, 
Alexander  Crombie  Humphreys,  E.D.,  M.E.,  Sc. 
D.,  LLD. 

STEWART,  DONALD  OGDEN  (1894-  ).  An 
American  humorist,  born  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  and 
educated  at  Yale  University  According  to  his 
own  story,  he  was  so  well  equipped  for  a  nuHiness 
career  that  he  turned  to  literature,  and  wrote: 
Parody  Outline  of  History;  Perfect  Behavior 
(1922)  ;  Aunt  Polly's  Story  of  Mankind  (1923) 
During  the  War  he  served  as  chief  quartermaster 
in  the  United  States  Navy 

STEWART,  JULIUS  L  (1855-1919).  An 
American  painter,  born  in  Philadelphia.  He 
studied  under  Gerome  and  Madrazo  in  Paris, 
where  he  lived  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  He 
was  known  as  a  figure  and  genre  painter,  his 
style  being  decidedly  French  in  finish,  but  his 
characterizations  of  American  types  were  excel- 
lent, particularly  his  studies  of  members  of  the 
American  colony  in  Paris.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  executive  and  advisory  committee  of  the  St. 
Louis  Exposition  in  1904,  and  his  work  won  sev- 
eral awards. 

STIDGER,  WILLIAM  LEROY  (1885-  ).  An 
American  clergyman  and  author,  born  at  Mounds- 
ville,  W.  Va.,  and  educated  at  Brown  University 
and  Boston  University.  He  was  ordained  in  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  ministry  in  1914  and  went 
to  San  Francisco,  where  he  preached  till  1916. 
After  three  years  at  San  Jose,  he  went  to  the 
Far  East  under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist 


STILLMAN 

Centenary.  He  served  during  the  War  as  a 
truck  driver  in  France  for  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  His 
writings  include:  Giant  Hours  with  Poet 
Preachers  (1918);  Soldier  Silhouettes  (1919); 
Star  Dust  from  the  Dugouts  (1919);  Outdoor 
Men  and  Minds  (1920);  Standing  Room  Only 
(1921 )  ;  Flash  Lights  of  the  Seven  Seas  ( 1921 )  ; 
Flames  of  Faith  (1922)  ;  There  are  Sermons  in 
Books  (1922);  Henry  Ford,  the  Man  and  His 
Motives  (1923)  ;  The  Symphonic  Sermon  (1923). 

STILLMAN,  JOHN  MAXSON  (1850-1923). 
An  American  chemist,  born  in  New  York  City. 
After  graduating  from  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, he  studied  at  Strassburg  and  Wlirzburg, 
and  later  received  a  higher  degree  in  California 
(Ph.D.,  1885).  He  was  instructor  in  chemistry 
at  the  University  of  California  (1870-82), 
chemist  of  the  Boston  Sugar*  Refining  Company 
(1882-87),  and  with  the  Standard  Sugar  Re- 
fining Company  (1887-91).  In  1891,  he  became 
a  member  of  the  first  faculty  of  Stanford 
University,  and  in  1913  was  made  vice  presi- 
dent, an  appointment  which  he  held  until  his 
retirement  under  the  age  limit  as  emeritus 
in  1917.  His  original  investigations  included 
researches  in  both  organic  chemistry  and  min- 
eral chemistry,  but  his  most  important  work 
was  on  the  history  of  chemistry  and  included  a 
life  of  Paracelsus,  as  Physician,  Chemist,  and 
Reformer  (1920),  and  a  manuscript  volume  on 
The  Story  of  Early  Chemistry  (1924). 

STINNES,  HUGO  (1870-1924).  A  German 
industrialist  and  financier,  born  at  MUlheim, 
Germany.  At  19  years  of  age,  he  entered  the 
mining  company  owned  by  his  father  in  West- 
phalia, where  he  remained  two  years.  lie  then 
organized  his  own  company,  called  Hugo  Stinnes, 
Ltd  ,  the  whole  original  share  capital  being 
50,000  marks  (about  $12,000).  His  first  im- 
portant success  was  the  creating  of  the  German- 
Luxemburger  Mining  and  Foundry  Corporation 
— the  first  exemplification  of  his  famous  "verti- 
cal trust"  building.  The  company  owned  its 
own  coal,  its  own  ore,  and  its  foundries  for 
the  manufacture  of  its  product  through  all  its 
stages.  He  extended  his  holdings  to  ships  and 
became  the  most  important  shipping  man  in 
Germany.  He  organi/ed  great  companies  for 
making  iron  and  steel,  he  bought  forests, 
chateaus,  hotels,  railroads.  He  owned  the  larg- 
est oil  concession  in  the  Argentine,  the  great 
electrical  plants  that  are  the  power  centre  of 
Khenish-Wcstphalian  industry,  lime  kilns,  tan- 
neries, sugar  refineries,  moving-picture  con- 
cerns, and  vast  lands  in  South  America.  When 
the  War  came,  Stinnes  grasped  the  tremendous 
opportunity  to  add  to  his  power.  He  was  par- 
tially responsible  for  the  ruthless  industrial 
exploitation  of  occupied  Belgium.  He  supplied 
war  materials  of  all  kinds.  Then  he  began  to 
make  his  influence  felt  in  the  political  field. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Reichstag  in  1920,  and 
about  the  same  time  bought  many  of  the  lead- 
ing German  newspapers,  and  large  interests  in 
paper-manufacturing  establishments.  In  1921, 
he  was  busy  with  a  scheme  for  a  supertrust  that 
would  control  every  industry  in  Germany  and 
regulate  production,  transportation,  and  the 
supply  of  the  German  markets  as  well  as  those 
of  the  whole  world.  His  financial  manoeuvres 
were  made  possible  only  by  the  steady  deprecia- 
tion of  the  German  currency,  deliberately  bring- 
ing that  about  by  preventing  the  stabilization 
of  the  German  mark  and  repeatedly  borrowing 
money  only  to  pay  it  back  in  inflated  paper. 


STOKES 

STOCKER,  HABRY  EMILIUS  (1876-  ). 
An  American  clergyman  and  author,  born  at 
Nazareth,  Pa.,  and  educated  at  the  Moravian 
College  at  Bethlehem,  Pa.  He  was  a  teacher  in 
the  public  schools  of  Pennsylvania  for  a  time 
and  was  ordained  to  the  Moravian  ministry 
in  1902.  After  holding  several  pastorates,  he 
taught  in  the  Moravian  College  in  Bethlehem 
for  a  year,  and  then  became  pastor  of  the  First 
Church  in  New  York  City  in  1919.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  administrative  committee  of  the 
Federal  Council  of  Churches  and  held  offices 
in  many  Moravian  church  organizations.  His 
writings  include:  History  of  the  White  River 
Indian  Mission  in  Indiana  (1917);  Moravian 
Customs  and  Other  Matters  of  Interest  (1918)  ; 
History  of  the  Moravian  Church  in  New  York 
City  (1921),  etc. 

STODDABD,  (THEODORE)  LOTHKOP  (1883- 
) .  An  American  author,  born  at  Brookline, 
Mass.,  and  educated  at  Harvard  University. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  Massachusetts  in 
1908.  His  writings  include:  The  French  Revo- 
lution in  San  Domingo  (1914);  Present-Day 
Europe — Its  National  States  of  Mind  (1917); 
The  Stakes  of  the  War  (1918);  Harper's  Pic- 
torial Library  of  the  World  War,  Vol.  VI;  The 
World  at  War  (1919);  The  Rising  Tide  of 
Color  Against  White  World-supremacy  (1920)  ; 
The  New  World  of  Islam  (1921);  The  Revolt 
against  Civilization  (1922). 

STOESSEL,  ALBERT  FREDERICK  (1894-  ). 
An  American  violinist  and  conductor,  born  at 
St.  Louis,  Mo.  From  1910-1913,  he  studied  the 
violin  under  W.  Hess  and  E.  Wirth  at  the 
llochschule  fiir  Musik  in  Berlin,  where  he  made 
his  d^but  in  1913.  After  the  outbreak  of  the 
War  he  returned  to  the  United  States,  making 
his  American  dllrat  with  the  St.  Louis  Symphony 
Orchestra  (1915).  In  1917,  he  enlisted  in  the 
army  and  was  appointed  director  of  the  School 
for  Bandmasters.  After  his  return,  in  1919,  he 
became  assistant  conductor  of  the  New  York 
Oratorio  Society,  and  in  1921  was  elected  regu- 
lar conductor.  In  1923,  he  was  appointed 
head  of  the  newly  established  Department  of 
Music  at  New  York  University.  His  composi- 
tions include  a  string  quintet  and  smaller  pieces 
for  violin  and  piano. 

STOKES,  ANSON  PHELPS  (1874-  ).  An 
American  educator,  born  at  New  Brighton, 
Staten  Island,  N.  Y.  He  was  graduated  from 
Yale  in  1896  and  from  the  Episcopal  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  in  1900.  After  spending  several 
years  in  travel  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
Yale  University  in  1899,  where  he  remained  un- 
til 1921.  He  was  ordained  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  in  1900  and  from  that  year 
to  1918  was  assistant  minister  of  St.  Paul's 
Church,  New  Haven.  From  1917  to  1919,  he 
was  chairman  of  the  trustees  of  the  American 
University  Union  in  Europe,  and  was  secretary 
and  chairman  of  the  educational  commission 
of  the  Phelps  Stokes  Foundation.  He  was  also 
a  member  of  the  General  Education  Board  and 
was  a  trustee  of  many  educational  and  mis- 
sionary societies.  He  organi/ed  the  Army  Edu- 
cational Commission  and  was  founder  of  the 
National  Commission  for  Mental  Hygiene.  He 
was  decorated  by  several  foreign  governments 
for  his  work.  He  is  the  author  of:  Memorials 
of  Eminent  Yale  Men ;  What  Jesus  Christ 
Thought  of  Himself;  Historic  Universities  in  a 
Democracy;  A  Visit  to  Yale  in  China;  and 
Yale  and  New  Haven. 


STOKES 

STOKES,  HABOLO  PIIKLPS  (1887-  ).  An 
American  newspaper  writer,  born  in  New  York 
City.  After  graduating  from  Yale  in  1909,  he 
spent  several  years  in  travel  in  Europe  and  the 
Far  East,  then  began  newspaper  work  in  New 
York  with  the  Evening  Post.  He  was  Albany 
and  Washington  correspondent  for  that  paper 
and  was  also  its  representative  at  the  Peace 
Conference  in  Paris.  During  the  War  he 
served  with  the  field  artillery  and  took  part 
in  several  of  the  most  important  campaigns  in 
France.  In  1919,  he  became  Washington  corre- 
spondent of  the  Evening  Post. 

STONE.  Between  1914  and  1924  there  was 
a  considerable  increase  in  the  amount  of  stone 
produced  by  the  quarries  of  the  United  States, 
though  the  output  varied  considerably  with 
building  conditions,  especially  during  the  War. 
In  1923,  about  107,200,000  tons  of  stone  valued 
at  $161,600,000  were  produced  in  the  United 
States,  an  increase  of  neaily  17  per  cent  from 
the  largest  recorded  output,  namely,  that  of 
1916,  and  a  total  value  greater  than  that  for 
1920,  which  was  $133,541,960.  The  distribu- 
tion of  the  various  kinds  of  stone  produced  in 
1923  as  regards  quantity  and  values  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  tabulation.  Each  of  these 
items  varies  with  special  conditions  Thus  the 
sale  of  crushed  stone,  which  represents  more 
than  half  the  stone  quarried,  depends  in  large 
measure  upon  its  use  as  railway  ballast,  for 
road  metal  and  for  concrete,  and  in  all  of 
these  fields  there  was  an  increase  in  1923.  Like- 
wise, the  demand  for  building  stone,  which  in- 
cludes granite,  sandstone  and  marble,  is  closely 
related  to  the  building  situation,  and  here 
there  was  an  improvement  at  the  end  of  the 

STONE  SOLD  IN  THE  UNITED   STATES  IN   1923 

Estimate  for  1923 

Use  Quantity  Value 

Building   stone,    cubic   ft.      .  29,600,000  $34,150,000 

Approx.  equiv.  in  short  tons  2,340,000          

Monumental    atone,    cubic    ft.  4,863,000  17,670,000 

Approx   equiv.  in  short  tons  407,000 

Paving  blocks,  number     .  . .  46,070,000  33,980,000 

Approx.  equiv    in  short  tons  481,000 

Curbing,    cubic    ft             ...  4,138,000  2,856,000 

Approx.  equiv.  in  short  tons  340,000        

Flagging,    cubic    ft.              .  628,000  476,000 

Approx   equiv.  in  short  tons  52,000  .         ... 

Rubble,    abort    tons         800,000  1,200,000 

Riprap,  short  tons 2,200,000  1,800,000 

Crushed  stone,  fehort  tons  .  66,000,000  67,000,000 
Furnace  flux  (limestone  and 

marble),    long    tons     .  .  24,400,000  22,700,000 

Equivalent  in  short  tons   .  27,730,000        

Refractory     stone     (ganister, 
mica  schist,  and  dolomite), 

short   tons 1,131,000  1,548,000 

Manufacturing  industries 

(limestone   and  marble), 

short   tons 

Oth^r  u«i«*«<,  short  tons  5,720,000  8,500,000 

Total  (quantities  approximate, 

in    short    tons)      107,200,000  161,600,000 

10-year  period.  During  this  interval  there  had 
been  a  decrease  in  the  amount  of  stone  sold  for 
flagging,  but  a  tendency  was  noted  to  use 
flagstone  more  and  more  for  its  decorative 
value. 

STONE,  HARLAN  FISKE  (1872-  ).  An 
American  educator  and  public  official  (see  VOL. 
XXI).  From  1910  to  1924,  he  was  dean  of  the 
School  of  Law  at  Columbia  University.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Legislative  Drafting  Re- 
search Fund  and  frequently  acted  as  adviser 
before  legislative  committees  in  both  the  State 
and  national  governments.  Amherst  College 
conferred  a  degree  (LL.D.)  upon  him  in 


STBAITS  SETTLEMENTS 

1913.  He  waa  appointed,  by  President  Coolidge, 
in  March,  1024,  Attorney-General  of  the  United 
States  to  succeed  H.  M.  Daugherty. 

STONEB,  WINIFRED  SACKVILLE,  JB.  (MRS. 
CHARLES  P.  DB  BRUCHE)  (1902-  ).  An 
American  author,  born  at  Norfolk,  Va.,  and 
educated  by  her  mother,  who  founded  the  "Na- 
tional Education  System."  With  her  mother, 
Miss  Stoner  demonstrated  this  system  through- 
out the  United  States.  When  but  seven  years 
of  age  she  published  a  book  of  verses  and  in  the 
next  year  an  Esperanto  version  of  Mother  Goose. 
She  has  written  a  dozen  books,  among  them 
being:  Journeys  with  Fairy  Christmas  (1911)  ; 
Facts  in  Jingles  (1914);  Valuable  Fur-bearing 
Animals  (1910);  Sttectcst  Songs  of  the  Air 
Kingdom  (1917)  ;  History  of  the  United  States 
(1919);  Cnants  of  OW*(1910),  etc.  She  has 
also  written  scenarios,  plays,  and  songs. 

STOBAGE  BATTEBIES.  See  MOTOR  VEHI- 
CLES. 

STOBBS,  Lucius  SEYMOUR  (1809-  ). 
An  American  railway  official,  born  at  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Ne- 
braska. After  holding  various  important  po- 
sitions with  several  railway  organizations,  he 
became  the  vice  president  of  the  New  York,  New 
Haven,  and  Hartford  Railroad  in  1914.  He 
was  president  of  the  American  Electric  Rail- 
way Association  in  1917  and  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  national  defense  of  that  associa- 
tion, controlling  cooperation  of  electric  rail- 
ways through  the  National  Council  of  Defense. 
STOVALL,  PLEASANT  ALEXANDER  (1857- 
).  An  Amciican  diplomat,  born  at  Augusta, 
Ga.,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Georgia. 
He  edited  the  Athens  (jcorgian,  Augusta  Chron- 
icle, and  Savannah  Press,  and  became  the  owner 
of  the  last-named.  He  uas  elected  to  the  Geor- 
gia House  of  Representatives  in  1902  and  again 
in  1912-13.  He  was  appointed  to  represent  the 
United  States  in  Switzerland  from  1913  to  1920. 
In  1891  he  wrote  a  Life  of  Robert  Toombs. 

STBAITS  SETTLEMENTS.  A  British  col- 
ony comprising  the  island  of  Singapore,  the  is- 
land of  Pcnang  (with  the  land  settlements  of 
Province  Wellesley),  and  Malacca,  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  the  Malay  peninsula.  Total  area, 
1600  square  miles;  total  population  in  1911, 
714,069.  In  1921  the  population  was  881,939, 
divided  as  follows-  Singapore,  423,768;  Pen- 
ang,  304,572;  Malacca,  153,509.  Males  num- 
bered 557,838;  females,  324,101.  In  1918  there 
were  in  the  Settlements  274,574  Malays,  432,764 
Chinese,  and  94,213  British  Indians.  Immi- 
grants in  1921  were  191,043  Chinese  and  45,673 
Indians.  In  the  period  1914-22,  deaths  out- 
numbered births. 

Industry  and  Trade.  The  increasing  atten- 
tion which  the  natives  gave  to  rubber  cultiva- 
tion to  the  exclusion  of  food  crops,  particularly 
rice,  led  to  the  dependence  on  imports  for  con- 
sumption needs.  Difficulties  ensued  when  the 
United  States  restricted  its  importation  of  rub- 
ber in  1918  and  when  neighboring  countries,  be- 
cause of  crop  shortages,  failed  to  send  sufficient 
quantities  of  rice.  Other  industries  declining 
in  the  face  of  the  growing  rubber  culture  were 
coconut,  clove,  nutmeg,  and  gambier.  The  lead- 
ing activity  continued  to  be  commerce,  for  the 
Settlements  are  one  of  the  most  important 
transshipment  and  trading  points  in  the  world. 
Imports  and  exports  for  typical  years,  inclusive 
of  treasure  and  trade  with  Federated  Malay 
States,  were:  for  1913,  £55,936,472  and  £45,- 


STBAITS  SETTLEMENTS 


"53 


STBATEGY  AND  TACTICS 


guaranteed  not  to  increase  her  naval  base  of 


375,132;   for   1920,   £148,187,421   and  £119,471,-  _ 

984;    for    1921,    £68,126,020    and    £58,025,105;  Hongkong  and  to  gi\e  up  Wei-hai-wei,   looked 

for    1922,    £68,584,902    arid    £03,360,888.     Fifty  on  as  a  potential  base.     To  protect,  therefore, 
per  cent  of  the  total  trade  came  from  or  went 


to  the  British  Empire.  Of  the  1922  trade,  75 
per  cent  was  handled  through  Singapore,  22  per 
cent  through  Penane,  and  2  per  cent  through 
Malacca.  Principal  imports  in  1922,  in  order  of 
value,  were  rice  and  other  grains,  tin  ore,  cot- 
ton goods,  tobacco,  cigais  and  cigarettes,  fish, 
sugar,  petroleum,  and  coal.  Principal  exports 
were  rubber  and  gums,  tin,  copra,  spices  and 
popper,  tapioca,  pineapples,  and  lattans  Tiadc 
with  the  United  States-  in  1922,  imports  from 
the  United  States,  $5,023,206;  exports  to  the 
United  States,  $93,350,441;  in  1923,  imports, 
$7,352,567;  exports,  $153,700,200.  In  1913 
shipping  entered  and  cleared,  exclusi\ca  of  na- 
tive craft,  wan  27,125,000  tons,  of  which  15,- 
251,000  were  British.  In  1921  25,056,000  tons 
entered  and  cleared  the  poits  of  the  territory. 
In  1923  a  causeway  was  completed  across  the 
Johore  Straits  to  connect  Singapore  with  the 
mainland.  This  made  through  train  service 
between  Bangkok,  Siam,  and  Singapore  possible. 

Government  finances  showed  increases  over 
the  period  Revenues  for  1913  and  1921  were 
£1,446,403  and  £4,013,069;  expenditures,  £1,221,- 
338  and  £4,133,004.  The  debt  totaled,  on  Jan 
1,  1922,  £18,65H,000.  An  important  source  of 
revenue  was  the  government  monopoly  of  opium 
The  governor  of  the  Settlements  was  also  high 
commissioner  for  the  Federated  Malay  States 
(q.v.),  as  well  as  for  Brunei,  and  was  the  Brit- 
ish agent  for  North  Borneo  and  Sarawak. 

British  North  Borneo.  A  British  protec- 
torate on  the  island  of  Borneo  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  British  North  Borneo  Company. 
Area,  31,106  square  miles;  population  (1911), 
208,183,  mainly  Mohammedan  settlers  and  na- 
the  aborigines  Europeans  numliered  355; 
Chinese,  26.002.  Revenues  for  1913  were  £210,- 
197  and  for  1921,  £372,119;  expenditures  for 
the  same  jears  were  £259,494  and  £440,058. 
Imports  for  the  years  1913,  1920,  and  1921  were 
£634,538,  £1,284,438,  and  £900,668.  Exports 
for  the  same  years  were  £863,115,  £1,405,771, 
and  £923,616  *  Rubber,  tobacco,  and  timber, 
shipped  to  Singapore  and  Hongkong,  were  the 
most  important  exports.  Opium,  an  official 
monopoly,  was  one  of  the  leading  sources  of 
revenue. 

Brunei.  A  British  protectorate  southwest  of 
British  North  Borneo.  Area,  4000  square  miles; 
population  ( 1921 ) ,  24,454,  of  whom  35  were 
Europeans  and  1434  Chinese.  Exports  were 
cutch  (mangrove  extract),  coal,  rubber,  and 
sago.  Oil  was  discovered,  but  not  in  paying 
quantities.  There  was  a  wireless  station  at 
Brunei. 

Sarawak.  A  British  protectorate  southwest 
of  Brunei.  Area,  42,000  square  miles;  popula- 
tion (estimated),  600.000.  Imports  in  1921, 
£1,501,000;  exports,  £1,788,000.  Chief  exports 
were  sago,  pepper,  rubber,  liquid  fuel,  and  gold. 
Trade  was  with  Singapore.  Revenues  in  1921 
were  £331,000  (from  customs,  opium,  gambling, 
avrack,  and  pawn  farm  taxes)  ;  expenditures, 
£272,000. 

History.  In  March,  1924,  the  British  gov- 
ernment announced  the  abandonment,  in  the  in- 
terests of  economy,  of  the  projected  naval  base 
at  Singapore.  The  scheme  first  was  originated 
in  1922  and  was  a  direct  outcome  of  the  Wash- 
ington Conference  at  which  Great  Britain 


communications  with  Australia  and  New  Zea- 
land, and  to  defend  the  right  flank  of  her  In- 
dian possessions,  the  fortification  of  Singapore 
was  legarded  favorably  by  the  Imperial  Con- 
ference of  1923  and  was  written  into  the  naval 
schemes  of  the  Law  and  Baldwin  governments. 
Macdonald's  decision  was  received  with  mis- 
givings by  the  Australian  and  New  Zealand 
governments,  which  expressed  great  concern 
over  their  safety. 

STBATEGY*  AND  TACTICS,  MILITARY. 
Military  strategy  is  the  science  and  art  of  pro- 
jecting and  directing  important  military  move- 
ments and  operations  with  the  object  of  securing 
advantageous  positions  of  supply,  attack,  de- 
fense or  retreat,  and  deals  in  general  with  large 
forces  not  engaged  in  battle  Military  tactics  is 
the  science  and  art  of  leading  and  manumvring 
troops  on  the  battlefield  or  its  immediate  vicin- 
ity. The  goal  of  both  is  the  same,  the  defeat 
of  the  enemy  by  the  delivery  of  the  most  power- 
ful blow  possible  at  his  weakest  point,  or,  when 
acting  on  the  defense,  to  prevent  or  successfully 
resist  such  an  attempt  by  the  enemy. 

Changes  in  Tactics  Developed  in  the  War. 
The  basic  principles  of  strategy  were  little  af- 
fected by  the  test  of  the  War.  Although  on  a 
far  greater  scale  than  e\er  before,  the  mobiliza- 
tion of  the  armies  and  their  movement  into  po- 
sition for  attack  or  defense  did  not  differ  es- 
sentially from  the  methods  that  had  been  cm- 
ployed  in  previous  wars  The  tactics  employed, 
however,  underwent  some  modification,  owing 
to  the  increase  in  fire  power  of  weapons  in  use 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  new  weapons  and  other  novel  war  ma- 
terial 

In  earl}  days,  before  the  invention  of  fire- 
arms, shock  action  was  almost  entirely  depend- 
ed upon  for  the  decision,  which  required  tactics 
utilizing  the  troops  in  masses  or  columns.  The 
introduction  of  firearms  and  their  gradual  im- 
provement resulted  in  fire  power  and  movement 
becoming  the  predominant  factors,  and  brought 
about  deployment  of  troops  on  a  wide  front  in 
order  to  secure  them.  Experience  teaches  that 
under  present  conditions  neither  shock  action 
nor  fire  power  alone  can  win,  the  two  must  be 
used  in  combination,  and  modern  tactics  en- 
deavors to  provide  means  whereby  fire  power 
may  be  utilized  to  open  the  way  for  shock  ac- 
tion to  strike  the  decisive  blo\\  This  blow 
should  be  directed  at  the  enemy's  weakest  point, 
if  it  can  be  determined  in  the  initial  deploy- 
ment, otherwise  a  mobile  force  must  be  held  in 
icadiness  to  launch  an  attack  against  the  weak 
point  when  it  is  revealed. 

During  the  first  phase  of  the  War,  before  the 
lines  became  stabili/ed,  the  tactics  used  in  com- 
bat were  those  which  had  been  inculcated  in 
peace-time  training,  the  deployment  of  infantry 
being  made  with  considerable  strength  in  the 
skirmish  line  in  order  to  secure  fire  superiority 
and  the  advance  being  made  by  successive  rushes 
of  assaulting  units,  the  attack  being  supported 
by  artillery  fire.  The  increase  in  rapidity  and 
precision  of  artillery  fire  and  the  effective  use 
of  machine  guns  caused  a  thinning  of  the  as- 
sault line  and  the  organization  of  the  attacking 
force  in  greater  depth,  in  order  to  minimize 
losses.  This  change  in  formation  also  gave 
greater  power  of  manoeuvre. 


STBATEQY  AND  TACTIOS 


1254 


STRATEGY  AND  TACTICS 


In  defense  the  tactics  were  similarly  modified. 
After  the  first  phase  when  the  lines  became 
stabilized  on  the  Western  front,  both  sides  oc- 
cupied nearly  continuous  front-line  trenches  ex- 
tending from  Switzerland  to  the  Channel, 
strongly  garrisoned,  dependence  being  placed  on 
the  fire  power  of  this  line  supported  by  an  ar- 
tillery barrage  to  repel  the  enemy's  attack. 
The  heavy  losses  and  almost  complete  destruc- 
tion of  the  front-line  trenches  due  to  the  ar- 
tillery preparatory  fire  of  the  attacking  troops 
led  to  the  adoption  of  a  modified  organization 
of  the  terrain  whereby  the  front  line  was  held 
weakly  by  outposts  with  a  main  line  of  resist- 
ance at  the  rear  so  located  that  the  attacking 
forces  would  be  more  or  less  disrupted  when  it 
was  reached  and  would  be  beyond  effective  sup- 
port by  their  artillery  and  consequently  more 
easily  repulsed  by  counterattack. 

Therefore  organization  in  depth  was  adopted 
for  defense  as  well  as  for  offense.  The  condi- 
tions which  brought  about  these  changes  were 
those  due  to  the  introduction  of  new  weapons 
and  devices  and  a  supply  of  ammunition  in 
greater  quantity  than  ever  before. 

Airplanes  and  tanks  and  the  utilization  of 
gas  were  the  major  influences,  to  which  should 
be  added  improved  machine  guns,  automatic 
rifles,  light  mortars  and  the  37-millimeter  gun 
as  integral  parts  of  the  fighting  equipment  of 
the  infantry. 

Airplanes.  At  the  beginning  of  the  War, 
airplanes  were  few  in  number  and  were  used 
practically  entirely  for  recorinoissance.  Very 
rapidly,  however,  their  use  was  extended  to  in- 
clude observation  and  direction  of  artillery  fire, 
location  of  front-line  units,  photographing  the 
enemy  positions  and  transmitting  orders  and, 
in  certain  cases,  the  carrying  of  supplies  to 
isolated  units.  Then  machine  guns  were 
mounted  on  them  and  combat  planes  were  de- 
veloped which  fought  aerial  battles  to  decide 
the  supremacy  of  the  air  and  deny  to  the  enemy 
the  aerial  observation  which  had  become  so  im- 
portant. It  was  also  found  that  bombs  could 
l>e  dropped  from  them  and  that  by  such  means 
strategic  points  in  the  enemy's  rear  could  be 
effectively  attacked.  As  these  various  uses  de- 
veloped to  a  greater  and  greater  extent,  it  was 
found  even  practicable  to  attack  the  enemy 
troops  on  the  battlefield  with  machine-gun  fire 
and  bombs.  See  AERONAUTICS. 

The  use  of  anti-aircraft  guns  and  of  machine 
guns  to  prevent  observation  and  destroy  the  air- 
planes did  not  prove  of  great  value.  Very  few 
airplanes  were  destroyed  by  such  means,  al- 
though well-directed  fire  forced  the  airplanes 
to  heights  where  observation  was  imperfect, 
and  it  was  found  that  the  most  effective  way 
to  keep  the  enemy  airplanes  in  check  was  to 
fight  them  in  the  air  by  combat  planes  in  su- 
perior force.  The  control  of  artillery  fire  by 
aerial  observation  was  a  tactical  change  of  sig- 
nal value. 

Captive  Balloons.  These  were  also  effective- 
ly used  for  observation  and  control  of  artillery 
fire,  although,  to  avoid  destruction  by  enemy 
artillery  and  airplanes,  they  had  to  be  kept 
well  in  the  rear.  However,  under  favorable 
weather  conditions,  observation  was  good  and 
the  advantages  of  a  stationary  position  and  di- 
rect wire  communication  were  great 

Dirigibles.  The  great  cost,  long  time  of  con- 
struction, large  target  offered  and  special  land- 
ing arrangements  required  prevented  dirigibles 


from  successful  employment  and  extended  use 
during  the  War,  even  though  they  could  carry 
large  quantities  of  explosives  and  supplies. 
Their  principal  use  and  success  was  in  naval 
warfare. 

Tanks.  Armored  motor  cars  with  machine 
guns  mounted  were  developed  before  the  War 
and  under  certain  conditions  were  effective  in 
reconnoissance  and  for  courier  service,  but  they 
could  operate  effectively  only  on  roads  in  fair 
condition.  The  invention  of  the  tank  produced 
a  machine  that  could  operate  across  country,  de- 
stroy wire  entanglements,  cross  trenches,  break 
down  light  walls  and  which,  armed  with  one- 
pounders  or  machine  guns  proved  a  very  useful 
aid  to  the  infantry  in  attack,  heavy  tanks  usu- 
ally preceding  the  infantry  to  open  ways 
through  obstacles  and  cover  the  infantry  during 
the  cleaning  up  of  a  captured  position,  light 
tanks  usually  accompanying  the  infantry  to 
support  them  in  their  attack,  and  destroy 
machine-gun  nests. 

Gas.  The  introduction  of  gas  also  had  an 
influence  on  tactics.  The  cloud  attack  in  which 
gas  was  first  used,  and  later  the  concentration 
of  gas  on  certain  areas  by  means  of  gas  shells, 
assisted  an  attacking  force  by  compelling  the 
enemy  to  remain  in  shelters  during  the  advance 
or  fight  when  handicapped  by  wearing  masks 
Many  kinds  of  gas  were  used  during  the  W7ar, 
from  the  early  irritating  and  suffocating  types 
such  as  chlorine  and  phosgene  to  lachrymal  and 
blistering  types,  as  benzyl  bromide  and  mustard 
gas.  The  most  effective  were  phosgene  and  mus- 
tard gas,  although  tear  gas  and  other  types  were 
of  value  under  certain  conditions. 

As  a  development  from  the  introduction  of 
gas  came  the  use  of  smoke  clouds  to  screen  the 
advance  of  an  attacking  line  or  to  cut  off  ob- 
servation by  the  enemy.  See  CHEMICAL  WAB- 
FARE. 

Infantry  Weapons.  The  automatic  rifle, 
introduced  during  the  War,  provided  means  for 
maintaining  the  fire  power  of  the  thinner 
skirmish  line  and  enabled  concentrated  fire  to 
be  delivered  on  appropriate  targets.  Its  value 
in  holding  attacks,  and  in  covering  weak  points 
in  defensive  positions,  has  been  proved. 

Machine  Guns.  At  the  beginning  of  the  War, 
machine  guns  had  not  been  perfected,  were  com- 
paratively few  in  number  and  the  technic  of 
their  employment  was  in  an  experimental  stage. 
At  that  time  the  German  Army  was  greatly 
superior  both  in  number  of  machine  guns  and 
in  trained  gunners.  The  improvements  devel- 
oped as  the  War  progressed  increased  their 
reliability  of  functioning,  and  experience  led 
to  methods  of  use  which  rendered  them  tremen- 
dously effective  both  in  offensive  and  defensive 
action,  in  the  former  case  assisting  the  attack- 
ing skirmish  line  to  achieve  and  maintain  fire 
superiority  as  well  as  at  times  supporting  the 
advance  by  indirect  barrage  fire  over  the  heads 
of  the  advancing  troops,  and  in  the  latter  case 
delaying  and  disrupting  the  attacking  forces  by 
concentrations  from  concealed  positions  and  by 
flanking  fire  delivered  along  the  belts  of  wire 
in  front  of  strong  points  and  centres  of  re- 
sistance. In  open  warfare  they  proved  most 
valuable  in  delaying  rear-guard  actions.  See 
SMALL  ARMS  AND  MACHINE  GUNS. 

Hand  Grenades.  The  position  warfare,  which 
lasted  so  long  on  the  Western  front,  called  for 
weapons  that  could  deliver  high  angle  fire  in 
order  to  reach  narrow  trenches  at  short  range. 


STEATEGY  AND  TACTICS 


1*55 


STEATTON 


To  fill  this  need  was  developed  the  hand  gren- 
ade, at  first  a  crude  can  filled  with  explosive 
and  fired  by  a  time  fuse.  From  this  beginning 
came  the  offensive  grenade,  with  a  thin  metal 
case  whose  fragments  could  not  injure  the 
thrower  but  which  produced  the  desired  effect 
on  the  enemy  by  the  shock  of  the  explosion ;  and 
the  defensive  grenade,  thrown  from  a  protected 
position,  with  a  heavy  metal  case  which,  when 
the  grenade  burst,  broke  into  fragments  and 
added  the  effect  of  the  Hying  pieces  to  the  shock 
of  the  explosion  Later  improvements  resulted 
in  grenades  filled  with  various  gases  and  chem- 
icals for  special  uses.  The  invention  of  the 
method  of  discharging  grenades  by  rifle  fire 
from  a  cup  placed  on  the  muzzle  of  the  rifle 
increased  very  greatly  the  range  and  accuracy 
of  fire. 

Trench  Mortars  and  One-Pounder  Guns.  An- 
other weapon  developed  for  high  angle  fire  was 
the  trench  mortar  varying  from  the  3-inch  light 
Stokes  mortar  capable  for  brief  intervals  of 
firing  40  or  more  12-pound  shells  a  minute  up 
to  0-inch,  H-inch  and  larger  mortars  firing 
heavier  shells  at  a  lesser  rate  of  fire  with  great- 
er range  and  more  destructive  effect.  These 
mortals,  especially  the  light  ones,  which  could 
IKS  filed  from  concealed  positions  close  up  to 
the  skirmish  line  of  an  attacking  force,  proved 
very  effective  against  machine-gun  nests. 

The  37-iiun.  or  one-pounder  gun  was  intro- 
duced and  also  proved  effective  against  machine- 
gun  nests  and,  wlien  supplied  with  special  am- 
munition, was  useful  against  light  tanks 

Infantry  Equipment.  In  consequence  of  the 
successful  development  of  the  weapons  above 
described,  the  equipment  of  a  rifle  squad  in  the 
United  States  Army  in  1924  included  one  auto- 
matic rifle  and  one  grenade  discharger  A 
howit/or  company  was  assigned  to  each  infan- 
try regiment  equipped  with  three  light  mortars 
and  three  37-mm  guns. 

Tactical  Value  of  Tanks.  The  value  of 
tanks  as  an  auxiliary  arm  of  the  infantry  was 
demonstrated  during  the  Wai.  In  the  organ- 
isation of  the  United  States  Army  in  1024,  one 
light  tank  company  ^«s  an  integral  part  of  an 
Infantry  Division.  The  company  included  a 
headquarters  section  with  one  signal  tank  and 
nine  icserve  tanks,  and  three  platoons  each  with 
five  tanks,  two  armed  with  37-mm.  guns  and 
three  with  machine  guns.  Light  tanks  arc 
transported  on  trucks  as  close  as  possible  to 
the  battle  front. 

Other  Changes  in  Tactics.  The  changes  in 
infantry  tactics  were  accompanied  by  some 
changes  in  artillery  tactics,  indirect  firing  being 
developed  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  The 
interdependence  of  the  infantry  and  the  artil- 
lery was  emphasised  and  close  liaison  between 
the  two  arms  was  found  most  important.  In 
order  to  conceal  battery  positions  from  aerial 
observation,  effective  methods  of  camouflage 
were  developed.  The  rolling  barrage  to  precede 
the  leading  infantry  waves  in  an  attack  was 
perfected  and  was  made  possible  by  a  supply 
of  ammunition  such  as  never  had  been  available 
before. 

In  defensive  positions  the  importance  of  field 
guns  which  could  be  rapidly  advanced  to  bring 
direct  fire  on  tanks, was  recognized,  as  was  the 
desirability  of  accompanying  guns  to  advance 
with  the  infantry  to  assist  in  reducing  enemy 
strong  points  too  heavily  fortified  to  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  infantry  weapons. 


Cavalry  tactics  were  hardly  affected  by  the 
War,  as  the  conditions  of  warfare  after  the  bat- 
tle of  the  Marne  did  not  permit  the  utilization 
of  cavalry  to  any  important  degree.  It  seems 
apparent  that  the  future  use  of  cavalry  will  be 
in  open  warfare  largely  as  a  screen  for  the 
movements  of  the  armies  and  for  reconnoissance 
in  conjunction  with  the  air  service.  Cavalry 
patrols  can  secure  information  by  contact  with 
enemy  patrols  and  from  captured  prisoners 
which  airplanes  cannot  obtain,  while  airplanes 
can  quickly  relay  to  headquarters  the  informa- 
tion picked  up  by  the  cavalry  as  well  as  that 
which  they  can  obtain  by  direct  observation  and 
aerial  photographs. 

The  tactical  value  of  leadership  and  morale, 
of  training  and  discipline,  of  accurate,  well- 
aimed  rifle  and  machine-gun  fire,  of  team  work 
by  adjacent  units  and  of  effective  and  reliable 
intercommunication  was  impressively  revealed 
in  the  War.  See  ARMIES  AND  AKMY* ORGANIZA- 
TION; ARTILLERY;  ORDNANCE;  CHEMICAL  WAR- 
TARE;  WAR  m  EUROPE;  etc. 

STKATON,  JOHN  JJoAcii  (1875-  ).  An 
American  clergyman,  born  at  Evansville,  Ind., 
and  educated  at  Southern  Baptist  Theological 
Seminary  at  Louisville,  Ky.  After  being  or- 
dained to  the  Baptist  ministry  in  1000,  he  held 
pastorates  in  Chicago  and  Baltimore;  in  1918 
he  came  to  the  Calvary  Church  in  New  York 
City.  He  won  the  $1000  prize  offered  by  the 
Commercial  Club  of  Portland,  Ore.,  for  an 'essay 
on  Portland  and  the  \orthtcest,  and  a  $500 
prize  offered  by  the  Anti-Saloon  League.  Dur- 
ing 1023  he  assailed  Dr.  C  Woelfkin  on  pro- 
posed abrogation  of  immersion,  vainly  attempt- 
ed to  prevent  Dr.  W.  II.  P.  Faiince  (whom  lie 
denounced  as  a  heretic)  from  addi easing  the 
Northern  Baptist  Convention,  and  asserted  that 
the  I  nion  Theological  Seminary  was  a  breeder  of 
revolutionary  ideas  in  religion.  lie  attracted 
considerable  attention  in  the  spring  ot  1024  by  a 
series  of  debates  with  Dr.  Charles  Francis  Pot- 
ter, Unitarian  and  modeinist.  II is  writings  in- 
clude: The  Menace  of  Immorality  in  Church 
and  Mate  (1920)  ;  The  Ilcaienli/  Home  (1M20)  ; 
The  Gardens  of  Life  (1921);  Church  vs.  Rtage 
(1921);  Our  Itelapse  Into  Paganism  (1921); 
Dance  of  Death  (1922). 

STRATTON,  SAMUEL  WLSLEY  (1801-  ). 
An  American  physicist,  born  at  Litch field,  111. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Illinois 
in  1884,  where  in  1886  he  became  instructor  of 
mathematics  and  physics  and  in  1889  professor 
of  physics  and  electrical  engineering.  He  was 
later  called  to  the  University  of  Chicago  where 
he  attained  the  full  professorship  of  phytics  in 
1898,  and  continued  in  that  capacity  unitil  1901 
v\hen  he  organixed  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Standards  at  Washington;  he  was  director  of 
the  Bureau  until  1923.  In  that  year,  he  ac- 
cepted the  presidency  of  the  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology.  In  1895,  he  joined  the 
Naval  Militia  of  Illinois,  of  which  he  became 
lieutenant-commander;  he  served  during  the 
Spanish-American  War  in  the  United  States 
Navy  with  the  rank  of  lieutenant.  During 
1904-12,  he  commanded  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia Naval  Militia.  He  was  secretary  of  the 
committee  for  aeronautics  and  a  member  of  the 
Executive  Board  of  the  National  Research 
Council  during  the  War.  The  Elliott  Cresson 
medal  of  the  Franklin  Institute  was  conferred 
on  him  in  1912  and  in  1917  he  received  the 
Public  Welfare  medal  of  the  National  Academy 


STRAUSS 


1256 


STRIKES  AND  LOOKOUTS 


of  Sciences.  Dr.  Stratton  became  a  member  of 
the  International  Commission  on  Weights  and 
Measures  and  in  1923  was  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Assay  Commission. 

STRAUSS,  RICHARD  (1804-  ).  A  Ger- 
man composer  (see  VOL.  XXI).  After  his  A.I- 
pensymphonie  (1015)  he  wrote  very  little,  and 
none  of  the  later  works  fulfilled  the  hope  that 
he  would  again  reach  the  high  level  of  the 
masterpieces  of  his  second  period.  While  he 
preserves  his  strong  individuality,  uninfluenced 
by  either  Impressionism  or  Futurism,  as  well 
as  his  marvelous  command  of  all  technical  re- 
sources, the  irresistible  melodious  sweep  and 
flaming  passion  of  his  earlier  works  are  miss- 
ing. His  powers  of  thematic  invention  have 
declined.  His  latest  works  are:  a  revised  ver- 
sion of  Ariadne  auf  Xaxos  (Vienna,  1910)  ;  a 
new  opera,  Die  Fran  ohve  Schatten  (Vienna, 
1910);  a  second  ballet,  Schlagober*  (Vienna, 
1924)  ;  a  suite  for  small  orchestra,  Dcr  Burger 
ala  Edelmann  (arranged  from  Ariadne  auf 
A  flaw?)  ;  and  some  songs.  Neither  the  revised 
nor  the  new  opera  had  much  success,  while  the 
ballet  was  received  with  favor.  The  suite,  how- 
ever, is  exquisite  The  songs  cannot  bear  com- 
parison with  his  earlier  masterpieces  in  the 
same  field.  In  Xovemlier  and  December  of  1021, 
he  visited  the  United  States  for  the  second  time, 
producing  his  own  works  exclusively  With 
•  several  of  the  great  orchestras  he  conducted  his 
orchestral  masterpieces,  and  in  conjunction 
with  other  artists  appeared  HK  pianist  in  his 
chamber  music  and  songs.  It  is  significant 
that  the  programmes  be  ottered  contained  prac- 
tically nothing  written  after  1900. 

STREET  CLEANING.  See  ROADS  AND 
PAVEMENTS. 

STREET  RAILWAYS.  See  MUNICIPAL 
OWNERSHIP. 

STREETS.    See  ROADS  AND  PA\EMENIH. 

STRESEMANN,  GUSTAV  (187S-  ).  A 
German  statesman,  educated  at  the  universities 
of  Berlin  and  Leipzig.  When  he  entered  the 
Reichstag  in  1007,  he  was  general -manager  of 
an  important  union  of  manufacturers,  and  was 
identified  with  the  great  industrial  leaders,  such 
as  Hugo  Stinnes,  who  were  the  mainstay  of 
the  German  People's  party.  He  was  at  one 
time  chairman  of  the  Foreign  Relations  Com- 
mittee. In  August,  1923,  he  was  nuked  to  form 
a  ministry  During  the  time  be  was  in  office  the 
Bavarian  ie\olt  occurred,  and  there  was  much 
disorder  throughout  Germany.  He  announced 
that  the  distress  of  the  German  people  might 
be  alleviated  by  a  cessation  of  resistance  in  the 
Ruhr  and  the  return  of  the  Crown  Prince.  His 
views  caused  the  downfall  of  his  government  in 
November,  1923,  and  Dr.  Wilbelm  Marx  was 
asked  to  form  a  new  cabinet.  Dr.  Stresemann 
was  given  the  post  of  Minister  of  Defense  in  the 
new  government.  See  GERMVNV,  Hintory;  RKPA- 
BATIONS. 

STREuvELS,  STJJN  (FRANK  LATKUR) 
(1871-  ).  A  Flemish  author,  born  in  Ileule, 
West  Flanders.  He  was  a  baker  at  Avelghem 
until  1905.  He  wrote  in  the  West  Flanders 
dialect  and  was  said  to  be  the  most  distin- 
guished Low  Dutch  author  of  his  time.  His 
writings  include:  Het  glornrrijke  Licht  (The 
Glorious  Light)  (1912);  Openliteht  (1905);  T>e 
Vlaschaard  (1908).  The  last  two  books  were 
translated  into  English  by  A.  rl  eixeira  de  Mattos 
and  published  in  1915  under  the  title  The  Path 
of  Life.  He  also  wrote  many  short  stories. 


STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS.  A  survey  of 
labor  disputes  during  the  decade  1013-23 
brings  out  two  sharply  contrasted  periods: 
the  war  years,  when  efforts  to  promote  patriotic 
cooperation  between  capital  and  labor  reduced 
the  number  of  strikes  to  a  markedly  low  level; 
and  the  post-war  period,  when,  with  generally 
unsettled  conditions  and  a  diminished  effort  for 
arbitration,  the  number  of  strikes  and  the  num- 
ber of  persons  affected  rose  quickly,  in  many 
countries  to  a  hitherto  unprecedented  figure. 
An  interesting  experiment  during  the  period  was 
the  effort  of  the  Australian  states  to  prohibit 
strikes  and  lockouts,  although  the  original  act 
did  not  prove  satisfactory  and  was  replaced 
in  1918  by  a  new  measure  which  made  strikes 
illegal  only  in  certain  specified  industries  and 
public  agencies  and  where  walkouts  occur  with- 
in 14  days  after  notice  of  intention  to  strike. 
Another  interesting  movement  was  the  step 
taken  by  employers  in  Germany  and  the  Scan- 
dinavian countries  to  insure  themselves  against 
strikes,  as  an  offset,  they  claimed,  to  the  pro- 
tection that  the  worker  had  in  his  strike  bene- 
fits. See  PICKETING,  SABOTAGE,  and  INJUNC- 
TION. 

United  States.  A  strike  marked  by  much 
violence  occurred  in  1913-14  among  the  Oolo- 
lado  coal  miners,  giving  rise  to  several  san- 
guinary conflicts  and  the  burning  of  a  tent 
colony  in  which  two  women  and  11  children 
uere  suffocated.  \Miile  the  objects  of  this 
strike — better  working  conditions,  eight-hour 
day,  higher  \\ages,  and  recognition  of  the  union 
— were  not  gained  after  more  than  a  yeai  of 
struggle,  a  Federal  in \estigation  of  the  situa- 
tion uncovered  conditions  at  the  mines  which 
were  obviously  in  need  of  remedy  and  the  opera- 
tors were  threatened  with  Federal  intervention 
if  oiitbreaks  continued  to  occur.  In  the  same 
year  theie  were  serious  disoiders  in  connection 
\\it\i  a  strike  among  the  coal  miners  of  West 
Virginia  and  the  silk  woikers  of  Paterson. 
During  the  period  immediately  pieced  ing  the 
entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  War, 
strikes  became  numerous,  partly  because  the 
workers  sought  to  secure  for  themselves  a  share 
of  the  large  war  profits,  in  part  because  it 
seemed  opportune  to  demand  the  betterment  of 
conditions,  and  perhaps  to  some  small  extent 
l>ccause  of  the  activities  of  foreign  agents. 
In  1010,  four  railroad  brotherhoods  and  the 
railway  representatives  came  to  a  deadlock. 
Tn  the  arbitrations  that  followed,  President  Wil- 
son's plan,  which  was  accepted  by  the  men,  was 
i  ejected  by  the,  railroads,  this  situation  bring- 
ing about  the  passage  of  the  Adamson  law,  fix- 
ing the  legal  standard  of  a  day's  woik  at  eight 
boms,  and  forcing  the  railroads  to  acceptance. 
During  the  War,  in  an  organized  effort  to  sub- 
stitute mediation  for  the  strike  and  lockout, 
thus  obviating  loss  of  time  in  that  emergency, 
a  Committee  on  Lal>or  of  the  Advisory  Com- 
mission  of  the  Council  of  National  Defense  was 
formed,  in  1917,  with  Samuel  Gompers,  presi- 
dent of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  as 
chairman,  and  with  subcommittees  on  various 
phases  of  the  question,  such  as  wages  and  hours, 
mediation  and  conciliation,  welfare  work,  cost 
of  living,  and  .domestic  economy.  A  l^abor 
Adjustment  Committee,  consisting  of  three  repre- 
sentatives each  of  the  government,  employers, 
and  employees,  was  created,  and  immediately 
made  itself  felt  in  preventing  threatened  strikes 
in  the  west  coast  shipyards  and  among  the 


STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS 


19S7 


STEIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS 


cubt  coast  longshoremen;  it  finally  effected  a 
settlement  of  the  strike  in  the  copper  mines 
of  the  Southwest.  In  connection  with  the  lat- 
ter strike,  a  wholesale,  unauthorized  deporta- 
tion of  miners — some  of  them  members  of  the 
I.  W.  W.  (q.v.) — from  Jerome  and  Bisbee,  Ariz., 
caused  a  great  stir.  About  this  time  a  general 
disorganization  of  the  lumber  industry  in  the 
Northwest  by  strikes  gained  for  the  workers 
the  eight-hour  day.  An  outbreak  among  ma- 
chinists engaged  on  war  work  at  Bridgeport  was, 
in  spite  of  concessions  to  the  workers,  finally 
quieted  only  by  an  ultimatum  threatening  black- 
listing of  the  men  from  all  war  work.  This 
period,  which  had  been  one  of  comparative 
quietude,  was  broken  by  the  Armistice.  In 
HMD,  in  Seattle,  25,000  shipyard  workers  went 
out,  bringing  on  a  general  strike  in  that  city 
which  affected  about  60,000  workmen.  It  was 
unsuccessful.  When  the  Boston  policemen  in 
that  year  went  out  on  strike  to  secure  recogni- 
tion of  their  union,  their  posts  were  filled  by 
other  men.  Another  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
compel  recognition  of  a  union  was  that  of  the 
steel  woikers,  about  300,000  of  whom  walked 
out  in  September,  1019.  Judge  Gary  refused 
to  confer  with  the  union  leaders  on  the  grounds 
that  they  were  not  reprebcntative  of  a  large 
number  of  the  workers.  Federal  troops  were 
finally  called  in  before  the  men  returned  to 
work.  In  New  York  City,  in  1919,  there  was 
an  actors'  and  a  longshoremen's  strike,  and  a 
printers'  lockout.  In  that  year  a  strike  among 
bituminous  coal  miners,  affecting  about  425,000 
men,  was  called  oil  after  two  weeks,  and  the 
difficulties  settled  after  six  weeks  upon  the 
terms  proposed  by  President  \\ilson.  There 
were  125  unauthorized  strikes,  in  1019,  affect- 
ing 1,053,250  men.  Of  the  4,154,733  workers 
who  were  imolved  in  all  strike  movements  in 
that  year  (1919),  not  less  than  400,000  were 
in  the  clothing  trades,  178,000  in  textile  work 
in  New  Jeisey  and  New  England,  330,000  in 
shipyards,  430,000  in  the  building  trades  A 
serious  strike,  in  11)22,  tied  up  practically  the 
entire  coal  industry.  For  the  h'rst  time,  anthra- 


cite and  bituminous  mines  were  simultaneously 
affected.  The  walkout,  following  attempts  to  re- 
duce wages,  began  on  March  31.  The  bitu- 
minous strike  ended  August  15;  the  anthracite 
miners  did  not  return  until  the  beginning  of 
September  (see  COAL).  In  August,  610,000  men 
were  out.  There  was  an  outbreak  of  violence 
at  Herrin,  111.,  following  the  shooting  of  two 
union  pickets  by  armed  guards;  19  nonunion 
miners  were  killed  and  30  wounded  by  an  armed 
mob.  Both  bituminous  and  anthracite  strikes 
were  terminated  by  an  extension  of  previous 
contracts  from  Mar.  31,  1922,  to  a  date  in 
1923,  and  by  agreements  for  further  conference. 
As  a  result  of  this  situation,  and  fulfilling 
one  of  the  conditions  on  which  the  men  went 
•back  to  work,  in  September,  1922,  Congress 
created  the  United  States  Coal  Commission  for 
the  purpose  of  investigating  all  phases  of  the 
production,  transportation  and  distribution  of 
coal,  and  relationships  totwecn  operator  and 
worker,  with  a  view  to  recommending  remedial 
legislation.  This  year  was  notable  also  for  the 
nation-wide  strike  among  railway  shopmen,  in- 
volving 400,000  men  and  seriously  tying  up 
the  entire  transportation  system.  Beginning 
•July  1  as  a  protest  against  reduction  in  wages, 
it  finally  resolved  itself  into  a  fight  for  the 
restoration  of  seniority  rights  to  those  who  had 
gone  on  strike.  On  September  11,  1C  railways 
came  to  terms  with  their  workers,  both  agree- 
ing to  abide  by  the  decisions  of  the  Railroad 
Labor  Board.  Those  railroads  which  refused  to 
settle  had  so  far  succeeded  in  building  up  their 
shop  forces  as  to  be  beyond  the  necessity  of 
dealing  with  the  strikers,  although  some  of 
these  roads  were  under  the  necessity  of  guard- 
ing their  employees  for  some  time  thereafter. 
A  strike  of  155,000  anthracite  miners  in  Penn- 
sylvania in  1923  lasted  only  10  days,  the  work- 
ers gaining  a  10  per  cent  increase  of  wages  but 
being  denied  the  check-off  and  the  closed  shop. 
The  pressmen's  strike  in  New  York  City,  Sep- 
tember 18-20  of  that  year,  was  significant  from 
the  point  of  view  of  union  discipline:  the  local 
union  having  defied  the  authority  of  the  main 


RELATION  OF  WORKERS  TO    LABOR  UNIONS,   1916  TO  1923 
Relations  of  workers  to  unions  Number  of  disputes 

191f>  1917  1918          1919  1920  1921  1922  1923 


Connected  with  unions          .  .  . 

.  .  .  .      2,438 

2,392 

1,903 

2,030 

2  502 

2  036 

a  813 

*  1  213 

Not  connected  with   unions    . 

416 

209 

143 

137 

37 

77 

....            71 

S5 

26 

30 

g 

5 

5 

18 

....          814 

1  794 

1,002 

1,374 

652 

279 

209 

154 

Total        .      .  .          . 

3,789 

\  450 

3,353 

3,577 

3  299 

2  382 

o  i  OG4 

b  1  462 

"Not  including  12  disputes  vthich  included  both  union  and  nonunion  workers  and  4  in  which  the  tinkers 
withdrew  from  the  unions  after  the  ntriko  began. 

*Not  including  29  disputes  which  included  both  union  and  nonunion  workers  in  2  of  which  the  nonunion 
strikers  joined  unions  after  the  dispute  began 


RESULTS  OF  DISPUTES  ENDING  IN  E  VCH  YEAR,   1916  TO  1923 
Result  Number  of  disputes  ending  in — 

1916  1917  1918          1919  1920  1921 


1922 


1923 


Tn   favor  of  employers    .  . 

748 

395 

465 

680 

650 

701 

242 

356 

In  favor  of  employees 

749 

631 

627 

583 

397 

256 

237 

364 

Coin  promised 

777 

720 

691 

797 

448 

291 

104 

167 

Employees  returned  pending  arbitration 
Not  reported   .         ...         .... 

73 
101 

137 
191 

204 
211 

50 
57 

61 
204 

80 
198 

16 
112 

46 
159 

Total    2,448 


2,074          2,198        2,167          1,760          1,526 


711 


1,092 


The  approximate  total  duration  of  2116  disputes  ending  in  1916  for  which  duration  was  reported  as  49,680 
days,  or  an  average  duration  of  23  days  each. 

In  1917  the  total  duration  of  1435  such  disputes  was  26,981  days,  or  an  average  duration  of  19  days 
psph.  In  1918  the  total  duration  of  1709  disputes  was  29.895  days,  or  an  average  of  37  days  each.  In  1919 
the  total  duration  of  1855  disputes  was  62,930  days,  or  an  average  of  84  days  each.  In  1920  the  total  dura- 
tion of  1321  disputes  was  51,893  days,  or  an  average  duration  of  39  days  each.  In  1921  the  total  duration 
of  1258  disputes  was  64,231  days,  or  an  average  duration  of  51  days  each  In  1922  the  total  duration  of 
552  disputes  was  21,017  days,  or  an  average  of  38  days  each.  In  1923  the  total  duration  of  917  disputes 
wai  21,406  days,  or  an  average  of  23  days  each. 


STRONG 


I358 


SUBMARINES 


body,  its  charter  was  canceled,  and  the  interna- 
tional organization  supplied  pressmen  to  fill  the 
strikers'  places. 

The  accompanying  table  and  paragraph  sum- 
marizing the  labor  disputes  during  the  years 
1916-23  are  from  the  Monthly  Labor  Review 
of  the  Department  of  Labor,  ^une,  1924.  See 
TBADE  UNIONISM,  LABOR  ARBITRATION,  COAL, 
and  RAILWAYS. 

Other  Countries.  The  figures  for  disputes 
in  the  United  Kingdom  from  1907  to  1920 
show  a  tendency  toward  gradual  increase,  with 
a  temporary  falling  off  during  the  War.  In 
1913,  there  were  1497  disputes,  affecting  directly 
and  indirectly  689,000  working  people,  with  an 
aggregate  duration  of  11,631,000  working  days. 
In  1916,  these  figures  had  fallen  to  578,  281,000 
and  2,581,000,  respectively.  In  1919,  there 
were  1413  disputes,  involving  2,515,000  peo- 
ple, with  a  duration  of  34,903,000  days;  in 
1920,  1715  disputes,  1,932,000  workers,  27,011,- 
000  days.  The  latter  two  years,  due  to  the 
industrial  unrest  in  1919  and  the  great  coal 
strikes  in  1920,  were  practically  peak  years, 
except  in  point  of  aggregate  duration,  the  record 
for  which  was  readied  during  the  coal  strike 
of  1912.  Among  the  more  important  strikes  of 
the  period  was  the  Dublin  strike  in  1913-14, 
to  uphold  the  principle  of  the  sympathetic 
strike,  or  practical  boycott  of  offending  em- 
ployers by  other  trades.  This  was  noteworthy 
as  the  nearest  approach  to  a  general  strike  in 
British  history;  it  involved  even  agriculture. 
The  Munitions  Act  in  1915  made  many  strikes 
illegal,  and  this,  together  with  public  opinion, 
restricted  for  sonic  time  the  extent  of  strikes 
and  their  duration.  Even  well  into  1919,  in 
spite  of  prevalent  disturbance,  there  was 
no  strike  of  great  importance,  until  the  rail- 
way strike  beginning  in  September.  The  wage 
question  which  caused  this  difficulty  was  re- 
ferred to  a  conference,  the  strike  coming  to  an 
end  after  nine  days.  There  was  a  national 
coal  strike  in  1920,  followed  by  a  more  serious 
strike  in  1921  that  lasted  for  four  months,  and 
was  terminated  only  by  a  government  grant 
subsidizing  wages  in  the  industry,  for  three 
months,  up  to  a  maximum  of  £10,000,000.  This 
strike  also  led  to  the  passage  of  an  act  enabling 
exceptional  measures  to  be  taken  in  an  emer- 
gency to  protect  the  public  from  being  deprived 
of  the  essentials  of  life.  Among  the  other  more 
important  strikes  abroad  during  this  period,  the 
following  may  be  mentioned:  1014,  London 
building  trade,  Yorkshire  coal  miners,  railway 
employees  in  South  Africa;  1915,  miners  in 
South  Wales,  and  the  Silesian  coal  miners  and 
Berlin  tool  makers  in  Germany;  1916,  Great 
Britain,  jute  workers  of  Dundee;  Norway,  a 
general  strike  protesting  against  compulsory  ar- 
bitration of  disputes;  Spain,  a  railroad  and 
general  strike;  1917,  an  unprecedented  number 
of  short  strikes  in  Japan,  many  as  protest 
against  the  high  cost  of  food;  1918,  Great  Brit- 
ain, engineering  trades,  colliery  examiners  in 
South  Wales,  cotton  trade,  London  metropolitan 
police  force;  1919,  coal  miners,  iron  workers, 
shipbuilders;  Italy,  general  strike  in  Naples; 
Spain,  lockouts  and  strikes  in  all  the  chief  in- 
dustries; Sweden,  printers,  match  makers,  and 
a  lockout  in  the  woodworking  trades;  1920, 
Great  Britain,  cotton  textile  strike. 

STRONG,  WILLIAM  WALKER  (1883-  ). 
An  American  physicist,  born  at  Good  Hope, 
Pa.  He  studied  at  Dickinson  College,  and  at 


Johns  Hopkins.  He  was  a  Carnegie  assistant  in 
physics  at  Johns  Hopkins  and  during  1911-13, 
professor  of  electric  theory  at  the  University  of 
Pittsburgh.  In  1913,  he  became  president  of 
the  Scientific  Instrument  and  Electric  Machine 
Company.  During  the  War  he  developed  a  fume 
mask  for  poisonous  gases,  and  in  1921,  discov- 
ered the  effect  of  magnetic  psychoanalysis.  In 
addition  to  many  papers  contributed  ito  scien- 
tific journals,  he  wrote  The  Absorption  Spectra 
of  Solutions  (2  vols.,  1910,  1911),  The  New  Sci- 
ence of  Fundamental  Physic*  (1918),  and  The 
New  Philosophy  of  Modem  Science  (1920). 

STBTTCTTJBAL    GEOLOGY.     See    GEOLOGY. 

STBUCTTTBALIS3L  See  CONSCIOUSNESS, 
AND  THE  UNCONSCIOUS. 

STTTBTEVANT,  ALFRED  HENBY  (1891-  ). 
An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Jacksonville, 
111.  He  was  educated  at  Columbia  University. 
In  1915,  he  became  research  associate  of  the 
Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington.  Ho  col- 
laborated with  Morgan  in  extensive  researches 
on  genetics,  especially  of  the  fruit  fly,  and  pub- 
lished a  number  of  papers  dealing  with  the* 
taxonomy  and  genetics  of  this  animal.  He  was 
joint  author  (with  Muller,  Bridges  and  Mor- 
gan) of  The  Mechanism  of  Mendelian  Heredity 
(2d  ed.,  1923). 

STYBIA.  A  province  of  the  Republic  of 
Austria.  Its  area  in  1910  was  8658.4  square 
miles;  in  1923,  0323  square  miles.  Its  popu- 
lation in  1910  was  1,444,157;  in  1923,  977,350. 
See  AUSTRIAN  REPUBLIC. 

SUBLIMATION.  See  CONSCIOUSNESS  AND 
THE  UNCONSCIOUS. 

SUBMARINES  AND  THEIR  WAR 
ACTIVITIES.  The  use  of  the  submarine  bout 
as  a  commerce  destroyer  was  not  a  part  of  Ger- 
many's  original  plans  for  the  War.  The  U- 
boats  which  had  been  completed  and  tested  be- 
fore the  outbreak  of  the  war  wore  so  unsatis- 
factory that  Admiral  von  Tirpitz,  the  German 
naval  chief,  was  highly  skeptical  ag  to  their 
usefulness.  Their  first  cruises  against  the  Brit- 
ish forces,  in  which  2  out  of  10  were  lost 
without  inflicting  any  damage  on  their  adver- 
saries, seemed  to  confirm  his  views.  Few  now 
boats  were  ordered,  and  no  special  effort  wns 
made  to  hasten  their  construction.  But  on 
Sept.  22,  1914,  Lieutenant  Weddigen  in  the 
U-W  sank  in  one  hour  a  whole  division  of  three 
12,000-ton  armored  cruisers  (Abou/rir,  Hognr, 
and  Cre88y) ,  with  a  loss  of  1400  men.  The 
effect  of  this  achievement  was  instantaneous, 
both  in  England  and  Germany.  The  British 
navy  had  made  no  definite*  plans  to  combat  sub- 
marine activity.  Extremists  like  Admiral  Sir 
Percy  Scott  declared  that  no  adequate  measures 
were  possible;  extremists  of  the  opposite  view 
considered  the  submarine  too  ineffective  to  re- 
quire such  plans.  Von  Tirpitz  was  converted 
at  once;  not  only  was  lie  converted,  but  he 
soon  became  the  leading  advocate  of  submarines 
in  Germany.  New  boats  in  great  numbers  were 
ordered,  and  the  earlier  ones  were  taken  in  hand 
to  remove  their  defects,  as  far  as  that  could 
be  done. 

While  this  work  was  going  on,  the  idea  of 
using  sumbarines  against  shipping  was  quickly 
conceived  and  developed.  It  was  estimated  that 
by  Feb.  1,  1915,  the  repairs  to  the  old  boats 
would  be  completed  and  a  number  of  the  small- 
er new  ones  would  be  ready  for  service.  On 
February  4  the  Germans  declared  that  the 
waters  surrounding  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 


StTBMABIKBS 


1259 


SUBMARINES 


would  be  a  war  zone  in  which  enemy  merchant 
ships  would  be  destroyed,  and  that  it  would 
not  always  be  possible  to  avoid  danger  to  pas- 
sengers and  crew  and  even  to  neutral  ships. 
Owing  to  a  sharp  protest  from  the  United 
States,  the  declaration  was  modified  in  regard 
to  neutral  ships,  their  neutral  character  to  be 
judged  by  all  circumstances  and  not  simply  by 
the  flag  carried.  As  thus  changed,  it  was 
put  into  effect  on  February  18. 

After  the  sinking  of  a  number  of  cargo  and 
fishing  vessels,  the  British  passenger  steamer 
Falaba,  bound  to  Sierra  Leone,  was  torpedoed 
on  March  27  with  the  loss  of  100  lives.  On 
May  7,  before  the  storm  of  protests  which  this 
evoked  had  died  down,  the  great  passenger 
liner  Lusitania  was  torpedoed  without  warning 
and  sank  in  20  minutes  with  a  loss  of  life 
at  first  reported  as  139G  but  afterward  thought 
to  be  about  1200.  Nearly  300  Americans  were 
on  board,  and  many  were  drowned.  The  pro- 
tests over  the  Falaba  affair  were  as  nothing 
compared  to  those  now  aroused.  The  United 
States  was  deeply  stirred  and  came  near  to 
declaring  war  against  Germany,  but  the  country 
was  unprepared  for  war  and  did  not  even  start 
to  prepare  for  it  until  1917,  after  war  was 
admitted  to  be  inevitable 

The  American  protests  were  met  by  the  usual 
German  promises,  though  even  the  Chancellor 
was  convinced  of  the  danger  of  making  an  ac- 
tive enemy  of  the  United  States,  and  on  June 
ir>  an  imperial  order  was  issued,  forbidding 
tbe  sinking  of  large  passenger  vessels  Von  Tir- 
pitz and  the  naval  staff  fought  the  order  so 
furiously  as  to  somewhat  weaken  imperial  sup- 
port of  it.  Encouraged  by  this,  the  naval  in- 
structions to  submarines  were  apparently  re- 
laxed; for  on  August  19  the  large  British  pas- 
senger steamer  Arabic,  outward  bound,  was 
sunk  ofT  the  Irish  Coast  with  the  loss  of  44 
lives.  The  United  States  again  protested  strong- 
ly, and  the  German  government  apologized, 
quoting  the  statement  of  the  submarine  com- 
mander that  the  Arabic  was  apparently  trying 
to  ram  him,  and  also  repeating  (September  2) 
their  previous  assurance  that  liners  would  not 
be  sunk  without  warning  and  without  safety 
of  the  lives  of  noncombatants,  provided  that 
the  liners  did  not  try  to  escape  or  offer  re- 
sistance. Two  days  later,  September  4,  the  liner 
Hesperian  was  sunk  with  the  loss  of  32  lives. 
The  German  government  denied  that  she  was 
destroyed  by  a  submarine,  but  the  proof  seemed 
clear. 

During  the  year  the  Germans  sank  various 
American  cargo  vessels  for  which  they  agreed 
to  pay,  but  up  to  1924  had  never  done  so.  The 
Chancellor  now  forced  Von  Tirpitz  to  stop 
sinking  liners,  and  on  September  20,  further 
orders  were  issued,  suspending  operations  ex- 
cept in  the  North  Sea.  This  condition  of  af- 
fairs remained  unchanged  until  after  the  close 
of  1915,  notwithstanding  the  arguments  and  pro- 
tests of  Von  Tirpitz  and  the  naval  staff.  But 
on  Feb.  12,  1916,  the  German  government  issued 
a  memorandum  declaring  that  after  February 
29,  merchant  vessels  armed  with  guns  would  bo 
treated  as  belligerents  On  March  24,  the  chan- 
nel steamer  Sussex,  with  325  passengers,  about 
25  of  them  Americans,  was  torpedoed.  Though 
it  was  not  sunk,  80  persons  were  killed  and  in- 
jured. Following  this,  President  Wilson  threat- 
ened to  break  off  diplomatic  relations  altogether, 
"unless  the  German  government  should  now  im- 


mediately declare  and  effect  an  abandonment  of 
its  present  methods  of  submarine  warfare  against 
passenger  and  freight  carrying  vessels."  The 
German  reply  concluded  with  the  statement  that 
German  naval  forces  had  received  an  order  that 
vessels  would  not  be  sunk  without  warning  and 
the  saving  of  life  unless  they  should  attempt  to 
escape  or  offer  resistance;  but  if  the  United 
States  failed  to  secure  the  "freedom  of  the 
seas"  from  Great  Britain,  the  "German  Govern- 
ment would  then  be  facing  a  new  situation  in 
which  it  must  reserve  to  itself  complete  liberty 
of  decision."  Although  this  proviso  made  the 
promise  as  to  methods  of  warfare  absolutely 
valueless  except  for  the  brief  interval  before  Ger- 
many would  decide  that  the  United  States  had 
not  obtained  from  Great  Britain  the  "freedom 
of  the  seas" — an  impossible  absurdity — it  was 
accepted  by  the  President,  who  said  he  would 
"rely  on  a  scrupulous  execution  henceforth  of 
the  now  altered  policy." 

Fear  of  American  hostility,  or  doubt  of  its 
success,  held  Germany  back  from  unrestricted 
submarine  warfare  until  the  beginning  of  1917, 
when  the  naval  staff  persuaded  the  government 
that  it  would  be  so  effective  as  to  starve  the 
British  people  until  they  demanded  peace.  Fears 
of  the  United  States  were  declared  groundless. 
That  country  had  evidently  no  warlike  inten- 
tions, for  it  was  wholly  unprepared  for  war, 
and  nothing  of  importance  was  being  done  to 
remedy  this  situation.  The  political  campaign 
of  1916  had  been  won  on  an  anti-war  platform 
by  the  aid  of  pacifists  and  pro-Germans,  and 
as  late  as  December  the  President  had  made 
a  speech  in  which  he  told  the  people  not  to 
lose  their  heads  over  talk  of  preparedness. 
"Moreover,"  the  naval  staff  said,  "the  submarines 
would  stop  any  attempts  to  transport  troops 
to  Europe  before  Great  Britain  was  brought  to 
her  knees."  A  note  to  the  Allies  on  December 
12,  proposing  negotiations  for  peace,  was  re- 
jected by  them;  and  on  Jan.  9,  1917,  it  was  de- 
cided to  commence  unrestricted  warfare  on 
February  1.  The  new  decision  was  publicly  an- 
nounced on  January  31.  While  other  areas 
were  added  later,  the  rough  outlines  of  the 
war  zone,  as  defined  by  the  announcement,  with- 
in which  submarine  warfare  was  to  be  unre- 
stricted, included  all  north  European  waters  be- 
tween the  meridians  of  4°  E.  and  20°  W. 
longitude,  and  between  the  latitudes  of  the 
Faroe  Islands  and  Cape  Finisterre,  except 
over  narrow  lanes  along  the  coasts  of  Hol- 
land and  Spain,  the  Zone  also  included  all  the 
Mediterranean  except  areas  along  the  Spanish 
coast  and  a  lane  20  miles  wide  leading  to  Greece. 
The  last  phase  of  the  blockade  was  now  reached. 
The  United  States  at  once  broke  off  diplo- 
matic relations  with  Germany.  On  February 
3,  the  American  Ambassador  left  Berlin  and  on 
the  same  date  the  German  Ambassador  at  Wash- 
ington was  handed  his  passports;  but  the  declar- 
ation of  war  was  deferred  until  April  6  in  the 
futile  hope  that  Germany  would  rescind  her 
decree. 

Germany  had  now  about  140  submarines  ready 
for  service  and  many  more  building;  269  were 
ordered  in  1917,  and  the  construction  work  on 
submarines  and  destroyers  was  pushed  to  the 
limits  of  the  shipyard  capacity  The  total  ton- 
nage of  Allied  and  neutral  merchant  vessels 
sunk  during  each  month  increased  from  291,000 
in  January  to  464,000  in  February;  507,000  in 
March;  and  834,000  in  April.  The  tonnage  sunk 


SUBWAYS 


ia6o 


STTDAN 


In  May  dropped  to  549,000;  in  June,  it  was 
631,000;  in  July,  492,000;  in  August,  489,000; 
in  September,  315,000;  in  October,  429,000;  in 
November,  259,000;  and  in  December,  350,000. 
During  1918,  it  steadily  decreased,  with  slight 
fluctuations,  to  100,000  in  October.  Sixty-six 
German  submarine  were  sunk  in  1917  and  74 
in  1918.  In  the  early  days  of  unrestricted  war- 
fare, the  antisubmarine  forces  were  inadequate 
in  number  either  for  patrol  or  convoy,  but  this 
number  grew  steadily,  and  the  system  of  patrol 
and  convoy  was  soon  vastly  improved.  Depth 
bombs  were  supplied  in  constantly  increasing 
quantities,  and  methods  for  their  discharge 
were  perfected.  Aircraft  became  more  and  more 
valuable,  especially  for  sighting  submarines 
when  submerged  Allied  submarines  increased 
in  number  and  gained  in  effectiveness  Decoy 
vessels  (Q-ships),  P-boats,  sub-chasers,  sloops, 
trawlers,  mine-sweepers,  booms,  mine- field 8,  para- 
vanes, camouflage,  and  zigzag  steering  played 
their  parts.  But  the  most  important  vessels  in 
the  antisubmarine  service  were  the  destroyers, 
and  the  most  effective  system  of  protection  was 
the  convoy.  The  first  division  (six  boats)  of 
American  destroyers  arrived  at  Queenstown  on 
May  4,  1917,  and,  within  the  next  30  days,  three 
similar  divisions  joined  them.  Not  only  did 
they  greatly  help  to  relieve  the  strain  on  the 
British  forces,  but  news  of  their  appearance  on 
the  blockade  28  days  after  the  declaration  of 
war  was  most  inspiring  to  the  Allies  and  more 
than  equally  depressing  to  the  Germans.  Be- 
fore American  troopships  began  to  reach  the 
danger  zone  in  great  numbers,  many  moro  Ameri- 
can destroyers,  together  with  patrol  vessels,  sub- 
marines, and  cruisers,  had  joined  the  Allied 
forces,  so  that  the  rush  of  troops  during  the 
spring  and  summer  of  1918  was  so  effectively 
guarded  as  to  surprise  not  only  the  United 
States  and  its  Allies  but  also  the  'Germans,  who 
had  confidently  expected  to  prevent  Absolutely 
the  transport  of  any  great  number  of  troops  and 
their  supplies,  and  who  were  chagrined  and 
alarmed  by  their  complete  failure.  See  NAMES; 
BOMB,  DEPTH;  HYDROPHONE;  PARAVANE;  VES- 
HEL,  NAVAL,  Submarine;  WAR  IN  EUROPE,  ATo- 
ial  Operations;  BLOCKADE,  ALLIED;  WAR,  DI- 
PLOMACY OF  THE. 

SUBWAYS.    See  IUpr>  TRANSIT. 

SUCROSE.     See  CHEMISTRY,  ORGANIC. 

SUDAN,  ANGLO-EGYITIAN.  An  African  ter- 
ritory under  the  joint  administration  of  Great 
Britain  and  Egypt,  lying  lietween  Egypt  and 
Uganda  and  the  Belgian  Congo,  and  extending 
from  the  Red  Sea  to  the  limits  of  Wadai  in 
Central  Africa.  Area,  1,014000  square  miles; 
population,  estimated  in  1922,  5,850,000.  The 
chief  towns  are-  Khartum,  the  capital  (30,- 
600),  Omdurman  (78,000),  Khartum  North 
(34,000).  Gum  arabic  continued  the  product 
of  greatest  economic  value.  In  1913,  33,353,303 
pounds  were  exported  (value,  ££371,528)  ;  in 
1923,  50,200,640  pounds  were  exported  (value, 
£E1, 006,223).  Cotton  ranked  second  with  5,- 
103,750  pounds,  valued  at  £E152,110,  and  11,- 
228,000,  valued  at  £E458,188.  Fluctuations 
were  great,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  1913  output 
of  9,794,000  pounds  and  the  1921  output  of 
11,068,000  pounds.  This  was  occasioned  by  the 
inability  to  regulate  the  water  supply,  a  con- 
dition dependent  on  the  completion  of  the  great 
irrigation  projects  in  the  Tokar  district  of  the 
Red  Sea  province.  Other  products  included: 
durra  (millet),  with  an  estimated  yield  of  90,- 


000  tons  and  an  export  of  43,900  tons  (£E240,- 
150)  in  1922  and  37,351  tons  (£E212,185)  in 
1923  as  compared  with  an  export  of  2080  tons  in 
1913  and  85,000  tons  in  1917;  sesame  (value  of 
export  in  1923,  £E  190,505)  ;  cattle  (value  of  ex- 
port  in  1923,  £E103,747)  ;  ivory  (value  of  export 
in  1923,  £E56,512  for  41  tons;  the  1913  output 
was  138  tons).  In  1913,  total  exports  were 
£E1, 185,186;  in  1920,  £E4,712,652;  in  1923, 
££2,562,091.  Reexports  for  1913,  1920,  1923, 
were  £E93,655,  £E363,319,  ££190,334.  Imports 
for  1913,  1920,  1923,  were  ££2,109,476,  £E7,- 
006,865,  i£4,669,004.  Imports,  by  oider  of  value 
in  1923,  included  cotton  fabrics,  iron  and  steel 
manufactures,  sugar,  coal,  machinery,  flour,  etc 
Exports  were  sent  to  the  following  in  order  of 
value  in  1923:  United  Kingdom,  Egypt,  United 
States  (££305,218),  Germany,  Italy.  Imports 
in  1923  were  from  Egypt,  United  Kingdom, 
India  and  Aden,  Japan,  Abyssinia,  United 
States  (£E95,208).  The  rapid  development  of 
cotton  and  cereal  growing  enhanced  greatly  the 
importance  of  Port  Sudan. 

It  was  seen  by  the  Sudan  government  that 
only  great  irrigation  projects  could  open  up  the 
country  for  economic  exploitation.  The  two 
aieas  'which  rec-ei\ed  attention  in  the  period 
1012-23  were  the  dezira  district,  between  the 
White  and  Blue  Xiles,  and  the  Tokar  district 
in  the  Tied  Sea  province.  In  the  former  a 
project  was  commenced  in  1914  for  the  opening 
up  of  about  300,000  acres  by  the  construction 
of  a  dam  on  the  Blue  Nile,  at  an  estimated 
cost  of  about  £6,000,000.  At  the  same  time, 
the  Egyptian  government  piopowd  to  construct 
a  dam  on  the  White  Nile  below  Khaitum,  for 
the  use  of  its  own  lands.  Work  was  commenced 
on  this  scheme  in  1919  but  was  discontinued 
for  lack  of  funds  in  1921.  The  work  on  the 
Alakwar  (Blue  Nile)  dam  continued,  by  1922, 
it  had  cost  £4,000,000  In  1922,  there  were 
1500  miles  of  railway  in  operation.  In  1923, 
construction  was  under  way  on  a  railroad  from 
Than) i an  to  Kassala  for  the  tapping  of  the  great 
Tokar  cotton  district.  To  facilitate  communica- 
tions, the  British  erected  11  wireless  stations  in 
the  Sudan.  The  cost  of  government  consistent- 
ly increased.  For  1913  and  1922,  revenues  weir 
££1,568,352  and  £E3,8HO,000;  expenditures  foi 
the  same  years  were  £E1, 533,005  anil  £E3,H8(),- 
000.  Surpluses  from  revenue  were  accumulated 
in  a  reserve  and  expended  on  public  works. 

The  Sudan  enjoyed  the  period  of  prosperity 
that  was  prevalent  in  all  noncombatant  coun- 
tries during  the  \\ar.  The  rise  in  prices,  the 
demand  for  cotton  and  gum,  and  the  presence' 
of  large  British  forces  in  Egypt,  accounted  for 
the  economic  well-being.  This  state  of  affairs 
was  reflected  in  the  comparative  j>eace  that  at- 
tended the  British  occupation.  In  1916,  the 
confines  of  the  territory  were  extended  to  take 
in  the  whole  of  Darfur,  which  was  incorporated 
as  the  fifteenth  province  of  the  Sudan.  Thin 
was  occasioned  by  the  rcl)ellion  of  the  Sultan 
Ali  Dinar  who,  working  with  the  insurgent 
Senussi,  contemplated  an  invasion  of  the  Sudan. 
As  a  result  of  the  conquest,  Great  Britain  and 
France  were  able  to  settle  the  troublesome 
frontier  question  of  Wadai  and  Darfur  (1919) 
During  the  period  of  the  War,  military  forces 
were  in  continual  operation  in  the  southern 
provinces,  notably  M  on  gall  a  and  Nuba,  because 
of  local  uprisings.  The  Sudan  was  little  affected 
vyptian  troubles  (1919-23)  and  though 
ptian  nationalism  Bought  to  include  the 


SUEZ  CANAL 


xrix 


ST7LFHUB 


Sudan  in  its  aspirations,  there  was  very  little 
positive  sympathy  displayed  by  native  Sudanese. 
The  British  government  steadily  refused  to  per- 
mit the  new  Egyptian  state  to  absorb  the 
Sudan  (see  EGYPT).  In  August,  1024,  a  crisis 
in  Anglo-Egyptian  relations  was  precipitated 
when  Egyptian  agitations  led  to  outbreaks  in 
Khartum,  Boha,  and  Port  Sudan.  Planes  and 
troops  were  rushed  to  the  affected  areas  and 
for  a  time  fears  were  entertained  that  the  revolt 
might  become  general 

SUEZ  CANAL.  During  the  War  the  Suez 
Canal  became  an  important  strategic  and  mili- 
tary consideration,  and  it  was  determined  that 
its  waterway  should  be  deepened  and  enlarged 
so  as  to  take  care  of  greater  vessels.  By  1921, 
a  depth  of  39.4  feet,  which  was  fixed  as  the 
minimum,  obtained  for  the  distance  of  80.8 
miles,  leaving  but  18.6  miles  which  was  34  feet 
deep.  This  shallow  portion  was  toward  the 
8uo7  end  whore  there  was  a  tide  of  3.28  to 
5.91  feet,  so  that  at  certain  stages  of  the  tide 
there  was  full  depth  through  the  canal,  there 
being  practically  no  tide  at  the  Mediterranean 
end.  The  minimum  width  at  the  liottom  was 
147.0  feet,  while  the  ordinary  width  of  197  to 
246  feet  was  increased  to  325-360  feet  at 
curves  or  special  places 

Much  of  the  canal  bank  was  lined  with  stone 
to  prevent  washing,  and  this  wall  was  set  at 
the  full  standard  widtli  which  later  was  ob- 
tained by  dredging  to  give  the  projected  cross- 
Heotion  of  water  at  all  points  At  Port  Said 
the  breakwater  was  extended  to  prevent  much 
of  the  slipping  up  of  the  entrances.  From  1921 
on,  there  was  practically  40  feet  of  water  avail- 
able for  the  entire  length  of  the  canal.  Pre- 
vious to  the  War  the  traffic  through  the  canal 
was  about  21,000,000  tons  annually  During  the 
\\ar  it  declined  to  13,000,000  to  14,000,000  tons, 
and  in  1923  it  increased  to  22,730,102  tons, 
as  indicated  in  the  accompanying  table. 


than  that  of  the  Frasch  process  by  which  sul- 
phur deposits  of  Louisiana  and  Texas  could  be 
exploited  in  an  efficient  and  economical  way. 
In  1900  the  domestic  output  of  sulphur  in  the 
United  States  was  valued  at  only  about  $500,000, 
and  the  demands  of  the  industry  were  met  by 
imports  of  sulphur  and  pyrite,  or  by  native 
supplies  of  the  latter  substance.  In  1902,  came 
the  successful  development  of  the  new  process, 
and  by  1920  the  output  had  grown  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  was  valued  at  $30,000,000,  and 
the  three  companies  working  in  this  field  not 
only  were  able  to  supply  the  domestic  demand 
but  to  export  sulphur  to  the  extent  of  about 
$9,000,000  Before  the  War,  quantities  of  py- 
rite were  produced  in  the  United  States  and 
were  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid, 
but  during  the  War  sulphur  was  substituted  by 
many  manufacturers  of  sulphuric  acid  and  the 
output  of  the  plants  was  increased  As  a  re- 
sult, in  1920  the  production  of  pyrite,  which 
comes  mainly  from  California  and  Virginia, 
with  small  imports  from  Spain  and  Canada,  was 
the  smallest  since  1911.  The  amount  of  sul- 
phur mined  and  shipped,  together  with  its  value 
in  the  interval  from  1914  to  1924,  is  given  in 
the  accompanying  table. 


U.   S.   SULPHUR 
Sulphur 
Year                 mined 
Long  tons 
1914        ..      .         417.690 
1915   ...      .           s°o  r,«2 

PRODUCTION 

Sulphur 
shipped               Value 
Long  tons 
341,985          $6,214,000 
293,803            3,955,000 
766,835          12,247000 
1,120.378          23,987,000 
1,206,709          27,808,000 
678,257          10,252  000 
I,1*  17,625           30,000000 
9r>4,434          18,000,000 
1,343,624          24,000,000 

1916 
1917 
1918    . 
1919      . 
1920      .       . 
1921      .  .  . 
1922 

049,683 
.      1,134,412 
L,:J5:!.525 
.      1190,«575 
.      1.255  249 
.      1,879,150 
.      1,830,942 

The  output  in  1922  came  from  two  mines 
in  Texas,  and  from  one  each  in  Louisiana, 
Nevada,  and  Utah,  more  than  99.9  per  cent 


Y< 

1913      ... 
1919    ...       . 
1920 
1021 
1922 
1023 

SUEZ  CANAL  1 
ear                                        S 
Number 
5,085 
..      3,986 
4,009 

'ONNAGE  AND 

Ihips 
Net  tons 
20,034000 
16013,802 
17,574.657 
18,118.999 
20.743,245 
22,730,162 

RECEIPTS,   1913,   1919-1923 
Other  vessels  "              Totnl  cargo,  in 
Number          Net  tons            metric  tout* 
25,776,000 
2,406              431,536             11.973,000 
3,133             230,594            17,047,000 
8,257             155,820            17,509,000 
3,044               94,009            21,361,000 
2,901                91,970             22,777,000 

Total  receipts, 
in  francs 
127,^03,000 
144,984,000 
151,868.000 
149,251  000 
166,857.000 
175,791.000 

.    .           3,975 
4,345 
4,621 

11  Includes    small    craft    and    local    traffic. 

By  1923,  traffic  through  the  Suez  Canal  had 
surpassed  all  previous  record**,  amounting,  as 
stated,  to  22,730,162  net  tons,  or  an  amount 
greater  by  2,455,000  tons  than  the  recoid  of 
1912,  which,  until  1922,  had  been  the  highest 
previous  year's  record.  As  will  appear  from 
the  table,  the  increased  tonnage  corresponds 
with  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  ships,  the 
total  for  192,3  (4021)  being  752  less  than  in 
1012,  but  the  average  net  tonnage  per  vessel 
rose  from  3773  in  1912  to  4919  in  1923. 

While  there  was  a  tonnage  recovery  of  cargo 
movement  through  the  canal  after  1919,  the 
totals  were  less  than  before  the  War.  For  ex- 
ample, the  total  southbound  cargoes  in  1923 
amounted  to  7,704,000  metric  tons,  as  com- 
pared with  11,320,000  metric  tons  in  1913,  while 
the  northbound  cargoes  showed  a  slight  increase, 
being  15,073,000  metric  tons,  as  compared  with 
14,450,000  in  1913. 

SUGAR.    See  CHEMISTRY,  ORGANIC. 

SULPHUB.  Few  discoveries  in  the  field  of 
chemical  engineering  were  of  greater  significance 


being  produced  by  the  three  mines  in  Texas  and 
Louisiana  which  regularly  contribute  the  bulk 
of  the  annual  output  of  the  United  States.  An 
agreement  between  the  American  and  Sicilian 
sulphur  producers  regulating  the  world's  unre- 
fined sulphur  market  was  concluded  earlv  in  the 
spring  of  1923.  Prices  were  to  be  regulated  in 
relation  to  the  demands  for  consumption,  with 
an  intention  of  gradually  regaining  the  pre- 
war levels  based  on  a  gold  standard,  and  to  be 
increased  by  $1  a  ton  over  those  temporarily 
put  into  effect  in  October,  1922.  North  America 
was  to  be  supplied  by  the  American  producers, 
Italy  by  the  Sicilian  producers,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  world  proportionately  by  the 
two  groups,  with  the  provision  that  Sicilian  pro- 
ducers might  sell  to  any  country  a  maximum 
of  05,000  tons  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric 
acid.  This  agreement  permitted  Sicily  to  export 
annually  210,000  tons,  including  05,000  tons  for 
sulphuric  acid,  a  quantity  largely  in  excess  of 
Sicilian  exports  in  recent  years. 
The  development  of  the  American  sulphur  In- 


SUMATRA 

dustry  not  only  had  peculiar  significance  in  the 
United  States  but  it  was  a  very  vital  matter 
for  Italy.  In  1006,  the  Sicilian  production  was 
475,553  metric  tons,  and  with  the  development 
of  the  American  mines  it  was  realized  that  the 
Italian  industry  was  seriously  threatened  by  the 
United  States,  as  Italy  was  the  only  serious 
competitor  of  that  country. 

The  Sicilian  production,  together  with  that 
of  all  Italy,  is  indicated  in  the  accompanying 
table. 


Year 
1914   

Sicilian 
Production 
.  .    .        834  974 

Total  Italian 
Production 
377  843 

1917    

.  .  .  .        177  453 

211  847 

1  if  I  H     

194  585 

234  296 

1919      

.  .  .  .         181,744 

226,126 

1920    

224,247 

263,003 

1921      

.  .  .  .         240  089 

273.  H72 

1922    

137  640 

191  600 

SUMATRA.    See  DUTCH  EAST  INOIFS. 

SUMNEB,  FRANCIS  BERTODY  (1874-  ). 
An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Pomfret,  Conn. 
He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota and  at  Columbia  University.  He  was  in- 
structor at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York  (1890-1006);  director  of  the  biological 
laboratory  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Fisheries  at  Woods  Hole  (1903-13)  ;  as  well  as 
biologist  at  the  Soripps  Institute  for  Biologi- 
cal Research  (1913-10);  and  associate  pro- 
fessor of  zoology  (1019-  )  at  the  "Uni- 
versity of  California.  He  published  extensively 
on  the  development  of  the  bony  fishes,  on  the 
fauna  of  the  Woods  Hole  region,  and  more  re- 
cently on  tbe  influence  of  environment  on,  and 
heredity  of,  tbe  coat  color  of  various  mammals. 

SUN;  SUN  SPOTS.  See  ASTRONOMY; 
METEOROLOGY  ;  PHYSICS 

SUNDAY  SCHOOL  UNION,  AMERICAN. 
A  corporate  organisation,  having  annual  and 
life  members,  established  in  1817  as  the  Sun- 
day and  Adult  School  Union;  seven  years  later 
its  name  was  changed  to  that  given  above.  Its 
object  was  to  establish  and  maintain  Sunday 
schools  and  to  publish  and  circulate  moral  and 
religious  publications.  The  a  flairs  of  the  so- 
ciety were  conducted  by  a  board  of  officers  and 
managers — prominent  laymen  of  the  different 
denominations.  In  the  years  between  1915  and 
1924,  11,423  Sunday  schools  were  established 
and  6782  were  reorganized;  over  200  mission- 
aries were  commissioned  yearly;  68,385  Bibles, 
165,156  New  Testaments,  and  103,401  Gospels  of 
John  were  distributed:  497  churches  were  or- 
ganized, 103  churches  built;  3030  prayer  meet- 
ings established,  and  over  1000  young  people's 
societies  organized.  In  carrying  on  their  work 
the  missionaries  made  1,042,747  visits  to  families, 
traveled  11,057,141  miles,  delivered  213,434  ser- 
mons and  addresses,  and  reported  professed  con- 
versions of  64,218  persons.  The  work  of  the 
Union  was  chiefly  in  the  rural  districts  of  the 
country,  in  places  where  there  were  no  religious 
services.  It  was  to  these  otherwise  unreached 
communities  its  missionaries  carried  the  Gospel 
message  and  started  a  religious  work.  Work 
among  the  Negroes  of  the  South  was  also  under- 
taken. The  society  published  books  of  refer- 
ence, Bible  dictionaries,  maps,  and  other  helps 
to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  many  of  which  were 
used  as  textbooks  in  theological  seminaries  and 
colleges.  It  published  11  periodicals  and  les- 
son helps  for  Sunday  school  teachers  and  schol- 
ars— evangelical  and  undenominational  in  char- 


SUBGEBY 

acter — of  which  over  19,000,000  copies  were  dis- 
tributed between  1914  and  1924.  National 
headquarters  were  maintained  at  Philadelphia. 
President,  Martin  Luther  Finckel. 

SUN  YAT-SEN  ( 1807-  ) .  A  Chinese  rev- 
olutionary  leader,  born  in  Kuangtung  province, 
the  son  of  a  native  Christian.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  College  of  Medicine  in  Hongkong 
and  practiced  his  profession  in  Macao  and 
Canton.  Believing  that  the  Manchus  were  re- 
sponsible for  Japan's  aggressions  in  China,  he 
headed  a  revolt  against  the  government  in 
1895,  but  failing  in  his  purpose,  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  country.  He  collected  funds  from 
the  United  States,  Hawaii,  and  the  Straits 
Settlements  to  help  the  antidynastic  movement 
and  also  organized  propaganda  work  in  China. 
In  Japan  lie  founded  a  society  called  the  Tung 
Men-hui,  which  later  played  an  important  part 
in  Chinese  polities  The  '"western  learning"  sec- 
tion of  young  China  looked  on  him  as  their 
leader.  When  the  revolution  broke  out  pre- 
maturely at  Wuchang,  he  was  in  England,  but 
be  returned  to  China  in  time  to  be  elected  pro- 
visional president  When  on  Feb.  J2,  1012,  the 
Empcior  abdicated,  Yuan  Shih-K'ai  was  made 
head  of  the  new  government,  Dr.  Sun  resigning 
the  presidency,  hater  Dr.  Sun  was  appointed 
director  of  national  railways  at  Shanghai. 
When  Yuan  died  in  1016,  Dr  Sun  headed  a  group 
of  Cantonese  who  fought  against  the  party  in 
power  at  Canton,  and  in  1021  he  waH  elected 
president  of  the  Chinese  Republic,  although  the 
southern  part  of  the  country  would  not  recog- 
nize his  authority.  A  prolonged  struggle  be- 
tween the  sections  ensued,  during  which  his 
prestige  throughout  the  world  deci eased,  while 
his  power  in  China  remained  indeterminable. 

SUPERCHARGERS.  See  INTERNAL-COMBUS- 
TION ENGINES. 

SUPERHETERODYNE.  See  RADIO  TELEPH- 
ONY 

SUPEBFOWEB  TBANSMISSION  SYS- 
TEM. See  ELECTRIC  POWER  TRANSMISSION 
AND  DISTRIBUTION. 

SUPREME  COUNCIL.  See  PEACE  CONFER- 
ENCE AND  TREATIES 

SUPBEME  COUBT,  UNITED  STATES.  See 
LAW,  PROGRESS  OF  THE;  LABOR  LEGISLATION, 
Supreme  Court  Decisions;  UNITED  STATES,  His- 
tory; TRUSTS 

SURFACE,  FRANK  MACY  (1882-  ).  An 
American  zoologist  and  statistician,  born  at 
Katon,  Ohio.  lie  was  educated  at  the  State 
University  of  Ohio  (A.M.,  100,5)  and  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  (Ph.D.,  1007).  lie 
was  associate  biologist  at  the  Maine  State  Ex- 
periment Station  (1007-10  and  1013-17);  bi- 
ologist at  the  Kentucky  Experiment  Station 
(1010-13);  assistant  chief  statistician  of  the 
Division  of  Food  Inquiry  (1017-10),  and  chief 
statistician  of  the  American  Relief  Administra- 
tion (1010-20). 

SUBGEBY.  See  ABORTION;  ANEMIA;  AN- 
GINA PKCTORIS;  CANCER;  GALLSTONE  DISEASE; 
WOUNDS 

SUBGEBY,  RECONSTRUCTIVE.  As  a  result  of 
the  War,  there  was  a  certain  amount  of  rever- 
sion to  first  principles  in  pontbellum  surgery. 
Whether  such  reversion  has  been  beneficial  is 
another  matter.  Surgery  in  1024  might  be  an 
improvement  in  some  ways  over  surgery  in 
1014,  but  was  such  improvement  due  necessarily 
to  military  experiences?  There  were  still  thou- 
sands of  crippled  children  and  adults  due  large* 


SUTHEBLAND 


1263 


SWEDEN 


ly  to  lack  of  organization  and  equipment,  spe- 
cial hospitals  and  vocational  training  schools. 
It  should  be  possible  after  ordinary  traumatism 
and  infantile  paralysis — to  go  no  further — in 
the  interest  of  salvage,  to  save  10  per  cent  of 
tho  victims  if  the  requisite  apparatus  could  be 
guaranteed.  As  a  result  of  war  experience  we 
know  that  proper  first  aid  often  prevents  crip- 
pling. One  of  the  chief  lessons  from  the  War 
has  to  do  with  splints  and  splinting,  the  latter 
requiring  team  work  among  the  surgeons.  In 
all  locations  in  which  accidents  have  a  cumula- 
tive incidence,  splints  are  now  kept  on  hand  in 
sufficient  amount  while  attempts  at  standard- 
ization of  splints  and  splinting  have  been  pat- 
terned successfully  upon  military  surgery.  In 
routine  surgery,  splints  are  adjusted  with  the 
principal  object  of  prevention  of  deformity  yet 
this  must  at  times  antagonize  the  principle  of 
wound  treatment. 


tion  of  112,051,  of  which  2205  were  Europeans, 
by  the  census  of  1921.  The  main  concern  of 
the  administration  was  the  expropriation  of 
monopolies  and  concessions  which  had  been 
granted  to  whites  by  the  Swazi  chief,  Mbandeni. 
During  1904-22,  £117,412  was  spent  on  this 
work.  The  public  debt  still  amounted  to  £02,- 
500.  Swa/Js  were  settled  on  land  reserves 
which  amounted  to  about  one-third  of  the  total 
acreage  in  the  protectorate.  The  costs  of  ad- 
ministration increased  from  £03,967  in  1913-14 
to  £89,674  in  1922.  Native  taxes,  customs, 
sales,  leases,  concession  rents,  and  licenses  fur- 
nished the  revenues.  The  people  were  largely 
a  pastoral  folk  and  exported  oxen  and  hides  to 
the  Cape.  Lhe  stock  in  1921  numbered:  cattle, 
210,391;  horses,  1441);  and  goats,  118,790.  Re- 
cent experiments  with  tobacco  and  cotton  by 
white  farmers  were  meeting  with  HUPCOSS.  Tin 
mining  was  important,  the  yield  in  1915-21 


The   Carrel-Dakin    solution    which    pioved    of*    l>eirig  worth  £370,000.     Gold  was  fast  declining, 


such  value  in  war  wounds,  as  well  as  the  other 
methods  in  vogue  for  wound  treatment,  are 
naturally  antagonistic  to  the  principle  of  fixed 
dressings  intended  to  avert  deformity;  and  un- 
til the  two  forms  of  treatment  can  he  brought 
in  harmony  with  each  other  the  status  of  wound 
treatment  will  be  unsatisfactory.  Some  form 
of  compromise  must  he  forthcoming;  permanent 
splinting  must  not  be  allowed  to  interfere  with 
wound  drainage.  Stiffness  of  joints  after  im- 
mobili/ation  will  not  be  due  to  the  treatment 
but  to  the  original  injury.  The  extremely 
radical  methods  of  cleansing  infected  war 
wounds  are  not  required  in  peace  Riirgerj-  and 
"would  be  iinnecessaiily  drastic. 

SUTHERLAND,  GEORGE  (1862-  )  An 
American  jurist  and  legislator  («ee  VOL.  XXI). 
lie  served  as  United  States  Senator  from  1903 
to  1917,  but  was  defeated  for  reelection  in  1916. 
Tie  was  appointed  to  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  in  1922 

STJTTON,  SIR  J.  BLAND-.  See  BLAND-SUTTON, 
SIR  JOHN. 

STJVLA  BAY.  See  WAR  IN  EUROPE,  Turk- 
ish Front. 

STTWALKI  ZONE.     See  VII-NA. 

SWABTHMORE  COLLEGE.  A  non  sectari- 
an, coeducational  institution  at  Swarthmore, 
Pa.,  founded  in  1864.  The  student  enrollment 
increased  25  per  cent  during  the  decade 
between  1914  and  102.1-24,  from  434  to  537 
students.  The  board  of  managers  voted  to 
limit  attendance  to  approximately  500  students. 
To  the  college  library  of  57,000  volumes  there 
was  added  the  Friends'  Historical  Library 
The  Sproul  Astronomical  Observatory  was  com- 
pleted in  1915  and  two  swimming  pools  were 
added  to  the  gymnasium,  and  in  1920  Hicks 
Hall  of  Engineering  was  built.  The  Cloisters, 
a  group  of  six  fraternity  and  nonfraternity 
club  houses,  was  under  construction  in  1923-24, 
and  Worth  Dormitory  for  girls  was  completed 
in  the  same  year.  A  million  dollar  endowment 
campaign  was  completed  in  1921,  biinging  the 
productive  funds  of  the  college  to  more  than 
$3,000,000.  Joseph  Swain,  LL.I)..  resigned  from 
the  presidency  in  1920  and  was  succeeded  in 
1921  by  Dr.  Frank  Aydclotte. 

SWAZILAND.  A  British  native  protector- 
ate in  South  Africa  under  the  control  of  the 
British  Colonial  Office  and  administered  by  a 
resident  commissioner  under  the  direction  of 
tho  high  commissioner  for  South  Africa.  It 
has  an  area  of  6678  square  miles  and  a  popula- 


the  yield  in  1922  being  only  427  ounces. 

SWEDEN.  A  kingdom  in  northern  Europe 
with  an  area  of  410,581  square  kilometers.  Its 
population  (1922  and  1913)  was  5,9S7,520  and 
5,038,583,  of  which  the  urban  population  com- 
prised 1,813,177  and  1,485,840  The  chief  cities 
and  their  population  were  (1922  and  1912): 
Stockholm,  424,944  and  350,9 ."M;  Gothenburg, 
228,258  and  173,875;  Malm0,  144,79(5  and  92,- 
338;  Norrk0ping,  58,353  and  140,074;  and  Hela- 
iiigborg,  48,390  and  33,863. 

Agriculture.  Total  area  of  agricultural  land 
under  cultivation  (1921)  \\as  3,794,711  hec- 
tares; natural  meadow,  922,824  hectares;  forest 
areas,  24,583,721  hectares  The  area  and  pro- 
duction of  various  crops  was  as  follows: 


Wheat     

Hectares 
1913 
14G  712 

Metric  tons 
1913            1923 
251000         317,000 

Kye      
Barley     ... 

351,824 

KJ5.836 

SGb.OOO         014,000 
308,000         255,000 

Oats    .... 
Mixed  prams 
Leguminous  crops 
Potntoes 
Root  crops   .    . 
Hav       .. 
Total    value    of 
(kroner). 
Total     value    of 

72H,G39 
2G5,1(>9 
46  7H5 
15H  f>5« 
Ifl5.7r>7 
.    1.682,304 
1923     crops 

1913     crops 

1  449,000         9(i9,000 
.IS1.000         430,000 
r>4  000            01.000 
2.051,000      ],6fi7,000 
3,127,000      4,000,000 
4  472,000      4,750,000 
1,110,000,000    crowns 

887,700.000     crowns 

Sweden  imported  heavily  of  grain  and  flour, 
imports  during  1023  amounting  to  108,755,000 
crowns  (1013,  54,092,000)  as  against  exports  of 
6,515,000  crowns  (1913,  3,987,000).  Sweden's 
chief  exports  were  lumber,  wood  pulp,  paper, 
and  iron  ore. 

Mining-  and  Industry.  In  1922,  there  were 
1757  lumber  mills  (1248  in  1912)  employing 
50,217  workers  (37,908  in  1912).  Wood-pulp 
production  (1922):  mechanical,  581,700  metric 
tons,  chemical  1,158,553  tons.  The  coal  supply 
was  very  small  and  insufficient  for  the  require- 
ments, production  during  1922  being  378,861 
metric  tons.  Sweden  was,  however,  very  highly 
developed  electrically,  utilizing  its  waterfalls 
for  the  production  of  motive  power.  Sweden 
disposed  of  approximately  1,150,000  developed 
turbine  horse  power.  Figures  for  the  iron  and 
steel  industry  were  as  follows:  (1922)  iron 
mines,  concentrating,  and  briquetting  works, 
98;  workmen,  8348;  production  of  iron  ore, 
6,201,244  metric  tons;  number  of  iron  and  steel 
smelting  furnaces,  453;  production  of  pig  iron, 
(1922)  264,259  metric  tons,  (1923)  277,000 
tons. 


SWEDEN 

Transportation  and  Communication, 
length  of  railways  was  15,401  kilometers  in 
1922  and  14,171  in  1912,  of  which  for  the 
former,  5025  kilometers  were  state  owned 
(4610  in  1912).  Traffic  (1923)  on  state  rail- 
ways:  passengers  carried,  25,282,000;  freight, 
13,140,000  metric  tons.  Similarly  for  private 
railways:  passengers  carried,  38,300,000;  freight 
hauled,  approximately  19,000,000  metric  tons. 
On  Dec.  31,  1923,  Sweden's  merchant  marine 
totaled  1,220,077  gross  tons  (ships  over  100 
gross  tons  only),  of  which  the  1181  steamers 
and  motorships  weighed  1,152.912  gross  tons, 
and  the  238  sailing  vessels  67,165  gross  tons. 
Total  earnings  of  merchant  marine  (1922) 
reached  185,400,000  Kr.  Vessels  entered 
(1921)  with  cargoes  were  17,431,  with  net  ton- 
nage of  0,443,157  tons;  while  in  ballast  6790 
vessels  with  net  tonnage  of  1,879,410  entered. 
Vessels  cleared  with  cargoes  numbered  10,334 
with  a  net  tonnage  6,076,802  tons;  in  ballast 
7778,  with  net  tonnage  of  1,612,375.  In  1922, 
the  length  of  telegraph  wires  was  80,000  kilo- 
meters; the  number  of  stations  3480;  the  num- 
ber of  messages,  7,001,472.  Length  of  tele- 
phone wires:  state,  679,452  kilometers;  private, 
10,025  kilometers. 

Commerce.  Swedish  exports  (1923  and  1913) 
were  valued  at  1,136,000,000  and  817,347,000 
crowns;  imports,  1,342,000,000  and  846,538,000 
crowns.  Exports  and  imports,  by  groups  of 
commodities,  for  1913  and  1923  are  shown  in 
the  table. 


1264  SWEDEN 

The  dinavian  countries,  and  in  this  she  persisted  to 
the  end.  Her  position  was  a  difficult  one,  and 
the  Swedish  people  displayed  extraordinarily 
good  sense  in  circumventing  the  vexing  problems 
which  arose.  In  the  beginning  of  the  War,  it 
appeared  that  Sweden's  economic  stability 
would  be  little  deranged,  for  she  at  once  be- 
came the  go-between  for  Germany  and  Amer- 
ica. For  a  time  this  trade  flourished,  but  as 
the  submarine  campaign  intensified  and  the 
British  blockade  became  tighter,  Sweden  began 
to  feel  the  pinch  of  necessity.  From  1916  on, 
coal  imports  from  Croat  Britain  began  to  drop 
off  seriously.  The  blockade  was  thrown,  not 
about  Germany,  but  about  the  Scandinavian 
countries,  for  there  were  no  means  of  ascertain- 
ing whether  imports  to  Sweden  were  not  designed 
for  transshipment  to  the  Central  Powers  The 
result  was  that  the  suffering  of  the  population 
wan  often  acute.  Measures  had  to  be  taken  for 
the  regulation  of  industry  and  conservation  of 
what  little  food  and  raw  material  stocks  Sweden 
had  or  was  able  to  get.  All  exports  were  closely 
scrutinized  and  those  of  the  more  important  do- 
mestic products  prohibited;  a  financial  mor- 
atorium was  imposed;  the  government  was  em- 
powered to  fix  prices,  hold  up  the  sale  of  ship- 
ping, take  in  hand  the  whole  matter  of  insur- 
ance, and  resort  to  rationing.  On  this  last 
score  the  life  of  the  greater  part  of  the  popula 
tion  was,  of  course,  intimately  touched.  A  food 
commission  wag  set  up  to  supervise  the  ini 
portation  of  foodstuffs  and  in  1915  price-fixing 


IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS,  BY  GROUPS  OF  COMMODITIES 

1923 

1913 

Imports 

KxportH 

Imports 

Exportn 

Textile  manufactures        ..       .       .             1I0.74Q.OOO 

16,(>61,000 

62,062,000 

5,692,000 

Spinning  raw  material*              .    .       .        87,395,000 

2,724,000 

bO,  138,  000 

2,374  000 

Tallow,   oils,   tar,    rubber,   etc.      .               80,058,000 

10,08'),000 

67,001,000 

5,401,000 

Minerals,    raw,    etc          .       .                  .      181.562.  000 

92,819,000 

148,847,000 

91.142,000 

Metal  s,   unfinished      

64.237,000 

62,lf>7,000 

48,796,000 

78,623,000 

Metals,  V,  rought 

57,105,000 

45.059,000 

40,84~>,OOU 

'->(J,54  5,000 

Vessels,    autos,    carriages,    mac 

hmery      117,250,000 

114.05-1,000 

51,'J<>7,000 

02  906,000 

Grains,    flour,    etc 

108,755,000 

6,515,000 

65,290,000 

11,031,000 

Timber   products,    Faun,    etc 

.       .           8,111,000 

270,551,000 

15,:i55,000 

247,883,  000 

Pulp,  cardboard,   paper,  etc. 

15,365,000 

.U  I,h09,000 

4,919,000 

1  12,784.000 

Animal  foodstuffs       48,275,000 

45,595,000 

28.827,000 

73,152,000 

Groceries                                                         97,432,000 

059,000 

60,080,000 

l>8(>.00() 

CHIEF  COrNTRIES  OF  ORIGIN 
DESTINATION,     1922 
Imports 
C'nw  U8 

Germany     .     .  314  100,000 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland     2(>8,310,000 
United    States  .  .      .      167.370,000 

Denmark  .    .  .  84,fi20,000 

Frame         .....  32,370,000 

Norway          .....  35,270,000 

Netherlands    .........        39,120,000 

Russia     ..........          3,560,000 


Export* 

Crowns 

103,220,000 

284,970,000 

13  >,  990,000 

83,380,000 

104,930,000 

80,050,000 

55,070,000 

68,180.000 


Finance.  On  Dec.  31,  1923,  the  state  debt 
stood  at  1,643,055,870  crowns  of  which  1,596,- 
949,617  were  funded.  Notes  in  circulation  to- 
taled 559,000,000;  gold  reserve,  271,800,000 
crowns.  The  budget  proposal  for  1924-25  pro- 
Tided  for  total  income  of  644,429,500  crowns  of 
which  actual  state  revenue  amounted  to  492,- 
496,500,  Paper  currency  outstanding  Mar.  1, 
1924,  530,000,000  crowns.  The  exchange  rate 
was  generally  around  par  during  the  period 
(26.8  cents).  The  cost  of  living,  which,  in 
July,  1920,  reached  270  (as  based  on  the  1914 
prices  at  100),  dropped  to  236  in  July,  1921, 
and  195  in  April,  1922. 

History.  The  outbreak  of  the  War  occa- 
sioned an  immediate  declaration  of  neutrality 
by  (Sweden,  in  company  with  the  other  Scan- 


was  resorted  to.  In  1916  and  1917,  sugar  cards 
and  bread  cards  were  first  employed,  the  bicad 
allowance  being  generally  2,>Q  grammes  per 
person  per  day.  Other  ai tides  rationed  were 
potatoes,  milk,  and  coffee.  All  such  regula- 
tions were  finally  lifted  in  August,  li>l!>.  In- 
dustry likewise  suffered.  In  the  activities  de- 
pendent on  the  UHC  of  foreign  raw  materials,  it 
\va»  necessary  to  form  impoi  t  anHociationa  foi 
the  distribution  of  stocks.  Before  the  end  of 
the  War,  rationing  was  the  rule  in  almost  every 
industry.  In  the  matter  of  fuel,  fpr  which 
Sweden  depended  on  outside  sources,  the  people 
were  hard  hit.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  to 
create  a  fuel  commission,  which  undertook  the 
exploitation  of  the  country's  forests  on  a  grand 
scale.  Mines  and  railways  were  kept  going, 
but  because  prices  charged  were  less  than  the 
cost  of  cutting,  the  government  had  to  assume 
a  deficit  of  100,000,000  crowns. 

Sentiment  regarding  the  War  at  first  grav- 
itated toward  the  Central  Powers.  The  rigors 
of  the  British  blockade  had  seriously  inter- 
fered with  the  course  of  Swedish  life,  perhaps 
more  profoundly  than  with  those  of  the  other 
Scandinavian  peoples,  and  the  Swedes  adopted 
a  more  bellicose  attitude  toward  the  Entente. 
In  1916,  debate  in  the  Riksdag  was  very  bitter, 


SWEDEN 


2365 


SWITZERLAND 


the  Russian  decision  to  fortify  the  Aland  Is- 
lands particularly  giving  offense.  Under  the 
prompting  of  the  military  or  Activist  party,  the 
Riksdag  passed  a  military  appropriation  of 
104,000,000  crowns.  But  from  1917  on,  the 
general  attitude  changed.  A  cabinet  crisis  on 
Mar.  5,  1917,  precipitated  the  fall  of  the  Ham- 
marskjold  ministry,  and  the  succeeding  cab- 
inets concerned  themselves  more  and  more  with 
the  problem  of  reaching  an  agreement  with  the 
Entente  The  question  became  more  pressing 
as  food  became  scarcer  and  rioting  more  fre- 
quent. Throughout  1917,  pillaging  of  bakeshops 
was  the  rule  Finally,  in  February  and  in  June, 

1918,  understandings  wore  effected   with   Great 
Britain   whereby  Sweden   was  permitted  to  im- 
port stocks  of  food  and  such  raw  materials  as 
phosphates,  oils,  coal,  cotton,  wool,  rubber.     In 
return  Sweden  turned  over  part  of  her  merchant 
marine  to  the  Entente  and  guaranteed  the  ex- 
port   of   her    iron    ores. 

The  unsettled  economic  conditions  and  the 
spread  of  democratic  doctrines  immediately  aft- 
er the  War  left  their  mark  on  the  progress  of 
Swedish  events  in  the  years  1919-24  By  laws 
in  1919  and  1921,  the 'Riksdag  made  the  ripht 
of  suffrage  universal,  women  being  given  the 
lianchiKc  on  May  2C,  1919  In  1921,  a  national 
leferendum  law  was  passed.  A  question  of 
greatest  national  interest  was  the  discussion 
over  the  legalization  of  the  eight-hour  day  in 

1919.  After   a    prolonged    debate,    the   measure 
was    defeated    in    the   Riksdag   with    the    result 
that    the    Chamber    was    dissolved    and    a    new 
election    held.     The  new   chamber   proved   more 
amenable   to   the   government's   wishes  and   the 
law    for   an    eight-hour   day   was    carried.     The 
prevalence    of    radical    ideas    was    further   indi- 
cated when  the  Kinj*  was  compelled  to  summon 
Herr  Bran  ting,  leader  of  the  Social  Democrats, 
to   form   a   pox  eminent  in    1920.     An   ambitious 
programme    for    the   inauguration    of    inquiries 
into  socialization  of  industry,  expropriation  of 
larjze    estates,    disestablishment    of    the    State 
Church,  and  disarmament,  was  announced,  but 
the    government    went    down    to    defeat    in    the 
autumn    elections,    as    a    result    of   heavy    polls 
for    the    Right,    and    was    compelled    to 'resign. 
No    temporary    exjiedicntH    or    brave    gestures 
could     act     as     stop-gaps.     The    depression     of 
1920-21    which    gripped    the    world   was   felt   in 
Sweden,  too,  for  in  the  general  stagnation  about 
ir>0,000   men   were   out   of  work   at   the  end   of 
1921.     Politics    again    became    the    barometer. 
In   the  elections  of  1921,  the  Social  Democrats 
were   heavily    supported,    with    the    result    that 
Herr   Branting   formed   a   Socialist   government 
for    the    second    time      The    Bran  ting    ministry 
continued  in  power  until  Apr.  6,  1923,  when  it 
fell  on  the  question  of  unemployment  doles.     Tt 
had   maintained   its  position  of  course  only  on 
sufferance,  representing  merely  a  minority  party. 
The  continued  disorganization   of  industry  had 
manifested    itself    in    a   growing   turbulence,   so 
that  1922-23  saw  the  country  gripped  by  strikes 
in   the  sawmills,  wood-pulp '  factories,  and  iron 
works.     Tn    the    face    of    such    internal    storms, 
and  lacking  the  power  to  force  through  remedial 
measures,  the  Branting  ministry  went  down  and 
was  followed  by  a  Right  government  headed  by 
Herr  Trypger 

In  foreign  affairs,  Sweden's  r6le  was  a  more 
complex  one  than  that  of  the  other  Scandina- 
vian countries,  for  her  proximity  to  Finland 
and  Russia  involved  her  in  questions  of  impor- 


tance. The  establishment  of  the  republic  of 
Finland  in  1917  divided  Swedish  counsels. 
There  was  a  large  body  of  opinion  favorable  to 
an  immediate  recognition;  another  group,  con- 
cerned over  the  disposition  of  the  Aland  Islands, 
was  in  favor  of  a  more  circumspect  policy.  In 
1918,  Finland  was  recogni/ed,  though  Sweden 
refused  to  take  sides  in  the  internecine  war  be- 
tween the  Reds  and  the  Whites  which  broke  out 
in  that  year.  The  Aland  Islands  question  con- 
tinued to  agitate  political  circles,  though,  in 
1920,  Sweden  decided  to  suhmit  the  whole  mat- 
ter to  the  League  of  Nations,  \\hich  it  had 
joined  that  year,  the  grant  of  the  island*  to 
Finland  in  May,  1921,  was  received  \\ith  much 
disfavor  (see  ALAND  ISLANDS).  While  Russia 
did  not  receive  formal  recognition,  a  commercial 
delegate  was  permitted  to  establish  his  residence 
in  Sweden,  and  though  in  11)19  the  unpopularity 
of  the  Bolsheviks  forced  his  departure,  com- 
mercial relations  were  once  moie  resinned  in 
1920.  To  the  credit  of  Sweden  was  the  gov- 
ernment's refusal  to  join  in  the  Allied  blockade 
of  Russia  in  1919  In  May,  1924,  dc  jure 
recognition  was  accorded  Russia.  Subsequent 
European  events  were  viewed  with  hostility 
rather  than  the  usual  indifference.  Protests 
were  frequent  against  the  Ruhr  occupation  for 
in  this  fact  lay  the  explanation  of  the  disorgan- 
ization of  the  Swedish  iron  industry  and  the 
adverse  trade  balance  of  1923.  TIei'r  Trygger 
expressed  the  Swedish  temper  in  the  spring  of 
1924  when  he  declared  a  lack  of  confidence  in 
the  League  of  Nations'  ability  to  guarantee  in- 
ternational justice  and  peace.  His  govern- 
ment's concern  with  an  increased  defense  budget 
and  a  scheme  for  longer  military  service  as 
well  as  for  the  creation  of  an  independent  air- 
force  board  was  of  a  piece  with  the  prevailing 
uneasiness.  See  SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE: 
NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD;  ALAND  ISLANDS;  EX- 
PLORATION 

SWEDENBORGIANS.  See  NEW  JEBUSA- 
LLM,  CHURCH  OF  THI 

SWEDISH  LITERATURE.  See  SCANDI- 
NAVIAN LITERATURE. 

SWEET  BRIAR  COLLEGE.  A  college  for 
women  founded  at  Sweet  Briar,  Va.,  in  1906. 
The  number  of  college  students  increased  from 
74  in  1914  to  373  in  1924,  and  the  faculty  mem- 
bers from  20  to  32.  The  academy  was  discon- 
tinued during  the  period.  The  library  increased 
from  4100  to  10,450  volumes  during  the  decade, 
and  the  annual  income  from  $125,957  to  $224,- 
720.  An  endowment  of  $302,110  was  raised 
by  the  college.  Emelie  Watts  McVea,  Litt  D., 
LLD.,  succeeded  Mary  K  Benedict,  Ph.D.,  as 
president. 

SWIMMING.     Sec  SI-ORTS 

SWINNERTON,  FRANK  ARTHUR  ( 1884-  ) . 
An  English  novelist  and  critic,  born  at  Wood 
Green.  His  writings  include:  The  Merry 
Heart  (1909);  The  Young  Idea  (1910);  The 
Casement  H911 )  ;  The  Happy  Family  (1912); 
(Jeorge  Hissing:  A  Critical  Rttidy  (1912); 
On  the  Staircase  (1914):  R  L.  Stevenson:  A 
Critical  Study  (1914);  The  Chaste  Wife 
(1910);  Nocturne  (1917);  Rhops  and  Houses 
(1918);  September  (1919);  Coquette  (1921); 
The  Three  Lovers  (1922);  Young  Fetta 
(1923). 

SWITZERLAND.  A  country  of  south  cen- 
tral Europe.  Its  area  is  15,945  square  miles, 
of  which  507  square  miles  are  lakes  of  more 
than  25  acres  in  area,  and  3072  square  miles 


SWITZERLAND 


xfi66 


SWITZERLAND 


otherwise  unproductive.  Of  the  productive 
land,  3576  square  miles  were  forests  in  1021, 
60  square  miles  in  vines,  and  8721  square  miles 
in  agriculture  and  mountain  pasturage.  Ac- 
cording to  the  1020  census,  the  population  was 
3,880,000,  compared  with  3,765,123  in  1010. 
The  largest  cities  were  Zurich,  207,161,  Basel, 
135,976,  Geneva,  135,050,  Berne,  104,626,  and 
St.  Gall,  70,437.  The  population  of  Zurich  was 
declining;  for  1021  was  estimated  at  only  203,- 
840,  reacting  from  an  abnormal  increase  during 
the  War;  the  population  of  the  other  cities  did 
not  change  materially.  The  percentages  of  the 
population  engaged  in  various  pursuits  in  1010 
(atatihtics  for  1020  not  yet  published)  were  as 
follows:  extraction  and  production  of  raw  ma- 
terials, 28  per  cent  (of  which  06  per  cent  was 
agricultural)  ;  industries,  arts  and  trades,  43 
per  cent;  commerce,  10  per  cent;  transporta- 
tion, 6  per  cent;  domestic  service,  1  per  cent; 
living  on  income  or  on  another's  bounty,  3 
per  cent;  without  profession,  in  foreign  families 
or  establishments,  3  per  cent.  In  1010,  the 
number  of  German-speaking  persons  in  Swit- 
zerland was  2,504,184;  French-speaking,  703,- 
264;  Italian-speaking,  302,578;  Romansch-speak- 
ing,  40,234;  and  speaking  other  languages,  23,- 
031.  In  1013,  emigration  for  overseas  coun- 
tries was  ,"5787,  considerably  less  than  in  1020 
and  1021,  when  those  kept  in  by  the  War  mi- 
grated in  great  numbers,  the  minimum  of  304 
having  been  reached  in  1018.  The  1922  figure 
(6101)  represented  a  practical  return  to  pre- 
war conditions.  Switzerland  is  largely  a  Prot- 
estant country,  although  in  certain  cantons, 
especially  St.  Gall,  Lucerne,  Fribourg,  Tessin 
and  Valois,  Catholics  are  considerably  in  the 
majority.  There  is,  however,  no  *  Federal 
church,  all  denominations  being  supported  by 
voluntary  contributions,  not  by  state  taxes. 
In  1910,  there  were  2,107,814  Protestants,  1,593,- 
538  Catholics,  and  18,462  Jews. 

Education.  In  the  school  year  1021-22  there 
were  646  kindergartens,  with  831  teachers  and 
10,380  pupils;  4253  primary  schools,  with  16,- 
829  teachers  and  531,009  pupils;  524  second- 
ary schools,  with  2623  teachers  and  54,604  pu- 
pils; and  156  intermediate  schools,  with  1880 
teachers  and  27,280  pupils.  There  were  also 
supplementary  professional,  industrial,  com- 
mercial, agricultural,  and  domestic  science 
schools,  numbering  1069  with  72,875  students 
and  4713  teachers.  The  higher  professional 
schools  (including  also  normal  and  arts  and 
crafts  schools)  numbered  48,  with  o\er  32,000 
students  The  seven  Swiss  universities  were 
located  at  Base],  Zurich,  Berne,  Geneva,  Lau- 
sanne, Fiibourg  and  Neuchatcl,  with  5870  stu- 
dents and  1134  hearers  At  Lucerne  was  a  the- 
ological faculty  with  45  students,  and  at  St. 
Gall  a  commercial  academy  with  300  students 
and  hearers. 

Agriculture.  Agricultural  production  in 
Switzerland  was  as  follows:  wheat  (including 
spelt  and  meslin),  154,020  metric  tons  in  1913 
and  148,403  metric  tons  in  1923;  rye,  45,054 
and  41,709  metric  tons;  barley,  9936  and  22,- 
401  metric  tons;  oats,  75,324  and  44,403  metric 
tons;  corn,  2976  and  4200  metric  tons;  potatoes, 
725,000  and  634,000  metric  tons.  Beef  cattle 
in  1911  numbered  1,443,483,  of  which  796,909 
were  cows;  after  reaching  a  low  point  of  1,382,- 
116  cattle,  of  which  729,009  were  cows,  in  1920, 
the  number  increased  to  1,425,341  and  747,138 
respectively  in  1021,  the  latest  available  year. 


Horses  numbered  144,128  in  1911  and  134,147 
in  1921. 

Industry.  Switzerland  is  an  industrial  coun- 
try in  spite  of  a  lack  of  raw  materials;  the 
chief  natural  resource  is  water  power.  The  to- 
tal water  power  available  was  estimated  at 
2,609,336  horse  power  in  1914,  of  which  526,008, 
or  19.5  per  cent  was  already  utilized;  water 
power  was  used  principally  by  hydro-electric 
stations  and  by  the  chemical  and  textile 
industrici.  At  the  end  of  1913  there  were  8101 
factories  in  operation  in  Switzerland,  but  no 
figure  for  the  number  of  workmen  was  available; 
in  1916  there  were  8433  factories  with  360,506 
workmen;  and  in  1922,  8055  factories  with  304,- 
330  workmen.  The  principal  industries  in  1922 
were  machinery  and  appliances,  with  49,918 
Avorkmen;  cotton  textiles,  with  32,265;  clothing 
and  outfitting,  with  31,391;  silk  textiles,  with 
27,500;  watch  and  jewelry  manufacture,  with 
27,406;  metallurgy,  with  23,314;  and  foodstuffs 
and  beverages,  with  21,401.  After  the  War 
many  of  the  strongest  industries,  especially  the 
machine  industry,  were  greatly  injured  by  com- 
petition with  countries  having  depreciating  cur- 
lencics,  and  by  the  high  cost  of  raw  materials. 
The  watch  industry,  however,  was  best  able  to 
meet  competition  and  was,  in  1924,  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition.  Unemployment,  \\hich  was  not 
a  notable  problem  before  the  War,  became  very 
high  in  1921,  and  reached  a  maximum  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1922,  with  146,302  wholly  or  partly  un- 
employed. A  gradual  improvement  occurred  to 
35,314  in  July,  1923,  with  a  slight  seasonal  re- 
action to  39,073  at  the  end  of  December,  1923. 

Commerce.  Swiss  foreign  trade  has  suffered 
greatly  from  the  War.  In  1913  imports  totaled 
1,920,000,000  francs  and  exports  1,376.000,000 
francs.  Jn  1922,  despite  greatly  increased 
prices,  values  were  only  1,914,000,000  francs 
and  1,689,000,000  francs,  respectively,  and  in 
1923  they  were  2,224,000,000  francs  and  1,716,- 
000,000  francs,  respectively.  The  principal 
countries  of  source  for  imports  and  of  destina- 
tion for  exports,  with  values  for  1913  and  1923 
were  as  follows: 

Exports  to  Imports  from 

(values  in  thousands  of  francs) 
1913  1923  1913  1923 

Germany     .  .  .    305,660      123,443  630,870     410,935 

France    ...     .    141,250      214,192  34H.985      :J94,9,r>7 

Italy        .         .      89,153      100,783  207,025      231,915 

Great    Britain  236,165     363,385  112, (166     181,991 

United    States  136,432      209,485  117,898      177,856 

The  principal  classes  of  commodities  imported 
in  1023  (in  millions  of  francs)  were  as  follows: 
cereals,  243;  cotton,  207;  minerals,  194;  silk, 
185;  wool,  144;  colonial  products,  124;  animal 
foodstuffs,  116.  The  leading  exports  with  val- 
ues expressed  in  like  manner  were  as  follows: 
silk,  359;  cotton,  306;  watches  and  clocks,  203; 
machinery,  etc.,  151;  animal  foodstuffs,  103. 

Finance.  Budget  deficits  were  not  common 
and  never  large  in  Switzerland  hefore  the  War. 
In  1913,  expenditures  were  192,000,000  francs 
and  receipts  187,000,000  with  a  deficit  of  5,000,- 
000  francs.  By  1921  expenditures  had  risen  to 
508,000,000  francs  and  receipts  to  381,000,000 
francs,  with  a  deficit  of  127,000,000  francs. 
Unemployment  subsidies  and  subventions  to  de- 
pressed industries,  added  to  expenses  arising 
from  maintaining  armed  neutrality  in  the  War, 
contributed  to  this  deficit.  Subsidies  were 
gradually  reduced,  so  that  for  1923  the  deficit 


SWITZERLAND 


1267 


SWITZERLAND 


dropped  to  46,000,000  francs,  and  the  budget 
deficit  for  1924  to  37,700,000  francs.  The  pub- 
lic debt  of  Switzerland  on  Dec.  31,  1913, 
amounted  to  148,270,000  francs;  by  the  end  of 
1021  it  had  increased  to  2,063,360,800  francs, 
and  by  the  end  of  1923  to  2,276,000,000  francs. 
In  addition,  there  was  the  debt  of  the  Federal 
railways,  which  amounted  to  1,483,025,684 
francs  in  1913,  to  2,188,676,084  francs  in  1921, 
and  to  2,388,500,000  francs  in  1923.  It  was  ex- 
pected that  the  budget  deficits  would  be  elim- 
inated within  a  few  years,  but  the  large  amount 
of  the  public  debt  contracted  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  War  created  a  heavy  burden  for 
the  Swiss  taxpayer. 

Communications.  Water  connections  between 
Switzerland  and  other  countries  were  unimpor- 
tant, except  by  the  Rhine  from  Basel,  and  in- 
ternal waterways  wore  not  suitable  for  through 
navigation.  Swiss  railways  were,  therefore,  of 
great  importance  to  the  country.  At  the  end 
of  1921,  Swiss  state  railways  had  a  length  of 
3588  miles,  including  31  miles  of  funiculars, 
296  miles  of  tramways,  and  908  miles  of  narrow- 
gauge  line.  In  1910,  the  total  length  was  3147 
miles;  most  of  the  construction  occurred  be- 
tween 1910  and  1915.  In  1913,  the  number  of 
passengers  carried  was  91,049,336;  in  1922,  81,- 
032,550;  and  in  1923,  86,883,070.  In  1913,  the 
amount  of  merchandise,  baggage,  animals,  and 
postal  packages  carried  was  14,614,781  metric 
tons;  in  1922,  13,245,115  tons;  and  in  1923, 
14,652,370  tons.  In  1913,  receipts  reached  212,- 
721,31.1  francs  and  operating  expenses  142,405,- 
710  francs;  in  1922  receipts  were  344,215,450 
and  operating  expenses  313,712,807  francs;  and 
in  1923,  respectively,  305,437.524  francs  and 
251,880,593  francs,  'in  1913  there  was  a  sur- 
plus, after  paying  charges  on  the  railway  debt, 
of  1,013,357  francs  in  the  profit  and  loss  ac- 
count; in  every  succeeding  year  through  1922 
theie  was  a  deficit,  amounting  to  45,513,080 
for  1922;  but  in  1923,  a  small  net  profit  was 
again  recorded.  Prospects  for  1924  appeared 
favorable. 

History.  Switzerland's  position,  during  the 
War,  was  perhaps  more  difficult  than  that  of 
any  other  neutral.  Without  a  merchant  marine 
and  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by  belligerents,  her 
political  and  economic  situation  could  hardly 
be  said  to  be  of  her  own  ordering.  In  the  Swiss 
mind,  there  were  two  spectres  ever  piesent  in 
the  period  1914-18:  the  fate  of  Belgium  and 
the  danger  of  a  very  real  starvation.  The  first 
hastened  a  general  mobilization  of  all  available 
man  power  (about  one-tenth  of  the  population), 
immediately  on  the  declaration  of  war.  But 
the  continuation  of  hostilities  and  the  lessening 
of  the  fear  of  invasion,  together  with  the  added 
financial  burden  that  the  upkeep  of  the  military 
establishment  imposed,  began  gradually  to  pro- 
voke dissent  with  the  result  that  the  govern- 
ment was  compelled  from  time  to  time  to  demo- 
bilize detachments  of  troops.  Distress  among 
soliders*  families  occasioned  governmental  meas- 
ures for  relief  beginning  with  1917,  while  pri- 
vate agencies  contributed  unstintingly  to  the 
same  end.  In  1918,  too,  the  pay  of  the  soldiers 
was  increased.  Conditions  were  made  tolerable 
for  the  men  under  arms  by  the  activities  of  the 
Swiss  Red  Cross  which  was  greatly  aided  in  its 
work  by  a  grant  of  almost  $100,000  from  the 
American  Red  Cross.  In  all,  the  War  cost 
Switzerland,  in  the  defense  of  her  frontiers, 
some  $200,000,000.  Money  was  raised  by 


loans,  by  increased  duties,  by  war  profits,  taxes, 
and  special  levies.  It  was  not  until  late  in 
1920  that  troops  were  definitely  withdrawn 
from  the  frontiers  and  the  regular  channels  of 
communication  once  more  thrown  open  gen- 
erally. 

Economically,  the  plight  of  Switzerland  was 
equally  wretched.  Her  most  important  export 
was  milk  and  its  products,  which  the  Central 
Powers  purchased  in  large  quantities.  On  the 
other  hand,  Switzerland  depended  on  Great 
Britain  for  her  foodstuffs,  and  on  Germany  for 
coal,  oil,  raw  materials,  etc.  To  find  a  via 
media  between  the  groups  of  belligerents  was 
the  most  difficult  question  before  the  Swiss  gov- 
ernment. In  1915,  wheat  was  created  a  state 
monopoly;  rice,  in  1910,  was  treated  similarly. 
In  taking  measures  of  this  kind  Switzerland 
endeavored  to  comply  with  the  Entente's  injunc- 
tion that  imports  be  prevented  from  finding 
their  way  into  Germany  and  Austria.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  source  of  vital  raw  materials 
was  in  Germany,  and  to  refuse  to  trade  with  the 
Central  Powers  or  to  fail  to  send  stocks  stored 
in  Switzerland  for  them  meant  a  death  blow 
at  the  economic  life  of  the  little  country  in  the 
cessation  of  coal,  iron,  manure,  arid  sugar  ex« 
ports  from  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary. 
The  diplomatic  story  of  Switzerland  during 
1910-18  is  a  recital  of  rebuffs  and  recrimina- 
tions. With  the  continuance  of  the  War  the 
pinch  of  necessity  was  felt  more  and  more  acute- 
ly. In  1917,  Germany's  unlimited  submarine 
policy  affected  Switzerland  keenly;  the  dearth 
of  meatstuffs  compelled  the  ordering  of  two 
meatless  days.  In  the  same  year,  Argentina's 
wheat  stocks  were  retained  in  that  country  by 
an  executive  order  so  that  a  bread  ration  had 
to  be  resoited  to.  Because  of  the  heavy  ex- 
ports of  cattle  it  was  necessary  to  ration  the 
milk  supply  in  1917  and  create  a  federal  bureau 
for  its  distribution.  Ultimately  almost  all 
other  necessities  of  life  fell  under  the  control 
of  the  central  authorities  to  be  rationed  out 
with  a  greater  or  less  parsimony.  These  in- 
cluded sugar,  oatmeal,  bailey,  macaroni,  cheese, 
butter,  fat,  oils,  potatoes,  and  coal.  There  was 
no  lack  of  prosperity  for  certain  classes,  how- 
ever. In  1910,  profiteering  flourished  in  the 
necessities  of  life  and  was  not  checked  until 
the  government  perfected  its  schemes  of  food- 
control.  Certain  industries,  notably  those 
whose  factories  could  l)e  converted  for  the  manu- 
facture of  munitions,  manifested  a  great  ac- 
tivity, serving  both  belligerents  with  equal  im- 
partiality. The  precarious  economic  situation 
led  to  a  disturbing  occurrence  in  1918.  The 
continuous  rise  of  prices,  the  unrest  among  the 
soldiers  and  the  dearth  of  the  common  neces- 
sities, together  with  the  example  of  the  Russian 
Revolution,  brought  on  a  general  strike  in 
Switzerland  on  Nov.  12,  1918,  which  soon  had 
the  whole  country  in  its  grip.  The  programme 
put  forth  by  the  Social  Democratic  leaders  of 
the  movement  contained  all  the  familiar  slogans 
of  radical  social  democracy:  proportional  rep- 
resentation, full  suffrage  for  women,  democratic 
reorganization  of  the  army,  a  state-imposed  48- 
hour  week,  state  social  insurance,  etc.  The 
strike  failed  with  the  refusal  of  the  soldiers  to 
join,  and  the  leaders  were  turned  over  to  the 
military  tribunals  for  trial.  Sentences,  how- 
ever, were  light.  Another  wave  of  radical  and 
socialist  agitation  swept  over  the  country  in 
1922,  when  a  Socialist  proposal  for  a  graduated 


SWITZERLAND 


1268 


SYKBS 


and  practically  confiscatory  capital  levy  was 
submitted  to  popular  referendum.  Some  such 
measure  seemed  necessary,  to  its  proponents, 
to  meet  the  cumulating  debt  which  war  and 
postbellum  conditions  had  occasioned;  more- 
over, more  than  nine  out  of  ten  voters  could 
feel  that  the  levy  would  not  touch  them  di- 
rectly; nevertheless  antisocialist  arguments 
prevailed,  and  after  an  almost  uniquely  intense 
prereferendum  campaign  the  voters  on  Dec.  3, 
1J)22,  rejected  the  capital  levy  by  704,785  to 
101,057. 

There  was  no  brighter  page  in  European  his- 
tory during  this  tumultuous  period  than  the 
record  of  the  Swiss  conduct  toward  foreign 
nationals,  voluntarily  or  involuntarily  detained 
within  Switzerland's  borders.  The  great  num- 
bers of  tourists  caught  within  the  country  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  War  had  to  be  provided 
for  until  transportation  facilities  were  avail- 
able for  their  departure  home.  Upon  Switzer- 
land fell  the  onerous  burden  of  making  arrange- 
ments for  interned  soldiers.  Before  the  end 
of  the  War  at  least  25,000  men  of  nations  at 
war  were  being  housed,  fed,  schooled,  and  set 
to  work  by  Swiss  authorities.  The  charge  to 
the  nations  involved  was  surprisingly  small, 
the  fee  for  upkeep  demanded  being  only  5 
francs  a  day  per  head.  To  the  Swiss  Red  Cross 
fell  the  work  of  exchanging  prisoners.  As  a 
result  of  its  arrangements,  exchange  depots 
were  established  at  Constance  and  Lyons  for  the 
repatriation  of  German,  Belgian,  and  French 
prisoners,  and  at  Como-Monza  and  Feldkirch- 
Dornborn  for  the  repatriation  of  Italians  and 
Austrians.  The  work  done  in  the  care  of  the 
wounded  was  particularly  commendable.  The 
total  of  men  thus  provided  for  must  have  run 
almost  to  100,000. 

Switzerland,  similarly,  became  more  than 
ever  a  centre  of  international  activity  during 
the  War.  The  International  Red  Cross  at 
Geneva  exerted  itself  in  the  propagation  of  the 
humanitarian  ideas  which  before  had  received 
general  acceptance,  but  which  only  too  general- 
ly were  disregarded  by  all  the  belligerents.  It 
tried  to  facilitate  communications  among  the 
nations  at  war,  provide  for  prisoners,  check  the 
bombarding  and  torpedoing  of  hospital  stations 
and  ships,  and  the  like.  In  1915,  an  interna- 
tional congress  of  Socialist  women  was  held  at 
Berne;  at  Zinunerwald,  later  in  the  year,  Ital- 
ian, Rumanian.  Bulgarian,  German,  French, 
Swedish,  Norwegian,  Swiss,  Polish,  Dutch,  and 
Russian  Left  Socialists  met  for  a  general  con- 
demnation of  the  War.  British  Socialists  were 
denied  passports  to  the  conference  by  their  gov- 
ernment. It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Lenine 
was  one  of  the  representatives  of  the  Russian 
group.  A  reunion  of  these  representatives  was 
held  at  Kienthal,  Apr.  24-30,  1916,  where  40 
delegates,  consisting  mainly  of  Italian,  Swiss, 
and  Russian  Socialists,  attended.  There  were, 
besides,  two  Germans  and  three  Frenchmen. 
Switzerland,  in  1918  and  later,  became  the  seat 
of  activities  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  So- 
cialist International.  For  accounts  of  these 
meetings,  see  SOCIALISM.  In  September,  1919, 
the  International  Council  of  Peace  met  at  Berne. 
In  1920,  the  first  meeting  of  the  League  of  Na- 
tions was  held  at  Geneva.  In  this  connection 
it  should  be  recorded  that  on  May  15-16,  1920, 
by  a  vote  of  400,000  against  300,000  the  Swiss 
people  voted  to  join  the  League  of  Nations. 
The  German-speaking  cantons  voted,  by  a  ma- 


jority of  10,000,  against  participation.  Only 
once  did  Switzerland  forget  those  rules  of  hos- 
pitality which  her  people  had  so  painstakingly 
helped  to  formulate  and  in  whose  application 
they  had  so  distinguished  themselves.  In  May, 
1923,  M.  Vorovsky,  the  official  Russian  rep- 
resentative at  the  Lausanne  Conference,  was 
shot  down  and  killed  by  a  fanatic  who  subse- 
quently was  released  after  a  sensational  trial 
which  turned  about  an  examination  and  pillory- 
ing of  Sovietism  rather  than  the  nature  of  tho 
actual  offense.  The  Russian  government  justly 
characterized  the  murder  and  the  proceedings 
that  followed  as  the  work  of  n  studied  official 
remissness  and  in  retaliation  broke  off  com- 
mercial relations  with  Switzerland,  employing 
the  only  effective  device  at  its  command,  the 
economic  boycott. 

Switzerland's  rftle  in  international  affairs, 
after  the  War,  took  on  important  proportions 
Her  continual  protests  against  her  dependence 
upon  her  neighbors  for  the  maintenance  of  com- 
munications with  the  outside  world  were  finally 
heeded  by  the  Peace  Conference  in  1919,  for 
Switzerland  was  given  freedom  of  access  to  the 
sea  via  the  Rhine.  A  topic  for  much  discus- 
sion after  the  War  was  the  agitation  on  the 
part  of  the  German  Austrians  in  the  Vorarlberg 
province  to  gain  admittance  into  the  Swiss 
union.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Vorarlberg  were 
prompted  largely  by  the  desire  to  escape  the 
onerous  burdens  of  "the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain, 
and  it  was  largely  on  account  of  the  question 
of  reparations  that  the  Swiss  opposed  the  step, 
though  many  Swiss  also  objected  to  the  addi- 
tion of  15,000  more  German-speaking  people  to 
the  already  heavy  German  majority.  Jn  1921, 
the  Swiss  Federal  Council  consented  to  the  in- 
corporation of  the  little  principality  of  Liech- 
tenstein (q.v.)  into  the  Swiss  Customs  Union. 
Diplomatic  and  consular  representation  as  well 
as  the  management  of  posts  and  telegraphs  were 
also  turned  over  to  the  Swiss.  Another  result 
of  the  War  for  Switzerland  seemed  the  settle- 
ment of  the  long-standing  dispute  with  Italy 
over  the  Ticino  district.  Italy's  ambitions  in 
the  Tirol  had  been  so  well  satisfied  that  it  was 
likely  the  claim  would  not  be  raised  again.  In 
the  west,  however,  matters  were  not  so  happily 
concluded.  A  dispute  with  France,  which  since 
1921  had  bobbed  to  the  surface  at  intervals, 
completely  emerged  in  1923  to  become  a  matter 
of  prime  importance.  On  Nov.  10,  1923,  after 
protracted  negotiations,  the  French  government 
advanced  the  French  customs  line  to  the  Swiss 
frontier  and  thus  eliminated  the  free  zone  of 
Upper  Savoy  which  had  existed  since  1815. 
This  action  had  been  prescribed  by  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles  and  had  received  the  approval  of 
the  Swiss  government,  but  the  Franco-Swiss 
Convention  sealing  it  was  defeated  in  a  Swiss 
referendum  in  February,  1923.  During  the 
year  no  one  settlement  was  acceptable  to  Imth 
sides,  with  the  result  that  France  took  the  high- 
handed step  above-mentioned,  despite  the  pro- 
tests of  the  Swiss  and  in  disregard  of  an  excel- 
lent suggestion  that  the  whole  matter  be  re- 
ferred to  the  International  Court  of  Justice. 

SYKES,  SIR  MARK  (1879-1919).  An  English 
public  official,  born  at  Sledmere,  Yorks.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge.  He  served  in  the  South  Af- 
rican War  in  1902  and  became  secretary  to  Sir 
George  Wyndham  in  Ireland  in  1904.  In  1905 
he  went  to  Constantinople  as  attache!  to  the  Brit- 
ish embassy.  His  knowledge  of  Mesopotamia  and 


SYKES-PICOT  TREATY 


1269 


SYPHILIS 


Palestine  proved  invaluable  during  the  War,  and 
he  was  sent  on  important  special  missions  to 
Russia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Syria.  He  also  raised 
a  battalion  of  the  Yorkshire  regiment.  His 
books  include :  Through  Five  Turkish  Provinces 
(1000);  Dar-el-Islam  (1003);  Five  Mansions  of 
the  Bouse  of  Othman  (1000)  ;  The  Caliphs'  Last 
Heritage  (1015). 

SYKES-PICOT  TBEATY.  See  MESOPO- 
TAMIA; WORLD  WAB,  DIPLOMACY  or  THE. 

SYNDICALISM.  Syndicalism  is  a  form  of 
revolutionary  socialism  which,  although  based 
on  the  Marxian  theory  of  the  class  struggle 
and  of  the  failure  of  capitalism,  repudiates  the 
state,  political  organization  and  activity,  and 
the  ownership  of  the  means  of  production  by 
the  state  or  any  other  political  organi/ation. 
Instead  it  believes  in  strictly  industrial  or- 
ganization and  in  the  ownership  of  the  means  of 
production  by  groups  of  producers  It  regards 
the  industrial  union  as  the  unit  of  organization. 
Its  aim,  the  industrial  society,  is  to  be  composed 
of  the  aggregate  of  these  coordinated  industrial 
units.  Control  of  pioduction  is  to  be  vested 
in  the  workers  Toward  that  end  syndicalism 
employs  revolutionary  tactics-  the  general 
strike,  direct  action,  sabotage,  etc.  (See  SABO- 
TAGE). The  syndicalists  take  pride  in  possc&h- 
ing  a  hard  realism  which  takeH  account  of  the 
existing  situation,  employs  such  methods  as  are 
required  to  attain  a  given  end,  and  does  not 
I>ermit  emotion  to  enter  into  the  issue. 

The  years  1014-24  were  of  marked  impor- 
tance for  the  syndicalist  movement.  Although 
it  suffered  reverses  in  some  countries,  as  in 
France,  it  made  on  the  whole  important  for- 
ward strides.  For  the  first  time  efforts  were 
made  at  international  syndicalist  unity.  A 
number  of  syndicalist  organizations  were  af- 
filiated with  the  Red  International  of  Labor 
Unions,  organized  at  Moscow,  July  lo,  1020. 
In  opposition  to  this  l»ody,  because  it  was  "not 
capable  of  organizing  the  revolutionary  workers 
of  the  world  into  one  compact  fighting  body" 
and  was.  moreover,  an  oflMioot  of  communism, 
the  strictly  syndicalist  International  Workmen's 
Association  was  established  in  Berlin,  December, 
1922-January,  1023. 

The  foremost  syndicalist  organization  in  the 
United  States  was  the  I.  W.  W.  (see  INDVSTRIAL 
WOBKEKS  OF  THE  WORLD)  .  In  spite  of  its  loose 
membership  and  numerical  inferiority  this  or- 
ganization played  an  important  rOle  in  the 
American  labor  movement  through  the  revolu- 
tionary aggressiveness  of  its  policy  and  the  in- 
dividual initiative  of  its  memiKTs.  During  this 
period  it  spread  to  a  number  of  new  industries. 
At  the  1016  convention  the  industrial  union  was 
made  the  basis  of  its  organization.  Because  of 
the  violent  opposition  of  the  I.  W.  W.  to  the 
War,  05  of  its  members  were  sentenced  to  long 
terms  of  imprisonment  in  Septeml)er,  1917,  at 
Chicago.  In  addition,  the  organization  and  its 
memlHirs  were  prosecuted  by  a  number  of  in- 
dividual States,  notably  California.  But  the 
strength  of  the  I.  W.  W.  appeared  not  to  have 
suffered  to  any  great  extent.  The  outstanding 
postwar  developments  were  the  Centralia, 
Wash.,  affair,  and  the  amnesty  granted  to  the 
members  of  the  I.  W.  W.  who  had  been  im- 
prisoned under  Federal  law.  This  amnesty  did 
not,  however,  apply  to  the  State  prisoners. 
The  I.  W.  W.  is  not  affiliated  with  any  inter- 
national organization.  At  the  Fifteenth  Gen- 
eral Convention  at  Chicago,  November-Decem- 


ber, 1023,  a  membership  of  58,000  was  repre- 
sented. Contrary  to  the  general  belief,  the 
membership  of  the  I.  W.  W.  does  not  consist 
primarily  of  foreigners  but  of  native  Americans 
of  old  stock. 

In  France,  the  homeland  of  syndicalism,  the 
syndicalist  movement  weakened  greatly  and  af- 
ter the  outbreak  of  the  War  its  adherents  be- 
came the  minority  in  the  General  Confedera- 
tion of  Labor,  instead  of  being  as  before  the 
dominating  group.  This  syndicalist  minority 
seceded  in  11)21  and  formed  the  revolutionary 
General  Confederation  of  United  Labor.  In 
England  the  syndicaliht  movement  became  very 
strong  during  the  latter,  part  of  the  War,  and 
afterward,  but  its  influence  was  indirect  and 
manifested  itself  within  the  existing  labor  or- 
ganizations. Syndicalist  influence  was  clearly 
apparent  in  the  Clyde  strikes  and  the  shop 
stewards  movement  during  the  War,  and  the 
activities  of  the  Triple  Alliance  in  the  post- 
war period.  There  existed  a  syndicalist  organi- 
zation in  Germany  with  a  membership  of  100,- 
000,  but  it  was  very  insignificant  in  comparison 
with  the  strength  of  the  socialists  and  com- 
munists in  that  country.  Italy  has  two  syn- 
dicalist organizations,  the  Italian  Syndicalist 
Union  and  the  Italian  Union  of  Labor  Their 
aims  were  nearly  identical  and  their  member- 
ship was  in  1024  rather  low,  due  to  the  general 
decline  of  radicalism  under  the  Fascist  rule. 
There  were  also  considerable  syndicalist  ele- 
ments in  Spain,  Canada,  New  Zealand,  Aus- 
tralia, South  Africa,  and  Argentina. 

SYPHILIS.  In  the  period  between  1914  and 
1024  our  knowledge  of  this  disease  continued 
to  increase  in  sexeral  directions.  Historically 
the  attempts  of  the  late  Iwan  Block  to  uphold 
the  dogma  that  Old  World  syphilis  was  derhed 
entirely  from  the  American  aborigines  largely 
were  set  at  nought.  Even  if  the  returned  mari- 
ners of  Columbus  did  become  contaminated  in 
America,  and  even  if  they  did  originate  a  focus 
of  disease  in  Spain,  there  are  no  good  reasons 
for  doubting  that  the  malady  was  already  exist- 
ent in  the  Old  World.  Medical  history  writing 
has  made  great  advances  in  leeent  years,  and  a 
new  technic  has  developed.  From  the  purely 
documentary  side  it  is  difficult  to  uphold  the  ex- 
istence of  a  great  European  epidemic  of  the  dis- 
ease late  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  records 
of  cities,  which  according  to  tradition  were 
ravaged  by  the  disease,  show  no  CA  idence  in  their 
archives  of  any  unusual  disbursement  of  public 
funds  during  1495  and  subsequent  years.  Stu- 
dents of  old  civilizations  such  as  those  of  Persia 
and  Egypt  have  pointed  out  that  some  of  the 
modern 'folk  designations  of  syphilis  are  of  high 
antiquity.  It  is  increasingly  evident  that  the 
history  of  syphilis  should  be  rewritten  along 
purely  scientific  lines,  paying  little  heed  to  old 
writers  who  wrote  consciously  of  the  disease  on 
a  basis  of  gossip  and  tradition. 

The  belief  that  syphilis  prevails  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  commercialized  vice  which 
obtains  in  a  given  locality  seems  to  rest  on  a 
fallacy  of  some  sort.  Since  the  disease  has  been 
importable  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  notable 
falling  off  in  its  incidence,  and  a  large  propor- 
tion of  fresh  infections  escapes  record.  New 
York  City  in  1024  was  quite  free  from  com- 
mercialized vice  and  had  been  free  for  some  years 
previously;  yet  there  was  an  average  of  400 
new  cases  reported  every  week,  which  means 
20,000  annually,  a  figure  which  is  no  index  of 


SYBACT7SB 


Z970 


SYBIA 


the  actual  number  of  new  infections.  In  ad- 
dition, the  number  of  United  States  and  Cana- 
dian youth  infected  in  Europe  was  said  to  have 
been  very  large,  fully  justifying  the  use  of  the 
prophylactic  measures  which  are  often  con- 
demned unjustly  as  condoning  vice. 

The  opinion  gained  ground  during  the  "War 
that  no  opprobrium  can  be  attached  to  medical 
authority  when  the  efforts  at  prevention  take 
place  after  the  soldier  has  been  exposed  to  the 
danger  of  contracting  the  disease.  Neglect 
under  such  circumstances  would  be  criminal. 
In  regard  to  prophylaxis  before  the  exposure, 
this  has  been  well  defended  on  economic  grounds, 
because  an  infected  soldier  or  sailor  becomes  a 
charge  on  his  command  and  must  be  interned 
and  treated  and  prevented  from  disseminating 
his  disease.  But  all  prophylactic  measures 
whether  undertaken  before  or  after  exposure, 
as  well  as  all  rapid  and  certain  measures  of 
treatment,  have  been  attacked  by  moralists  as 
inciting  to  further  immorality  by  withdrawing 
the  discipline  of  punishment 

The  enormous  vogue  of  Salvarsan  in  the 
treatment  of  syphilis  is  best  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  discovery  of  how  to  make  this  German 
proprietary  by  United  States  chemists  during 
the  War  is  said  to  have  netted  the  United 
States  government  half  a  million  dollars  from 
the  sale  of  the  drug  to  consumers  through  dis- 
tributing firms. 

In  speaking  of  the  persistence  of  syphilis  de- 
spite the  abolition  of  officially  or  otherwise 
segregated  vice  districts,  a  word  must  be  said 
as  to  the  effects  of  Prohibition,  which  it  was 
hoped  would  work  favorably  against  the  spread 
of  the  disease.  Many  cases  of  infection  were 
formerly  directly  traceable  to  intoxication,  and 
it  was  often  claimed  that  commercialized  vice 
could  not  flourish  without  alcohol.  Neverthe- 
less, as  already  pointed  out,  the  incidence  of  the 
disease  does  not  diminish  in  large  cities;  and 
either  Prohibition  does  not  prohibit,  or  diffusion 
of  the  disease  is  only  slightly  affected  by  al- 
coholic indulgence. 

Under  the  head  of  treatment,  two  facts  stand 
out  It  has  been  discovered  that  soluble  bis- 
muth salts  are  valuable  as  an  antisyphilitic,  al- 
though unlikely  to  supplant  the  older  remedies; 
and  quite  recently  the  culture  of  the  plasmodium 
of  malaria  has  been  found  efficacious  in  the 
early  stages  of  paresis. 

SYRACUSE.  A  city  of  New  York  State. 
The  population  increased  from  137,249  in  1910 
to  171,717  in  1920  and  to  184,511  by  estimate  of 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for  1923.  The  author- 
ity of  the  city  planning  commission  was  extended 
in  1923  to  cover  supervision  of  new  develop- 
ments in  the  outskirts  of  the  city.  A  $2,500,000 
school  building  programme  was  being  carried 
out  in  1924.  The  number  of  industrial  plants 
increased  from  760,  employing  25,000  persons 
in  1915  and  producing  goods  valued  at  $52,- 
226,000,  to  about  1000  in  1924  with  32,000 
employees. 

SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY.  A  coeduca- 
tional institution  at  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  founded 
in  1870  and  fostered  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Cliuich,  but  nonsectarian  in  administration  and 
policy  With  the  exception  of  the  war  years, 
the  number  of  students  registering  increased 
steadily  from  3933  in  1914  to  5034  in  1923-24, 
with  903  in  the  summer  session  of  1923  and 
1100  additional  in  the  extension  division.  The 
faculty  increased  correspondingly  from  300  to 


more  than  500  members,  and  the  library  from 
100,000  to  150,000  bound  volumes,  and  70,000 
pamphlets.  By  gift  and  legacy  the  university 
received  about  $1,000,000  from  Mrs.  Russell 
Sage.  John  D.  Archbold's  gifts,  including  the 
stadium  and  gymnasium,  aggregated  over  $2,- 
000,000.  The  School  of  Nursing  was  estab- 
lished in  1915,  and  the  College  of  Home  Eco- 
nomics was  opened  as  a  school  in  1918,  and 
made  a  college  in  1921.  The  College  of  Busi- 
ness Administration  was  established  in  Decem- 
ber, 1920,  having  been  founded  as  a  school  in 
September,  1919.  The  evening  session  opened 
in  1918.  Chailes  W.  Flint,  D.D.,  LL.D,  suc- 
ceeded James  R.  Day,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  as  chan- 
cellor in  1922. 

SYRIA.  A  former  province  of  the  Turkish 
Empire  in  Asia  but  after  1920  a  republic  whose 
affairs  were  supervised  by  France  as  a  manda- 
tory power.  The  French  mandate  for  Syria  was 
confirmed  by  the  League  of  Nations  on  July 
23,  1922.  Administratively  the  republic  was 
divided  into  the  following-  (1)  the  Syrian 
Federation,  comprising  the  three  territories  of 
Damascus  (area,  41,040  square  kilometers;  pop- 
ulation as  estimated  for  1922,  99.1,000),  Aleppo 
(area,  61,775  square  kilometers;  population, 
718,000),  the  Alaouite  (area,  6200  square  kilo- 
meters, population,  410,000)  ;  (2)  Territory  of 
the  Greater  Lebanon,  an  autonomous  area  pro- 
claimed a  state  in  1920  (area,  25,000  square 
kilometers;  population,  710,562)  ;  (3)  Territory 
of  Jebel  Dru/e  (area,  9760  square  kilometers; 
population,  101,000);  (4)  Military  Zone  (area, 
38,000  square  kilometers;  population,  400,000). 
Total  for  whole  mandate  territory:  area,  182,- 
375  square  kilometers;  population,  3,334, r>0*2 
The  population  was  for  the  most  part  of  Arabic 
origin,  and  Arabic  was  the  prevailing  language. 
Other  nationalities  represented  were  Turks, 
Turcomans,  Kurds,  Circassians,  Armenians,  Per- 
sians, Jews.  A  religious  classification  showed 
the  following:  Sunni  Moslems  (1,200,000), 
Shiah  Moslems  (120,000),  other  Moslems  (300,- 
000),  Eastern  Christians,  i  e.  Greek  Orthodox, 
Armenian  Orthodox,  etc.  (1,210,000),  Catholics 
(20,000),  Jews  (principally  in  the  four  large 
cities).  The  important  cities  with  their  1921 
populations  were  Damascus  (250,000),  Aleppo 
(200,000),  Beirut,  capital  of  Greater  Lebanon 
(150,000),  Kama  (00,000),  Horns  (50,000), 
Tripoli  (35,000),  Antioch  (.30,000),  Aloxan- 
dretta  (15,000).  Education  was  supported  by 
the  French,  British,  and  American  missions 
The  last  maintained  a  college  at  Beirut  as  did 
also  the  Jesuits  and  Greek  Catholics.  Female 
education  was  receiving  considerable  attention. 

Industry.  Hyria  was  an  agricultural  coun- 
try though  it  was  estimated  that  only  10  per 
cent  of  the  lands  west  of  the  Euphrates  was  be- 
ing tilled.  Of  the  million  acres  being  worked, 
fully  750,000  were  under  wheat  and  barley.  The 
wheat  raised  was  entirely  for  local  consumption, 
while  barley,  after  1919,  was  being  exported  in 
considerable  quantities  to  England  and  Ger- 
many to  IHJ  used  in  the  making  of  beer.  Other 
crops  of  importance  were  sesame  (from  which 
oil  was  produced),  tobacco  (1922  yield,  2587 
tons),  olives  (1922  yield,  761  tons),  silk, 
oranges,  lemons.  Live  stock  suffered  severely 
during  the  War,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  fact 
that  sheep  and  goats  numbered  4,800,000  in 
1914  and  only  2,408,000  in  1920,  cattle  500,000 
in  1914  and  only  293,000  in  1920,  horses  and 
donkeys  270,000  in  1914  and  only  143,000  in 


STBIA 


1371 


SYBIA 


1920.  Lead,  iron,  copper,  nickel,  lignite,  petro- 
leum, and  other  minerals  were  discovered  but 
none  was  mined  in  paying  quantities.  Manu- 
facturing was  still  in  an  embryonic  stage.  Seri- 
culture, oil,  soap,  flour  received  some  attention. 

Trade.  Previous  to  tin*  War  exports  aver- 
aged 00,000,000  francs  ($11,670,000)  and  imports 
124,000,000  franca  ($23,1)32,000).  That  the 
country'n  trade  was  showing  some  recovery  aftci 
1020  was  revealed  by  the  trade  figures  for  the 
subsequent  years.  Imports  for  1021  and  1922 
were  (franc  converted  at  $0075  for  1021  and 
$0082  for  1022):  $44,131,575  and  $41,119,392. 
Kxports  for  the  same  years  were  valued  at 
$5,238,000  and  $7,200,448.  The  very  high  ad- 
verse trade  balance  arid  the  falling  off  of  the 
transit  trade  with  the  interior  because  of  cus- 
toms barrierq  indicated  that  the  economic  situa- 
tion was  a  difficult  one.  The  country's  revenue 
(i.e.  invisible  exchange)  was  being  derived 
mainly  from  the  spend  ings  of  the  French  army 
of  occupation  and  from  remittances  sent  by 
Syrians  in  North  and  South  America.  Leading 
exports  were  wool,  hides,  olive  oil,  tobacco, 
fruits,  wine,  etc.  Leading  imports  were  cotton 
goods,  food  products,  iron  and  steel,  building 
materials,  etc  Principal  countiies  of  origin  in 
value  of  imports  in  1022  were  United  Kingdom, 
France,  Egypt,  Itsily,  Oniiany,  United  States, 
Belgium,  Tut  key  Principal  countries  of  desti- 
nation in  value  of  expoits  in  1022  weie  France, 
Egypt,  Turkey,  United  States,  Italy.  The  port 
of  Bciint  handled  three-fourths  of  all  the  trade 
Other  customs  ports  were  Tripoli,  Alexandretta, 
Aleppo,  Damascus. 

Communications.  There  were,  in  1922,  1509 
miles  of  railway  in  Syria.  A  line  traversed  the 
interior  from  north  to  south  with  branches  to 
the  chief  ports.  Alexandretta,  by  way  of  Alep- 
po, was  connected  with  the  Bagdad  railway 
which  had  190  miles  of  line  in  Syria.  Damas- 
cus, similarly,  was  on  the  route  of  the  Hedjaz 
railway  into*  the  south.  The  railways,  because 
of  the  hard  use  with  which  they  met* during  the 
War,  were  in  a  bad  state  of  disrepair  when  the 
French  took  them  over  in  1920. 

Finance.  In  May,  1020,  the  unit  of  currency 
was  made  the  Syrian  pound  (£S),  equivalent 
to  20  French  francs  ($300).  Notes  were  is- 
sued by  the  Bank  of  Syria  and  by  Jan  1,  1922, 
there  were  notes  to  the  value  of  201,620,334 
francs  in  circulation  The  1922  budget  called 
for  revenues  of  129,725,000  francs  and  expendi- 
tures of  102,720,000  francs.  In  1921  the  whole 
mandate  territory  had  received  a  subsidy  of 
25,000,000  francs  from  the  French  government, 
but  in  1022  this  grant  was  discontinued  in  the 
hope  that  the  local  budgets  could  be  made  to 
balance.  Revenues  for  1922  were  greater  than 
those  of  the  previous  year  and  expend itu res  were 
cut  considerably.  The  result  was  a  smaller  defi- 
cit in  1922  and  1923.  The  Syrian  pound  con- 
tinued, however,  to  depreciate.  In  October, 
1922,  it  was  worth  $1.49. 

Defense.  The  forces  maintained  by  the 
French  government  in  the  territory  were  pro- 
gressively diminished  as  disorders  decreased. 
On  Jan.  1,  1922,  70,000  troops  were  stationed 
in  the  country,  by  Sept.  1,  1922,  these  had  been 
reduced  to  31,500.  A  Syrian  legion  was  being 
built  up  around  a  nucleus  of  6500  men. 

Government.  The  Syrian  Federation,  formed 
June  22,  1922,  was  governed  by  a  federal  council 
of  15  members  which  had  charge  of  the  budget, 
the  fixing  of  duties,  and  the  construction  of 


public  works.  Each  of  the  three  territories  in 
the  federation  was  headed  by  a  governor  who 
was  advised  by  a  representative  of  the  French 
High  CommissioBer.  Similarly,  Greater  Lebanon 
was  governed  by  an  elected  administrative 
council.  The  active  head,  however,  was  a  French 
governor.  The  French  High  Commissioner  was 
the  representative  of  his  government  in  the  man- 
date territory  and  exclusively  in  charge  of 
foreign  affairs  as  well  as  the  military  and 
naval  forces.  The  French  government  provided 
50,000,000  francs  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
High  Commissioner  in  1922  and  7,000,000  francs 
in  1923.  To  this  office  General  Gouraud  was 
appointed  in  October,  1919;  in  April,  1923,  Gen- 
eral Weygand  was  named  as  his  successor. 

Economic  Conditions.  That  the  commercial 
situation  in  Syria  was  steadily  improving  was 
shown  by  the  developments  of  1923  While 
there  was  a  decrease  in  imports  of  over  $10,000,- 
000  there  was  an  increase  in  exports  of  about 
$8,000,000,  or  over  100  per  cent  as  compared 
with  1922.  Several  factors  contributed  to  this 
situation  The  silk  crop  was  good,  the  yield 
being  slightly  greater  than  the  preceding  year, 
and  was  disposed  of  at  a  higher  price.  The 
cereal  harvest  was  so  abundant  that  a  consider- 
able amount  was  exported.  The  cotton  crop 
showed  an  increase  of  about  6000  bales  over  that 
of  1922,  reaching  a  total  of  about  14,000  bales  of 
220  pounds  each.  The  price  was  double  that 
of  1922.  The  1923  harvest  of  fruits,  vege- 
tables, medicinal  plants,  etc.,  was  quite  satis- 
factory, and  commanded  good  prices.  The  year 
1923  also  saw  a  revival  of  the  reexport  trade. 
There  was  a  slow  but  gradual  revival  of  trade 
with  Anatolia,  and  trade  with  Palestine  and 
Traimjordania  showed  a  substantial  increase 
The  development  of  the  motor  caravan  service 
with  Iraq,  recently  established  across  the  desert 
between  Syria  and*  Bagdad,  promised  to  increase 
this  trade,  too,  which,  formerly,  had  been  a 
most  profitable  one  for  Syria. 

History.  Though  French  and  British  troops 
did  not  move  on  Syria  until  late  in  1918,  the 
location  of  the  country  as  one  of  the  important 
transit  lands  between  the  east  and  the  west 
made  it  the  scene  of  extraordinary  hardships 
for  the  population.  As  a  result  of  conscriptions, 
deportations,  disease,  starvation,  and  the  exac- 
tions of  their  Turkish  rulers,  as  well  as  the 
stringency  of  the  blockade,  the  native  Syrians 
had  been  depressed  into  a  condition  of  com- 
plete helplessness.  By  1918,  it  was  estimated 
that  the  population  of  the  vilayet  of  Beirut 
alone  had  fallen  off  150,000.  But  the  debacle 
of  the  Turk,  with  the  capture  of  Damascus, 
Tyre,  Beirut,  Horns,  Tripoli,  Hama,  Aleppo, 
Alexandretta,  during  October-November,  1918, 
and  the  arrival  of  French  and  British  troops 
did  not  serve  to  put  the  fears  of  the  population 
at  rest.  Those  agreements  among  the  Allies 
for  the  partition  of  the  Near  East  which  had 
been  made  public  had  taught  the  Syrians  that 
an  interest  in  them  was  not  occasioned  by  strict- 
ly altruistic  motives.  By  the  secret  treaty  of 
London  of  1915  and  the  Sykes-Pieot  agreement 
of  1916,  Turkey  in  Asia  had  been  partitioned 
into  spheres  of  influence  among  the  Allies,  the 
Syrian  coast  and  hinterland  falling  to  France. 
The  British  and  French  armies  of  occupation 
were  received  therefore  with  open  hostility. 
The  withdrawal  of  British  troops  in  November, 
1919,  left  the  French  in  a  precarious  position. 
The  proposals  of  the  Syrian  Congress  of  July 


8TBIA 


1*7* 


SZYMANOWSKI 


2,  11)19,  for  a  free  Syrian  state  to  extend  into 
Palestine  and  a  request  for  an  annulment  of 
those  agreements  whose  purpose  was  the  parti- 
tion of  Syria  having  met  with  rejection,  the 
anti-European  hatred  was  fanned  into  flame. 
Affairs  were  further  complicated  by  the  pre- 
tensions of  Emir  Faisal,  BOH  of  King  Hussein 
of  the  Hecljaz,  who  sought  to  found  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy  in  Syria  and  at  the  same  time 
maintain  the  friendship  of  the  British  and 
French.  Fighting  broke  out  late  in  1919  and 
continued  through  1920.  Baalbek  fell  before  the 
Arabs  and  was  recaptured  by  the  French.  The 
French  garrison  at  Alexandretta  was  attacked 
in  February,  1920  On  Mar.  8,  a  Syrian  Na- 
tional Congress  meeting  once  more  at  Damascus 
repeated  the  programme  for  complete  inde- 
pendence and  offered  the  crown  to  Emir  Faisal 
Emir  Faisal  accepted  and  formed  a  government, 
much  to  the  delight  of  Syrian  Nationalists. 
The  result  was  a  rekindled  'ardor,  and  the  at- 
tacks on  the  French  increased  in  number, 
against,  of  course,  the  counsels  of  the  new  King, 
whose  desire  it  was  to  conciliate  the  French. 
Antioch  fell  before  an  Arab  force  in  March, 
while  disorders  spread  far  to  the  south  into 
Palestine.  Assistance  was  received  from  the 
Angora  government  in  the  north  and  stubborn 
fighting  went  on  between  the  Turks  and  the 
French  in  northern  Syria  during  the  whole  of 
1920.  The  Nationalists,  disregarding  General 
Gouraud's  threat  that  the  French  mandate 
would  be  enforced  by  arms,  attacked  the  French 
army  sent  to  occupy  Damascus  (July,  1920). 
The  result  was  an  overwhelming  victory  for 
the  French,  the  occupation  of  Damascus,  and  the 
overthrow  of  Emir  Faisal,  who  was  compelled 
to  leave  the  country  (Aug.  4,  1920)  French 
control  was  thus  complete,  though  Arab  Na- 
tionalists continued  to  make  the  task  of  the 
French  administration  a  difficult  one. 

In  the  south  in  particular  (the  Hauran  dis- 
trict) Nationalists  remained  in  control  until 
April,  1921.  Under  General  Gouraud,  pacifica- 
tion proceeded  rapidly,  plans  were  started  for 
the  economic  reconstruction  of  the  country,  and 
new  administrative  machinery  was  established. 
Lebanon,  in  the  south,  was  given  autonomy  and 
enlarged  by  attaching  the  plains  of  Bckaa  to  the 
mountains  of  Lebanon.  Jebel  Dru/e  (south 
of  Hauran)  likewise  became  an  autonomous 
unit,  with  an  elected  council  and  a  Druse 
governor.  The  remainder  of  the  mandated  ter- 
ritory was  divided  into  the  three  states  of  Alep- 
po, Damascus,  and  the  territory  of  the  Alaouites, 
each  state  having  a  more  or  less  representative 
and  autonomous  State  Council,  and  sending  five 
delegates  to  the  Federal  Council  of  Syria.  Tn 
reality,  however,  the  French  officials,  under  a 
high  commissioner,  were  the  government.  As 
disorders  decreased  the  army  of  occupation  was 
cut  down,  so  that  by  September,  1922,  only  31,- 


500  men  were  under  arms.  It  was  therefore 
evident  in  1923  that  the  French  were  meeting 
with  success  in  their  attempts  to  restore  the 
country  to  its  former  economic  importance. 

Bv  the  Treaty  of  Sevres  (Aug.  10,  1920), 
Turkey  renounced  Ottoman  sovereignty  over 
Syria,  including  Cilicia,  and  by  gub&equent  ac- 
tion of  the  Council  of  the  League  of  Nations, 
July  22,  1922,  France  was  formally  intrusted 
with  a  mandate  over  Syria,  although  formal 
promulgation  of  the  mandate  was  further  post- 
poned by  Italian  objections.  The  southern  and 
eastern  boundaries  were  fixed  in  principle  by  an 
Anglo-French  Convention  of  Dec.  23,  1920,  and 
definitively  by  an  Anglo-French  Agreement  of 
Feb.  3,  1922,  effective  Mar.  10,  1923.  The  north- 
ern frontier,  which  by  the  Sevres  tieaty  had 
run  eastward  from  the  gulf  of  Alexandretta  to 
the  Tigris,  including  the  corresponding  section  of 
the  Bagdad  Railway,  was  modified  by  the  Franco- 
Turkish  Treaty  of  Angora,  Oct.  20,  1921;  by 
this  treaty  France  restored  to  Turkey  not  only 
Cilicia  but  also  a  long  strip  running  eastward 
almost  to  the  Tigris  and  including  the  Bagdad 
Hailway  from  a  point  near  Aleppo  to  Xisibin — 
about  9000  square  miles  in  all.  This  new  liound- 
ary  was  confirmed  by  the  Treaty  of  Lausanne, 
July,  1923.  Throughout  the  first  half  of  1024 
a  French  censorship  prevented  the  transmission 
of  political  ne\\s  from  Syria.  However,  reports 
were  occasionally  received,  from  plainly  partisan 
sources,  of  the  despotic  character  of  the  French 
administration.  It  was  charged  by  Syrian 
propagandists  in  the  United  States 'that  the 
French  High  Commissioner  was  vested  with  all 
civil  and  military  powers,  that  the  local  repre- 
sentative assemblies  were  merely  consultative, 
that  French  methods  were  those  applied  in  the 
negro  colonies  where  an  inferior  race  was  being 
governed,  that  the  censorship  exercised  was 
rigorous,  and  the  upkeep  of  go\ernment  costly 
On  the  other  hand,  the  French  record  revealed 
the  following  achievements-  native  Syrian  con- 
trol of  police,  navigation,  mails  and  telegraph; 
French  subsidization  of  private  schools  and  an 
increased  school  attendance  since  1921  ;  e\ten- 
sive  aid  rendered  to  Armenian  and  Greek 
refugees;  iriigation  works  in  cotton  areas  in 
particular.  In  May,  1924,  General  Wcygand 
was  appointed  High  Commissioner. 

SZYMANOWSKI,  KAKOI  (1883-  ).  A 
Polish  composer,  born  at  Timoshevka,  Southern 
Russia.  He  studied  with  S.  Noskowski  in  War- 
saw, where  he  made  his  home.  Beginning  as  an 
imitator  of  Chopin,  with  an  admixture  of  im- 
pressionism, he  rapidly  drifted  to  Futurism. 
He  wrote  two  operas,  JJagit  (Warsaw,  1922)  and 
Le  Roi  Roger  (not  yet  produced  in  1924);  two 
symphonies;  a  symphonic  poem,  Penthcttilca :  a 
concert  overture;  a  piano  concerto  and  a  violin 
concerto;  a  number  of  pieces  for  violin  and 
piano;  and  piano  pieces. 


I 


lACNA-A&ICA  DISPUTE.  An 
1  international  controversy  between 
Chile  and  Peru  that  was  argued 
intermittently  following  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Chilean-Peruvian 
War  and  the  Treaty  of  Ancon  of 
1884.  By  the  treaty,  Chile  was  awarded  the 
province  of  Tarapaca  outright.  The  prov- 
inces of  Tacna-Arica,  on  the  other  hand,  were 
to  remain  in  Chile's  possession  for  10  years, 
upon  the  conclusion  of  which  a  plebiscite 
was  to  be  held  in  the  territory  to  decide  its 
ultimate  disposition.  A  payment  of  10,000,000 
Peruvian  xoles  (Chilean  dollars)  was  to  be  made 
to  the  defeated  contestant  nation.  Chile's  con- 
tention was  that  the  plebiscite  provision  was 
inserted  in  the  treaty  to  allay  Peruvian  national 
feeling,  it  being  the  intention  of  the  peace  com- 
missioners that  Chilean  sovereignty  should  re- 
main uncontested,  and  for  that  reason  no  terms 
\\cre  formulated  for  the  holding  of  the  plebi- 
scite. The  year  1803  found  Peru  demanding  the 
execution  of  the  treaty  but  proposing  such  ar- 
bitrary conditions,  e.g.  that  only  Peruvian  citi- 
zens be  permitted  to  vote  in  the  plebiscite,  that 
no  understanding  could  be  reached.  The  point 
became  a  cause  ce"lebre  in  both  countries,  poli- 
tical campaigns  being  waged  on  it  as  the  single 
issue.  Chile  sc\cral  times  signified  her  desire 
to  observe  the  terms  of  the  treaty  but  in  each 
instance  was  met  by  Peru's  irrevocable  demand. 
Relations  were  broken  off  in  1901,  resumed  in 
11)05,  to  be  again  severed;  and  again  the  same 
play  was  enacted  in  1910  and  in  1913.  Chile 
meanwhile  had  spent  great  sums  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  provinces,  commencing  irrigation, 
sanitation  and  port  development  projects,  and 
spending  $25,000,000  on  the  railroad  from  Arica 
to  ha  Paz,  Bolivia,  alone  It  could  therefore 
justly  point  to  the  great  differences  existing 
between  conditions  in  the  contested  provinces 
and  those  in  the  neighboring  Peruvian  terri- 
tories. 

In  1919,  aroused  by  the  anti-Peruvian  riots 
in  Chilean  cities,  and  the  publication  of  the 
Chilean-Bolivian  treaty  of  1905,  by  which  Bo- 
livia had  been  promised  an  outlet  to  the  sea  by 
way  of  the  city  of  Arica,  Peru  once  more 
pressed  her  claims.  In  1920,  she  asked  that  the 
question  be  put  on  the  agenda  of  the  Assembly 
of  the  League  of  Nations,  only  to  withdraw  the 
request  soon  after.  In  1921,  Chile  once  more 
sought  the  holding  of  a  plebiscite,  but  meeting 
no  response  except  the  demand  that  the  whole 
treaty  be  reconsidered,  broke  off  negotiations. 
Meanwhile  Bolivia,  on  the  grounds  that  the 
question  had  become  a  universal  one  and  in- 
volved the  freedom  of  the  Pacific,  interjected 
herself  into  the  affair.  It  was  not  until  1922 
that  the  first  hope  of  a  settlement  appeared. 
On  Jan.  17,  1922,  the  United  States  despatched 
identical  notes  to  Chile  and  Peru  for  the  purpose 
of  effecting  an  agreement.  On  July  15  a  pro- 
tocol was  signed  by  representatives'  of  both  na- 


tions nominating  the  President  of  the  United 
States  as  arbiter;  Chile  and  Peru  accepted  tilt- 
protocol  as  the  basis  for  discussion,  and  in 
February,  1923,  delegates  arrived  at  Washing- 
ton, and  the  long  process  of  investigation,  filing 
of  briefs  and  counterbriefs,  was  begun;  Peru's 
final  brief  was  not  filed  until  April  12,  1924. 

T  A  CO  MA.  A  city  and  port  of  Washington. 
The  population  rose  from  83,743  in  1910  to 
96,905  in  1920,  and  to  101,731  by  estimate  of 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for  1923.  A  zoning 
ordinance  was  adopted  in  1919,  and  an  active 
city  planning  programme  was  undertaken  in 
1920.  A  notable  building  programme,  begun  in 
1923,  was  continued  through  1924.  Two  and  a 
half  millions  were  voted  for  new  public  schools, 
new  edifices  were  constructed  for  the  College  of 
Puget  Sound  and  Annie  Wright  Seminary,  and 
office,  church,  hotel,  and  fraternal  buildings 
were  completed  during  1914-24.  Under  a  com- 
prehensive port  development  project,  organized 
in  1918,  huge  piers  were  built  and  publicly 
owned  and  operated.  Tourist  travel  to  Mt. 
Rainier  (Mt.  Tacoma)  in  Rainier  National 
Park  multiplied  several  times.  Camp  Lewis,  a 
permanent  divisional  establishment  of  the 
United  States  Army,  was  developed,  and  a  cost- 
ly psychiatric  hospital  was  built  for  war  vet- 
erans at  American  Lake  in  the  environs  of  the 
city. 

TACTICS,  MILITARY.  See  STBATEGY  AND 
TACTICS. 

TAFT,  HENRY  WATERS  (1859-  ).  An 
American  lawyer  (see  VOL.  XXI).  In  1917-19 
he  was  chairman  of  the  permanent  legal  ad- 
visory board  for  Greater  New  York  under  the 
selective  service  regulations.  He  was  a  del- 
egate to  the  Republican  national  convention  in 
1920  and  chairman  of  the  coalition  campaign 
committee  in  the  mayoralty  election  of  New 
York  City  in  1921.  He  was  president  of  the 
New  York  State  Bar  Association  (1919-20)  and 
became  president  of  the  Association  of  the  Bar 
of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1923. 

TAFT,  WILLIXM  HOWARD  (1857-  ).  A 
president  of  the  United  States  (see  VOL,  XXI). 
He  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  National 
War  Labor  Conference  Board  in  1918  and  \Nas 
president  of  the  League  to  Enforce  Peace,  en- 
gaged in  the  promotion  and  ratification  of  the 
Treaty  of  Peace  and  the  League  of  Nations. 
On  June  30,  1921,  he  was  appointed  Chief  Jus- 
tice* of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 

TAHITI.  See  PACIFIC  OCEAN  ISLANDS, 
Society  Islands. 

TALC  AND  SOAPSTONE.  Talc  and  soap- 
stone  share  with  sulphur,  petroleum,  and  copper 
the  distinction  of  being  one  of  the  minerals  of 
which  the  United  States  produces  more  than  all 
the  rest  of  the  world.  In  1900  the  United 
States  produced  approximately  90,000  short 
tons  of  talc,  valued  at  about  $900,000.  In  1910 
the  production  had  increased  to  150,000  short 
tons,  valued  at  $1,600,000,  while  in  1916  it  had 


1273 


TALMADGE 


"74 


TANGIER  CONTROVERSY 


increased  to  213,561  tons,  valued  at  $2,253,803; 
by  1922  it  had  declined  to  198,684  tons,  valued 
at  $2,859,897.  In  addition,  talc  was  imported 
into  the  United  States,  mainly  from  Canada, 
Italy,  and  France.  The  talc  is  used  for  gas- 
burner  tips,  while  the  soapstone  is  an  insulator 
of  heat  and  electricity.  Soapstone  bricks  arc 
used  for  the  lining  of  'digesters  and  furnaces  in 
which  the  sulphate  pulp  is  treated  in  making 
Kraft  paper.  Talc  is  also  used  for  talc  powder, 
textiles,  paper,  soap,  and  rubber. 

TALMADGE,  CONSTANCE  (MRS.  JOHN  PIALO- 
oiou)  (1900-  ).  An  American  actress, 
born  at  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  She  began  acting  in 
moving-pictures  in  1916  and  soon  became  very 
popular.  Besides  other  plays,  she  appeared  in 
Intolerance,  Mrs.  LeflingwclVs  Boots,  Romance 
and  Arabella,  In  Search  of  a  Sinner,  Two  Weeks, 
A  Temperamental  Wife,  The  Perfect  Woman, 
Mama's  Affair,  and  Polly  of  the  Follies. 

TALMADGE,  NORM  A  (MRS.  JOSEPH  M. 
SCHENCK)  (1897-  ).  An  American  actress 
and  motion  picture  producer,  born  at  Niagara 
Falls,  N.  Y.  She  is  a  sister  of  Constance  Tal- 
madge.  She  began  to  act $ in  moving-pictures  at 
14  years  of  age  and  soon"  achieved  notable  suc- 
cesses, among  thorn  being:  The  Crotrn  Prince's 
Double,  The  Social  Secretary,  The  Secret  of  the 
Storm  Country,  The  Ghosts  of  Yesterday,  Her 
Only  Way,  The  Forbidden  City,  The  Passion 
Flower,  The  Sign  on  the  Door,  The  Wonderful 
Thing,  Smilin*  Through,  Secrets. 

TANA  TUNNEL.     See  TUNVELS. 

TANGANYIKA  TERRITORY.  Formerly 
German  East  Africa  (q.v.),  but  since  1919  a 
British  mandate  territory,  situated  in  south- 
eastern Africa,  with  an  area  of  384,079  square 
miles,  and  a  native  population  (April,  1921) 
of  4,107,000.  There  were  also  14,991  Asiatics 
and  2447  Europeans  on  that  date.  Dar-es- 
Salaam,  the  capital  and  chief  commercial  centre, 
had  20,000  inhabitants;  Tanga,  16,400;  Tabora, 
25,000.  In  1922,  shuery  had  not  yet  been  abol- 
ished, though  legislation  was  in  the  course  of 
preparation.  Under  British  rule,  because  of 
the  inevitable  readjustments,  industry  and  trade 
took  some  time  in  regaining  their  normal 
status.  Imports  for  1913  were  valued  at  £2,- 
667,925;  in  1921,  £1,426,125;  in  1922,  £1,386,- 
212.  Exports  for  1913  were  £1,777,552;  for 
1921,  £1,089,990;  for  1922,  £1,300,083.  The 
chief  exports  in  1922  in  order  of  value  were 
sisal  hemp,  coffee,  ground  nuts,  cotton,  grain, 
copra,  hides.  The  chief  imports  were  cotton 
piece  goods,  foodstuffs,  building  materials,  coal, 
machinery,  tobacco,  spirits.  Purchases  were 
made  largely  in  Zanzibar,  Kenya,  United  King- 
dom, and  India,  and  80  per  cent  of  the  trade 
was  carried  in  British  bottoms.  Imports  from 
tho  United  States  were  only  £1193  in  1922  to 
Germany's  £43,765  and  the  Netherlands'  £20,- 
087.  Imports  passed  for  the  most  part  through 
the  port  of  Dar-es-Salaam,  while  Tanga  handled 
most  of  the  exports.  The  main  inland  routes 
were  still  the  two  railways  built  by  the  Ger- 
mans. 

The  victories  of  the  British  and  Belgian  troops 
in  East  Africa  left  the  Territory  completely 
under  Allied  control.  In  May,  1919,  the  Su- 
preme Council  turned  the  area  over  to  Great 
Britain  as  a  mandate  territory,  but  by  agree- 
ment with  Belgium  in  September,  1919,  the 
western  provinces  of  Urundi  and  Ruanda  were 
ceded  under  mandate  to  the  Belgian  Congo  in 
order  to  give  the  latter  a  frontage  on  Lake 


Tanganyika.  Great  Britain  retained  such  areas 
as  were  needed  to  allow  for  the  projected  Cape 
to  Cairo  railway  as  well  as  the  disputed  Ujiji 
province  which  contained  the  western  terminus, 
Kigoma,  of  the  important  Central  Railway.  In 
1921,  however,  Belgium  was  given  the  right  to 
use  the  railway  free  of  duties.  Under  the  Or- 
der in  Council  of  July  22,  1920,  the  British  ad- 
ministrative machinery  was  set  up  with  a  gov- 
ernor and  a  nominated  executive  council.  By 
the  Covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations,  perfect 
racial  equality  in  matters  of  residence  and 
trade  was  assured  with  the  result  that  the  In- 
dians, unlike  those  in  the  Kenya  Colony  to  the 
north,  were  permitted  unhampered  social  and 
economic  liberty.  As  a  result  they  rapidly 
penetrated  into  all  regions  of  the  Territory  in 
the  role  of  small  traders.  By  1921,  the  British 
administration  was  functioning  normally;  Ger- 
man estates  had  been  sold;  the  Indian  penal 
and  civil  codes  were  introduced ;  the  basis  of 
the  currency  was  made  the  shilling  (Jan.  1, 
1922)  ;  English  names  and  weights  were  sub- 
stituted; and  the  Kenya  Colony  system  of  rev- 
enues was  installed,  i.e.  customs  duties,  trade 
taxes,  native  hut  and  poll  taxes.  Revenues  for 
1917-18  were  £336,446  and  expenditures  £157,- 
285;  for  1921-22,  £978,192  and  £1,807,890;  for 
1923-24  (estimate),  £1,257,540  and  £1,936,109. 
Grants  were  necessary  from  Great  Britain  to 
make  up  the  deficits,  "the  aid  being  £350,000  in 
1920-21,  and  £914,000  in  1921-22. 

TANGIER  CONTROVERSY.  The  status  of 
Tangier  port,  which,  because  of  its  strategic 
position  at  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean, 
was  an  intimate  concern  of  the  foreign  offices 
of  France,  Spain  and  Great  Britain,  became  a 
serious  cause  for  ill  feeling  in  the  years  follow- 
ing the  War.  Spain's  attempts  during  1919-21 
to  effect  a  Franco-Spanish  understanding  on  the 
basis  of  an  enlarged  Spanish  interest  in  Tangier 
(and  thus  negate  the  policy  of  internationaliza- 
tion temporarily  agreed  upon  in  the  Franco- 
Spanish  Treaty  of  Nov.  27,  1912)  were  rebuffed, 
for  they  conflicted  with  the  French  ambition 
which  looked  to  the  expansion  of  French  in- 
terest not  only  over  Tangier  but  the  whole  of 
Morocco  as  well.  In  1922,  Great  Britain,  find- 
ing that  the  subject  was  assuming  major  im- 
portance, interjected  herself  into  the  controversy 
and  insisted  that  the  entire  question  be  re- 
opened. In  July,  1923,  a  commission  composed 
of  French,  Spanish  and  British  experts  met  for 
the  purpose  of  preparing  a  new  agreement. 
Early  it  became  evident  that  the  question  had 
taken  on  an  international  character,  when  both 
the  United  States  and  Italy  indicated  their  in- 
terest, the  United  States  on  the  general  ground 
that  it  had  figured  in  the  Algeciras  Conference 
and  would  therefore  be  concerned  in  any  new 
understanding,  Italy  because  of  her  position  as 
a  Mediterranean  power.  The  sittings  of  the 
commission  were  therefore  frequently  inter- 
rupted, as  the  experts  found  it  necessary  to  re- 
pair to  their  home  governments  for  further  in- 
structions. In  October,  Italy,  with  the  approval 
of  Spain,  demanded  that  her  delegates  be 
given  seats  at  the  conference.  In  October,  1923, 
the  American  Department  of  State  made  pub- 
lic a  note  addressed  to  the  British,  French, 
and  Spanish  governments  in  which  the  re- 
quest for  the  maintenance  of  the  open  door 
in  the  settlement  of  the  status  of  Tangier 
was  reiterated.  It  was  not  until  Dec.  18,  1923, 
that  the  sittings  were  completed.  The  pro- 


TANKS 


1375 


TABIFF 


visional  agreement,  as  submitted  to  the  Govern- 
ments of  Great  Britain,  Spain,  and  France,  con- 
tained the  following  provisions.  The  Tangier 
Zone,  whose  permanent  neutrality  was  assured, 
wag  to  continue  as  a  part  of  Morocco  under  its 
own  constitution.  The  Municipality  of  Tanpier 
was  to  be  under  both  a  Committee  of  Control, 
made  up  of  the  eight  consular  officers  of  the 
powers  that  had  signed  the  Algeciras  agreement, 
and  an  International  Legislative  Assembly  con- 
sisting of  representatives  of  the  powers  (Italy 
here  included)  and  the  native  Mussulmans  and 
Jews.  The  customs  service,  though  adminis- 
tered by  the  Moroccan  government,  was  to  be 
under  the  control  of  the  international  admin- 
istration Economic  equality  at  the  port  was 
to  be  observed;  the  capitulations  were  to  be 
supplanted  by  a  mixed  tribunal  of  French, 
Spanish,  and 'British  magistrates;  no  fortifica- 
tions were  to  be  erected;  the  signatories  of  the 
Algeciras  agreement  (the  United  States  in- 
cluded) were  to  be  invited  to  adhere  to  the  new 
convention  as  aoon  as  it  received  the  ratifica- 
tion of  the  three  contracting  parties.  That  the 
British  and  French  governments  would  approve 
was  certain;  as  to  the  attitude  of  Spain,  there 
was  at  first  much  doubt,  but  in  1024  Spain's 
adherence  to  the  convention  was  made  uncon- 
ditional. It  was  conceded  generally  that  Great 
Britain  had  won  a  diplomatic  triumph  in  the 
new  pact  over  the  Mediterranean  countries, 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  and  by  the  interna- 
tionalization of  the  port  had  made  sure  of  the 
safot}  of  the  route  to  India 

TANKS,  ARMORED  See  STRATEGY  AND  TAC- 
TICS. 

TANNENBERG,  BATTLE  OF.  See  WAR  IN 
EuKOPh,  Eastern  Front. 

TABDIEU,  ANI>R£  (1876-  ).  A  French 
public  official  and  author,  born  in  Paris,  and 
educated  at  the  Lyce>  Condorcet  and  Ecole 
Noiinale  Superieure.  He  was  High  Commis- 
sioner of  France  to  the  United  States  (1017- 
19)  and  Minister  of  the  Liberated  Regions  and 
also  Minister  Plenipotentiary  at  the  Peace  Con- 
ference (1010-20).  In  the  French  Chamber  of 
Deputies  in  1923  he  led  a  Nationalist  party 
group  which  found  Poincare!  too  lenient  toward 
the  Germans.  His  writings  include:  Questions 
DijtlonKtHquett  de  VAnnee  (1004);  La  Confer- 
ence d'A  Iqtsiras ;  Notes  sur  leu  Etalft-l'nis 
(1008);  France  and  the  Alliances  (1009);  Le 
Prince  de  Bvlow  (1909);  Le  Mystere  d'.lgadir 
(1012)  ;  IS-\mcrique  en  Armes  (1918)  ;  and  The 
Truth  about  the  Treaty  (1921). 

TABIFF  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
Recent  Developments  in  Tariff  Legislation  in 
the  United  States.  The  Underwood  Tariff  of 
1913  lowered  the  rates  which  had  existed  under 
the  Payne-Aldrich  Bill  The  average  rate  on 
dutiable  goods  in  1910  was  42  per  cent;  in 
1915,  33  per  cent.  The  Underwood  Tariff  Bill 
also  increased  the  free  list.  As  a  result,  03 
per  cent  ad  valorem  of  the  goods  admitted  to 
the  United  States  in  1915  paid  no  duty.  This 
was  14  per  cent  more  than  in  1910.  The  con- 
struction of  a  tariff  bill  is  becoming  very  dif- 
ficult and  complicated.  The  Underwood  Bill 
covered  more  than  100  pages  and  actually 
enumerated  more  than  3000  different  articles; 
the  list  of  nondurable  goods  was  also  given. 
The  goods  on  which  duty  was  to  be  paid  were 
cited  in  14  schedules,  the  rates  ranging  from 
£  per  cent  on  bar  iron  to  60  per  cent  on  jewelry, 
playing-cards,  and  expensive  silk  goods.  The 


general  rcbiilt  of  such  a  voluminous  bill  was  to 
confuse  the  a\erage  citi/cn,  and  Congress  itself 
felt  that  the  guidance  and  assistance  of  experts 
was  greatly  needed.  A  Tariff  Board  had  been 
provided  for  in  the  Payne-Aldrich  Bill  of  1909, 
but  when  the  Democrats  came  into  power,  it 
was  abandoned  So  much  difficulty  was  expe- 
rienced by  Congress  in  the  construction  of  the 
Underwood  Tariff  Bill  that  the  Democrats  them- 
selves provided  in  191f>  for  a  new  Tariff  Com- 
mission, the  function  of  which  was  to  advise 
the  President  and  Congress  on  general  problems 
relating  to  the  tariff.  The  Tariff  Commission, 
in  furnibhirig  the  required  guidance  and  assist- 
ance, should  stand  in  somewhat  the  same  rela- 
tion to  Congress  that  the  Federal  Reserve  Board 
occupies  with  reference  to  matters  of  banking 
and  credit.  Up  to  1924  there  was  little  ev- 
idence that  the  Tariff  Commission  had  been 
able  to  impress  itself  on  Congress  bo  as  to  make 
the  tariff  bills  simple  and  effective. 

The  Fordney-McCumber  Bill  of  1922. 
When  the  Republicans  were  swept  into  power 
by  the  election  of  1020,  jt  ^a^  on  the  dis- 
tinct understanding  that  the  tariff  rates  would 
be  reM-ed  upward  Many  citi/ens  seriously 
thought  that  such  a  revision  would  tend  to 
bring  about  relief  from  the  depression  of  1020 
Congress  had  gieat  difficulty  in  drafting  a  bill 
which  was  under  consideration  for  20  months 
The  Senate  finally  adopted  the  bill  after  2430 
amendments  had  been  made  to  the  original. 
It  was  not  until  1!)22  that  the  legislation  known 
as  the  Fordney-MeCumher  Bill  was  passed.  The 
rates  of  duty  are  the  highest  in  United  States 
history.  Duties  were  levied  on  agricultural 
products,  sugar,  wool,  woolen  goods,  cotton 
goods,  silk,  metals  and  metal  manufactures, 
tobacco,  spirits  and  beverages,  chemicals,  jewel- 
ry, earthenware  and  glassware,  wood,  paper, 
and  many  other  classes  of  commodities.  High 
rates  were  lexied  on  wool,  on  certain  grades  of 
which  the  duty  reached  155  per  cent.  Rates 
on  cutlery  in  some  instances  were  as  high  as 
40  per  cent  ad  valorem  The  rates  on  embroid- 
ery and  cotton  lace  were  90  per  cent  Many  of 
the  articles  which  had  been  put  on  the  free  list 
by  the  Democrats  in  1913  were  made  dutiable 
under  the  Fordney  Bill,  The  few  articles  left 
on  the  free  list  included  coffee,  cocoa,  agricul- 
tural implements,  newsprint,  hides,  raw  cotton, 
tea,  gunpouder,  tin,  and  potash 

Most  students  of  economics  and  many  busi- 
nessmen believed  that  the  Fordney-McCumber 
Bill  was  a  mistake.  The  United  States  is  a 
creditor  nation.  The  only  way  in  which  for- 
eign debtors  can  pay  rt  is  by  sending  goods. 
The  price  which  consumers  must  pay  for  pro- 
tected goods  is  probably  not  compensated  for 
by  an\  stimulation  which  industry  may  have 
received  from  the  provisions  of  this  bill.  The 
United  States  cannot  continue  to  export  goods 
unless  imports  from  other  countries  are  re- 
ceived One  of  the  most  interesting  features  of 
the  Tariff  Act  of  1922  was  the  flexible  tariff 
provisions.  When  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  ''after  careful  investigation,  finds  that 
the  rates  of  duty  in  the  Tariff  of  1922  do  not 
in  fact  equalize  'the  costs  of  production  of  any 
article  or  articles  between  the  United  States 
and  the  principal  competing  foreign  country, 
he  shall  determine  the  rates  that  will  so  equal- 
ize such  difference:  and  30  days  after  the  proc- 
lamation is  made  the  rates  of  duty  proposed  by 
him  shall  be  in  effect  on  the  articles  named  in 


TABJONGTON 


1376 


TAXATION 


the  proclamation  in  lieu  of  the  rates  of  duty 
specified  in  the  Tariff  of  1922.  These  rates  of 
duty  are  to  be  based  upon  foreign  valuation. 
He  cannot  increase  or  decrease  any  rate  of  duty 
more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  amount  thereof 
as  provided  in  the  Tariff  of  1922."  It  would 
IH«  a  great  pain  if  the  Tariff  Commission  could 
actually  study  production  costs  of  foreign  com- 
petitors and  recommend  tariff  rates  on  such  a 
basis.  This  would  give  a  scientific  foundation 
for  tariff  duties  which  the  United  States  has 
never  had. 

Betaliatory  Provisions.  Section  317  of  the 
Act  provides  that  "when  any  foreign  country 
discriminates  against  articles  wholly  or  in  part 
the  product  or  products  of  this  country,  by  im- 
posing, directly  or  indirectly,  by  any  unreason- 
able charge,  fee,  duty,  exaction,  regulation,  or 
limitation,  or  other  method  of  discrimination 
and  the  commerce  in  them,  and  the  President 
finds  in  fact  that  said  foreign  country  has  done 
and  continues  so  to  do,  and  that  the  American 
public  interest  will  be  served  thereby,  he  shall 
by  proclamation  declare  such  new  and  addition- 
al rates  of  duty,  as  will  offset  the  burdens 
placed  upon  our  commerce,  not  exceeding  50  per 
cent  ad  valorem  on  the  commodities  from  the 
offending  country  or  countries  named  in  his 
proclamation ;  or  he  may  by  proclamation  ex- 
clude the  articles  named.  The  provisions  of  a 
proclamation  become  effective  30  days  after  its 
date.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Tariff  Commission 
to  continually  make  investigation  concerning 
the  welfare  of  our  commerce  abroad,  and  to 
bring  to  the  attention  of  the  President  any 
discrimination." 

The  Tariff  Commission  under  Section  318  was 
directed  to  compile  costs  of  production,  import 
costs,  and  producers'  selling-prices  at  home  and 
abroad  This  information  would  make  it  pos- 
sible for  the  President  and  Congress  to  put  into 
effect  the  retaliatory  measures  which  Congress 
thought  advisable  to  protect  the  United  States 
in  her  search  for  foreign  markets.  It  was  un- 
certain what  the  results  of  the  provisions  for 
retaliation  and  for  flexibility  in  the  tariff  rates 
would  be.  It  was  hoped  that  they  might  lead 
to  trade  agreements  with  foreign  countries 
which  would  operate  according  to  the  "most 
favored  nation"  clause.  If  this  should  prove 
to  be  the  result,  it  would  probably  be  the  great- 
est gain  derived  from  the  Tariff  Law  of  1922 

See  UNITED  STATES,  History.  For  tariff 
legislation  in  other  countries,  see  section  on 
History  under  those  countries.  See  also 
FINANCE  AND  BANKING. 

TABKINGTON,  (NEWTON)  BOOTH 

(1809-  ).  An  American  author  (see  VOL. 
XXI).  His  later  writings  include:  Penrod 
(1914)  ;  The  Turmoil  (1915)  ;  Penrod  and  Sam 
(1916);  Seventeen  (1916);  The  Magnificent 
Ambersons  (1918),  for  which  he  was  awarded 
the  Pulitzer  prize  by  Columbia  University;  and 
Alice  Adams  (1921);  Gentle  Julia  (1922)  ;  The 
Fascinating  Stranger  (1923);  and  The  Mid- 
lander  (1924).  ITis  plays  are  for  the  most 
part  light  and  entertaining.  The  most  impor- 
tant are:  The  Man  from  Home  (1906);  Mas- 
ter Antonio  (1916);  Clarence  (1919);  The 
Wren  (1921);  The  Intimate  Strangers  (1921); 
Rose  Briar  (1922) ;  and  Tweedles  and  Magnolia 
,(1923). 

TASMANIA.  A  state  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia  consisting  of  the  island  of  Tas- 
mania and  several  smaller  islands.  Area,  26,- 


215  square  miles;  population  in  1911,  191,211; 
in  1922,  213,400;  average  annual  increase,  1.12 
per  cent.  Hobart,  the  capital,  including  sub- 
urbs, had  52,103  inhabitants  in  1921  (38,391 
in  1911).  Fruit  growing  was  the  only  agricul- 
tural activity  to  show  important  increases. 
Pastoral  pursuits  were  still  comparatively  un- 
important (the  wool  clip  of  1921-22  was  small- 
er than  that  of  1913).  The  total  mineral  pro- 
duction for  1921-22  was  £854,730,  which  was  a 
considerable  falling  off.  Gold,  in  1913,  yielded 
£141,876;  in  1921-22,  £23,471.  The  state's  in- 
terest in  the  generating  of  cheap  hydro-electric 
power  augured  an  early  industrial  development. 
A  plant  created  at  Great  Lake  was  designed  to 
supply  70,000  horse  power.  The  value  of  pro- 
duction for  1921-22  was:  agricultural  and  paH- 
toral,  £4,592,004;  mining.  £834,730;  value  added 
by  manufacture,  £2,813,360  Imports  and  ex- 
ports for  1913  were  £1,025,081  and  £522,865; 
1921-22,  £1,385,951  and  £2,067,443  Exports 
were  chiefly  wool,  minerals,  timber,  fruit  and 
jam.  Revenues  and  expenditures  for  1913-14 
were  £1,238,085  and  £1,235,514;  for  1921-22,  £2,- 
180,395  and  £2.302,077.  The  public  debt  in  1923 
amounted  to  £22,439,176,  of  which  30  per  cent 
had  been  spent  on  railways,  27  per  cent  on 
roads  and  bridges,  and  10  per  cent  on  hydro- 
electric developments.  In  1914,  the  debt  was 
£12,265,012.  How  prominent  a  r6le  labor 
played  in  the  state  may  be  seen  by  the  distribu- 
tion of  seats  in  1922  in  the  parliament:  Na- 
tionalists, 12;  Labor,  12;  Independent,  1; 
Country,  5. 

TASTE.     See  PSYCHOLOGY,  EXPERIMENTAL. 

TAXATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
The  most  important  fact  about  recent  taxation 
is  the  great  increase  in  revenue  derived  from 
it.  While  State,  municipal,  and  central  bodies 
have  all  increased  their  revenues  from  taxes, 
the  central  governments  of  the  belligerent  na- 
tions are  most  conspicuous  in  this  respect,  for 
they  have  borne  the  main  expense  of  the  War. 
The  net  cost  of  the  WTar  has  been  estimated  at 
$215,000,000,000,  up  to  the  end  of  1920.  This 
is  such  a  large  sum  that  the  mind  cannot  com- 
prehend it  It  is  somewhat  easier  to  realize 
the  money  cost  of  war  if  it  is  quoted  as  so 
much  per  day.  Professor  Seligman  gives  the 
following  facts. 


AVERAGE  DAILY  WAR  EXPENDITURES  IN 
MILLIONS  OF  DOLLARS 
Great 
Britain  France  Italy  Austria  Germany 

0  46  85  4.4  6.4  13.3 
18.16  12.2  7.5  8.7  15.9 
26  69  17  6  10  4  10.4  22.7 


Date 
1914-15 
1915-1G 
1916-17    . 
1917-18      33.36       32.4        6.5       12.3 


81.0 


Staggering  as  these  figures  seem,  they  are 
small  when  compared  with  the  expenditures 
of  the  United  States  after  its  entry  into  the 
War.  In  the  month  of  December,  1918,  its 
average  daily  expenditure  reached  $04,500,000. 
During  that  month  alone,  the  United  States 
spent  more  than  $2,000,000,000.  These  vast 
sums  were  not  and  could  not  have  been  raised 
by  taxation;  the  larger  part  was  obtained  by 
borrowing.  The  ratio  of  tax  receipts  to  ex- 
penditures in  the  different  countries  during  the 
War  was:  in  the  United  States,  25.9  per  cent; 
Great  Britain,  24.7;  France,  15.4;  Italy,  14.9; 
Germany,  11.7.  Taxation  would  therefore  be 
very  important  in  the  years  following  1924. 


TAXATION 


1277 


TAXATION 


Moat  of  the  war  coats  were  still,  in  1924,  unpaid 
by  the  governments  concerned. 

Federal  Taxation  in  the  United  States. 
Revenue  derived  from  customs  was  no  longer, 
in  1924,  the  important  item  in  the  Federal 
budget  that  it  was  20  years  earlier.  In  1920, 
the  receipts  from  customs  comprised  only  alxnit 
one-nineteenth  of  the  total,  which  was  $5,587,- 
000,000.  Almost  all  the  balance  came  from 
"internal  revenue."  The  subdivisions  of  the 
receipts  under  internal  revenue  for  the  years 
1914,  1919,  and  1920  were: 


law  needed  to   be  clarified  and   changed  in  a 
number  of  instances 

After  the  entry  of  the  United  States  into  the 
War,  the  income  tax  law  of  1917  was  passed 
and  became  effective  as  of  Jan.  1,  1917.  The 
new  law  was  remarkable  in  two  respects:  first, 
the  rates  were  higher  than  any  country  had 
ever  imposed  before;  secondly,  the  act  was 
exceedingly  complex,  because  Congress  had 
grafted  the  new  law  on  the  law  of  1916  as  an 
amendment.  Both  the  normal  and  the  surtax 
rates  were  increased.  The  normal  rate  imposed 


1 

1914 
$60,710,197.52 

1919 

1920 

1920 
Per  cent  of 
total 
revenue 

2. 
3. 
4. 

Income  tax  and  excess  profits     
Distilled  spirits  and  beverages        ...    . 
Tobacco                   .                 .           ... 
Transportation,  communication,  and  in- 
surnnff*                        .                                    . 

22"6*,i79,'6K9.76 
79,986,639.68 

$2,600,783,902.70 
490,233,073.72 
206,003,091  84 
252  348  453  61 

^3,956,936,003.60 
197,332,105.84 
29'5.809,35'i  41 
307  769  841  36 

69.2 
3  4 
5  1 
5  3 

5. 
(>. 
7. 

8 
9 
10 

Luxuries    (autos    candy,   furs,   etc.)    . 
Kstnte    inheritance 
Exciso    tax    on    corporations     . 
Capital   stock   of    corporations,    brokers, 
etc 
Stamps  on  legal  documents    
Admissions    to    amusements    . 
Miscellaneous 

10,671,077.22 
2*461,289'.  78 

81,357,473  54 
82,029,983  13 

29,824,327  95 
43,751,34004 
58,664,870  88 
5,153,55515 

270,971,064  27 
103,635,563.24 

95,141,732.50 
81,259  365.47 
89,710,525  59 
9,014,694  50 

4.7 
1  8 

1  6 
1.4 
1.5 
01 

Total 

380,008,893  96 

3,850,150,078  56 

5,407,580,251.81 

941 

From  the  above  table  it  will  bo  noted  that 
in  1914  only  the  income  tax,  the  taxes  on 
spirits,  beverages,  and  tobacco,  and  the  excise 
taxes  on  corporations  were  in  existence  All 
the  rest  were  war  measures.  The  Federal  in- 
come tax  produced  GO  2  per  cent  of  all  the  rev- 
enue raised  in  1020  It  was  fortunate  that  the 
income  tax  had  already  been  put  into  operation 
and  was  in  fair  working  order  by  the  time  the 
United  States  entered  the  War. 

Federal  Income  Tax  Laws.  The  United 
States  had  an  income  tax  during  the  Civil  War 
which  was  abandoned  in  1870.  In  1894  the  ef- 
fort was  made  to  reintroduce  an  income  tax, 
but  this  could  not  be  accomplished  because  of 
constitutional  limitations.  The  16th  Amend- 
ment as  passed  read,  "Congress  shall  have  power 
to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  income,  from  what- 
ever source  derived,  without  apportionment 
among  the  several  States,  and  without  regard 
to  any  census  or  enumeration."  Shortly  after, 
the  income  tax  law  of  1013  was  approved  The 
rates  included  a  normal  tax  of  1  per  cent  ap- 
plied to  the  net  income  of  individuals  and  cor- 
porations. The  surtaxes  levied  on  individuals 
began  with  a  1  per  cent  rate  on  a  net  income  of 
$20,000  and  rose  to  G  per  cent  on  the  excess 
of  incomes  over  $500,000.  Personal  exemp- 
tions of  $3000  for  a  single  person  and  $4000  for 
a  married  couple  were  allowed  Corporations 
were  allowed  no  exemptions.  The  outstanding 
features  of  the  tax  were:  first,  provision  for 
collection  at  the  source  in  order  to  prevent 
evasion,  a  method  which  gave  great  dissatis- 
faction and  was  abandoned  in  1917  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  unsuitable  for  a  democratic 
country;  secondly,  permission  for  individuals' 
deducting  only  those  losses  incurred  in  trade; 
thirdly,  definite  limitations  on  the  amounts 
which  corporations  could  deduct  for  losses.  The 
income  tax  law  of  1913  was  in  effect  until  Dec. 
31,  1915,  when  the  income  tax  law  of  191G 
went  into  effect.  There  were  two  reasons  for 
the  new  law:  first,  the  customs  duties  had  fall- 
en off  because  of  the  decrease  in  the  amount  of 
goods  coming  from  Europe;  secondly,  the  old 


on  individuals  was  4  per  cent,  except  on  in- 
comes between  $1000  and  $2000,  on  which  the 
rate  was  2  per  cent.  The  normal  rate  on  cor- 
porations was  increased  to  6  per  cent.  The  sur- 
tax rates  on  incomes  above  $5000  rose  pro- 
gressively from  1  per  cent  to  63  on  the  excess 
of  $2,000,000.  The  new  law  provided  for  "in- 
formation at  the  source  "  The  act  specifically 
stated  that  income  and  excess  profit  taxes  were 
not  to  be  deducted,  nor  was  interest  on  money 
borrowed  for  the  purchase  of  tax-exempt  secu- 
rities. Dividends  of  corporations  were  to  be 
taxed  according  to  the  rates  obtaining  in  the 
year  in  which  the  profit  or  surplus  was  accu- 
mulated. The  object  of  this  provision  was  to 
make  it  impossible  for  corporations  to  refrain 
from  declaring  dividends  in  any  one  year  in 
the  hope  that  the  rates  of  taxes  would  be  lower 
in  some  future  year.  This  provision  was  re- 
pealed in  1918  because  of  difficulties  of  admin- 
istration. 

In  order  to  raise  still  greater  amounts  of 
revenue  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  War,  the 
income  tax  law  of  1918  was  framed  and  con- 
tinued in  force  until  the  Revenue  Act  of  1921 
became  effective.  The  normal  rates  were  again 
raised,  both  for  individuals  and  corporations, 
becoming  12  per  cent  on  taxable  income  both 
for  individuals  and  corporations,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  rate  of  G  per  cent  on  the  first  $4000  of 
the  taxable  income  of  a  citixen  or  a  resident  of 
the  United  States  In  1919,  the  normal  rate  was 
reduced  to  8  per  cent,  with  4  per  cent  on  the 
first  $4000  dollars  of  net  income  above  the  per- 
sonal exemption.  To  obtain  the  total  tax  rate, 
the  graduated  surtax  rates  were  added  to  the 
normal  rate.  The  income  tax  law  of  1918 
smoothed  out  certain  inequalities  in  the  taxing 
of  corporations 

The  Revenue  Act  of  1921.  On  January  1 
the  Revenue  Act  of  1921  went  into  effect,  al- 
though some  modifications  were  not  put  into 
force  until  a  year  later.  These  modifications 
included  the  abolition  of  the  excess  profits  tax. 
One  important  change  in  the  law  of  1921  re- 
lated to  business  losses;  if  the  businessman 


TAXATION 


1278 


TAXATION 


suffered  a  loss  in  one  period,  it  was  permissible, 
under  this  new  law,  to  sot  off  that  loss  against 
not  incomes  realized  in  the  two  succeeding  years 
The  income  tax  rate  on  corporations  was  raised 
from  10  per  cent  to  12V&  The  surtax  rates 
for  1923  and  for  the  first  six  months  of  1924 
\\ore  somewhat  lower  than  those  obtaining  in 
1921  and  1922. 

Bevenue  Bill  of  1924.  Secretary  Mellon 
proposed  a  new  tax  bill  in  1924  which 'was  sub- 
mitted to  Congress.  The  normal  and  surtax 
rates  wore  to  he  reduced,  tin1  latter  not  to  go 
lieyond  a  maximum  of  25  per  cent.  Counter- 
proposals wore  submitted,  and  as  a  result  the 
Mellon  Bill  was  greatly  modified.  The  bill  as 
modified  was  passed  by*  both  houses  and  finally 
signed  by  President  t'oolidge  on  June  2.  It 
was  known  as  the  Revenue  Bill  of  1924.  There 
was  a  general  reduction  of  23  per  cent  on  in- 
comes earned  in  1923,  payable  in  1924.  The 
new  normal  rates  on  net  incomes  (less  credits) 
were  2  per  cent  on  incomes  less  than  $4000  and 
4  per  cent  on  incomes  of  $4000  and  not  more 
than  $8000.  Above  $8000  the  normal  rate  was 
6  per  cent  The  range  of  surtax  rates  was 
from  1  per  cent  on  incomes  between  $10,000  and 
$14,000  to  40  per  cent  on  incomes  over  $500,000. 
Heads  of  families  \\ith  incomes  of  $.1000  and 
over  were  permitted  an  exemption  of  $2500 
instead  of  the  old  rate  of  $2000.  Many  excise 
taxes  were  repealed,  including  those  on  tele- 
graph and  telephone  messages,  candy,  yachts 
and  motor  boats,  carpets,  rugs,  trunks,  purses, 
and  drafts  and  promissory  notes.  Theatre  tick- 
ets costing  $  50  or  less  were  evempted.  Taxes 
oil  automobiles  selling  for  le&s  than  $1000  wcie 
exempted  from  the  3  per  cent  tax.  The  rates 
of  estate  taxes  were  increased  to  a  maximum  of 
40  per  cent  on  amounts  of  $10,000,000  and  over. 
A  new  gift  tax  was  imposed  with  the  same 
rates  as  the  estate  tax  in  older  to  prevent  eva- 
sion of  the  estate  tax  by  the  making  of  personal 
gifts.  There  was  a  new  tax  of  10  per  cent  on 
Mah  Jongg  sets,  which  was  estimated  to  yield 
$2,000,000.  The  proposals  which  finally  took 
shape  in  this  revenue  measure  had  l>con  the 
subject  of  much  discussion  both  in  Congress 
and  the  press  for  several  months.  While  the 
reduction  of  the  tax  on  lower  incomes  was 
generally  favored  there  was  some  criticism  of 
the  lower  surtax  scale  applied  to  the  higher 
incomes. 

The  War  Profits  and  Excess  Profits  Tax. 
Provision  was  made  in  the  Act  of  1916  for  the 
levy  of  a  tax  of  12%  per  cent  on  the  profits  of 
the  manufacture  of  munitions.  In  March,  1917, 
this  tax  was  made  a  general  war  profits  tax. 
In  Octolier  of  the  same  year  this  war  profits 
tax  was  replaced  by  the  excess  profits  tax.  In 
the  following  year  a  law  was  provided  under 
which  the  excess  profits  tax  appeared  in  a  now 
form  as  the  war  profits  and  excess  profits  tax. 
This  law  was  applicable  to  corporations  which 
had  been  organized  for  the  sake  of  profit.  The 
method  adopted  for  arriving  at  the  excess  prof- 
its was  to  subtract  from  the  total  profits  of 
the  year  the  average  rate  of  profits  earned  on 
the  invested  capital  during  the  three  years  be- 
fore the  War  began  (1911-13),  provided  the 
rate  of  return  had  been  as  much  as  7  per  cent 
and  not  more  than  9  per  cent.  Hence  the  base 
of  the  tax  was  the  excess  over  an  assumed 
normal  profit.  The  law  assumed  that  after  al- 
lowance had  been  made  for  increases  or  de- 
creases in  working  capital,  an  8  per  cent  return 


on  the  amount  of  capital  invested  was  fair  in 
those  industries  in  which  the  risk  was  not  ex- 
ceptional. The  rates  of  the  tax  levied  against 
the  excesses  were  graduated  from  20  per  cent 
to  60  per  cent.  After  the  War  was  over, 
businessmen  felt  that  this  tax  was  too  heavy  to 
be  borne,  and  it  was  given  up  at  the  end  of 
1921.  Aside  from  its  being  a  matter  of  his- 
tory, the  chief  interest  in  the  tax  lies  in  the 
effort  to  determine  what  might  be  called  a 
normal  return  on  capital  invested. 

Capital  Stock  Tax  of  Corporations.  The 
revenue  act  of  1918  provided  for  a  tax  on  do- 
mestic and  foreign  corporations.  In  1921,  the 
act  provided  for  a  payment  by  every  domestic 
corporation  of  a  special  excess  tax  w'ith  respect 
to  carrying  on  business  The  corporation  was 
obliged  to  pay  $1  for  each  $1000  in  excess  of 
$5000  of  the  average  value  of  the  capital  stock 
as  it  was  during  the  preceding  year.  Foreign 
corporations  were  not  allowed  an  exemption 
and  had  to  pay  at  the  same  rate  on  all  capital 
invested  in  the  United  States.  This  tax  yielded 
a  revenue  of  $95,000,000  in  1920. 

Inheritance  Taxes.  These  weie  provided  for 
in  the  revenue  act  of  1910.  They  were  to  In- 
levied  on  estates,  after  certain  deductions  bad 
been  made,  and  not  on  the  shares  of  each  heir 
In  this  law  no  distinction  uas  drawn  botvxeen 
direct  and  collate! al  heirs.  If  the  estates  \veie 
valued  at  less  than  $50,000,  they  were  exempt 
The  rates  ranged  from  1  per  cent  to  si  5  per  cent 
on  estates  valued  at  $10,000,000  above  the  ex- 
emption. The  law  tried  to  provide  against  cei - 
tain  contingencies:  (1)  pioperty  \\hich  had 
been  taxed  once  could  not  lx*  retaxed  within 
five  yearn,  so  that  if  estates  changed  hands 
rapidly  at  the  death  of  each  successive  o\\ner, 
the  property  would  not  bo  largely  con  sinned  by 
taxes;  (2)  if  property  was  proved  to  have  been 
given  away  within  two  A  ears  before  the  death 
of  the  owner,  the  gifts  were  to  be  judged  as 
made  "in  contemplation  of  death"  and  M>  wen- 
liable  to  the  tax.  ft  was  difficult  for  the  State 
to  prove  that  such  transfers  of  piopcrtv  were 
made  in  contemplation  of  death,  and  thp*court« 
consistently  held  that  the  burden  of  such  proof 
rested  on  the  State.  The  result  \uis  that  the 
State  did  not  often  try  to  show  that  "transfers 
of  property  were  in  contemplation  of  death." 
The  Federal  inheritance  tax:  yielded  $10.'i,(>:i.V 
000  in  1920,  which  was  1.8  per  cent  of  the  total 
revenue. 

Taxation  in  States.  The  decade  1914-24 
saw  four  noteworthy  developments  in  State  tax- 
ation. First,  State  taxes  were  increased;  sec- 
ondly, the  income  tax  was  increasingly  used  in 
different  States;  thirdly,  State  inheritance 
taxes  grew;  fourthly,  returns  from  automobile 
taxes  increased. 

TncrcaHe  in  Ktate  Taxation.  In  1910  the 
total  receipts  from  State  taxes  were  approx- 
imately $254,000,000.  By  1915  this  had  in- 
creased to  $352,000,000.  In  1920  the  grand 
total  of  State  receipts  from  taxes  was  $092,000,- 
000.  A  part  of  this  great  increase  was  due  to 
the  decline  in  the  purchasing  power  of  the  dol- 
lar. Some  part  of  the  increase  in  1920  was  due 
to  the  War,  but  the  Federal  government  bore 
the  main  burden  of  the  war  expenditures.  Of 
the  total  revenue  received  by  the  States  in  1920, 
the  receipts  from  taxes  comprised  about  78  per 
cent.  Oi  the  total  receipts  from  taxes,  the 
general  property  tax  yielded  about  45  per  cent. 
Business  taxes,  including  taxes  on  corporations, 


TAXATION 


"79 


TAXATION 


licenses,  and  insurance  companies,  yielded  23.3 
per  cent.  Inheritance  taxes  yielded  8.6  per 
cent,  and  taxes  on  corporations,  8.1  per  cent. 
Non business  licenses  yielded  9.1  of  the  total 
income  from  taxes.  The  yield  from  miscella- 
neous taxes  was  5.9  per  cent.  Two  important 
items  of  State  expenditure  are  education  and 
highways.  In  the  table  below  the  percentages 
of  expenditure  for  these  two  items  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  figures  given  above. 

PERCENTAGE  DISTRIBUTION  OP  EXPENDI- 
TURES,  1910-15-20 

1910     1915      1920 
100         100         100 


Total  State  Expenditure 

Education    

High*  ays    

Other     


37  6  32.4  30.1 

4.4  12.7  22  0 

58.0  54.9  47.9 

Total  State  and  local  expenditure  100  100  100 

Education    25.5  26  1  27.6 

Highways    16.2  174  192 

Other    58.3  56.5  53.2 


Total  local  expenditure 


100         100         100 


Education    26.6        276       29.6 

Highways    17.9        18.2        18.5 

Other 55.5        54.2       519 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  percentage  of 
expenditure  of  the  States  for  education  in  1910 
u«s  much  lower  than  that  of  1020.  The  per- 
centage spent  on  highways  increased  from  4.4 
in  11)10  to  22  in  1920.  When  we  consider  the 
combined  expenditure  of  State  and  local  gov- 
ernments, we  find  that  the  percentage  spent  for 
education  increased,  although  not  so  rapidly  as 
that  for  highways. 

Ntatr  Income  Tax.  The  use  of  an  income  tax 
by  States  is  not  nn  innovation.  Pennsylvania 
in  IS 40,  Maryland  in  1842,  Massachusetts  as  a 
colony  in  10112  and  as  a  commonwealth  in  1821, 
South  Carolina  in  1868,  Georgia  in  1803,  and 
other  States  experimented  with  income  taxes. 
Interest  in  this  form  of  taxation  was  reawak- 
ened by  its  revival.  The  Wisconsin  tax,  which 
went  into  effect  in  1911,  has  been  the  best- 
known.  Massachusetts  reint  roduced  the  in- 
come tax  in  1016.  In  1910  four  other  States 
introduced  the  income  tax,  and  in  1020  New 
York  also  put  into  effect  a  very  thorough -going 
income  tax  law.  The  majority  of  the  States 
which  have  adopted  income  taxes  used  progres- 
sive rates.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  States 
should  not  use  this  form  of  taxation,  provided 
the  problems  of  double  taxation  can  be  definite- 
ly settled.  The  difficulty  does  not  lie  so  much 
in  the  double  taxation  that  exists  in  Federal 
and  State  income  taxation,  as  in  deciding  the 
principles  of  levy.  Shall  the  tax  be  levied  on 
one  who  resides  in  one  State  but  carries  on 
business  in  another  State  in  which  the  income 
tax  exists?  Tf  the  income  tax  exists  in  both 
States,  should  an  individual  be  required  to  pay 
in  both  States?  Tf  the  individual  receives  part 
of  his  income  from  business  outside  the  State, 
shall  he  pay  on  all  his  income  or  only  on  that 
part  which  is  earned  within  the  State?  Per- 
haps he  may  own  shares  of  a  corporation  lo- 
cated in  one  State  and  place  them  in  a  safety 
deposit  box  in  a  different  State  from  that  in 
which  he  resides.  Should  he  then  be  called  on 
to  pay  taxes  on  the  same  income  in  three 
States?  These  questions  reveal  the  difficulties 
of  State  income  taxation.  Much  injustice  is 
resulting  because  of  a  lack  of  comity  between 
the  various  States.  Very  definite  principles 

4* 


should  be  adopted  which  would  apply  to  them 
all. 

State  Inheritance  Tax.  In  1919  State  in- 
heritance taxation  yielded  $45,770,000.  This 
was  8.6  per  cent  of  the  whole  yield  from  taxes. 
There  has  been  an  increase  in  the  number  of 
States  using  inheritance  taxation.  In  1890  only 
six  States  had  inheritance  taxation,  and  this 
was  levied  only  on  collateral  heirs.  The  tax- 
ation of  direct  heirs  came  later.  By  1000,  21 
States  had  adopted  such  taxation;  by  1010,  38 
States;  and  by  1024  only  Alabama  and  Florida 
were  without  inheritance  taxes.  Practically 
all  the  States  levying  a  direct  inheritance  tax 
use  the  progressive  principle  Frequently  the 
rates  increase  more  rapidly  with  remoteness  of 
relationship.  Where  the  relationship  is  collat- 
eral, the  exemptions  are  usually  low.  \Vhere 
the  relationship  is  direct,  the  exemptions  are 
much  higher. 

Automobile  Taxes.  The  returns  to  the  States 
from  the  taxation  of  automobiles  was  rapidly 
becoming-  very  important  According  to  recent 
governmental  statistics,  there  were  in  the  United 
States  about  12,500,000  motor  vehicles,  almost 
11,000,000  private  passenger  cars,  about  1.300,- 
000  motor  trucks  and  commercial  cars,  and  183,- 
000  motorcycles.  The  returns  for  all  States, 
from  registration,  approximated  $150,000,000 
Automobiles  were  also  taxed  in  other  wajs 
than  by  registration  licenses.  In  certain  States 
and  municipalities,  individuals  were  taxed  for 
licenses  to  drive  for  hire.  In  certain  munici- 
palities there  was  a  set  tax  on  automobile* 
for  the  upkeep  of  roads.  A  number  of  States 
had  taxes  on  gasoline,  and  while  this  sort  of 
tax  bade  fair  to  yield  increasingly  large  sums, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  also  that  automobiles 
entail  increasing  expenditures  for  the  upkeep 
of  roads  and  the  construction  of  new  highways. 

Municipal  Taxation.  More  than  one-third' of 
the  people  of  the  United  States  live  in  cities 
of  over  30,000  population.  As  cities  grow  in 
size,  the  per  capita  cost  of  rendering  service  in- 
creases, rather  than  decreases.  The  per  capita 
cost  payment  of  140  cities  in  1015  was  $34  53. 
By  1010  this  had  increased  to  $35.58.  Some 
of  the  important  per  capita  items  of  expense 
for  all  cities  in  the  United  States  for  1010 
were:  schools,  $6.88;  general  governmental  ex- 
pense, $2.22;  police  department,  $2.33;  sanita- 
tion, $1.70;  highways,  $2.04.  The  cities  ob- 
tained their  revenue  from  a  variety  of  sources. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  total  revenue  was  de- 
rived from  the  general  property  tax.  Of  the 
amount  derived  from  taxes,  01.3  per  cent  was 
derived  from  general  and  special  property  taxes ; 
.2  per  cent  from  poll  taxes;  and  8.5  per  cent 
from  nonbusiness  taxes.  During  the  decade 
1014-24  certain  reforms  were  organized  in  muni- 
cipal finance.  First,  many  cities  established  a 
budgetary  system.  The  overloading  of  expendi- 
tures bv  different  departments  was  avoided  by 
establishing  a  central  purchasing  department  for 
the  city.  In  New  York  City  the  effort  was 
made  to  avoid  the  duplication  of  records  kept 
by  different  departments  by  centralizing  the 
auditing  and  collecting  departments  under 
one  control.  Secondly,  the  cities  issued  large 
amounts  of  bonds.  Many  of  them  had  great 
difficulty  in  meeting  their  interest  and  prin- 
cipal obligations  wnen  they  fell  due.  Muni- 
cipalities were  encouraged  to  issue  bonds  dur- 
ing the  period  of  high  expenditures  by  their 
ability  to  issue  tax-exempt  bonds.  The  grand 


TAXONOMY 


za8o 


TELEPHONY 


total  of  obligations  of  this  sort  had  become 
very  great  and  was  rapidly  increasing. 

The  limitations  which  many  cities  put  on 
their  borrowing  power  do  not  seem  sufficient 
protection  again  fit  very  heavy  municipal  in- 
debtedness for  future  generations.  The  whole 
problem  of  municipal  borrowing  requires  care- 
ful analysis  and  necessitates  the  formulation  of 
principles  of  future  municipal  finance. 

For  taxation  in  other  countries,  see  articles 
on  those  countries.  See  also  FINANCE  AND 
BANKINO  and  TARIFF. 

TAXONOMY.    See  ZOOLOGY. 

TAYLOR,  HENRY  CHARLES  (1873-  ). 
An  American  agricultural  economist,  born  at 
Stockport,  Iowa,  and  educated  at  Drake  Uni- 
versity, Iowa  State  College,  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  and  abroad.  In  1901  he  was  instruc- 
tor in  commerce  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin 
and  from  1908  to  1919  chairman  of  the  depart- 
ment of  agricultural  economics.  From  1919  to 
1921  he  was  chief  of  the  Office  of  Farm  Manage- 
ment, in  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  in  1921-22,  chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Markets  and  Crop  Estimates.  He 
became  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Agricultural 
Economics  in  1922.  He  was  the  author  of  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Agricultural  Econom- 
ics  (1905)  and  Agricultural  Economics  (1919). 

TAYLOR,  (JOSEPH)  DEEMS  (1885-  ). 
An  American  composer  and  critic,  born  in  New 
York  City.  He  received  his  musical  education 
from  O.  Coon  in  New  York.  In  1916  he  was 
war  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune  and 
from  1917  to  1921  associate  editor  of  Collier's 
Weekly.  In  1921  he  succeeded  James  Huneker 
as  music  critic  for  the  New  York  World.  His 
compositions  include  a  symphonic  poem,  The 
Siren  Song;  the  choral  works  with  orchestra, 
The  Chambered  Nautilus  and  The  Highwayman; 
an  orchestral  suite,  Through  the  Look  ing -Glass ; 
and  songs.  He  contributed  a  paper  on  music  to 
Civilization  in  the  United  States  (1921). 

TCHEBEPNIN,  NIKOLAI  NIKOLAIEVITCH 
(1873-  ).  A  Russian  composer,  born  at 
Petrograd.  He  studied  composition  under  Rim- 
sky-Korsakov  at  the  Conservatory  there.  In 
1901  he  became  conductor  of  the  Belaiev  Sym- 
phony Concerts  and  professor  at  the  Conserva- 
tory. His  works  consist  of  the  ballets,  Armi- 
das  Paiillon,  Xarcissus,  and  The  Mas</ue  of  the 
Red  Death  (after  Poe)  ;  a  symphonic  poem, 
Narciftse  et  Echo;  a  prelude  to  Rostand's  La 
Princess?  Lointaine;  a  suite,  Le  Jardin  En- 
chante;  Scene  dans  la  Cavern e  des  Rorcivres 
(after  Macbeth)  ;  Fantaisie  Dramatique;  Ga- 
votte; Pocme  Lyrique  for  violin  and  orchestra; 
a  piano  concerto;  a  string  quartet;  several 
choral  works  with  orchestra;  choruses  a  cap- 
pella;  piano  pieces;  songs,  and  duets. 

TEACHEBS'  COLLEGE.  See  COLUMBIA' 
UNIVERSITY. 

TEA3DALE,  SARA  (MRS.  ERNST  B. 
FILSINGER)  (1884-  ).  An  American  poet, 
born  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  privately  educated. 
She  spent  several  years  in  travel  Her  work 
has  a  charming  lyric  quality  and  fine  rhythmic 
feeling.  Her  books  include:  Sonnets  to  Duse 
and  Other  Poems  (1907);  Helen  of  Troy  and 
Oiher  Poems  (1911) ;  Rivers  to  the  Sea  (1915)  ; 
Love  Songs  (1917)  ;  Flame  and  Shadow  (1920). 
She  edited  The  Answering  Voice:  One  Hun- 
dred Love  Lyrics  by  Women  (1917). 

TEETH  AND  DISEASE.  See  RHEUM  A- 
TISM,  CHRONIC. 


TELEGRAPHY.  The  War  spurred  the 
engineers  of  the  telegraph  companies  to  get  as 
much  service  out  of  each  line  of  wire  as  pos- 
sible. To  this  end  there  was  a  notable  de- 
velopment, both  in  quantity  and  quality,  of 
printing  telegraph  systems  and  multiplex  tele- 
graph systems  and  the  use  of  vacuum-tube  re- 
peaters During  the  War  the  United  States 
Signal  Corps  installed  a  very  elaborate  telegraph 
system  in  France,  in  which  the  printing  tele- 
graph was  very  generally  used.  In  1920  the 
Western  Union  Company  used  printing  tele- 
graphs for  80  per  cent  of  its  trunk  line  traffic. 
Printing  telegraph  systems  depend  for  their 
operation  on  the  maintenance  of  absolute  syn- 
chronism between  two  rotating  elements  at  the 
respective  ends  of  the  line.  This  is  obtained  by 
special  short  impulses  of  current  sent  two  or 
more  times  per  revolution  and  by  the  use 
of  tuning-forks.  The  printing  systems  in  use 
in  1924  were  of  two  types,  "continuous  syn- 
chronism" and  "start-stop  "  In  the  former,  as 
its  name  implies,  the  devices  arc  in  continuous 
operation  In  the  latter  the  device  is  started 
for  each  letter.  Sending  is  accomplished  by 
a  machine  using  a  prepared  tape  which  is  made 
up  on  a  machine  operated  like  a  typewriter. 
From  50  to  (JO  words  per  minute  may  be 
sent  by  one  machine,  and  by  usiii£  multiplex 
combined  with  printing,  as  many  as  800  mes- 
sages per  hour  may  be  transmitted  over  one 
wire.  The  messages  are  received  ready  for 
delivery  and  the  frequency  of  errors  is  re- 
duced. 

It  became  a  regular  practice  to  use  telephone 
circuits  simultaneously  for  telegraph  purposes. 
By  the  use  of  induction  coils  to  choke  out  the 
high-frequency  telephone  currents  and  of  con- 
densers to  stop  the  direct  currents  of  the  tele- 
graph, these  two  types  of  currents  may  be 
sent  over  the  same  wire  simultaneously  and 
separated  at  the  receiving  end.  A  single  pair 
of  wires  may  serve  for  two  telegraph  circuits 
and  one  telephone  circuit.  By  means  of  carrier 
currents  the  number  of  telephone  conversations 
may  lie  increased.  In  submarine  cable  telegra- 
phy machine  sending  and  receiving  became  the 
usual  practice  and  the  use  of  vacuum-tube  re- 
peaters and  amplifiers  made  it  possible  to  carry 
messages  direct  from  one  city  terminus  to  an- 
other without  manual  repeating  in  between; 
thus  there  is  direct  connection  between  New 
York  and  London.  Telephone,  telegraph,  and 
cable  engineers  united  to  standardize  the  terms, 
definitions,  and  phraseology  of  the  entire  ait 
of  communication,  and  this  work  was  published 
by  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
gineers  (1922).  Consult  McNicoll,  American 
Telegraph  Practice,  and  Kingsbury,  The  Tele- 
graph and  Telephone  Exchanges.  See  RADIO 
TEI  FOB  A  PHY. 

TELEPHONY.  In  1917  there  were  in  the 
United  States  11,716,000  telephones  connected 
to  21,175  central  stations  by  28,000,000  miles 
of  wire.  They  were  used  in  that  year  for  21,- 
846,000,000  messages  or  at  the  rate  of  about 
six  messages  per  day  per  telephone.  In  1921 
this  had  increased  to  13,875,000  telephones,  about 
63  per  cent  of  the  total  for  the  whole  world. 
By  Jan.  1,  1924,  there  was  a  further  increase 
to  more  than  15,000,000  telephones  in  the  United 
States  and  35,000,000  miles  of  wire,  of  which 
88  per  cent  was  in  the  form  of  cables.  Two- 
thirdg  of  the  cable  was  underground;  one-third 
was  aerial.  The  War  was  a  great  stimulus  to 


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the  art  of  communication  because  of  it*  impor- 
tance to  the  military  forces  of  the  nation. 
This  had  its  effect  not  only  in  bringing  into 
regular  practical  service  devices  such  as  the 
vacuum-tube  repeater  which  were  previously  in 
an  experimental  stage,  but  in  expediting  co- 
ordination of  available  facilities  and  improving 
the  reliability  and  capacity  of  existing  systems. 
Before  the  United  States'  entrance  into  the  War 
the  vacuum-tube  repeater  (three-electrode  ther- 
mionic tube)  had  been  used  in  long-distance 
telephony,  thereby  making  possible  successful 
communication  between  New  York  and  San 
Francisco  (1910).  To  improve  the  reliability 
of  the  long-distance  service  and  to  prevent  in- 
terruption by  storms,  most  of  the  wires  used 
in  this  service  were  combined  into  cables  con- 
taining many  pairs  of  wires,  well  insulated  and 
protected,  and  strung  on  steel  cables  hung  on 
the  poles. 

While  good  communication  over  long  dis- 
tances could  be  obtained  over  open-air  lines  by 
the  use  of  repeaters,  the  introduction  of  cables 
called  for  a  greater  use  of  "loading  coils/' 
These  are  induction  coils  connected  in  series 
with  each  of  a  pair  of  wires  at  regular  intervals 
in  order  to  counteract  the  capacity  of  the  wires, 
which  in  cables  is  great,  and  to  increase  the 
pfliciency  of  transmission.  Loading  coils  have 
been  used  since  1900,  particularly  for  under- 
ground arid  submarine  cables,  but  the  more  gen- 
cm!  line  of  cables  since  1014  stimulated  the  de- 
velopment both  of  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
loading  coils.  New  magnetic  materials  such  as 
permalloy  were  developed  for  the  core,  and 
new  forum  such  us  powdered  iron  alloy  came  into 
use.  For  submarine  cables  permalloy  tape  is 
wound  spirally  around  the  wires  to  give  con- 
tin  nous  loading  as  distinguished  from  the 
"lumped  loading"  of  coils  The  increase  in  the 
lino  of  telephones  in  the  large  cities  brought 
about  the  development  of  cables  containing  1200 
pairs  of  wires  of  #24  B  &  S  gage  in  a  cable  hav- 
ing nn  outside  diameter  of  two  and  five-eighths 
indies,  including  the  lead  armor.  This  is  a 
means  of  increasing  the  capacity  of  the  under- 
ground duct  laid  and  standardized  in  size 
many  years  before.  The  insulation  of  these 
wires  consists  of  very  thin  paper  of  a  special 
character,  having  very  low  specific  inductive 
capacity  and  low  losses.  Automatic  telephone 
exchanges  had  been  in  service  in  isolated  instal- 
lations of  moderate  size  for  some  years,  but 
in  the  interval  since  1920  their  development 
and  increased  use  was  remarkable.  The  inde- 
pendent companies  used  them  first  in  locations 
where  the  service  was  not  very  complicated, 
such  as  towns  with  one  central  station.  In 
1921  the  Bell  system  installed  its  first  auto- 
matic central  in  Omaha,  and  on  Jan.  1,  1924, 
the  Bell  system  had  30  such  stations  serving 
185,000  subscribers  in  17  cities.  The  earlier 
installations,  by  independent  companies,  were 
of  the  so-called  step-by-step  system,  but  these 
were  largely  superseded  by  the  panel  type  sys- 
tem which  became  the  standard  of  the  Bell 
system. 

'  The  principal  and  outstanding  features  of 
the  panel  system  include  a  device  on  the  sub- 
scriber's instrument  for  transmitting  a  series 
of  a  definite  number  of  successive  impulses  of 

urrent  corresponding  to  the  number  of  the  party 
called.  A  line  finder,  at  the  central  station 
called,  is  a  selector  whose  function  is  to  find 
a  terminal  of  a  particular  line  on  which  a  call 


originates  out  of  a  group  with  which  it  is 
associated,  and  to  connect  a  "first  selecter"  and 
a  "sender"  to  that  line.  A  comparatively  large 
number  of  subscribers'  lines  may  be  served  by 
a  comparatively  small  number  of  line  finders. 
The  line  finder  finds  the  calling  line  and  con- 
nects the  selecter  and  sender  thereto.  The 
"sender"  switch  receives  the  electrical  impulses 
from  a  subscriber's  dial  on  a  decimal  basis, 
stores  them,  and  translates  them  to  a  nondeci- 
mal  basis  corresponding  to  the  particular  group 
of  lines  and  trunks  involved  in  the  path  of  the 
call.  The  sender  replaces  the  intelligence  of  the 
operator.  The  "selecter"  switch,  controlled  by 
the  sender,  has  the  duty  of  selecting  a  particular 
group  of  trunks  and  one  trunk  of  that  group.  It 
has  the  same  function  as  tho  switchboard  plug 
and  cord,  which  in  a  manual  station  can  be 
plugged  bv  the  operator  into  any  one  of  a 
number  of  jacks  which  are  the  terminals  of 
trunks  or  lines.  There  are  "district  selecters," 
"incoming  selecters,"  and  "final  selectors"  in 
the  circuit,  in  the  order  named,  from  the  call- 
ing line  to  the  called  line.  The  district  selec- 
ter selects  a  trunk  to  the  proper  exchange, 
either  the  home  or  a  distant  exchange.  The 
incoming  selecter  selects  a  trunk  to  the  out- 
going board  of  the  same  exchange.  The  final 
selector  selects  the  terminals  of  the  line  of  the 
called  party.  The  accompanying  figure  is  an 
elementary  diagram  of  the  circuit  and  tho 
principal  devices  in  a  circuit  using  the  panel 
type  of  machine  switching,  from  Morehouse, 
Graft,  and  Charlesworth,  in  the  Transactions 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Electrical  En- 
gineers (1923). 


DIAGRAM       SHOWING      CONNECTIONS      FROM      MACHINE 
SWITCHING     TO     MA  CHINK     SWITCHING,     MACHINE 
SWITCHING   TO   MANUAL,    AND   MANUAL   TO   MA- 
CHINE  SWITCHING 

Carrier  Current  Telephony.  This  name  was 
given  to  the  method  of  transmitting  telephone 
messages  by  means  of  modulated  high-frequency 
currents,  similar  to  radio  currents  but  of  a  fre- 
quency of  the  order  of  10,000  to  50,000  cycles 
and  sent  over  a  wire.  By  this  means  several 
telephone  messages  using  carrier  waves  of  differ- 
ent frequencies  may  be  sent  simultaneously  over 
the  same  line  and  separated  at  the  receiving  end 
by  suitable  tuning  devices  such  as  are  used  in 
radio  tuning.  In  1919  Baltimore  and  Pitts- 
burgh were  connected  by  a  cable  using  this 
scheme,  which  provides  simultaneous  service  for 
five  telephone  messages  and  duplex  telegraph 
service  over  one  pair  of  wires.  By  means  of 
rectifier  (detecter)  and  amplifier  tubes,  these 
telephone  messages  may  be  sent  on  further  on 
separate  lines.  Carrier  current  telephony  in 
1924  was  being  used  to  send  telephone  messages 


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over  trolley  wires  and  high-tension  transmis- 
sion lines  without  interfering  with  the  usual 
service  of  the  lines.  In  1921  a  telephone  cable 
was  put  in  service  between  Key  West  and 
Havana,  a  distance  of  105  miles,  the  longest 
submarine  telephone  cable  in  service  up  to  1924. 
By  means  of  carrier  currents  and  multiplex 
telegraphy,  several  telephone  and  telegraph  mes- 
sages may  be  sent  simultaneously,  as  described 
above.  Messages  from  anywhere  on  the  conti- 
nent may  be  sent  over  this  cable  by  direct 
connection 

The  subject  of  inductive  interference  has 
been  of  great  interest  to  the  telephone  and  tele- 
graph engineers.  It  relates  to  the  unfavorable 
effects  which  the  large  currents  and  high 
voltages  of  power  transmission  lines  have  on 
communication  circuits  These  effects  are  three- 
fold: electromagnetic,  due  to  the  large  currents; 
electrostatic,  due  to  the  high  voltages;  and  stray 
currents,  due  to  grounds.  This  matter  in  1924 
was  being  given  careful  scientific  study  by  a 
committee  representing  all  concerned,  with  the 
expectation  of  devising  regulations  which  would 
obviate  the  troubles  and  be  fair  to  all  con- 
cerned. 

Public  Address  System.  This  is  a  develop- 
ment incidental  to  telephony  and  radio.  Com- 
munication is  made  possible  by  the  invention  and 
improvement  of  amplifying  tubes  and  poweiful 
loud  speakers.  Its  first  notable  demonstration 
was  on  Armistice  Day  in  192!,  on  the  occasion 
of  the  address  bv  President  Harding  at  Arling- 
ton Cemetery,  his  voice  was  carried  by  tele- 
phone to  New  York  and  San  Francisco,  where 
it  was  amplified  and  broadcast  by  numerous 
powerful  loud  speakers  to  audiences  of  many 
thousands. 

Photographs  Transmitted  by  Wire.  In 
1924  the  American  Telephone  and  Telegraph 
Company  gave  the  first  public  demonstration  of 
sending  "photographs  by  wire  between  Cleveland 
and  New  York.  This  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  rotating  cylinders  at  the  respective  ends  of 
the  line,  held  in  exact  synchronism  by  impulses 
of  carrier  currents  At  the  sending  end  a  trans- 
parent film  picture  is  placed  on  the  cylinder  and 
a  very  fine  beam  of  light  is  sent  through  the 
film  and  moved  along  the  rotating  cylinder  in 
the  manner  used  in  talking-machines,  moving 
one  inch  axially  for  65  turns  of  the  cylinder. 
The  beam  of  light  varies  in  intensity,  depend- 
ing on  the  opacity  of  the  various  portions  of 
the  picture  through  which  it  passes,  and  im- 
pinging on  a  photo-electric  cell,  it  causes  a  cor- 
responding variation  in  the  intensity  of  the  cur- 
rent transmitted  to  the  distant  end.  There  a 
film  is  set  on  the  cylinder  behind  a  slit  on 
which  a  steady  light  is  thrown.  The  slit  is 
opened  wide  when  a  large  current  is  transmitted 
and  closes  for  a  weak  current.  The  light 
through  the  slit  traces  a  spiral  line  on  the  film, 
thick  or  thin,  depending  on  the  intensity  of  the 
current  received,  which,  when  developed,  gives 
the  gradations  of  the  original  picture  The 
general  effect  is  that  of  a  line  engraving.  A 
5X7  picture  is  transmitted  in  5  minutes,  not 
including  the  time  of  development.  Consult 
Jan  sky,  Principles  of  the  Telephone:  Kings- 
bury,  The  Telegraph  and  Telephone  Kxchanqes; 
Miller,  Telephone  Practice;  Mitchell,  Principles 
and  Practice  of  Telephony.  See  TELEGRAPHY; 
RADIO  TELEPHONY. 

TEMPERATURE.    See  METEOROLOGY. 

TEMPLE  UNIVERSITY.     A  coeducational 


institution  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  founded  in  1884. 
The  student  enrollment  increased  from  3579  in 
1915  to  9609  in  1923;  the  faculty  increased 
likewise  from  290  in  the  earlier  year  to  450  in 
latter,  and  the  number  of  volumes  in  the  library 
from  9200  to  25,615.  In  1920,  gifts  and  pledges 
were  received  to  the  amount  of  $300,000  for  a 
new  building.  President,  Russell  H.  Conwell, 
D.D.,  LL.D. 

TENNANT,  DAVID  HILT  (1873-  ).  An 
American  zoologist,  born  at  Janesville,  Wis., 
and  educated  at  Olivet  College  and  at  Johns 
Hopkins  University.  He  was  lecturer  in  biol- 
ogy (1904-05),  associate  (1905-06),  associate 
professor  ( 1900-12),  and  professor  (1912-  ) 
at  Bryn  Mawr  College.  Professor  Tennant  was 
a  member  of  various  expeditions  of  the  Carnegie 
Institution  to  the  West  Indies,  Australia,  and 
Japan  His  published  work  was  on  the  de- 
velopment of  paiasitic  worms  and  experimental 
studies  on  hybridization  of  echinoderma. 

TENNESSEE.  Tennessee  is  the  thirty- 
fourth  State  in  size  (42,022  square  miles),  and 
the  nineteenth  in  population;  capital,  Nashville. 
The  population  increased  from  2,184,789  in  1910 
to  2,337,885  in  1920,  a  gain  of  7  per  cent.  The 
white  population  increased  from  1,711,432  to 
1,885,993;  the  Negro  population,  on  the  other 
hand,  decreased  from  473,088  to  451,758  The 
native  whites  increased  from  1,692,973  to  1,- 
870,515,  while  the  foreign-born  population  de- 
creased from  18,450  to  15,478.  The  urban 
population  of  the  State  rose  from  441,045  to 
611,220;  the  rural  decreased  from  1,743,744  to 
1,726,659.  The  growth  of  the  principal  cities 
was  as  follows:  Memphis  (qv),  131,105  in 
iniO  to  162,351  in  1920;  Nashville  (q.v.),  110,- 
364  to  118,342;  Knoxville,  36,346  to  77,818; 
Chattanooga,  44,604  to  57,895. 

Agriculture.  Tennessee  is  one  of  the  minor 
cotton-producing  States,  and  while  the  boll 
weevil  invaded  the  southwestern  part  in  1921- 
22,  its  effects  had  not  been  very  serious,  the 
cold  of  winter  serving  largely  to  keep  it  in 
check.  A  comparison  of  acreage  and  produc- 
tion of  cotton  for  general  years  is  given  below: 
in  1913,  acreage  865,000,  production  379,000 
bales;  1915,  772,000,  303,000  bales;  1917;  882,- 
000,  240000  bales;  1020,  840,000,  325,000  bales; 
1922,  1,007,000,  400,000  bales.  The  estimated 
production  for  1023  was  340,000  bales. 

While  the  population  of  the  State  increased  7 
per  cent  in  the  decade,  the  number  of  farms  in- 
creased only  2.7  per  cent  (from  246,012  in  1910 
to  252,774  in  1920).  The  acreage  of  land  in 
farms  decreased  from  20,041,657  to  19,510,856,  or 
2  6  per  cent,  but  the  improved  land  in  farms  in- 
creased from  10,890,484  to  11,185,302  acres,  or 
2.7  per  cent.  The  value  of  all  farm  property 
apparently  increased  1044  per  cent,  or  from 
$612,520,836  in  1910  to  $1,251,964,585  in  1920; 
the  average  value  per  farm  from  $2490  to  $4953. 
In  interpreting  these  values,  and  all  compara- 
tive values  in  the  decade  1914-24,  the  inflation 
of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of  that  period 
is  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  index 
number  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of  farm 
products  in  the  United  States  was  104  in  1910 
and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  252,774  farms  in 
1920,  148,082  were  operated  by  owners,  807 
by  managers,  and  103,885  by  tenants.  The  cor- 
responding figures  for  1910  were  144,125,  826, 
and  101,061.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered 
214,592,  and  colored  farmers,  38,182.  In  1910, 
the  white  farmers  numbered  207,704;  colored 


TENNESSEE 


1283 


TENNESSEE 


farmers,  38,308.  There  was  a  decrease  in 
colored  population,  1010-20,  amounting  to  4.5 
per  cent,  which  affected  the  farm  labor  situa- 
tion. Farms  free  from  mortgage  in  1920 
numbered  105,128,  and  those  under  mortgage, 
32,204;  in  1910,  118,285  farms  were  free  from 
mortgage  and  24,000  mortgaged.  Cattle  in  1920 
numbered  1,161,840,  of  which  609,300  were 
dairy  cattle.  In  1910  the  cattle  numbered  996,- 
529;  dairy  cattle,  397,104.  Sheep,  in  1920,  num- 
bered 364,196,  compared  with  793,033  in  1910. 
Hogs  had  increased  in  number  from  1,387,938 
to  1,832.307.  The  estimated  production  of  the 
principal  farm  products  in  1923  was  as  follows: 
corn,  78,589,000  bushels;  wheat,  4,508,000  bu- 
Hhels;  oats,  4,345,000  bushels ;  potatoes,  2,728,- 
000  bushels;  sweet  potatoes,  3,850,000  bushels; 
tobacco,  121,922,000  pounds;  hay,  1,502,000  tons; 
peanuts,  1,006,000  bushels.  Comparative  fig- 
ures, for  1913,  are:  corn,  68,073,000  bushels; 
wheat,  8,400,000;  oats,  6,300,000;  potatoes,  2,- 
432,000;  hay,  1,089,000  tons;  and  tobacco,  64,- 
800,000  pounds. 

Mining.  The  principal  mineral  products  of 
the  State  are  coal,  cement,  and  day  products. 
During  the  decade  1!)  14-24  tbe  production  of 
coal  remained  fairty  constant,  as  will  be  noted 
in  the  following  figures.  5.943,238  tons  in  1914, 
valued  at  $0,770,573;  5,730,301  in  1015,  $6,- 
479,910;  6,137,441)  in  1916,  $7,522,445;  6.194,- 
221  in  1917,  $13,592,91)8;  6,831,048  in  1918, 
$19,305,203;  6,662,428  in  11)20,  $1*6,778,000 ;  4.- 
400,326  in  1921,  $14,932,000,  4,870,774  in  1022. 
The  falling  off  in  production  in  the  last  two 
years  of  the  period  was  due  chiefly  to  the  coal 
miners'  strike  in  1921.  It  will  be  noted  that 
while  the  production  of  coal  remained  practi- 
cally constant  during  the  decade,  the  value  in 
the  latter  years  greatly  increased.  This  is  due 
chiefly  to  conditions  resulting  from  the  scarcity 
of  coal,  and  partly  to  the  inflated  condition  of 
tho  currency.  The  copper  output  during  the 
decade  varied  from  18,001,112  pounds  smelted 
in  1914  to  14,556,278  in  1016,  15.053,508  in 
1018:  16,727,803  in  1920;  14,220,232  in  1022. 
The  total  value  of  the  mineral  products  of  the 
State  was  $33.754,823  in  1921;  $55,023,232  in 
1020;  $37,134,899  in  1919;  $39,229,614  in  1918; 
and  $19,647,145  in  1914. 

Manufactures.  The  industrial  development 
of  Tennessee  was  rapid  in  later  years.  There 
were,  in  1920,  six  cities  with  more  than  10,000 
inhabitants,  and  containing  19.2  per  cent  of  the 
total  population  of  the  State  These  reported, 
in  1919,  56  7  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  State's 
manufactured  products.  In  1909  there  were  in 
the  State  4609  establishments;  4775  in  1914; 
and  4589  in  1919.  Persons  engaged  in  manu- 
facture numbered  87,672,  88,514,  and  113,300; 
and  the  capital  invested  amounted  to  $167,923,- 
784,  $211,423,167,  and  $410,203,443,  in  those 
years.  The  value  of  manufactured  products  in 
1909  was  $180,216,548;  in  1914,  $212,071,480; 
and  in  1919,  $556,253,162.  The  large  increase 
in  value  of  products  in  1914-19  was  due  large- 
ly to  changes  in  industrial  conditions  brought 
about  by  the  War,  and  cannot  be  properly 
used  to  measure  the  growth  of  manufactures 
during  the  period;  but  the  increase  in  number 
of  persons  employed  indicates  clearly  a  decided 
growth  in  the  manufacturing  activities  of  the 
State. 

Education.  Tennessee  has  the  same  educa- 
tional problems  with  which  all  the  southern 
States  are  obliged  to  contend:  a  large  rural 


population  combined  with  a  large  colored  popu- 
lation. Unusual  attention  was  given  to  these 
problems  in  the  decade  1913-23,  and  much  prog- 
ress was  made,  especially  in  the  latter  part 
of  that  period.  In  1923,  the  Legislature  passed 
a  measure  which  reorganized  to  a  large  extent 
the  school  system.  The  Department  of  Educa- 
tion was  created  to  supersede  the  Department 
of  Public  Instruction,  and  the  head  of  the  new 
department  was  called  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  rather  than  Superintendent  of  Public 
Instruction.  The  Legislature  of  1921  passed  a 
new  county  board  of  education  law,  under  the 
provisions  of  which  a  county  board  of  education 
consisting  of  seven  members  elected  for  a  term 
of  seven  years,  one  member  retiring  each  year, 
was  created.  The  same  Legislature  enacted  a 
measure  extending  the  term  of  office  of  the 
county  superintendent  to  four  ^ears  instead  of 
two  years.  TTiph  schools  increased  in  number 
and  efficiency  during  the  period.  They  are  un- 
der the  control  of  the  county  board  of  education 
and  operated  under  a  special  tax  levied  by  the 
county,  together  with  a  State  tax  and  a  supple- 
mentary appropriation  by  the  State.  In  1923, 
there  were  550  county  high  schools,  195  of 
them  being  standard  four-year  schools.  The 
State  system  of  elementary  schools  covers  every 
county  in  the  State.  Since  72  per  cent  of  the 
total  enrollment  in  the  public  schools  is  in  the 
rural  elementary  schools,  this  phase  of  the 
State's  educational  system  presents  the  most 
important  problem  and  is  most  difficult  of  solu- 
tion. Educational  agriculture  was  organi?ed  in 
the  State  in  1917-18.  At  that  time  there  were 
courses  in  12  schools  with  an  enrollment  of  189. 
This  increased  in  1923  to  04  schools  with  an 
enrollment  of  1789.  In  1913,  the  total  enroll- 
ment in  the  county  schools  was  439,854  (371,- 
948  white,  76,222  colored)  ;  while  60,390  white 
and  20,448  colored,  a  total  of  95,487,  were  en- 
rolled in  the  city  schools.  The  total  enroll- 
ment in  the  white  schools  in  1021  was  400,844; 
in  the  schools  for  coloied  pupils,  101,058.  or  a 
total  enrollment  of  568,802.  The  enrollment  in 
the  county  elementary  schools  was  437,577;  in 
the  county  high  schools,  20,920;  in  the  city  ele- 
mentary schools  there  were  enrolled  131,225, 
and  in 'the  city  high  schools,  15,906.  The  total 
expenditure  for  schools  in  1921  was  $13,412,857. 
The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State  de- 
creased from  16.3  in  1010  to  126  in  1020: 
nmong  the  native  "white  population  from  11  0 
to  9.2;  among  the  Negro,  from  33.3  to  23.9  per 
cent.  In  the  foreign-born  white  population  it 
increased  from  8  2  per  cent  to  S.7. 

Finance.  For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES 
Political  and  Other  Events.  The  State  po- 
litical control  for  the  most  part  during  the 
decade  1014-24  remained  Democratic.  Governor 
Hooper,  Republican,  uas  renominated  in  1914 
but  was  defeated  by  the  Democratic  candidate, 
Thomas  C.  Rye.  Important  measures  for  regu- 
lating the  sale  of  liquor,  passed  by  the  Legis- 
lature of  1013,  went  into  effect  on  Mar.  1,  1914. 
In  July.  1015,  affairs  of  the  city  of  Nashville 
went  into  the  hands  of  a  receiver,  after  the  dis- 
appearance of  11  cash  books  of  the  city,  cov- 
ering the  period  1908-12.  The  city  treasurer 
was  arrested,  charged  with  misappropriation  of 
municipal  funds.  The  Grand  Jury  in  June  re- 
turned indictments  against  the  finance  commis- 
sioner, the  comptroller,  and  the  assistant  city 
treasurer.  The  latter  officer  fled  to  Australia. 
In  1916  Governor  Rye  and  Senator  McKellar 


TENNESSEE 


1284 


TEBJCAN 


were  reflected.  In  the  presidential  voting  of 
this  year,  President  Wnson  received  152,955 
votes,  Charles  £.  Hughes,  116,257.  A  fire  in 
Nashville,  on  Mar.  22,  1916,  destroyed  600  build- 
ings and  caused  a  loss  of  more  than  $1,500,000 
Thomas  C.  Rye  was  for  a  second  time  reflected 
in  1918,  and  John  K.  Shields,  Democrat,  was  re- 
elected  to  the  Senate.  Tn  1918  A  H.  Roberts 
was  elected  governor  on  the  Democratic  ticket, 
but  in  1920  he  was  defeated  by  Alf  Taylor,  Re- 
publican, brother  of  the  late  Senator  and  Gov. 
Robert  L.  Taylor.  Gov.  Alf  Taylor  served  one 
term  and  was  defeated  by  Austin  Peay,  Demo- 
crat. In  the  presidential  voting  of  this  year, 
W  G  Harding  received  219,829  votes;  J.  M. 
Cox,  206,558.  State  control  again  passed  to 
the  Democrats  in  1922  Senator  McKellar  was 
reelected  Governor  Pcay  was  inaugurated  in 
January,  1923.  He  was  renominated  in  August, 
1924.  In  August,  1924,  Senator  Shields  was 
beaten  for  renomination  by  Gen.  L.  D  Tyson, 
a  Spanish-American  War  and  World  War 
veteran,  who  commanded  a  brigade  in  the  30th 
Division 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of  the 
Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  indicated 
below.  The  Legislature  of  1915  passed  several 
measures  designed  to  bring  about  stricter  en- 
forcement of  the  prohibition  law.  In  1917  pro- 
vision was  made  for  a  budget  system  and  for  a 
compulsory  system  of  party  primary  elections. 
A  general' prohibition  law  was  also  passed,  and 
the  insurance  laws  were  amended  in  important 
details.  The  laws  relating  to  health  were  also 
amended.  The  Legislature  of  1919  abolished  the 
death  penalty  for  murder  in  the  first  degree. 
By  a  provision  of  this  Legislature,  women  were 
permitted  to  vote  in  presidential  elections  A 
State  police  force  was  created,  and  a  workmen's 
compensation  law  was  passed.  The  Legislature 
of  1923  passed  a  measure  drafted  by  Governor 
Peay  for  the  consolidation  of  the  State's  activ- 
ities into  a  small  number  of  executive  depart- 
ments answerable  directly  to  the  governor. 
This  resulted  in  the  reorganization  of  the  gov- 
ernment under  nine  departments,  each  under  an 
executive  officer  appointed  by  the  governor,  thus 
centralizing  power  and  responsibility. 

TENNESSEE,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A  nonsec- 
tarian,  coeducational  institution  at  Knoxville, 
Tcnn.,  founded  in  1794.  The  Colleges  of  Medi- 
cine and  of  Dentistry  and  the  School  of  Phar- 
macy are  at  Memphis,  Tenn  The  university 
increased  its  student  enrollment  from  approxi- 
mately 1200  in  1916  to  1821  in  1923-24,  plus 
1019  in  the  summer  of  1923,  and  increased  its 
faculty  in  the  same  period  from  about  200 
to  271  members  and  the  library  from  40,000 
to  70,000  volumes  In  1917,  the  State  Legisla- 
ture authorized  a  bond  issue  of  $1,000,000  for 
new  buildings  and  improvements,  and  the  levy 
of  a  half  mill  tax  for  the  support  of  the  insti- 
tution. Harcourt  A.  Morgan,  B.S.A.,  LL.D , 
succeeded  Brown  Ayres,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  as  presi- 
dent in  1919. 

TENNIS.  The  growth  in  the  popularity  of 
tennis  has  been  phenomenal  and  world-wide 
during  the  decade  ending  with  1924.  If  base- 
ball be  entitled  to  be  called  America's  national 
game,  tennis  deserves  even  more  the  appella- 
tion of  the  "international  game"  The  competi- 
tion for  the  Davis  Cup,  emblematic  of  the  world's 
championship,  now  attracts  annually  entries 
from  a  score  of  countries,  whereas  in  former 
years  the  United  States,  various  divisions  of  the 


British  Empire  and  France,  alone  strove  for 
possession  of  this  trophy.  But  this  fact  in 
itself  gives  only  a  faint  indication  of  the  wide 
appeal  tennis  "is  making.  National  tourneys, 
sectional  tourneys,  intercity  matches,  college 
and  school  tourneys  and  thousands  upon  thou- 
sands of  club  tourneys  are  held  each  season 
practically  the  world  over. 

The  United  States  recovered  its  laurels  as 
the  premier  tennis  nation  in  1920  when  a  team 
consisting  of  William  T  Tilden  II  and  William 
M.  Johnston  journeyed  to  New  Zealand  and  re- 
captured the  Davis  Cup  by  defeating  the  Aus- 
tralasian defenders,  Norman  E.  Brookes  and 
Gerald  L.  Patterson.  The  United  States,  with 
Tilden  and  Johnston  again  l»earing  the  brunt  of 
the  burden,  successfully  defended  the  trophy  in 
1921,  1922  and  1923.  The  recently  offered 
Wightman  Cup,  an  international  trophy  for 
women  players,  also  was  won  in  1923  by  an 
American  team  consisting  of  Mrs.  Molla  Bjur- 
stedt  Mallory,  Miss  Helen  Wills,  Miss  Eleanor 
Goss  and  Mrs  Hazel  Hotchkiss  Wightman 
playing  against  an  English  team  comprising 
Miss  Kathleen  McKane,  Mrs  B  C  Covell,  Mrs. 
Geraldine  Beamish,  and  Mrs  R  C  Clayton. 
Mile.  Suzanne  Lenglen  of  France,  however,  has 
stood  out  for  several  years  as  the  cleverest 
woman  tennis  player,  easily  overcoming  the 
strongest  opponents  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  could  produce. 

The  United  States  Lawn  Tennis  Associa- 
tion, the  governing  body  of  amateur  tennis  in 
America,  enacted  a  rule  in  1924  barring  from 
competition  any  player  who  contributed  ar- 
ticles on  the  sport  to  the  press  or  magazines. 
This  so-called  player-writer  rule  bars  such  stars 
of  the  game  as  William  Tilden  IT  and  Vincent 
Richards  and  has  given  rise  to  somewhat  bitter 
controversy  It  was  provided  that  this  rule 
should  not  go  into  effect  until  1025,  but  Tilden 
soon  after  its  enactment  resigned  as  a  member 
of  the  Davis  Cup  team  Richards  also  tendered 
his  resignation  but  later  withdrew  it. 

Court  tennis,  racquets  and  squash,  all  in  a 
sense  allied  to  lawn  or  turf  tennis,  have  prof- 
ited by  the  advance  made  by  the  last  named 
sport  and  are  played  more  gcneially  than  ever 
before.  It  is  to  the  more  exclusive  clubs,  how- 
ever, that  their  popularity  is  chiefly  confined. 
In  court  tennis,  Jay  Gould  of  the  United  States, 
after  long  reigning  supreme,  met  defeat  in  1923 
at  the  hands  of  E.  M.  Baerlein  of  England  in 
the  play  for  the  BathurHt  Cup  in  France. 
George  F.  Covey  of  England  retained  the  world's 
professional  court  tennis  title  in  1923  by  defeat- 
ing Walter  Kinsella  of  the  United  States 
Jock  Soutar  of  the  United  States  remains  as  the 
world's  professional  racquets  champion.  See 
OLYMPIC  GAMES. 

TERATJCHI,  MABSHAL.  See  JAPAN,  His- 
tory. 

TEBMAN,  LEWIS  MADISON  (1877-  ). 
An  American  psychologist,  born  in  Johnson 
County,  Ind.,  and  educated  at  Clark  University. 
He  became  a  high  school  principal  in  Smith's 
Valley,  Ind.,  in  1898.  After  teaching  in  the 
California  State  Normal  School  in  LOB  Angeles 
he  went  to  Stanford  University  and  became  pro- 
fessor of  education  there  in  1910.  During  the 
War  he  acted  as  major  in  the  division  of  psy- 
chology in  the  Surgeon -General's  office  in  Wash- 
ington. He  was  also  a  member  of  a  board  of  five 
psychologists  appointed  to  revise  the  army  men- 
tal test  methods  for  use  in  schools. 


TESCHEN,  ZIPS,  AND  OBAVA  1285 


TEXAS 


TESCHEN,   ZIPS,   AND   OBAVA  QTJES-      cord  a  nee    witli    the    decision    of    the    Supreme 
TION8.     The    disposition    of   these    throe    din-      Council,  the  Council  of  Ambassadors  announced 


tricts,  the  first  up  to  1918  part  of  Austria  and 
the  second  and  third  of  Hungray,  occasioned  a 
serious  dispute  between  Poland  and  Czecho- 
slovakia. The  Duchy  of  Teschcn,  though  em- 
bracing only  an  area  of  2282  square  kilometers, 
but  possessing  great  mineral  wealth  of  coking 
and  gas  coal,  and  situated  on  the  more  important 
road  and  railway  arteries  of  Central  Europe,  oc- 
cupied a  place  of  first  rank.  In  1910  there 
were  settled  here  233,850  Poles,  115,604  Czechs, 
and  70,910  Germans.  It  is  important  to  note 
that  the  Polish  settlements,  largely  in  the  min- 
ing areas,  dated  back  only  to  the  last  half  of 
the  nineteenth  century  and  were  made  up  of 
immigrants  from  Western  Galicia  Poles  were 
in  the  majority  in  the  centre  and  east ;  in  the 
west  the  Czechs  were  most  numerous;  while  the 
Germans  were  settled  in  the  towns  (Bielitz, 
Teschen,  etc  ),  and  formed  the  middle  class. 
Ethnical  considerations  were  therefore  far  from 
simple;  the  problem  was  further  complicated 
by  the  economic  importance  of  the  duchy  It 


its  findings  for  Teschen,  Zips,  and  Orava.  The 
boundary  as  finally  laid  down  gave  Czecho- 
slovakia the  Oder  berg- Jablunka  line  and  all  ter- 
ritory west  of  it,  including  the  mines  of  Ostrau- 
Karvin  and  the  city  of  Froistadt.  The  town  of 
Teachcn  was  to  remain  with  Poland,  which  also 
acquired  the  German  enclave  of  Bielitz  in  the 
midst  of  a  rich  agricultural  region.  The  neces- 
sity for  dividing  a  region  that  was  economically 
and  culturally  a  unit  was  unfortunate  but  the 
nationalistic  fevers  awakened  by  the  War  made 
any  other  solution  impossible.  The  contest  was 
not  finally  closed  until  December,  1923,  when,  on 
the  appeal  of  Poland,  the  Permanent  Court  of 
International  Justice  reviewed  the  proceedings 
and  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  boundarv  line  of 
July  28,  1920. 

Involved  in  the  same  controversy  was  the 
dispoBition  of  the  counties  of  Zips  and  Orava 
(formerly  of  Hungary).  Northwest  Zips  and 
northeast  Orava  were  'claimed  by  Poland  on  his- 
torical and  ethnical  grounds.  In  1910,  there 


forms  part  of  the  vast  Rilcsian  coal  field,  and      were    in    Orava   2000    Magyars,    1528    Germans, 


here  were  mined  in  1913  7,594,865  tons  of  coal 
and  1, 140,580  tons  of  coke.  Such  \\as  the  basis 
of  the  protracted  struggle  for  possession  before 
the  Peace  Conference,  and  after.  On  the 
grounds  of  history  and  economic  necessity  (Kar- 
vin  coal  supported  the  great  Czech  iron  and 
chemical  industries  at  Witkowit/,  Mora\ska, 
Ostrava,  etc.,  while  the  Oderberg- Jablunka  rail- 
way was  vitally  necessary  for  the  maintenance 
of  communications  between  Slovakia  and  the 
West),  the  Czecbo-Slovaks  could  make  out  a 
convincing  case.  The  Poles,  on  the  other  hand, 
supported  their  claims  on  ethnical  grounds,  al- 
though these  were  disputed,  as  the  Polish  popu- 
lation was  relatively  unstable.  Other  considera- 
tions had,  however,  entered  into  the  controversy. 
On  the  collapse  of  Austria  in  Octo>>er,  1918, 
two  local  Silesian  organizations  took  possession 
of  the  duchy  and  effected  a  common  adminis- 
tration On  Nov.  5,  1918,  control  was  divided 
between  the  two,  the  Czechs  establishing  them- 
selves in  the  smaller  western  portion  east  of 
Freistadt,  and  the  Poles  in  the  remainder.  In 
January,  1919,  against  Czecho-Slovak  protests, 


59,090  Slovaks,  and  16,120  "others"  (the  Mag- 
yar way  of  referring  to  Poles)  ;  in  Zips  there 
were  18,658  Magyars,  38,432  Germans,  97,077 
Slovaks,  12,327  Ruthenes,  and  5629  "others." 
Both  countries  were  occupied  by  Czecho-Slovakia 
in  November,  1918,  on  the  ground  that  the  in- 
habitants of  the  highlands  were  not  ethnically 
Polish;  but  the  difficulties  attending  the  Teschen 
solution  presented  a  settlement  here  The  deci- 
sion of  the  Council  of  Ambassadors  of  July  28, 
1920,  gave  Poland  northeastern  Orava  with  the 
lino  of  demarcation  south  of  the  main  Car- 
pathian divide,  and  northwestern  Zips  with  the 
line  north  of  the  divide.  Economically  the  par- 
tition seemed  justified  because  of  the  close  con- 
nection between  the  frontier  \illages  and  Galicia, 
but  on  ethnical  grounds  there  appeared  more 
reason  for  entire  union  with  Czecho-Slovakia. 
TEWFIK,  A  ii  MFD.  PASHA  (1843-  ). 
Turkish  statesman,  born  at  Constantinople. 
From  1859  to  1870  he  served  in  the  Turkish 
army,  resigning  in  the  latter  year  to  enter 
the  translation  bureau  of  the  government.  Dur- 
ing the  Russo-Turkish  War  he  acted  as  political 


Polish  "troops    occupied    eastern    Tescben.     The      agent  for  the  army  and   later  became  Turkish 
n«,.,.T,«     ««    4i«A:«    «M«     ^«u    f\A,,ri^~~    nff^«    Q       minister  at  Athens.     In  1884  he  was  ambassador 

at  Berlin,  and  was  recalled  in  1895  to  be  minis- 
ter of  foreign  affairs  in  his  home  government. 
He  was  Grand  Vi/ier  in  1909,  again  in  1912, 
and  for  the  third  time  in  1918.  The  govern- 
ment which  he  formed  in  1918  excluded  all  the 
members  of  the  Committee  of  Union  and  Prog- 
ress. He  resigned  in  March,  1919,  but  again 
assumed  charge  of  the  government  in  October, 
1920,  and  retained  it  until  November,  1922, 
when  the  Sultan,  Mohammed  VI,  abdicated. 
On  the  break-up  of  the  old  regime  at  Constanti- 
nople, he  fled  to  Egypt. 

TEXAS.  Texas  i's  the  first  State  in  size 
(265,896  square  miles),  and  the  fifth  in  popula- 
tion; capital,  Austin.  The  population  increased 
from  3,896,542  in  1910  to  4,663,228  in  1920,  a 


on  their  side,  took  Odcrl>crg  after  a 
skirmish;  an  armistice  on  February  5  laid 
down  a  new  line  more  favorable  to  Czecho- 
slovakia this  time.  In  view  of  all  these  com- 
plications and  the  inability  of  an  Inter- All  led 
Commission,  at  work  on  the  spot,  to  suggest  a 
solution,  the  Peace  Conference  finally  decided  to 
permit  the  two  governments  to  settle  the  ques- 
tion between  themselves.  As  they  were  unable 
to  do  this,  the  Supreme  Council,  on  Sept  27, 
1919,  ordered  plebiscites  in  the  whole  duchy  as 
well  as  in  Zips  and  Orava.  By  this  time  the 
contested  region  was  filled  with  soldiers,  cus- 
toms officials,  and  a  general  ill  will.  The  ten- 
sion increased,  aided  by  hostile  propaganda  in 
both  countries,  with  the  result  that  rioting  and 
strikes  grew  in  frequency.  Amid  such  a  state 


of  affairs  the  holding  of  the  plebiscite  was  found  gain   of    19.7    per   cent.     The   white   population 

impracticable  and  the  Inter-Allied  Commission  so  increased    from    3,204,848    to   3,918,165;    Negro, 

reported  to  the  Supreme  Council    (July,  1920).  from  690,049  to  741,694;  native  white,  from  2,- 

An  appeal   to  the  contesting  powers  again   re-  964,864    to    3,557,646;    and   foreign-born   white, 

vealed  a  deadlock.     This  time,  in  the  interests  from  239,984  to  360,519.     Both  urban  and  rural 

of  European  peace,  the  Supreme  Council  called  populations    mounted,    the    former    from    938,- 

upon   the   Council  of  Ambassadors   to  effect   a  104  to   1,512,689;   the  latter  from  2,958,438  to 

settlement  (July  11,  1920).     On  July  28,  in  ac-  3,150,539.    The  growth   of  the  principal  cities 


TEXAS 


Z986 


TEXAS 


was  as  follows:  San  Antonio  (q.v.),  96,014 
in  1910,  161,379  in  1920;  Dallas  (q.v),  92,104, 
and  138,976;  Houston  (q.v.),  78,800,  and  138,- 
276;  Fort  Worth  (q.v.),  73,312,  and  106,482; 
and  Galveston,  36,981,  and  44,255. 

Agriculture.  As  Texas  is  one  of  the  chief 
cotton-producing  States,  agricultural  condi- 
tions were  early  affected  by  the  ravages  of  the 
boll  weevil,  which  made  its  firwt  appearance  in 
that  State  in  the  nineties.  The  insect  con- 
tinued to  spread  over  the  State  where  cotton  is 
grown,  but  although  the  yield  of  cotton  fell 
considerably  during  several*  years,  especially  in 
1918-21,  for  the  most  part  the  production  was 
comparatively  constant  except  in  occasional 
years  when  climatic  conditions  favored  the  wee- 
vil. This  will  be  noted  from  a  comparison  of 
the  acreage  and  production  for  several  years- 
in  1913,  12,697,000  acres,  3,945,000  bales-/  1915, 
10,510,000  acres,  3,227,000  bales;  191 8,  11,233,- 
000  acres,  2,697,000  bales;  1920,  11,898,000 
acres,  4,345,000  bales,  1921,  10,745,000  acres. 
2,198,000  bales;  1922,  12,125,000  acres,  3,290,000 
bales.  The  estimated  production  in  1923  was 
4,108,000  bales. 

While  the  population  of  the  State  increased 
19.7  per  cent  in  the  decade,  the  number  of  farms 
increased  only  4.4  per  cent  (from  417,770  in 
1910  to  436,033  in  1920)  ;  the  acreage  of  land 
in  farms  from  112,43.1,067  to  114,020,621,  or 
1.4  per  cent,  and  the  improved  land  in  farms 
from  27,360,066  to  31,227,503  acres,  or  14.1  per 
cent  The  value  of  farm  property  showed  an 
apparent  increase  of  100.5  per  cent,  from  $2,- 
218,645,164  in  1910  to  $i,447,420,321  in  1920, 
the  average  value  per  farm,  from  $5311  to  $10,- 
200.  In  interpreting  these  values  and  all  com- 
parative values  in  the  decade  1914-24,  the  in- 
flation of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of  that 
period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  Tin* 
index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of 
farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104  in 
1910  and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  436,033  farms  in 
1920,  201,210  were  operated  by  owners,  2514 
by  managers,  and  232,309  by  tenants.  The  cor- 
responding figures  for  1910  were  195,863,  2332. 
and  219,575.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered 
357,249  and  colored  farmers  78,784.  In  1910 
white  farmers  numbered  347,852,  and  colored 
farmers,  69,918  Farms  free  from  moitgngc  in 
1920  numbered  105,490;  those  under  mortgage. 
69,940.  In  1910,  farms  free  from  mortgage 
numtered  12H,082;  those  mortgaged,  64,008 
The  total  number  of  cattle  in  1920  was  6.156,- 
715,  of  which  1,463,707  were  dairy  cattle.  In 
1910  cattle  numbered  6,934,586;  1,013,867  dairy 
cattle.  Sheep  in  1920  numbered  2,573,485,  com- 
pared with  1,808,709;  hogs,  2,225,558,  compared 
with  2,336,363.  The  estimated  production  of 
the  principal  farm  products  in  1923  was  as  fol- 
lows: corn,  85,907,000  bushels;  wbeat,  16,370,- 
000  bushels;  oats,  51,119,000  bushels;  barley, 
3,346,000  bushels;  potatoes,  1,789,000  bushels: 
sweet  potatoes,  5,322,000  bushels;  hay,  617,000 
tons;  rice,  5,143,000  bushels,  and  peanuts,  81,- 
766,000  bushels.  Comparative  figures  for  1913 
are:  corn,  163,200,000  bushels;  wheat,  13,650,- 
000;  oats,  32,500,000;  barley,  168,000;  rice, 
9,696,000;  potatoes,  2,340,000;  and  hay,  464,- 
000  tons. 

Mining.  Through  the  remarkable  develop- 
ment of  the  oil  fields  of  the  State,  Texas  has 
become  in  recent  years  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  mineral-producing  States  in  the  val- 
ue of  its  products.  In  1921  it  ranked  seventh. 


Petroleum  production  in  the  decade  1914-24 
was  as  follows:  20,068,184  barrels  in  1914,  val- 
ued at  $14,942,848;  24,942,701  in  1915,  $13,- 
026,925;  27,644,605  in  1910,  $25,760,335;  32,- 
413,287  in  1917,  $42,891,555;  38,750,031  in  1918, 
$74,867,537;  96,868,000  in  1920,  $313,781,000; 
106,166.000  in  1921,  $162,663,000;  118,684,000 
iu  1922.  The  great  increase  in  production  in 
the  Just  years  of  the  decade  resulted  from  the 
development  of  important  new  petroleum  fields. 
The  increased  value  in  the  two  years  1922-23, 
while  due  largely  to  the  increase  'in  the  output, 
reflects  also  the  decreased  purchasing  power  of 
money  insulting  from  inflation,  with  consequent 
higher  prices.  The  output  of  natural  gas  is 
very  \aluable.  In  1914  this  amounted  to  13,- 
433,039  M  cubic  feet,  valued  at  $2,469,770; 
1916,  15,809,579,  $3,143,871;  1918,  13,439,624, 
$3,0.7,44!),  1920,  37,063,000,  $7,042,000;  1921, 
44,504,000.  $8,893,000.  Natural-gas  gasoline 
after  1016  became  an  important  product.  In 
that  year  the  output  was  1,292,811  gallons;  in 
1918,'it  was  7,326,122  gallons;  1920,  32,956,028; 
1921,  77,141,201.  The  State  also  produces  sul- 
phur, cement,  clay  pioductn,  a  small  quantity 
of  iron  ore,  gypsum,  and  other  minerals.  The 
total  value  of  the  mineral  production  in  1921 
was  .$212,141,250,  compared  with  $371,250,979 
in  1920;  $l90,r>63,015  in  1919;  $110,306,367  in 
1918;  and  $30,363,426  in  1914. 

Manufactures.  Texas  has  increased  greatly 
in  importance  as  an  industrial  State,  especially 
in  the  period  1914-19,  when  the  petioleum  re- 
fining industry  increased  to  an  extiaordinary 
extent.  There  were,  in  1920,  29  citien  having 
more  than  10,000  inhabitants.  These  formed 
23.4  per  cent  ot  the  State's  population,  and  pio- 
duced  40  8  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  State's 
manufactured  products.  There  were  in  the 
Stale  45SS  manufacturing  establishments  in 
1900;  3084  in  1914;  and  5724  in  1910.  Veisona 
engaged  in  manufacture  numbered  84,575,  91,- 
114,  and  130,911;  and  the  capital  invested 
amounted  to  $216,875,579,  $283,543,820,  and 
$385,770,431  in  those  years.  The  value  of  prod- 
ucts in  1909  amounted  to  $272,895,635;  in 
1914,  to  $361,279,303;  and  in  1919,  to  $999,995,- 
796.  The  laige  increase  in  value  of  pioducts 
was  due  chiefly  to  changes  in  industrial  condi- 
tions effected  by  the  War,  and  cannot  be  uned  to 
measuie  the  growth  of  manufactures  l>ot \\een 
the  industrial  censuses  of  1914  and  1919;  but 
the  increase  in  number  of  persons  engaged  in 
manufacture  clearly  indicates  u  decided  giowth 
in  the  manufacturing  activities  of  the  State 
The  refining  of  petroleum  is  the  first  industry 
in  point  of  value  of  product.  As  this  industry 
did  not  develop  to  any  extent  till  after  1914,  the 
only  a\ailab1e  figures  are  those  of  1919,  in  which 
yeaV  the  product  amounted  to  $241,757,001)  in 
value.  Slaughtering  and  meat  packing  is  sec- 
ond in  importance,  with  a  value  of  $42,530,000 
in  1909;  $52,990,000  in  1914;  and  $125,304,000 
in  1919.  The  manufacture  of  cotton-seed  oil 
and  cake  is  third,  with  $29,916,000  in  1909; 
$41,945,000  in  1914;  and  $102,112,000  in  1919. 
Flour-mill  and  gristmill  products,  in  fourth 
place,  amounted  to  $32,485,000  in  1909;  $35,- 
110,000  in  1914;  and  $73,064,000  in  1919. 

Education.  The  chief  educational  problems 
of  Texas  come  from  its  great  expanse  and  wide- 
ly scattered  population.  The  decade  1913-23 
saw  continuous  progress  in  their  solution.  The 
Legislature  at  its  various  sessions  passed  many 
laws  which  resulted  in  improved  conditions: 


TEXAS 


1287 


TEXAS 


for  one,  the  Better  Class  Amendment  to  the 
State  Constitution,  passed  in  1918,  which  re- 
moved all  limit  on  the  rate  of  local  tax  which 
a  district  may  vote  for  support  of  its  schools. 
Numerous  campaigns  for  education  carried  on 
during  this  period  aroused  the  entire  State  to 
greater  interest  in  all  the  schools,  and  partic- 
ularly in  the  rural  schools.  The  salaries  of 
public  school  teachers  were  increaaed  on  an 
average  of  54  per  cent  during  the  decade;  and 
with  this  increase  came  improvement  of  the 
qualifications  of  teachers.  With  better  support, 
the  schools  increased  the  length  of  their  terms. 
Many  improvements  were  made  in  rural  schools, 
especially  in  the  direction  of  consolidation  and 
the  transportation  of  pupils.  Considerable  ad- 
vance was  made  in  vocational  education  under 
the  Smith-Hughes  Law  which  gives  Federal  aid 
to  States.  A  system  of  free  textlxioks  was  in- 
troduced, appro\ed  and  established;  and  a  plan 
of  classifying  and  affiliating  elementary  schools 
was  initiated.  A  campaign  was  waged  for  the 
passage  of  a  law  providing  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  county  unit  system  of  managing 
schools.  Schools  *for  Negroes  and  Mexicans 
were  greatly  improved.  Recognition  for  the 
work  of  women  on  equal  terms  with  that  of  men 
progressed.  The  enrollment  in  the  public 
schools  in  1900-10  was  821,031;  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools  in  1021-22  it  was  1,048,619,  and 
HI  the  high  schools,  103,178.  The  expenditures 
for  the  support  of  schools  in  1922  was  $38,350,- 
040.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State 
deei  eased  from  11.0  in  1910  to*  9.0  in  1920: 
in  the  native  white  population,  from  3.7  to  2.5; 
among  the  Negro,  from  31.4  to  23.4.  In  the 
foreign-born  white  population  it  increased  from 
28  per  cent  to  33.3 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  Events.  The  State  remained  over- 
whelmingly Democratic  in  the  decade  1014-24, 
although  as  usual  the  party  was  divided  by 
factions.  The  Ku  Klux  Klan  acquired  great 
strength  in  1922  and  took  an  important  part  in 
deciding  elections  of  State  and  other  officials, 
but  its  power  waned  considerably  in  1924.  In 
1014,  James  E.  Ferguson  was  elected  governor. 
At  this  election  an  amendment  to  the  constitu- 
tion providing  for  the  initiative  and  referendum 
was  defeated.  Governor  Ferguson  was  reelected 
in  1910,  and  Senator  Culberson  was  reelected. 
In  the  presidential  voting  of  this  year,  Wilson 
received  285,909;  Charles  E.  Hughes,  09,949. 
In  August,  1017,  impeachment  charges  were 
filed  against  Governor  Ferguson  for  alleged  mis- 
appropriation of  public  funds.  The  charges 
were  made  by  the  Speaker  of  the  House,  and  on 
August  23  the  House  voted  for  the  impeachment 
of  the  Governor  on  21  different  counts  Trial 
began  in  the  Senate  on  Aug.  30,  1917,  and  on 
Sept.  25,  1917,  that  body  removed  the  Governor 
from  office  and  disqualified  him  from  further 
holding  any  office  in  the  State.  He  had  resigned 
a  few  hours  before.  Of  the  21  charges,  10  were 
sustained;  nearly  all  these  related  to  the  mis- 
use of  trust  funds  and  public  money.  The 
Governor  denied  all  these  charges  and  ran  for 
the  governorship  again  in  1918.  He  was  de- 
feated by  the  former  Lieutenant-Governor, 
W.  P.  Hobby,  who  had  succeeded  him  at  the 
close  of  the  impeachment  proceedings.  Morris 
Sheppard  was  reflected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  in  1918.  Ferguson  was  a  candidate  for 
the  United  States  presidency  on  a  so-called 
American  ticket.  Pat  M.  Neff  was  elected 


governor.  In  a  nominating  primary  for  United 
States  Senator  in  1922,  Earl  B.  May  field  and 
James  E.  Ferguson  won  in  the  first  primaries 
over  Senator  Cultarson.  In  the  run-off  pri- 
mary, Mayfield  was  nominated,  and  in  Novem- 
ber he  was  elected.  Governor  Neff  was  also  re- 
elected.  The  Ku  Klux  Klan  developed  great 
strength  in  the  State,  and  it  was  alleged  that 
Senator  Mayfield  waa  nominated  largely  as  a 
result  of  its  support,  the  anti-Klan  vote  scatter- 
ing among  a  number  of  other  candidates. 
Charges  of  excessive  expenditures  in  his  elec- 
tion were  filed  with  the  Committee  on  Elections 
in  the  Senate.  These  charges  were  still  pend- 
ing, Aug.  12,  1924.  In  the  presidential  con- 
vention held  in  May,  1924,  William  G.  McAdoo 
of  California  received  the  indorsement  for 
president. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of 
the  Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-21  are  noted 
below.  A  resolution  for  a  constitutional  amend- 
ment providing  for  woman  suffrage  was  de- 
feated in  the  House  by  a  vote  of  00  to  32.  The 
Legislature  of  1919  submitted  to  the  people  the 
question  of  holding  a  constitutional  convention 
It  also  submitted  a  constitutional  amendment 
for  woman  suffrage.  Both  were  defeated.  Tn 
1921  the  Legislature  passed  an  amendment  for- 
bidding Japanese  and  Chinese  to  hold  land  in 
Texas  except  under  ceitain  conditions  It  also 
passed  an  amendment  designing  to  make  more 
effective  the  provisions  of  the  existing  law  in 
respect  to  the  consenation  of  the  State's  nat- 
ural resources,  and  provided  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  cooperative  marketing  associations.  It 
also  proposed  a  constitutional  amendment  re- 
stricting the  suffrage  to  native-born  or  natural- 
ized citizens  and  authori/ed  absentee  voting  in 
primary  elections.  The  commission  form  of 
government  was  extended  to  towns  with  less 
than  5000  population,  and  a  constitutional 
amendment  was  adopted  increasing  the  amount 
of  the  pensions  paid  to  Confederate  soldiers  and 
sailors  and  their  widows.  The  Legislature  of 
1023  enacted  a  measure  substituting  electrocu- 
tion for  hanging  in  capital  punishment.  It 
amended  the  prohibition  law  so  as  to  make  it 
more  stringent  in  its  provisions  and  passed  an 
enabling  act  providing  an  increase  in  pensions 
for  Confederate  veterans. 

TEXAS,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A  coeducational 
State  institution  founded  in  1881  The  main 
university  is  at  Austin,  the  medical  branch  at 
Galveston,  and  the  College  of  Mines  and  Metal- 
lurgy at  Kl  Paso  The  student  enrollment  in- 
creased from  257f>  in  1014  to  3235  in  1018; 
4371  in  1020;  and  5100  in  1023-24,  with  3145 
in  the  summer  session  of  1023.  The  faculty 
was  increased  during  the  decade  from  101  to 
354,  the  library  from  110,000  bound  volumes 
and  30,000  pamphlets  to  237,682  volumes  and 
49,349  pamphlets.  The  productive  funds  of  the 
university  aggregated  $10,850,372.02  in  1924. 
The  Genaro  Garefa  collection  of  materials  in  the 
Latin  American  field  A\RS  secured  in  1021  at  a 
cost  of  $104,530.  The  department  of  journalism 
was  opened  in  1014:  the  department  of  library 
science  in  1918;  and  the  School  of  Business  Ad- 
ministration, which  in  1012-13  was  organized 
as  a  department  of  the  College  of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences, became  a  separate  school  in  1922-23. 
The  College  of  Mines  and  Metallurgy  was  cre- 
ated in  1919,  following  the  passage  of  an  act  by 
the  State  Legislature  constituting  the  State 
School  of  Mines  and  Metallurgy  a  branch  of 


TEXAS  FEVER 


xa88 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 


the  University  of  Texas.  Robert  E.  Vinson, 
D.D.,  LL.D.,  became  president  in  1916,  upon  the 
resignation  of  Sidney  E.  Mezes,  who  accepted 
the  presidency  of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York.  In  1923,  President  Vinson  resigned  to 
accept  the  presidency  of  Western  Reserve  Uni- 
versity, Cleveland,  and  William  S.  Sutton, 
M.A.,  LL.D.,  dean  of  the  School  of  Education, 
was  appointed  acting  president. 

TEXAS  FEVER.  See  VETERINARY  MEDI- 
CINE. 

TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING.  The  Amer- 
ican textile  industry  in  1921,  according  to 
the  United  States  Census,  ranked  second  among 


Cotton  Manufactures.  Cotton  goods,  cot- 
ton small  wares,  and  cotton  lace  goods  form 
the  most  important  branch  of  the  American 
textile  industry.  Of  these  three  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  goods  naturally  is  by  far  the 
most  important  as  cotton  small  wares  and  lace 
goods  form  a  comparatively  small  portion  of 
the  total  output.  The  cotton-goods  manufac- 
turing industry  includes  mills  engaged  in  the 
preliminary  processes  preparatory  to  spinning, 
in  spinning,  and  in  the  weaving  of  piece  goods. 
The  number  of  establishments,  persons  engaged, 
amount  of  wage,  cost  of  material,  and  the  value 
of  the  total  product  are  shown  in  Table  11. 


TABLE 
Years        Number  of 
establish- 
ments b 

II—  COTTON-GOODS  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES0 
Persons            Salaries  and                   Cost  of                  Value  added 
engaged                 wages                       materials                   by  manu- 
facture e 
338,726            $161,680,000            $431,603,000            $244,966,000 
445,423               392,839,000             1,277,786,000               847,486,000 
425,319              364,182,000               707,442,000              570,779,000 

Value  of 
products 

$676,569,000 
2,125,272,000 
1,278,221,000 

1919    

....      1  278 

1921    

.  .  ..      1  828 

"  From  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  report  on  the  cotton-goods  industry,  1921. 

b  Statistics  for  establishments  with  products  valued  at  less  than  $5000  are  not  included  in  the  figures  for  1921 ; 
there  were  10  establishments  of  this  class  which  reported  8  \tage  earners  and  products  valued  at  $22,600.  For 
1919,  however,  data  for  10  such  establishments,  reporting  20  wage  earners  and  products  valued  at  $26,000, 
and  for  1914  data  for  11  such  establishments,  reporting  18  wage  earners  and  products  valued  at  $23,000, 
are  included  in  the  figures  with  the  exception  of  the  item  "Number  of  establishments." 

0  Value  of  products  less  coat  of  materials. 


the  various  manufacturing  industries  of  the 
country  when  considered  on  the  basis  of  the  to- 
tal value  of  the  product.  This  value  was  rep- 
resented by  the  vast  amount  of  $0,000,927,643, 
which  was  the  output  of  20.039  establishments 
with  an  average  number  of  wage  earners  of 
1,510,875.  In  this  total  production  textile  fal>- 
rics  and  materials  aggregated  $3,890,448,061, 
articles  from  textile  fabrics  for  personal  wear 
$2,710,056,748,  and  other  textile  fabrics  $353,- 


In  1923,  the  United  States  had  approximately 
24  per  cent  of  the  world's  total  of  cot- 
ton spindles  (see  Table  III  on  page  1288). 
The  cotton-goods  industry  is  confined  principal- 
ly to  the  New  England  and  South  Atlantic 
States,  with  a  few  mills  scattered  through  the 
Middle  West  The  centres  of  the  greatest  ac- 
tivity are  Bristol  County,  Mass  ,  with  7,702.50!) 
spindles,  and  Gaston  County,  N.  C.,  with  901,- 
492  spindles.  Table  IV  gives  the  distribution 


822,234.     It    must    be    realized,    however,    that      of    the    industry    according   to    the    number    of 


1921  was  a  year  of  some  depression  in  the  tex 
tile  industry  though  it  manifested  signs  of  a 
recovery  from  the  serious  setback  which  had  be- 
gun in  the  spring  of  1920  and  continued  through 


spindles  for  the    10  leading  States. 

At  the  end  of  1923  the  total  number  of  cotton 
spindles  in  the  southern  States  was  17,103,599 
as  compared  with  13,478,297  in  1914,  the  av- 


that  year.     In   1919,  a  year  of  abnormal  activ-      erage  annual  increase  being  440,791.     Southern 


ity,  the  value  of  the  product  was  $9,210,102,814, 
representing  the  output  of  28,552  establish- 
ments with  an  average  number  of  wage  earners 
of  1,011,309.  Both  years,  however,  represented 
a  gain  over  1914  when  23,483  establishments 
with  1,001,058  wage  earners  had  a  production 
valued  at  $3,447,997,219. 


cotton  mills,  with  still  less  than  half  the  spin- 
dles in  America,  however,  were  consuming  con- 
siderably more  than  half  the  cotton  manufac- 
tured in  the  country. 

The  increased  spindleage  and  greater  efficien- 
cy of  cotton  mills  in  the  United  States  enabled 
that  country  as  regards  the  consumption  of 


The  textile  industry  in  the  United  States  is      cotton  to  maintain  a  higher  level  than  in  pre- 


ordinarily  divided  into  five  principal  groups,  as 
follows-  cotton  manufactures,  wool  manufac- 
tures, knit  goods,  silk  manufactures,  and  cord- 
age and  twine,  jute  and  linen  goods,  this  rank- 
ing being  made  on  the  basis  of  the  value  of 
their  products. 

In  all  of  these  various  lines  there  had  been 
activity  in  the  decade  between  1914  and  1924 
and  this  is  indicated  by  Table  I,  which  shows 
the  new  textile  mill  construction  for  the  10- 
year  period.  It  must  be  remembered  that  us- 
ually the  new  mills  were  large  affaire,  as  modern 
conditions  of  profitable  operation  called  for 
large  units. 


war  years,  as  compared  with  other  nations 
where  there  was  a  great  falling  off  in  consump- 
tion, in  the  United  Kingdom  and  continental 
Europe  Notwithstanding  strikes  in  the  New 
England  cotton  mills  in  1922,  the  consumption 
of  cotton  increased  over  the  previous  year  in 
the  United  States  by  12.6  per  cent.  In  1913, 
the  United  Kingdom  in  its  manufactures  used 
more  than  4,500,000  hales  and  the  Continent 
approximately  7,500,000  bales;  in  1922,  they 
took,  respectively,  but  2,900,000  and  4,800,000 
bales.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Far  East  was  in- 
creasing its  proportion  of  the  world  total.  The 
actual  and  relative  consumption  of  all  kinds  of 


TABLE  I— COMPARISON  OF  NEW  TEXTILE  MILL  CONSTRUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES* 

1923      1922     1921       1920     1919     1918     1917     191f>      1915      1914      1913 


74 

57 

46 

89 

74 

29 

52 

51 

24 

20 

27 

Wool     

38 

34 

36 

30 

54 

24 

24 

23 

19 

21 

24 

Knitting         .  .          •      .  •  . 

73 

94 

103 

59 

84 

120 

97 

113 

111 

110 

142 

Silfc            

26 

24 

81 

71 

61 

49 

86 

60 

25 

51 

54 

21 

29 

26 

15 

16 

27 

88 

33 

40 

87 

30 

232 

238 

242 

264 

289 

254 

297 

280 

1219 

245 

277 

•From   Textile   World    (New  York). 


TEXTILE  MANTJPACTTTBINO 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 


TABLE  III— WORLD'S  COTTON 
Aug.  31,  1918 
Spindles 


SPINDLEAGE,  1913  AND  1923 


July  31,  1928 
Spindles 


Country 
Great  Britain    

Total  active  Percent  Percent 
mule         ring 
OOO'a 
55,653              81              19 
89            
7,400              54              46 
11,186              46              54 
9,213               41               59 
Included     under 
Russia 
4,600               25               75 
4,909               51              49 
Included    under    Austria 
2,000              40              60 
1,492               33               67 
1,398               82               18 
534               27               73 
479               41               59 
480              27               73 
90               16               84 
75              28               72 

Consump- 
tion per 
1,000 
77 

iii 

158 
272 

172 
171 

179 
172 
70 
216 
177 
164 
285 
154 

858 
691 

Total  active 

OOO's 
56,583 
36 
9,600 
9,382 
7,246 
1,200 
241 
4,570 
1,023 
3,508 
1,813 
1,683 
1,513 
566 
669 
487 
97 
66 

Per  cent 
mule 

78 

*44 
46 
40 
39 
26 
18 
51 
52 
34 
28 
56 
18 
32 
34 
13 
20 

Per  cent 
ring 

22 

'56 
54 
60 
61 
74 
82 
49 
48 
66 
72 
44 
82 
68 
66 
87 
80 

Consump- 
tion per 
1,000 
49 

126 
108 
271 
190 
134 
196 
307 
71 
194 
102 
49 
148 
106 
177 
290 
114 

Per  cent  of  world's  total  . 
France    

Germany     

Russia    

Poland   

Finland  

Italy   

Austria          

Czecho-Slovakia   

Switzerland    

Sweden     

Holland     

Portugal     

Denmark    

Norway     ...           

Total   continent    .    .  . 
Per  cent  of  world's  total  . 
India    

43,856 
HO 
6,084               28 
Included  under 
2,300                2 
8.3H4 
6 

*72 
sundries 
98 

43,664 
28 
7,331 
2,680 

4,877 

*16 

"i 

'  *G 

43 

1 

*84 
100 
99 

307 
000 
535 

Japan      

Total  Asia 
Per  cent  of  world's  total  . 

United  States  of  America 
Per   cent  of  world's   total 
Canada      ... 

*87 
*55 

isi 

i33 
227 
424 
? 

14,888 
9 
37,397 
24 
1,076 
770 
1,700 
275 

*96 

'57 
99 
100 
100 

194 

164 
177 
390 

niu 

31,505 
22 
855 
700 
1,200 
1,300 

13 
*45 

Bra/il        
Sundries            

Grand   total    .         .    . 

143,453 

495 

50  5 

156 

156,353 

42 

58 

145 

TABLE  IV  —  TOTAL  COTTON 
States 

SPINDLES  IN  THE  UNIT 
(In  thorn 

1913 
11,076 

'ED  STATES  AND  IN  THE  TEN  LEADING  STATES  « 
.amis) 
Cotton  years  ending  Julj  31  — 
1919                    1920                    1921                     1922 
11,030                 11,759                 11,811                 11,923 
4,956                    1,974                    5,014                    5,090 
4,789                    4,935                    5,228                    5,293 
2.07H                    2,  (576                    2  806                    2,829 
2.51H                    2,542                    2,048                    2,079 
1,444                    1,444                    1,457                    1,449 
1,388                    l,39:i                    1,389                    1,365 
1,192                    1,215                    1,283                    1,301 
1,112                    1.127                    1,126                    1,146 
980                      998                   1,017                   1,020 

4  536 

North    (^Rrolina                     . 

3,394 

2,533 

.         2,103 
1  469 

1,309 

1  000 

1,097 

Nesv    York     

957 

Total     United    States 

32,149 

35,443 

35,834 

36,017 

36,945 

0  From   ippcnts   of   the    Bureau   of   the   Census. 

cotton,  in  bales  of  478  pounds  net.  by  each  of 
the  principal  consuming  countries  is  shown  in 
Table  V. 


or  an  annual  average  of  0,800,000  pounds.  By 
1019,  according  to  estimates  based  upon  the 
United  States  census  figures,  the  annual  con- 


TABLE   V  —  WORLD   MILL   CONSUMPTION   OF 

R\W  COTTON   FOR  YEARS   ENDING  JULY  31  a 

Bales  consumed    (thousands)6 

Per 

cent  of 

total 

1913 

1919 

1920 

1921 

1922 

1913 

1919 

1920 

1921 

1922 

Countries 

United   States 

5  575 

5,831 

6,485 

4,905 

5,904 

25.3 

349 

33  6 

29  0 

29  5 

United    Kingdom 

4,644 

2,850 

3,870 

2,135 

2,948 

21.0 

17  1 

20  1 

12.6 

14  7 

European   continent    . 

7,514 

3,112 

:i,830 

4,600 

4,823 

34.1 

18.6 

19  8 

272 

241 

1,843 

1,702 

1,720 

1,925 

1,947 

8.4 

10.2 

8.9 

11.4 

9.7 

1,435 

1,956 

1,910 

1,885 

2.275 

6.5 

11.7 

99 

11.2 

11  3 

131 

207 

230 

155 

205 

.6 

1.2 

12 

9 

1  0 

Other    countries 



913 

1,046 

1,255 

1,300 

1,945 

41 

6.3 

6.5 

7.7 

9.7 

Total     

22,055 

16,704 

19,300 

16,905 

20,047 

100.0 

100  0 

100.0 

100  0 

100  0 

•  Statistics    compiled    by    United    States    Bureau    of 
*  Bales  of  478   pounds   net.     Exclusive  of   hnters  in 

the    Census, 
figures    for 

United 

States. 

Growth  of  Mercerlzation.  In  1898,  after 
German  and  English  mercerizers  had  sought  to 
gain  a  market  in  the  United  States  for  their 
yarns  and  fabrics  with  the  peculiar  lustre  ac- 
quired in  the  process,  the  American  inerceriza- 
tion  industry  was  founded.  It  was  started  in 
a  small  way  but  upon  a  firm  basis  and  from 
1808  to  1904  some  34,000,000  pounds  of  cotton 
yarn  were  estimated  to  have  been  mercerized, 


sumption  of  mercerized  yarns  was  over  50,000,- 
000  pounds.  At  the  end' of  1923  the  annual  ca- 
pacity of  the  largest  yarn-mercerizing  plant  in 
the  United  States,  working  on  a  single  shift 
basis,  was  nearly  half  of  the  latter  amount.  In 
addition,  piece  mercerizing  aggregated  hundreds 
of  millions  of  yards  annually  and  represented 
as  broad  a  variety  of  utility  as  yarn  mer- 
cerizing. 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING 


zago 


TEXTILE  MANUTAOTTTBIN'G 


Wool  and  Wool  Manufacturing.  In  1922, 
Australia  led  the  world  as  a  producer  of  wool 
with  618,475,000  pounds,  or  about  23  per  cent 
of  the  total,  while  the  United  States  ranked 
second  with  261,005,000  pounds,  or  0.7  per  cent 
of  the  world  supply;  and  Argentina  was  third, 
with  231,483,000  pounds,  or  8.6  per  cent  of  the 
total.  After  the  production  and  importation 
of  the  wool  comes  the  manufacture  of  the  raw 
material — which  includes  scouring,  carding, 
spinning,  and  weaving — into  various  kinds  of 
cloth,  such  as  worsted  goods,  woolen  goods,  car- 
pets and  rugs  (other  than  rag),  felt  goods,  and 
wool-felt  hats. 

Wool  manufacturing  according  to  the  census 
of  1921  ranked  second  in  the  value  of  its  prod- 


States.  The  numbers  of  woolen  and  worsted 
spindles  and  looms  in  the  United  States  are 
shown  in  Tables  IX  and  X.  The  number  of  per- 
sons engaged,  wages,  value  added  by  manufac- 
ture, and  total  value  of  product  are  shown  in 
Table  VI. 

Knit  Goods.  This  industry  in  the  United 
States,  as  will  appear  from  the  accompanying 
tables,  from  the  census  of  manufactures  of 
1921,  experienced  a  remarkable  growth  from 
1914  on.  It  includes  the  separate  industries 
hosiery,  fancy  knit  goods,  underwear,  knitted 
cloth  and  contract  work  Cotton  hosiery  and 
cotton  knit  underwear  combined  represented  ap- 
proximately 52  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  to- 
tal output  ol  knit  goods  in  the  United  States 


TABLE  VI  —  WOOLEN  AND  WOR 
Years                 Number  of    Persons 
establish-    engaged 
ments  b 
1914   737         ifi*  fioo 

,STED  GOODS  INDUSTRY  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES- 
Salaries  and                 Cost  of               Value  added              Value  of 
wages                     materials                  by  nmnu-               products 
fact  ure  ° 
$86,500,000           $246,497,000          $132,987,000          $379,484,000 
199  091,000              665,594,000             399.840  000         1,065,434,000 
201,243,000             400,046,000             355,538,000             755.584.000 

1919   

810          176  392 

1921   

814          171  593 

•From    Bureau    of    the   Census    report   on    the    woolen   and  worsted  goods   indimtrj     19lil 

*  Statistics  for  establishments  with  products  valued  at  less  than  $5000  are  not  included  in  the  figures  for  1921, 

there  were  42   establishments  of  this  class  which  reported   51   \vage  earners  and   products   valued   at  $108,365. 

For   1914    and    1919,    however,    data   for   such   establishments  are  included  in  the  figures,  with  the  exception  of 

the   item    "Number   of  establishments  " 

c  Value  of  products  less  cost  of  materials. 

TABLE  VII — PRODUCTION  OF  PRINCIPAL  CLASSES  OF  WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED 
GOODS  IN  THE  UNITED   STATES  « 


Classes 
Cloths  : 

1914 
Square  yards 
90  950  000 

1919 
Square  .yards 
139  411  000 

1921 
Square  yards 
132  286  000 

All  wool  worsteds   .    .      .             

222,421  000 

176  507,000 

185  359  000 

31  400  000 

24  61r»  000 

18  490  000 

53  310  000 

39  147  000 

44  363  000 

Cotton  warp   worsteds    
Blankets  6    .          .             

5G,7()'J.OOO 
86,565,000 

57,807,000 
26,779,000 

43  151.000 
21,491  000 

•  Manufartutf*  of   Woolen  and  Worsted  Goods,  1921,    Bureau    of    the    Census. 

*  Includes    all-wool,    cotton  mixed,    cotton-warp,     and   horse    blankets. 


TABLE  VITI — MANUFACTURES    OF  WOOL  AND  WORSTED 

PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE,   1921,  1919,   1914 
Suitings,  Dress  Goods,  Overcoatings  Woven  Goods 


and  Cloakmgs  — 

Woolen  Goods 

Worsted  Goods 

Square  Yards 

Value 

Square  Yards                  Valuo 

All-wool  —  1921      

132.286,019 

$156,551,258 

185,358,745 

$279,912,705 

1919      

139,410,352 

243,072,041 

176,50(1,452 

313,679,634 

1914             , 

90,950,381 

55,660,508 

222,420,785 

141,778.035 

Cotton  warp  —  1921    

44,363.298 

22.664,815 

43,151,075 

27,780,694 

1919    

39,146,902 

34,735,320 

57,896,787 

45,342,581 

1914    

53,509.462 

13,598,007 

56,763,091 

15.563,099 

All  other  woven  goods  —  1921   .  .  . 

57,076,484 

37,157,356 

31,5iH,934 

26.613,853 

1919      .. 

91,048.688 

71,400,115 

31,928.391 

31,050,104 

1914    ... 

101,556,656 

29,403,793 

40,261,784 

12,676,043 

Yarns  for  Sale 

Carded  Woolen 

Worsted 

Pounds 

Value 

Pounds 

Value 

All-wool—  1921   

80,734,093 

$22,877,337 

85,860.513 

$126,287,112 

1919   

28,37H,039 

32,828,552 

74,33().549 

185  124.293 

1914    

26,125.575 

8,783.020 

86,412,097 

69.801,271 

Merino—  1921   

1,578,249 

961,809 

3,921,451 

6,387,595 

1919      

9,658,894 

6,922,886 

3,709,056 

9,214,4L'l 

1914    

6,473,849 

1,689,530 

4,048,514 

3,173,034 

All  other—  1921    

749,260 

501,324 

2,772,887 

4.064,942 

1919        

1,086,003 

1,100.984 

1,132,382 

2,343,345 

1914              .             ... 

7,37«,846 

820,535 

2,121,180 

1,604,825 

net  of  the  five  primary  textile  groups.  Raw 
wool  was  produced  in  all  of  the  48  States,  but 
most  of  it  came  from  the  middle  western  and 
far  western  States.  Wool  manufacturing,  on 
the  other  hand,  centres  in  the  New  England  and 
Middle  Atlantic  States.  Of  the  814  establish- 
ments reporting  for  1921,  108  were  located  in 
Pennsylvania,  180  in  Massachusetts,  86  in 
Rhode  Island,  57  in  Maine,  43  in  Connecticut, 
39  in  New  Hampshire,  38  in  New  York,  28  in 
New  Jersey,  18  in  Vermont,  and  127  in  other 


TABLE  IX— WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED   SPINNING 
SPINDLES    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 

Woolen  Worsted 

Year  Number      Per  cent     Number     Per  cent 

idle        reporting         idle 
1,592,000 
2,290,000 
2,331,000 
2,330,000 


1913 


reporting 
906000 

1919    .    ....     2,153,000 
1920 2,250,000 

1921  •  2,298,000 

1922  <*            .      2,288,000 
1928  •     2,294,000 


23 
19 
28 
59 
27 
15 


2,436,000 
2,554,000 


26 
23 
22 
43 
14 
10 


•January  only, 


TEXTILE  MANUFACTT7BING 


xagi 


TEXTILE  MANUTACTITBING 


TABLE  X— WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED  LOOMS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Tear 
1918   

Wider  than 
reed  si 
Number 
reporting 
89,254 

50-inch 
>ace 
Per  cent 
idle 
20 
22 
82 
54 
84 
19 

50-inch  reed  space 
or  leas 
Number         Per  cent 
reporting              idle 
11,984                 27 
18,874                 24 
18,139                 27 
18,147                 49 
18.895                  27 
17.251                  14 

Carpet  and  rag 

Number         Per  cent 
reporting             idle 
2,688                 82 
7,980                 46 
8,559                  82 
8,574                  50 
8,854                  22 
9,217                   14 

1919   

1920   

61,465 

1921  a     

62,687 

1922  B     

62,652 

1923  •     

68,897 

•  January    only. 

TABLE  XI— CARPETS    AND    RUGS    PRODUCTION 
.   IN   THE    UNITED    STATES   AND 
VALUE,   1914,   1919,  1921 

Square  Yards         Value 


Carpets 

1921 

13,057  385 

$20  893  ROO 

Carpets 

1919 

11,966)209 

23!569i098 

Carpets 

1914 

17,811,847 

15,186,790 

Rugs  made  of  sewed 

strips 

1921 

12,070,465 

25,951,125 

Rugs  made  of  Be  wed 

strips 

1919 

12,472,380 

34,588,983 

Rugs  made  of  sewed 

strips 

1914 

20,854,526 

25  945,708 

Rugs,  woven  whole 

1921 

27,777,81,1 

53,692,611 

Rugs,  woven  whole 

1919 

27,734  503 

51,957,902 

Rugs,  woven  whole 
AH  other  products  . 

1914 
1921 

28,174,401 

23.550,824 
3.842,964 

All  other  products 

1919 

13,137,850 

All  other  products  .  . 

1914 

4,444  863 

in  1000,  hut  by  1010  this  proportion  had  been 
reduced  to  about  41  per  cent,  due  largely  to  the 
phenomenal  growth  of  the  outerwear  industry, 
which  used  more  wool  and  silk  than  cotton.  In 
1921  New  York  was  the  leading  State  in  the 


industry,  producing  about  27  per  cent  of  the 
total  value  of  the  output.  During  that  year 
New  York  had  710  knit-goods  establishments; 
Pennsylvania,  614;  North  Carolina,  100;  New 
Jersey,  82;  Massachusetts,  81,  other  States, 
482  The  numl>er  of  establishments,  employees, 
value  added  by  manufacture,  and  total  value  of 
product  are  given  in  Table  XII. 

Tn  the  1021  Census  there  was  to  be  seen  a 
marked  increase  in  quantity  and  value  of  fancy 
knit  goods  as  compared  with  1010,  and  an  enor- 
mous increase  over  1014.  The  fabric  branch  of 
the  industry  showed  a  continued  growth,  with 
the  adoption  of  these  materials  for  women's 
wear.  While  there  was  a  moderate  increase  in 
the  production  of  union  suits,  there  was 
a  steady  decline  in  the  production  of  sep- 
arate shirts  and  drawers,  the  output  of  these 
garments  amounting  to  a  little  more  than  half 
of  the  1010  output.  The  hosiery  production 
seemed  to  indicate  a  stable  condition. 

Silk  Manufactures.     Tables  XIV,  XV,  and 


Years 
1P14        

TABLE  XII—  KNIT-GOODS  INDU 
Number 
ofestab-     Persons         Salaries        ' 
lish         engaged     and  wages 
ments  B 
1  428       159  673    $71  039  000 

STRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  • 

Paid  for  con-           Cost  of          Value  added         Value  of 
tract  work           materials           by  manu-            products 
f  acture  ° 
$3,240.000       $146,687,000    $112,226,000    $258,913  000 
8,496,000        427,096,000      286,044,000      713,140,000 
9,075,000         360,458,000       273,616,000       634,074,000 

1910   

1  950      186  673    157  526  000 

1921      

.    .  .  .          2  078       175  364    159  929  000 

•Bureau    of   the    Census   report    on   the   knit  goods   industry,    1921. 

b  Statistics  for  establishments  with  products  valued  at  less  than  $5000  are  not  included  in  the  figures  for  1921 ; 
there  viere  169  establishments  of  this  class  which  reported  198  wage  earners  and  products  valued  at 
$451,000.  Data  for  such  establishments  for  1914  and  1919  are  included  in  the  figures  with  the  exception  of 
the  item  "Number  of  establishments." 

e  Value  of  products  less  cost  of  materials. 

TABLE  XIII— MANUFACTURES  OF  KNIT  GOODS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES—  """" 

PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE,  1921,  1919, 


Product 
Hosiery  : 

1921 

1919 
84  645  757 

1914 
75  164  911 

Value         

$290  488  660 

$308  G62  377 

$98,098  590 

........      $134864534 

$203,530  283 

$93  119  085 

Shirts    and    drawers: 

11711624 

17,180  404 

21,758  775 

Value  

$49,875  620 

$98,286,403 

$57,523,0>1 

Union   suits  : 

9,288,748 

9,211,032 

6,272,515 

Value       

$84,988  914 

$105,243,880 

$35.596  034 

Fancy  knit-goods,  value   

$137,005,437 

$111,705,313 

$46,177,864 

Knit   cloth,    value    

$45,299,113 

$59,347,745 

o 

•No  comparable  data. 

TABLE  XIV— SILK  MANUFACTURES   INDUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Bureau  of  the  Census  report  on  silk  manufactures,  1921 


Years 
1914    

Number  of 
establish- 
ments* 
856 

Persons 
engaged 

115  571 

Salaries 
and  wages 

$57,615,000 

Cost  of 
materials 

$144,442,000 

Value  added 
by  manu- 
facture b 
$109,569,000 

Value  of 
products 

$254,011,000 

1919    

.  .      1,317 

186  775 

134,597,000 

388,469,000 

300,001,000 

688,470,000 

1921    

1,665 

131  697 

134,095,000 

837,559.000 

245,860.000 

583,419.000 

0  Statistics  for  establishments  with  products  valued  at  less  than  $5000  are  not  included  in  the  figures  for  1921 ; 
there  were  109  establishments  of  this  class  which  reported  225  wage  earners  and  products  valued  at 
$365,500  For  1914  and  1919.  however,  data  for  such  establishments  are  included  in  the  figures,  with  the 
exception  of  the  item  "Number  of  establishments." 

*  value  of  products  less  cost  of  materials. 


THABATJD 


1092 


THEATBE 


TABLE    XV— PRODUCTION    OP    PRINCIPAL    CLASSES  OP  SILK  GOODS  IN  THE   UNITED   STATES- 


Classes 
Broad  silks    

1914 
216,033,696 
16,318,135 
9,114,992 
477,699 

$38,201,293 
$3,073,648 

1919 
810,132,060 
16,150,689 
5,860,527 
516,281 
11,810,028 
866,186,609 
$13,218,284 

1921 
273,455,388 
11,477,143 
5,580,386 
973,749 
14,466,167 
853,597,988 
$15,879,046 

Velvets     

do  ... 

Plushes      

do.  .  . 

Upholstery   and   tapestries    

do  ... 

Ribbons       ,  .      .      

Braids  and  bindings   

do.  .. 

•  Bureau   of  ensun  repot  of  silk  manufactures,    1921. 
»No    figures    available. 

TABLE    XVI— PRODUCTION    OF    SILK  YARNS, 
1921,    1919,    1914 

Pounds 
Thrown  silk — 

Organzme    1921  7,500,672 

Organzme 1919  7,172,742 

Organzme     1914  8,581,228 

Tram     1921  14,405,165 

Tram     1919  11,005,773 

Tram             1914  9,358412 

Crepe  twist    1921  5,723,386 

Crepe  twist   1919  5,865,959 

Crepo  twist    1914 

Spun    silk    1921  4,737,137 

Spun    silk    1919  3,956,637 

Spun    silk    1914  1,607,410 

XVI  give  comparative  statistics  of  silk  manu- 
factures. For  statistics  of  production  see  SILK. 

Other  Textile  Industries.  The  other  in- 
dustries, such  as  cordage  and  twine,  jute  and 
linen  goods,  while  important,  do  not  rank  with 
these  already  considered  and  for  that  reason 
may  be  discussed  in  the  present  limited  space. 
In*1921,  the  cordage  and  twine  industry,  with 
118  establishments,  represented  an  output  of 
$75,356,000.  The  jute  industry,  with  24  estab- 
lishments, represented  a  production  of  $17,- 
506,000. 

THARAUD,  JEAN  (1877-  )  and  JEROME 
(1874-  ).  French  novelists  (see  VOL. 
XXII).  They  were  awarded  the  Grand  Prix 
de  Litte"rature  of  the  French  Academy  in  1920. 
Their  works  include:  Dinglcy,  Vlllimtre  Erri- 
win ;  La  Maitresse  8errantc;  La  Fete  Araltc ; 
La  Tragcdie  de  Ravaillac;  La  Bataille  a  Scutari 
d'Albanie;  La  Vie  et  la  Mori  de  Dcpoulcde ; 
L'Ombre  de  la  Croix;  Un  Roi/aumc  dc  Dieu; 
Quand  Israel  Eat  Roi;  Marocaines;  Une  Relcve ; 
La  Randonnee  de  Sama  Diouf;  L'An  Prochain 
a  Jerusalem.  English  translations  have  been 
made  of  Sama  Diouf  and  Un  Royaume  de  Dieu. 

THEATBE,  AMERICAN  AND  ENGLISH  An  in- 
troductory word  is  perhaps  essential  to  justify 
the  transposition  of  the  supplementary  article 
on  DRAMA  in  THE  NEW  INTERNATIONAL  EN- 
CYCLOPAEDIA to  the  heading,  THEATRE.  In  brief, 
this  course  is  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
the  renaissance  in  dramatic  art  throughout 
the  world  during  the  last  25  years  and  in  Amer- 
ica in  particular  in  the  last  10  or  15  years  was 
characterized  fundamentally  by  a  realization 
that  the  theatre  is  a  distinct  and  separate  art 
and  not  a  mosaic  of  several  arts,  certainly  not 
merely  or  even  primarily  a  question  of  orama 
as  literature.  Producer  and  scene  designer, 
actor  and  musician,  came  into  their  own  more 
and  more  with  each  passing  season  as  collabo- 
rators in  this  art  alongside  the  playwright.  In 
fact,  producer  and  scenic  artist  forged  beyond 
the  dramatist,  challenging  him  to  keep  up  with 
the  pace  they  set  in  order  that  the  art  of  the 
theatre  might  be  kept  in  proper  balance. 

In  this  process  of  becoming  independent  and 
not  only  apathetically  effective  but  socially 
significant,  the  contemporary  art  of  the  theatre 
found  in  America,  and  particularly  in  New 
York,  a  haven  of  refuge,  an  international  clear- 
ing-house. Like  the  Byzantine  Greeks  at  the 


end  of  the  Middle  Ages  who  fled  the  dissolution 
of  the  Eastern  Empire,  swarmed  into  Italy  and 
western  Europe  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  the 
Renaissance,  the  leading  artists  of  all  the  con- 
tinental theatres  came  to  America  in  an  ever- 
swelling  stream  because  war  and  the  economic 
and  spiritual  stagnation  of  the  ensuing  peace 
hampered  irsthetic  self-expression  on  their  na- 
tive stages. 

During  the  early  years  of  this  influx,  accident 
played  the  ruling  role.  America  was  the  first 
open  door  into  which  the  hounded  artist  could 
dodge.  Increasingly,  the  movement  assumed 
definite,  conscious  and  controlled  character. 
Without  erecting  barriers  against  any  one, 
America  had  in  later  seasons  deliberately 
chosen  to  invite  and  welcome  those  artists  who 
seemed  most  likely  to  further  by  their  example 
and  stimulus  its  own  dramatic  renaissance. 
The  peak  of  the  movement  in  this  aspect  was 
reached  in  1923  when,  under  the  sponsorship  of 
Morris  Cost,  the  Moscow  Art  Theatre  with  the 
entire  first  line  of  its  world-celebrated  acting 
company  arrived  in  personal  charge  of  its  co- 
founder*  Constantin  Stanislavsky,  to  present  1.3 
of  its  productions  for  a  total  of  279  perform- 
ances in  10  cities  and  thereby  to  prove  emphati- 
cally the  worth  of  thoroughgoing  preparation,  of 
the  repertory  system,  of  the  actor  as  most  in- 
dispensable of  the  theatre's  craftsmen  and  of 
the  cooperative  organization  of  the  theatre  with- 
out a  star.  Likewise,  late  in  the  same  year  and 
under  the-  same  sponsorship,  Max  Reinhardt, 
foremost  central  European  stage  director  and 
sharer  with  Stanislavsky,  Gordon  Craig  and 
Adolph  Appia  in  the  honors  of  stirring  and 
guiding  the  contemporary  world  renaissance  of 
theatrical  art,  came  to  New  York  to  exemplify 
in  The  Miracle  his  theory  of  fusing  performers 
and  spectators  in  a  vividly  emotional  expe- 
rience. 

The  achievements  of  the  Continental  theatres 
from  which  the  American  theatre  had  thus 
drawn  new  life  were  not  for  the  most  part  a 
matter  of  the  last  decade  It  is  true,  the  so- 
called  "expressionist"  drama  and  method  of 
staging  plays  had  developed  into  a  conscious  if 
often  still  sporadic  and  ineffectual  movement 
within  this  period.  The  revolt  against  the 
"realistic"  ideology  in  the  theatre  followed  in 
the  footsteps  of  similar  revolt  in  the  graphic 
and  plastic  arts,  with  diverse  attempts  to  dig 
beneath  and  behind  the  outer  aspects  of  life  to 
the  hidden  soul  within  and  to  "express"  or 
"present"  it  directly  to  the  human  emotions 
rather  than  to  carry  it  through  the  medium  of 
"representing"  its  superficial  aspects.  Enmt 
Toller,  author  of  Masse  Mensch,  Georg  Kaiser, 
author  of  From  Morn  1o  Midnight,  and  Walter 
Ha&enclever,  among  German  playwrights;  Ni- 
kolai Yevreynov,  playwright  and  producer  and 
proponent  of  the  theory  of  "monodrama,'* 
Vsevolod  Meyerhold,  producer,  and  the  Kamerny 
Theatre  of  Moscow,  among  Russian  dramatic 
artists;  and  numerous  others  of  lesser  stature 


DRAMA 


"SALUT  AU    MONDE" 

One  of  t'ie  Festival  Productions  at  the  Neighborhood  Playhouse;  Walt  Whitman's  Poem,  with  Music 

by  Charles  T.  Qnffes 


PHOTOGRAPH    BY   FftANOl*    •MUOUltftC 

A  Scene  from  the  Abstract  Production  of  "  Macbeth  "  by  Arthur  Hopkins  from  Design'  *>y  Robert  Edmond  Jones 

MODERN    STAGECRAFT 


THEATRE 


"93 


THEATRE 


throughout  continental  Europe,  contributed  to- 
ward this  movement. 

But,  except  for  the  possible  influence  on  the 
development  of  the  American  playwright, 
Eugene  O'Neill,  this  movement  had  not  found  a 
secure  home  on  the  American  stage,  achieving 
its  bravest  defeat  with  the  abstract  interpreta- 
tion of  Macbeth  at  the  hands  of  Robert  Edmond 
Jones,  designer,  and  Arthur  Hopkins,  producer, 
in  the  spring  of  1921. 

The  effective  impact  of  foreign  stimulus  and 
example  on  the  American  theatre  was  beholden, 
rather,  to  personalities  and  forces  whose  genesis 
dated  back  20  and  25  years  to  the  Moscow  Art 
Theatre  and  to  Rcinhardt,  who  exerted  their  in- 
fluence in  person,  and  to  Gordon  Craig  and 
Adolph  Appia,  whose  conception  of  the  art  of 
the  theatre  as  a  unique  and  unified  art  on  its 
own  account  was  excited  from  afar  or  by  proxy 
on  American  visitors  who  received  the  stimulus 
of  their  works,  their  personalities  or  their  ideas 
abroad  and  returned  to  leaven  our  native  stage 
with  them. 

In  no  respect  is  the  contrast  between  the 
American  theatre  and  the  English  more  evident 
than  in  this  mind  open  to  new  ideas  and  in 
readiness  to  absorb  and  often  improve  on  them. 
From  the  time  the  outbreak  of  the  War  in  1914 
called  a  halt  to  the  promising  repertory  theatre 
movement  and  to  the  project  for  a  national 
theatre  as  a  Shakespeare  memorial  in  London, 
the  English  stage  was  impervious  to  new  im- 
pressions from  outside  and  all  but  barren  of 
native  experimental  effort.  Exceptions  to  this 
rule  of  doldrums  were  the  rebirth,  after  dis- 
couraging struggle,  of  the  Stratford -on- A  von. 
Players,  under  the  sponsorship  of  Archibald 
Flower  and  other  Stratford  citi/ens  and  the 
guidance  of  W.  Bridges-Adams;  the  persistent 
ii  nd  scarcely  appreciated  efforts  of  the  Every- 
man Theatre  in  llampstead  and  of  the  Old  Vic 
Houth  of  the  Thames  in  London;  and  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  Birmingham  Repertory  Theatre, 
sole  survivor  of  the  promising  provincial  move- 
ment that  included  Manchester,  Liverpool  and 
Glasgow  before  the  War.  For  the  most  part, 
however,  the  chief  concern  of  these  theatres  was 
the  revival  of  classic  plays. 

Among  British  playwrights,  likewise,  the  10- 
year  period  was  discouragingly  fruitless.  Ber- 
nard Shaw  alone  preserved  the  reputation  of 
the  group,  for,  without  counting  short  sketches, 
he  added  to  his  canon  such  major  works  as 
Heartbreak  House,  pungent  and  bitter  commen- 
tary on  the  futility  of  the  War;  Rack  to  Me- 
thuselah,  mastodonic  summary  of  human  civili- 
zation in  five  parts;  and  Naint  Joan,  ripest 
flower  of  his  incisive  intellect  and  imagination, 
John  Galsworthy  conies  second,  with  The  Skin 
Oame  and  Loyalties  as  his  most  notable  contri- 
butions to  the  depiction  of  contemporary  human 
psychology  on  the  stage.  Of  the  older  figures, 
Barrie  wrought  with  his  old  skill  in  The  Legend 
of  Leonora  and  Dear  Brutus  and  less  success- 
fully in  Mary  Rone,  while  Pinero's  The  En- 
ehanted  Cottage  is  almost  the  sole  faint  re- 
minder of  the  position  he  held  through  the  dec- 
ades that  bounded  the  turn  of  the  century.  No 
playwright  of  the  first  order  emerged  from 
among  the  younger  generation  unless  it  be 
Clemence  Dane,  whose  A  Hill  of  Divorcement 
was  not  matched  by  her  later  Will  Shakespeare. 
On  the  Irish  side,  Lennox  Robinson  alono  ful- 
filled the  promise  of  his  early  days  when  the 
Abbey  Theatre  with  Synge  as  its  most  priceless 


treasure  was  holding  out  hope  of  a  renaissance 
of  English  drama.  Robinson's  output  was 
meagre,  but  The  Lost  Leader  and  The  White- 
Headed  Boy  indicated  that  more  would  still  be 
heard  from  him. 

The  vitality  of  the  American  stage  presents 
a  strong  contrast.  Rather,  the  vitality  of  the 
New  York  stage,  for  the  handicap  of  prohib- 
itive railroad  rates  and  the  competition  of  the 
motion  picture  and  other  forms  of  popular 
amusement  during  the  10  years  all  but  wiped 
out  the  serious  theatre  outside  the  metropolis 
and  several  of  the  larger  cities  Little  by  little, 
"the  road"  was  building  up  its  own  dramatic 
structure  by  the  development  of  Little  Theatres, 
but  the  process  was  slow  and  halting  Mean' 
while,  the  audience  in  the  city  unfolded,  ex- 
panded, with  an  expanding  theatre. 

Although  our  playwrights  loitered  behind  our 
stage  designers  and  our  producers,  there  was 
more  vitality  and  promise  in  them  than  ever 
before.  Eugene  O'Neill,  still  in  his  early  thir- 
ties, led  with  Beyond  the  Horizon,  IHff'rent,  and 
Anna  Christie  among  his  major  realistic  works 
and  The  Hmperor  Jones  and  The  Hairy  Ape  as 
brilliant  ventures  into  expressionism — all  writ- 
ten and  produced  within  the  last  five  years  of 
the  decade. 

But  O'Neill  was  not  alone;  other  noteworthy 
practitioners  of  realism  were  Rachel  Crothers; 
Owen  Davis,  with  Icebound;  Arthur  Richman, 
with  Ambush;  Gilbert  Emery,  with  The  Hero 
and  Tarnish.  Romantic  realists  included  Zee 
Akins,  reaching  her  best  le\el  in  Dtclassee  and 
Daddy's  (lone  a-Uunting  ;  Edward  Sheldon,  with 
the  world -popular  Romance;  Percy  MacKaye, 
whose  outstanding  achievement  was  his  expan- 
sive civic  masques.  Writers  of  comedy  and 
satire  were  particularly  strong  in  numbers: 
George  S.  Kaufman  and  Marc  Connelly,  rep- 
resented by  Dnley,  To  the  Ladies  and  Beggar  on 
Horseback-  Frank  Craven,  by  Too  Many  Cooks 
and  The  First  Year;  George  M.  Cohan,  by  Seven 
Keys  to  Baldpate  and  Broadway  Jones;  Jameq 
Forbes,  by  The  Khow  Shop  and  The  Famous 
Mrs.  Fair;  Jesse  Lynch  Williams,  by  Why 
Mairyf  and  Why  floit;  George  Middleton,  Guy 
Bolton,  Martin  Brown,  Don  Marquis  and  many 
others.  Bold  experimenters  in  new  forms  in- 
cluded Zona  Gale,  with  Miss  Lulu  Beit  and  Mr. 
Pitt;  Elmer  Rice,  with  On  Trial  and  The  Add- 
ing Machine;  Susan  Glaspell,  with  Bernice  and 
Inheritors. 

Besides  these,  we  have  many  more  who  ad- 
dress themselves  to  an  adult  intelligence.  It  is 
possible  to  name  30  whose  premieres  could  be 
attended  by  the  reasonably  exacting  playgoer 
with  at  least  an  even  chance  of  finding  some- 
thing to  hold  his  attention.  In  sheer  numbers, 
probably  no  European  capital  could  surpass  us. 
And  out  of  these  numbers,  by  competition,  by 
contagious  rivalry  and  mutual  stimulus,  some- 
thing seemed  bound  to  happen. 

Our  producers,  though  a  nondescript  lot,  grew 
more  rapidly  than  the  playwrights  in  their 
realisation  of  the  opportunity  offered  them. 
Outgrowing  the  complacent  traditions  of  the 
age  of  the  "Elder  Showmen,"  they  displayed 
a  willingness  to  experiment  undreamed  of  a 
decade  earlier.  Most  heartening  was  the  sound 
development  of  groups  as  producers,  such  as  the 
Washington  Square  Players  and  their  inher- 
itors, the  Theatre  Guild;  the  Provincetown 
Players,  discoverers  of  O'Neill;  the  Neighbor- 
hood Playhouse,  example  of  the  theatre  as  both 


THISATRJS 


1294 


THEATBE 


social  and  aesthetic  experimental  force;  and  the      5tr*V£"^?f!i!L^a^^^^^ 
Equity   Players,   the  actors'   own   theatre.     Not         ""    '"     *"-"""•     •    —«•-»•»««- 
the  least  heartening  aspect  of  the  growth  of  the 
producer  as  guiding  hand  in  the  unified  art  of 
the  theatre  was  the  attention  devoted  to  train- 
ing in  play  production  and  play  writing  in  our 
colleges,  especially  at  the  Carnegie  Institute  of 
Technology  in  Pittsburgh  and  in  the  "47  Work- 
shop" under  Prof.  George  Pierce  Baker  at  Har- 
vard. 

In  the  vanguard  of  the  awakening  American 
theatre  stood  the  stage  designer.  Reacting  be- 
fore his  fellow  craftsmen  to  the  stimulus  from 
abroad,  he  outdistanced  them,  only  to  be  wrong- 
fully charged  with  trying  to  warp  the  art  of 
the  theatre  and  draw  undeserved  attention  to 
himself.  Such  scenic  artists  as  Robert  Edmond 
Jones,  Norman-Bel  Geddes,  and  Lee  Simonson, 
however,  had  the  interest  of  the  entire  theatre 


Theatre,  New  York,  Feb.  19.  1915,  by  the  Wa  w. 
Square  Players  as  their  first  bill;  The  Gtittennv  (Jute, 
by  Lord  Dunsany,  produced  at  the  Neighborhood  Play 
house,  New  York,  Mar.  6,  1915,  by  tho  Neighborhood 
Plajers,  The  Doctor's  Dilemma,  by  Ueoigc  Bernuid 
Shaw,  produced  at  Wallack's  Theatre,  New  York,  Mar. 

by  Henrik  Ibsen,  produced  at  the  48th  Street  Theatre, 
New  York,  Aur.  13,  1915,  by  Emanuel  lltncher.  No- 
body Home,  by  Guy  Bolton  and  Jerome  Kern,  pro- 
duced at  the  Princess  Theatre,  New  York,  Apr.  20, 
1915,  by  F.  Ray  Comstcuk  and  Morris  Gext. 

Season  of  1016-16.  Tho  Stratford  upon  Avon  Plaj- 
ers,  in  Shakespearean  repertory,  with  Frank  H  Benson 
and  Murray  Carrmgton,  appearing-  in  many  t-ities  out- 
hide  New  York,  Constancy,  b\  Neith  Boyce,  and 
&  up  ftt  exited  Desires,  b>  George  Crum  Cook  un<l  Susan 
Glaspelt,  produced  at  the  Wharf  Theatre,  Provmcelown, 
Mass,  m  the  summer  of  1915,  bv  the  Provim*lo\\n 
Plajers  OH  their  first  bill,  The  Boomerang,  by  Wnifhell 
Smith  untl  Victor  Mupes,  produced  nt  tho  lii  lusco 
Theatre,  New  York,  Aug.  10,  1915,  bv  David  Bflusrn, 


at  heart  and  generously  served  the  cause  of  its      "li*}   A'rthur    Byiu'n     Wallace    Kddinper    and    Mujtlm 
balanced    development    rather    than    their    own      J^at  ?£  i^uT Vcf  \>A  fe^JS!  ^ifby 

craft,  "William  A    Brady,  with  Grace  George,  The  Vnehntttrnrd 

Like  the  playwright,  the  actor,  too,  lagged,      anlie?WT/ile-itreUINeF\v  'Yoif^Oct  * 'iodi9il>  "V^oiivfi 
waiting  for  more  efficient  direction   and  above      Morosco,  w^thlKmily'Wwns;  Major  Barbara,  by  «o«u!o 

all,  more  economic  and  more  human  and  reason-  '     "  

able  theatrical  administration  to  give  of  IUH 
best  to  an  art  in  which  he  plays  the  central 
rOle. 

Nothing  can  summarize  more  vividly  the 
range  of  activity  which  made  up  these  years 
from  1914  to  1924  than  a  list  of  tbe  outstand- 
ing productions  made  within  this  period,  to- 
gether with  the  names  of  those  craftsmen  most 
prominently  identified  with  them.  This  list  is 
reprinted  from  the  volume,  Our  American  The- 
atre, by  Oliver  M.  Sayler,  with  the  permission 
of  the  publisher,  Brcntano. 

IMPORTANT  PRODUCTIONS  ON  THE  AMERICAN  STAGE, 

1914-24 

Season  of  1914-15.  Saint  Louie,  a  Civic  Masque, 
by  Percy  Mackaye,  produced  on  Art  Hill,  Forest  Park, 
St.  Louis,  Mo  ,  Ma\  'J8,  1914,  by  .Joseph  Lin  don  Smith 
and  Oliver  M  Sayler,  with  7500  (itizens — preceded  by 
The  Paueant  of  Saint  Louis,  b}  Thomas  Wood  Stu\ens, 
On  Tnal,  by  Elmer  L  Keizenstein  (now  Rice),  produced 
at  the  Candler  Theatre  (now  the  Sam  H  Hums), 
New  York,  Aug.  19,  1914,  by  Arthur  Hopkins  and 
Cohan  and  Harris,  The  Phantom  Rival,  bj  Franz 
Molnar,  produced  at  the  Belasco  Theatre,  New  York, 
Oct.  6,  1914.  by  David  Belasco,  with  Leo  Ditrichstein ; 
Pygmalwn,  by  George  Bernard  Shaw,  produced  at 
the  Liberty  Theatre,  New  York,  Oct.  12,  1914,  by 
Liebler  and  Company,  with  Mrs.  Patrick  Campbell , 
A  Pair  of  Silk  Stocking*,  by  Cyril  Harcourt,  procured 
at  the  Little  Theatre,  New  York,  Oct.  20,  1914,  by 
Wmthrop  Ames;  Chin-Chin,  by  Anne  Caldwell,  R  H 
Burnside  and  Ivan  Gary  11,  produced  at  the  Globe 
Theatre,  New  York,  Oct.  20,  1914,  by  Charles  B. 
DUlinghnm,  with  Fred  Stone  and  David  Montgomery; 
Watfh  Tour  Step,  by  Irving  Berlin  and  Harrj  B. 
Smith,  produced  at  the  New  Amsterdam  Theatre,  New 
York  Dec.  8.  1914,  by  Charles  B.  Dilhngham.  with 
Vernon  and  Irene  Castle  and  Frank  Tmne\  (desifirnerB, 
Robert  McQuinn  and  Helen  Dryden) ,  The  Show  Shop, 
by  JameR  Forbes,  produced  at  the  Hudson  Theatre, 
New  York,  Dec.  31,  1914,  by  Selwyn  and  Company, 
with  Douglas  Fairbanks  and  George  Sidney.  Children 
of  Earth  by  Alice  Brown,  produced  at  the  Booth 
Theatre.  New  York,  Jan  12,  1915,  by  Winthrop  Amp*, 
with  Herbert  Kelcey  and  Effie  Shannon;  Mane-Odi'e, 
by  Edward  Knoblauch  (now  Knoblock),  produced  at 
the  Belasco  Theatre.  New  York,  Jan.  26.  1915,  by 


,  ,  , 

Bernard  Shaw,  produced  at  thu  Plavhouse,  New  York, 
Dec.  9,  1913,  by  William  A  Jiiadv,  with  (Jrncc  (^-OTKO. 
The  \Vraeri9,  bj  Ut-rhart  Hauptmann,  pioduced  at  the 
(Garden  Theatre.  New  York,  Dec  14,  1915,  b;  Kin.umcl 
Keic?n»r,  for  the  Modern  Stnge  SoriH\  ,  Thf  I)eni\ 
Gaiden,  by  \Villmm  B  Maxwell  and  Kdith  Kllis,  pr<»- 
duced  at  the  Hatns  Tlu-atie,  New  Yoik  DIT  28.  191f>. 
lt\  Arthur  Hoi»kins,  Diaglulev  's  Ballet  Ru^^c,  prt^-nted, 
\i  ith  extended  rejicrtory.  nt  the  ('rntuiv  Thentrt',  NO\N 
York,  Jan  10,  191ti,  by  the  Motiopolitnn  Opera  Com- 
panj  (designerh,  Leon  Bakst,  Alexander  llenm*.. 
Alexander  Golovm,  etc  )  ,  Er*1  while  8u\an,  In  Helen  1?. 
Martin  and  Marian  de  Forest  produced  nt  the  O  nH\ 
Theatre,  New  York,  .Tan.  IK,  191f«,  by  (Yney,  ^  ilhanis 
and  Riter,  with  Minnie  Muddein  Fi«»ke  ,  'Uir  Cohan 
Rent?,  1910,  b\  Oeoiee  M  Cohan,  j>rn(liHt(l  nl  the 
Astor  Thoatre.  New  York.  Fob  9  I^IO,  In  George  M 
Cohan,  The  MayicaJ  Citv,  b>  Zo<1  Akins,  prodiKcil  at 
the  Bandbox  Tlieatre,  New  York,  Mai  20.  11»1(»  b\  the 
Washington  Square  Plavers,  Jnxtiee,  In  John  Uals 
worthy,  produced  nt  the  Candler  Theatre  (nftei  \uird 
the  flarn  H.  Harris),  Ne\\  York,  Apr  3.  1010  bv  John 
D  \VillianiR,  with  John  Barr^moie,  A  J\if/ht  ul  an  Inn, 
b>  Lord  Dun^any,  produced  at  the  Neiehborlutoil  Pl»v 
house.  New  Yoik,  Apr  22,  1916  b\  the  Neiphbnt  ho.t.l 
Players;  The  Trmjwut,  by  Willinm  Sh!ikp«spearo,  pio- 
duced  ut  the  Century  Tbeutre,  Now  York  API  24. 
1916,  bv  John  Corbin  and  Louis  Culvert,  foi  the 
Drama  Society;  Cnliban,  bti  the  Yrllnw  tffindti.  h^ 
Percy  Maekaye.  produced  at  the  Htndiutn  of  thc» 
College  of  the  City  of  New,  York,  May  25,  1916  In 
Oliver  M  Sayler,  Joseph  Fihnn,  Robert  TCdmond  Jones, 
Richard  Ordynski.  (iarnet  Holme,  Cecil  Sharpe,  TJn/pl 
Macka>r  and  Irving  Pichel  for  the  New  Yoik  Citv 
Shakespeare  Tenentenar\  Celebration  Committee  -with 
Isadora  Duncan,  John  Drc\\  ,  Edith  Wynne  Matthison 
etc,  and  2."00  citi7en«<  (desiffners,  Joseph  Urban  and 
Robert  Kdmond  Jones)  —  reproduced  nt  the  Har\nrd 
Stadium,  Cnmbriflge.  Mans.,  Julv  2.  1917.  l>v  Oliver 
M  Snvler,  Frederick  Stanho|)o,  Robert  Kdmond  Jones, 
Irving  Pichol,  Samuel  A  Kliot,  Jr  ,  Virginia  Tnt\nerf 
Percv  Burell  and  Hazel  Macknve.  with  5000  citizens. 
Season  Of  1916-17.  Good  Giacimis,  Annabelle,  by 
Chire  Kummer,  produced  nt  the  Republic  Theatre.  New 
York,  Oct  31  1P16.  b>  Arthur  Hopkins  (de^ncrner. 
Robert  Edmond  Jones-)  ,  Round  Enut  for  Cardiff,  bv 
Eugene  O'Neill,  The  (fame,  bv  Louiwe  Bryant,  und 
Kimi  Arthur'  A  f!ock«.  by  Floyd  Doll  —  three  one-net 
play*  produced  at  the  Provincetnwn  Plnvho»i*;p  New 
York,  in  the  autumn  of  1916,  bv  tho  Proviucetown 
Pla>erH  UR  their  first  bill  in  New  York  Citv;  Triflen,  bv 
Hunan  Glasi»e]I,  and  Bunhidn,  from  the  Japanese  of 
Takeda  Tzurno  two  of  n  bill  of  four  short  plavs  pro- 
duced at  the  Comedy  Theatre,  New  York.  Nov  13, 
19]  R,  bv  the  Washington  Square  Players;  The  Inca 


me      wmDvu      Auiraii^,      £irw       .LUIJV,      »»nii.      L>\I,      icr^u,      i»jr  i  n  j  o,      IJY      nif      vv  uniuiiK  i\>u     oviuinr      i   my  urn,      j 

David  Belasco,  with  Frances  Starr;  Androrlen  and  the       of  Pftwtatem,  by  (leorge  Bernard  Shaw,    The 


, 

Lion,  by  George  Bernard  Shaw,  produced  at  Wallack's 
Theatre,  New  York.  Jan.  27,  1915,  bv  Granville  Barker, 
with  O.  P.  Heggie — preceded  by  The  Man  Who  Mnr- 
ried  n  Dvmb  Wife,  by  Anatole  France,  with  scenery 
by  Robert  Edmond  Jones;  Jephthah**  Dauffhter,  dance 
drama,  music  by  Lilia  Mackay-Cantell.  produced  at  the 
Neighborhood  Playhouse,  New  York,  Feb  12,  1916,  by 
the  Festival  Dancers  as  the  first  bill  of  the  Playhouse, 
A  Midmmmer  Nwht'a  Dream,  by  William  Shakes  peHTe, 
produced  at  Wallnck's  Theatre,  New  York.  F*»b.  16, 
1915.  bv  Granville  Barker;  Interior,  bv  Maurice  Maeter- 
linck, Licented,  by  Basil  Lawrence  (Lawrence  Lang- 


, 

,  bv  Lord  Dunsany,  and  Great  flrithertne,  by 
Georjfn  Bernard  Shaw  —  three  short  plavs  produced 
Nov.  14,  191fi.  at  the  Neighborhood  Pluyhouse  bv 
Gertrude  Kingston;  The  God*  of  the  Mountain,  bv  Lord 
Dunsany,  Sir  Who  /*«**  While  the  Lentil*  Jlnil  and 
Nevrrfhele-itH  bv  Stuort  Walker  —  three  short  uluvs  pro- 
duced in  the  Portmanteau  Theatre  at  the  39th  Street 
Theatre.  New  York,  Nov  27.  1916  by  Stuart  Walker: 
A  Ki**_for  Cinderella,  bv  JameR  M  Barrte,  itroducpfl 
at  the  Empire  Theatre,  New  York,  Dec  25,  1916.  bv 
Charles  Frohman,  Inc.,  with  Maude  Adams;  A  Success- 
ful Calamity,  by  Clare  Kummer,  produced  at  tho 


•  • 


I 


z 
S 


- 

oi 


THEATRE 


1295 


THEATRE 


Booth  Theatre,  New  York,  Feb.  5,  1017,  by  Arthui 
Hopkins,  with  William  Gillette  (designer,  Robert 
Edmond  Jones) ;  The  Great  Divide,  by  William  Vaughn 

Moody,    revived    at    the   Lyceum    Theatre,    New    York,  ,   , , Wifi 

Feb.    7,    1917,    by   Henry    Miller,    with    Henry   Miller;  by  St.  John  Emne,   produced  at  the  Garrkk  Theatre, 

The  Eairn  of  K  or  id  wen,  dance  drama,  music  by  Charles  New    York,    Feb.    23,    1920.    by    Emanuol    Reirber    foi 


Richard  Bennett  (designer,  Homer  Saint-Gaudens) : 
The  Letter  of  the  Law,  by  Eugene  Brieux,  produced 
at  the  Criterion  Theatre,  New  York,  Feb.  23,  1920,  by 
John  D.  Williams,  with  Lionel  Barrymore,  Jane  Cteag, 


_ rles 

T.  Griffes,  produced  at  the  Neighborhood  Playhouse, 
New  York,  Feb.  10,  1917,  bv  the  Festival  Dancers; 
Niu,  by  Ogaip  Djmow,  produced  at  the  Bandbox  Theatre, 
New  York,  Mar.  L'2,  1917,  by  Joseph  Urban  and 
Richard  Ord>nski  (designer,  Joseph  Urban),  The 
Rider  of  Dream*.  Gianny  Maumee,  and  Simon  the 
Cyrenian,  three  short  plays  by  Ridgely  Torrencc,  pro- 
duced at  the  Garden  Theatre,  New  York,  Apr.  5  1917. 
by  Emily  Hapgood  (designer,  Robert  Edmond  Jones). 

Season  of  191718.  7/i?  Delude,  by  Henumg 
Berger,  produced  at  the  Hudson  Theatre,  New  York, 
Aug  20,  1917,  by  Arthur  Honkms,  v\ith  Pauline  Lord 
— revived  at  the  Plymouth  Iheatre,  New  York,  Jan 
27,  1922,  by  Mr.  Hopkins,  Chu  Chin  Chow,  by  Oscar 
Asche  and  Frederick  Norton  produced  at  the  Man- 
hattan Opera  House,  New  York,  Oct.  22.  1917,  by 
F  Ray  Comstock  and  Morris  Gest,  Madame  tin  ml,  by 
Philip  Moeller,  produced  at  Hie  Criterion  Theatie.  New 
York,  Nov  19,  1917,  )>\  Arthur  Hopkins  for  Kluw 
and  Erlanger,  with  Minnie  Maddern  Fiske ,  Theatre 
du  Vieux  Colombier,  of  Paris  (Jacques  Copeau, 
director),  opening  a  two  \ ear  engagement  at  the  Our- 
rick  Theatre,  New  York,  Dec.  3,  1917,  with  Lt* 
Fourbenct  de  Scapin,  by  Moliere,  Why  Marry?  by 
Jesse  Lynch  Williams,  pioduced  at  the  Astor  Theatre, 
New  York,  Dec  25,  1917,  by  Selw\  n  and  Company, 
with  Nat  C  Goodwin,  Jimrphinr,  by  Hermann  Bahr, 
adapted  by  Frank  E  U  ashburn  Fround,  produced  at 
the  Knickerbocker  Theatre.  New  York,  Jan.  2*,  191H, 
by  the  Josephine  Compam,  Inc  ,  with  Arnold  Dal\  and 
Virginia  Harned  (designer.  Hollo  Peters)  ;  The  Co/iprr- 
l>end,  by  Augustus  Thomas,  produced  at  the  Shubert 
Theatre,  New  York,  Fob  IK,  19  IK,  by  John  1). 
Williams,  -with  Lionel  Raiivmorc,  The  Wild  Duel,  by 
TIenrik  Ibsen,  produced  at  the  Plj  mouth  Theatre,  New 
York,  Mar  11.  1918,  by  Arthur  Hopkins,  with  Alia 
Na^imova  (designet,  Robot  Edtnond  Jones). 

Season  of  1918  19.  A  Very  Good  Foum;  Man,  by 
Martin  Brown,  produced  at  the  Plymouth  Thcutre, 
Now  York.  Aug.  19  1918,  by  Arthur  Hopkins,  with 
Wallace  Edditigcr,  Li<tlttnin',  by  Wmchell  Smith  and 
Frank  Bacon,  produced  at  the  Gaietv  Theatre,  New 
York,  Aug  26,  191H,  bv  John  Golden,  v\ith  Frank 
Baron;  Redemption,  by  Count  Liov  Tolstoy,  produced 
at  the  PK mouth  Theatie,  New  York,  Oct  3,  1918,  by 
Arthur  Hopkins,  v\ith  John  Barr.Mnore  (designer, 
Robeit  Edmond  Jones)  ,  Be  Calm.  Camilla,  bv  Hare 
Kuramer,  produced  at  the  Booth  Theatre  New  York, 
O(t.  31,  1918,  by  Arthur  Hopkins  (designer,  Robert 
Kdmond  Jones)  ,  Dear  Brutus,  by  James  M  Barne, 
produced  at  the  Empire  Theatre,  New  York.  Dec  23. 

1918,  by  Charles  Frohman,  Inc.,  with  William  Gillette; 
Moherf.    bv    Philip    Moeller,    produced    at    the    Liberty 
Theatre,   New  York,   Mar    17,    1919,   by  Henrv  Miller, 
with    Henry    Miller,    Blanche    Bates,    Holbrook    Blmn 
and  Estclle  Winwood ;  Berntce,  by  Susan  Glaspell,  pro- 
duced at  the  Provmcetown  Playhouse,  New  York,  Mnr. 
29,    1919,   by  the   Provmcetown    Players,    The  Jest,  by 
Sem    Benelh,    adapted    by    Edward    Sheldon,    produced 
nt  the  Phmouth  Theatre,  New  York,  Apr   9,  1919.  bv 
Arthur    Hopkins,    with    John    and    Lionel     Barrvmore 
(designer,  Robert  Edmond  Jones)  ;  Papa,  by  Zoe  Akins, 
produced    at  the   Little   Theatre,    New  York,   Apr.   10, 

1919,  by    F.    C     Whitney,    The   Bonds   of  Interest,   by 
Jacmto  Bennvente,   translated  by  John  Garrett  Under- 
bill,   first    production    of    the    Theatre    Guild     nt    the 
Garrick    Theatre,    New    York.    Apr     14.    1919;    John 
Feryuson,   by    St.   John    Ervine,    produced   at   the   Gar- 
lick  Theatre,  New  York,  May  12,  1919,  by  the  Theatre 
Guild,    with    Augustin    Duncan,    Dudley    Digges    and 
Rollo  Peters. 

Season  of  1919-20.  Clarence,  bv  Booth  Tarkington. 
produced  at  the  Hudson  Theatre.  New  York,  Sept.  20, 
1919.  bv  George  C.  Tyler;  Declastee,  by  Zoe  Akins, 
produced  at  the  Empire  Theatre,  New  York.  Oct.  6, 
1019.  bv  Charles  Frohman.  Inc  ,  with  Ethel  Barrv- 
mor«;  The  Lost  Lender,  bv  Lennox  Robinson,  produred 
nt  the  Greenwich  Village  Theatre,  New  York,  Nov.  12, 
1919.  bv  William  Ham«,  Jr ,  with  Frank  Conroy; 
Abraham  Lincoln,  by  John  Drinkwater,  produced  at 
the  Cort  Theatre.  New  York.  Dec.  15,  1919,  by  Lester 
Lonorgan  for  William  Harris,  Jr  ;  The  famous  M)*. 
*Vnr,  by  James  Forbes,  produced  at  Henrv  Miller's 
Theatre."  New  York,  Dee.  22,  1919.  by  Henrv  Miller, 
with  Henry  Miller  and  Blanche  Bates;  Niftht  Lodaina, 
by  Maxim  Gorki,  produced  at  the  Plvmouth  Theatre, 
New  York,  Dec.  22,  1919,  by  Arthur  Hopkins;  Mama's 
Affair,  by  Rachel  Barton  Butler,  produced  at  the 
Little  Theatre,  New  York,  Jan.  19,  1920.  bv  Oliver 
Morosco,  with  Effie  Shannon;  Thts  Beavtifvl  flabine 
Women,  by  Leonid  Andre>v,  produced  at  the  Neighbor- 
hood Playhouse,  New  York.  Feb.  2,  1920,  hv  the 
Neighborhood  Players;  Beyond  the  Horizon,  by  Eugene 
O'Neill,  produced  at  the  Moroseo  Theatre.  New  York, 
Feb.  8.  matinee,  1920,  by  John  D,  Williams,  with 


the  Theatre  Guild,  nith  Margaret  Wicherly  (designer, 
Lee  Simunbon)  ,  It ic hard  III,  by  William  Shakespeare, 
pioduced  at  the  Ph  mouth  Theatre,  New  York,  Mar.  6, 
1920,  by  Arthur  Hopkins,  with  John  Barrymore  (de- 
signer. Robert  Edmond  Jones),  What'*  in  a  Name? 
by  John  Murray  Anderson  and  Milton  Ager,  produced 
at  the  Maxme  Elliott  Theatre,  Ne\\  Yoik,  Mar  19, 
1920,  by  John  Murray  Anderson  (designers,  Robert 
Locker  and  James  Re\nolds)  ,  La  Boutique  lantasque, 
music  by  Rossini,  produced  ut  the  Neighborhood  Play- 
house, New  York,  May  8,  1920,  by  the  Festival 
Dancers. 

Season  of  1920-21.  Enter  Madame,  by  Gilda  Varesi 
and  Dolly  Bjrue,  produced  at  the  (•arnck  Theatre 
New  York,  Aug.  16,  1920,  by  Biock  Pemberton,  with 
Gilda  Vare^i;  lhe  Bad  Man,  b>  Portei  Emerson 
Browne,  produced  at  the  Comedy  Theatre,  Neu  York, 
Aug  30,  1920,  by  Lester  Loneigan  for  \\illiom  Harris, 
Jr  ,  with  Holbiook  Blinn  (designer,  Livingston  Platt)  ; 
Gteenunch  Village  follies  of  1D20,  b\  John  Murray 
Anderson  and  A.  Baldwin  Sloane,  produced  at  the 
Greenwich  Village  Theatre,  New  York.  AUK  30,  1920, 
by  John  Murray  Anderson  for  the  Bohemians,  Inc. 
with  Margaret  Severn  (designers  Robert  Locker  and 
James  Reynolds);  The  Mob,  b>  John  Galsworthx  pro- 
duced at  the  Neighborhood  Plavhouse,  Nev\  York,  Oct. 
9,  1920.  by  the  Neighborhood  Pl.iyers,  Thr  Pirat  Tear. 
bv  Frank  Craven,  produced  nt  tho  Little  Theatre  New 
York,  Oct.  20,  19120,  by  Wmchell  Smith  for  John 
Golden,  \\ith  Fiank  Graven;  The  Kkm  Game,  by  John 
G.nlMt  orthy.  produced  at  the  Bijou  Thentre  New 
York,  Oof  20  1920,  bv  Basil  Dean,  for  WilJiara  A. 
Bradv  ;  Jhc  Em/term  Jones,  by  Eugene  O'Neill  pro- 
duced at  the  Provm<eto\\n  Theatre,  New  York  Nov.  1. 
1920,  by  the  Provineetown  Plavers,  with  Charles  S. 
Gilpm  (designer,  Cleon  Throckmorton )  ;  Heartbreak 
House,  bv  George  Bernard  Shaw,  produced  at  the 
Oarnck  Theatre,  New  York,  Nov  10,  1920,  by  Dudley 
Diprgcs,  for  the  Thentre  Guild  (designer,  Lee  Simon- 
son) ;  Samson  and  Delilah,  by  Sven  Lange,  produced 
at  the  Greenuich  Village  Theatre,  New  York,  Nov.  17. 
1920,  by  Arthur  Hopkins,  v\ith  Jacob  Ben-Ami  and 
Pauline  Lord  (designer,  Robert  Edmond  Jones)  , 
Mired  Marnave,  by  St  John  Ervine,  produced  nt  the 
Bramhall  Playhouse,  New  York,  Dec  14,  1920,  by 
AuRURtm  Duncan  (designer,  Rollo  Peters)  .  Sally,  by 
Guy  Bolton  and  Jerome  Kern,  produred  at  the  New 
Amsterdam  Theatre,  New  York  Dec  21,  1920.  bv  F. 
Ziegfeld,  Jr ,  with  Marilyn  Miller  and  Leon  Erroll 
(designer,  Joseph  Urban);  Deburau,  by  Sacha  Guitry, 
adapted  bv  Grnnville  Barker,  produced  at  the  Belaseo 
Theatre,  Dec  23,  1920,  by  David  Belasco  (designer, 
Ernest  Gros)  ;  Diff'ient.  bv  Eugene  O'Neill,  produced 
ftt  the  Provmcetovvn  Playhouse,  New  York,  Dec  27. 
1920,  by  the  Provinceto\\  n  Players  (designer.  Cleon 
Thiockmorton)  ;  3/i««  Lulu  Bftt,  by  Zona  Gale,  pro- 
duced at  the  Belmont  Theatre,  New  York.  Dec.  27, 

1920,  by    Brock    Pemberton,    with    Carroll    McComas; 
The    Bepffar's    Opera,    by    John    Gay,    Nigel    Plavf air's 
London  production  presented   nt  the  Greenuich   Village 
Theatre,  New  York,  Dec.  29,   1920,  by  Arthur  Hopkins 
(designer,   C.  Lovat  Fraser)  ;   Erminie,  by  Harry  Paul- 
ton    and   E     Jacobowski,    revisions   bv    Marc   Connellv. 
revived  at  the   Park  Theatre    New  York.  Jan   3,   1921. 
hv  George  C.  T\ler,  with  Francis  Wilson  and  De  Wolf 
Hopper     (designer,     Norman-Bel     Geddes) ;     Macbeth, 
bv  William  Shakespeare,  produced  at  the  Apollo  Theatre, 
New   York,    Feb     17.    1921     by    Arthur    Hopkins.    \uth 
Lionel   Bnrrymore   and   Julia  Arthur    (designer.    Robert 
Edmond  Jones)  ;    Mr.  Pirn   Pause*  /??/.  bv  A    A    Milne, 
produred  at  the  Gnrriek  Theatre,   New   York,   Feb.   28t 

1921.  hv    Philip   Moeller.    for   tho   Thentre    Guild    (de- 
signer. Lee  Simsonson) ,   The  Heio,  by  Gilbert  Emery, 
produred  at  tho  Loniracrci  Theatre,  New  York    matinee, 
Mar     14.    1921.    by   Sam   Forrest   for   Sam   H    Harris, 
with    Robert   Ames — revived    at    the    Belmont   Theatre, 
Now  York,   Sept.  5,    19'-'!:   Inheritors,  by   Susan   Glas- 
pell, produced  at  thn  Provineetown  Thentre.  New  York. 
Mnr    21     1921.  bv  the  Provineetown  Plavers  (designer, 
Cleon  Throckmorton);    The   Tnal   of  Joan    of  Arc.   by 
Emile  Moreau,    produced  nt  the  Centur\    Theatre.   New 
York.  Apr    3,   1921,  by  Margaret   Anglin  and  Maurice 
Browne,     with     Miss     Anglin      (designer,     Ernest     de 
Weerth)  ;    Lilwm,    bv    Franz    Molnnr,    produced    at    the 
Garrick  Theatre,  New  York,  Apr.  20,   1921.  bv  Frank 
Reioher  for  tho  Theatre  Guild,  with  Joseph  Sehildkraut 
(designer,    Lee    Simonson);    Rhvfflp    Alona,    by    Miller 
and  Lvlcs,  produced  at  the  63rd    Street  Thentrtt,   New 
York.  May  23,  1921,  by  Walter  Brooks,  for  the  Kikko 
Company,    Inc. 

Season  of  1921-22.  The  Ptinrim  Spirit,  by  Prof. 
George  Pierce  Baker,  produced  at  Plymouth,  Mass.. 
Julv  20,  1921,  by  Professor  Baker  (designer,  Rollo 
Peters) :  The.  Dttovr,  by  Owen  Davis,  produced  at  the 
Astor  Theatre,  New  York,  Aug.  23,  1021,  by  Angustin 


THEATRE  u 

Duncan  for  Lee  and  J  J.  Shubert,  with  August  in 
Duncan  and  Effie  Shannon;  Daddy's  Gone  a-Hunting, 
by  Zoe  Akms,  produced  at  the  Plymouth  Theatre,  New 
York,  Aug  31,  1921,  by  Arthur  Hopkins,  with 
Marjorio  Rambeau  (designer,  Robert  Edmond  Jones)  ; 
Swords,  by  Sidney  Howard,  produced  at  the  National 
Tlieatre,  New  York,  Sept  1,  1921,  by  Brock  Pember- 
ton,  with  Clare  Eames  (designer,  Robert  Edraond 
Jones) ,  The  Circle,  by  W  Somerset  Maugham,  pro- 
duced at  the  Selwyn  Theatre,  New  York,  Sept.  12, 
1921,  by  Clifford  Brooke  for  the  Selwyns,  with  Mrs. 
Leslie  Carter  and  John  Drew;  The  White-Headed  Boy, 
by  Lennox  Robinson,  produced  at  Henry  Miller  s 
Theatre,  New  York,  Sept  15,  1921,  by  J  *B.  Pagan 
for  Charles  Dillmgham,  with  Arthur  Sinclair  and 
Maire  O'Neill,  The  Music  Bov  Revue,  1921,  bv  Irving 
Berlin,  produced  at  the  Music  Box,  New  York,  Sept 

22,  1921,   by  Haasard   Short  for  Sam   H     Harris  and 
Irving   Berlin,    Blossom    Time,   by   A     M    Willner,    H. 
Reichert  and    Dorothy   Donnelly,    music   arranged   from 
Franz  Schubert,   produced  at  the  Ambassador  Theatre, 
New  York,  Sept    29,   1921,  by  Lee  and  J.  J.  Shubert; 
Bombo,    by    Harold    Atteridge   and    Sigmund    Romberg, 
produced   at  Jolson's   59th   Street   Theatre,    New   York, 
Oct     6,    1921,    by    J     C.    Huffman    for    Lee   and   J    J. 
Shubert,  with  Al  Jolson,  Ambush    bv  Arthur  Richman, 
produced  at  the   Garrick  Tlieatre,   New  York,   Oct.   10, 

1921,  by  Robert  Milton  for  the  Theatre  Guild;  A  Bill 
of   Divorcement,    by    Clemence    Dane,    produced    at   the 
George  M.   Cohan   Thentre,    New  York,   Oct     10,    1921, 
by   Basil   Dean   for   Charles   B     Dillmgham,   with   Allan 
Pollock   and    Katherinc    Cornell;    The    Claw,   by    Henri 
Bernstein,    produced    at   the    Broadhurst   Theatre,    New 
York,   Oct.   17.   1921,   bv  Arthur  Hopkins,   \\iih  Lionel 
Barrymore    (designer,    Robert    Edmond    Jones)  ;    Anna 
Christie,   by   Eugene   O'Neill,    produced    at   the  Vander- 
bilt    Theatre,    New    York,    Nov     2,    1921,    by    Arthur 
Hopkins,     with     Paulino     Lord     and     George     Marion 
(designer,     Robert    Edmond    Jones)  ;     The    Straw,    bv 
Eugene    O'Neill,    produced    at    the    Greenwich    Village 
Thentre,    New    York,    Nov.    10,    1921,    bv    George    O. 
Tyler,    -with    Margalo    Gilmore    and    Otto   KriiRer,    Kiki, 
by  Andr<?  Picard   and   David  Belasco,  produced  at  the 
Belasco  Theatre,   New  York,   Nov.   29.   1921.   bv   David 
Belnsco,  vith  Lenore  Ulric;  The  Dover  Road,  bv  A.  A. 
Milne,  produced  at  the  Biiou  Theatre,  New  York,   Dec. 

23,  1921.  bv  Guthrie  MrClmtic;   Captain  Applejack,  by 
Walter    ITackett,    produced    nt    the    Cort    Theatre.    New 
York     Dec.    30,    1921.    by    Oliver   M.    Savler    for    Sam 
H.    Harris,    with    Wallace    Eddmger;    tf.ff     "Tenacity," 
bv     Charles    Vildrac,     translated    by     Sidney    Howard, 
produced   at  the   Belmont  Theatre,   New  York,   Jan.  2, 

1922,  by  Augustin   Duncan    (designer,   Robert  Edmond 
Jones)  ;     Bnliev's     Chauve-Souris     (Letutchaya     Muish 
or  the  Bat   Theatre  of  Moscow),   presented  at  the  49th 
Street   Theatre,    New  York,   Peb     3,    1922,    and   moved 
to  the  Centurv  Roof  Theatre,  June  5    1922,  by  P.  Ray 
Comstock    and    Morris    Gest,    with    Nikitti    Baliev    (de- 
signers,  Sergei   Sudevkin   and  Nikolai   Remisov) ;  Back 
to    Methuselah,    by    George    Bernard    Shaw,    five    parts 
produced    in    three    evenings    at   the    Garrick   Tlieatre, 
New    York,    Feb    26,    Mar     5   and   Mar     12,    1922,   by 
Alice    Lewisohn,    Agnes    Morgan    and    Frank    Reirher 
for  the  Theatre  Guild    (designer,   Lee  Simonson) ;    The 
Hairy    Ape.    by     Eugene     O'Neill,     produced     at    the 
Provincetown    Playhouse,    New    York,    Mar     9.    1922, 
by     the     Provincetown     Plavers,     assisted     by     Arthur 
Hopkins,     with     Louis     Wolheim      (designers,     Robert 
Edmond   Jones   and   Cleon    Throckmorton);    The   Tiuth 
About  Blayds,  by  A.  A.  Milne,  produced   at  the  Booth 
Theatre,  New  York,  Mar.  14,  1922,  by  Winthrop  Ames, 
with    O.    P.    Heggie    (designer,    Norman-Bel    Geddes)  ; 
Salut   au  Monde,   by   Walt   Whitman,    set   to   music  by 
Charles  T    Griffes,  produced  at  the  Neighborhood  Play- 
house, New  York,   Apr.   22,   1922,  bv  the  Neighborhood 
Players   (designer,   Esther   Peck);    From  Morn  to   Mid- 
night,  by   Georg   Kaiser,    translated   bv    Ashley    Dukes, 
produced  at  the  Garrick  Theatre,  New  York,   May  21, 
1922,    by   Frank    Rcicher   for   the   Theatre    Guild    (de- 
signer,   Lee   Simonson) 

Season  of  1922-23.  Loyalties,  by  John  Galsworthy, 
produced  at  the  Gaiety  Theatre,  New  York.  Sept  27, 
1922.  by  Basil  Dean  for  Charles  B  Dillingham; 
R.  U.  K.,  by  Karel  Capek,  translated  by  Paul  Selver 
and  Nigel  Playfair,  produced  at  the  Garrick  Theatre, 
New  York,  Oct.  9,  1922,  by  Philip  Moeller  for  the 
Theatre  Guild  (designer,  Lee  Simonson)  ,  To  Love,  by 
Paul  Geraldy,  translated  by  Grace  George,  produced 
at  the  Bijou  Theatre,  New  York,  Oct.  17,  1922,  by 
Grace  George,  with  Grace  George,  Norman  Trevor  and 
Robert  Warwick;  Six  Characters  tn  Search  of  an 
Author,  by  Luigi  Pirandello,  translated  by  Edward 
Storer,  produced  at  the  Princess  Theatre,  New  York, 
Oct.  30,  1922,  by  Brock  Pemberton ;  The  World  We 
Live  In  (The  Insect  Comedy),  by  Josef  and  Karel 
Capek,  adapted  by  Owen  Davis,  produced  at  Jolson's 
59th  Street  Theatre.  New  York,  Oct.  81,  1922,  by 
John  Cromwell  for  William  A.  Brady  (designer,  Lee 
Simonson);  Rain,  by  John  Colton  and  Clemence 
Randolph,  founded  on  a  story  by  W.  Somerset  Mau- 


56  THEATRE 

gham,  produced  at  the  Maxme  Elliott  Tlieatre,  New 
York,  Nov.  7.  1922,  by  John  D.  Williams  for  Sam 
H.  Harris,  with  Jeanne  Eagela;  Hamlet,  by  William 
Shakespeare,  produced  at  the  Sam  H.  Hams  Theatre, 
New  York,  Nov  10,  1922.  by  Arthur  Hopkins,  with 
John  Barrymore  and  Rosalind  Fuller  (designer,  Robert 
Edmond  Jones)  ,  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  by  William 
Shakespeare,  produced  at  the  Bela^co  Theatre,  Ne\\ 
York.  Dec.  21,  1922,  by  David  Belasco,  with  David 
Warfield;  Why  Not?  by  Jesse  Lynch  Williams,  pro 
duced  at  the  48th  Street  Theatre,  New  York,  Dec  25, 
1922,  by  the  Equity  Placers,  Inr  ,  Wtil  Shakespeare, 
by  Clemence  Dane,  produ<ed  at  the  National  Theatre. 
New  York,  Jan  1,  1923,  by  Winthrop  Ames  (designer, 
Norman  Bel  Geddes);  The  Moscow  Art  Theatre,  Con- 
stantin  Stanwlavsky  and  Vladimir  Nemirovitch-Dant 
chenko,  Directors,  presented  at  Jolson's  59th  Street 
Theatre,  New  York,  by  F.  Ray  Comstock  and  Morris 
Gest  in  the  following  repertory,  with  dates  of  premieres 
Tsar  Fyodor  Ivanovitch,  by  Count  Alexei  Tolstoy,  Jan. 
8,  1923 — The  Lower  Depths,  by  Maxim  Gorky,  Jan. 
15,  1923 — The  Cherry  O> chard,  by  Anton  Tchekoff 
Jan.  22,  1923 — 1  he  Three  Sisters,  by  Anton  Tchekoff, 
Jan.  29,  1923 — The  Brothers  Karamazoff  (three  scenes), 
by  Fjodor  Dostoyevsky,  and  The  Lady  jtom  the  Pror 
inces,  by  Ivan  Turgenieff,  Feb  26,  1923,  second 
American  season  of  the  Moscow  Art  Theatre  at  JoKon's 
59th  Street  Theatre,  New  York,  in  the  following 
repertory  The  Brotheis  Eaiamazoff  (six  scenes),  bv 
Dostoyevskv,  Nov.  19,  1923  —  The  Mist  t  ess  of  the  Inn, 
by  Carlo  Goldoni,  Nov  21,  1923 — Ivanoff,  by  Anton 
Tchekoff,  Nov.  26,  1923 — In  the  Claws  of  Life,  by 
Knut  Hamsun,  Nov.  29,  1923 — An  Enemy  of  the 
People,  bv  Henrik  Ibsen,  Dec  3,  19J3 — Enouoh 
Stupidity  in  Every  Wise  Man,  by  Alexander  Ostrovskv, 
Dec.  5,  1923 — I'ncle  Vantia,  by  Anton  Tchekoff,  Jan 
28,  1924 — The  Death  of  Pnzuhin,  b>  Mihail  SaltuikoflT- 
Shchedrm,  Feb  11,  1924,  Romeo  and  Juliet,  b> 
Wilhamj  Shakespeare,  produced  at  Henry  Miller's 
Theatre,  New  York,  Jan.  24,  1923,  by  Frank  Reirher 
for  the  Sehiyns,  with  Jane  Cowl  (designer,  Rollo 
Peters)  ;  Icebound,  by  Oven  Davis,  produced  at  the 
Sam  II.  Harris  Theatre.  New  York,  Feb  10,  1923,  bv 
Sam  Forrest  for  Sam  H.  Harris;  Ton  and  I  bv  Philip 
Barry,  produced  at  the  Belmont  Theatre.  New  York. 
Feb.  19,  1923,  by  Robert  Milton  for  Richard  G  Hern 
don,  ixith  Lucile  Watson  and  H  B  Warner,  T/M' 
Devil's  Disciple,  by  George  Bernard  Shaw,  produced 
at  the  Garrick  Theatre,  New  York,  Apr  23,  19li,1,  bv 
Philip  Moeller  for  the  Theatie  Guild  (designer,  Lee 
Simonson). 

Season  Of  1923-24.  Sunup,  bv  Lula  Vollmer,  pro- 
duced at  the  Provmreto\\  n  Playhouse,  New  York, 
May  24,  1923,  by  the  Pla\  ers  Compam,  In<orpotatecl , 
Tarnish,  by  Gilbert  Emery,  produced  at  the  Belmont 
Theatre,  New  York,  Oct  1,  1923,  bv  John  Crorn \\ell. 
Incorporated;  The  Shame  Woman,  b>  Lula  Vollmer, 
produced  at  the  Greenwich  Villaee  Tlieatre,  New  York 
Oct  1C,  1923,  by  the  Independent  Theatre,  Incorpo- 
rated: Eleonora  l)use,  presented  by  F.  Ray  Comstock 
and  Morris  Gest  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House, 
New  York,  Oct  29,  1923,  m  The  Lady  //om  the  Sea, 
by  Henrik  Ibsen,  and  thereafter  at  the  Century  Theatre, 
New  York,  Nov.  6,  13,  20,  and  27  in  (Jhoslx,  by 
Ibsen,  Cosi  Sia  (Thy  Will  Be  Done1),  by  Gallarati- 
Scotti,  La  Poita  Chiusa  ('The  Closed  Door'),  b>  Maico 
Praga,  and  La  Citta  Morta  ('The  Dead  City'),  bv  Ga- 
briele  d'Annunzio;  Cyrano  de  Bet ///•/  ac,  by  Edmond 
Rostand,  produced  at  the  National  Theatre,  New  York. 
Nov.  1,  1923,  by  Walter  Hampden,  with  Walter  Hamp- 
den,  Saint  Joan,  by  George  Bernard  Shaw,  produced 
at  the  Garrick  Theatre,  New  York,  Dec  28,  1923,  by 
Philip  Moeller  for  the  Theatre  Guild  (designer,  Ray- 
mond Sovey)  ;  Hell-Bent  fer  Heaven,  by  Hatcher 
Hughes,  produced  at  the  Klaw  Theatre,  New  York, 
Dec.  30,  1923,  b>  Augustm  Duncan  for  Marc  Klaw, 
Inc.;  Eid  Boots,* by  William  Anthony  McGuire,  Otto 
Harbaoh  and  Hnrrv  Tierne\,  produced  at  the  Earl 
Carroll  Theatre,  New  York,  Dec.  31,  by  F.  Ziegfeld. 
Jr.,  with  Eddie  Cantor  and  Mary  Eaton;  Outward 
Bound,  bv  Sutton  Vane,  produced  at  the  Ritt  Theatre, 
New  York,  Jan  7,  1924,  bv  William  Harris.  Jr  ; 
Andre*  Chariot's  Revue  of  1924,  presented  at  the 
Times  Square  Theatre,  New  York,  Jan  9,  1924,  bv 
Selwyn  and  Company;  The  Miiacle,  by  Karl  Vollmoel- 
ler,  Engelbert  Humperdinck,  and  Fricdnch  S(hirmer, 
produced  at  the  Century  Theatre,  New  York,  Jon 
15,  1924,  by  Max  Remhardt  for  F.  Ray  Comstock  and 
Morris  Gest  (designer,  Norman  Bel  Geddes)  ,  Fashion. 
by  Anna  Cora  Mowatt,  produced  at  the  Pro\mrctoM  n 
Playhouse,  New  York,  Feb.  3,  1024,  by  Robert  Ed- 
mond Jones  and  James  Light  for  the  Provincetown 
Plavers  (designers,  Reginald  Marsh,  Cleon  Throck 
morton  and  Robert  Edmond  Jones)  ;  The  Show-Off,  by 
George  Kelly,  produced  at  the  Playhouse,  New  York, 
Peb.  5,  1924,  by  Stewart  and  French;  Beqgar  on 
Horseback,  by  George  8  Kaufman  and  Marc  Connolly, 
after  a  play  by  Paul  A  pel,  produced  at  the  Broad- 
hurst  Theatre,  New  York,  Feb.  12,  1924,  by  Winthrop 
Ames  (designer,  Woodman  Thompson) ;  Fata  Mor- 


THELEN 


"97 


THOBEX 


aana,  by  Ernst  Vajda,  produced  at  the  Garrick  Theatre, 
New  York,  Mar.  3,  1924,  by  Philip  Moeller  for  the 
Theatre  Guild  (designer.  Lee  Siinonson) ;  Man  and  the 
Uasses.  by  Ernst  Toller,  produced  at  the  Garrick  The- 
ntrp,  New  York,  Apr.  14,  1924,  by  Lee  SiraonHon  for 
the  Thoutre  Guild  (designer,  Lee  SimonKon) ;  ExprcuH- 
tn//  Willie,  by  Rachel  Crothers,  produced  at  tho  48th 
Street  Theatre,  New  York,  Apr.  10,  1924,  by  the  Equity 
Players,  Inc.;  Eedda  0 abler,  by  Henrik  Ibsen,  pro- 
duced at  the  48th  Street  Theatre,  New  York,  May  16, 
1924,  by  Robert  Edmond  Jones  for  the  Equity  Players, 
Inc. 

THELEN,  MAX  (1880-  ).  An  American 
lawyer,  born  at  Rising  City,  Neb.,  and  educated 
in  law  at  the  University  of  California.  In 
1004  he  began  the  practice  of  law  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. He  was  for  many  years  counsel  for  sev- 
eral railroads  and  for  the  California  State  Rail- 
road Commission,  of  which  he  was  a  member 
from  1912  to  1918.  He  lectured  on  interna- 
tional law  at  the  University  of  California  from 
1907  to  1913.  During  the  War  he  was  chair- 
man of  the  special  war  commission  and  was 
also  chairman  of  the  petroleum  commission  of 
the  California  State  Council  of  Defense.  During 
the  period  of  the  War  and  after,  he  filled  many 
important  positions  on  advisory  boards,  on  mat- 
tors  relating  to  railroads,  and  was  Director  of 
Public  Service  for  the  United  States  Railroad 
Administration  in  1919-20.  For  his  services  he 
was  awarded  the  Distinguished  Service  Medal. 
He  was  a  member  of  legal  and  other  societies 
and  was  the  author  of  Leading  Railroad  and 
Public  Kerrice  Commissions  (1912). 

THEOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY.  A  society 
founded  in  New  York  City,  in  1875,  by  Mme. 
II  P.  Blavatsky,  assisted  "by  Henry  S.  Olcott, 
William  Q.  Judge,  and  others.  The  interna- 
tional headquurteis  were  removed  in  1S79  to 
Adyar  in  India,  the  residence  of  Dr.  Annie 
Bosant,  president  of  the  society.  Its  objects,  in 
general,  arc  to  study  all  matters  relating  to 
theoRophy  and  to  furnish  information  in  regard 
to  it.  The  headquarters  of  the  American  sec- 
tion are  at  Chicago,  and  branches  are  main- 
tained in  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  society 
continued  its  activities  in  the  decade  1914-24. 
Many  new  lodges  were  organized.  The  member- 
ship increased  from  4714  in  1916  to  7048  in 
1918,  and  to  some  8000  in  1923.  L.  W.  Rogers, 
elected  in  1920,  was  president  of  the  American 
section. 

THEUNIS,  GEORGES  (?-  ).  A  Belgian 
statesman.  He  began  his  career  in  the  army, 
but  soon  tired  of  garrison  duty  and  left  it  for 
a  position  on  the  stock  exchange  of  Brussels. 
Ho  reontered  the  army  in  1914  with  the  rank  of 
colonel  and  was  at  once  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernment to  buy  war  supplies  in  England.  His 
success  in  this  work  led  to  his  appointment  as 
Belgian  High  Commissioner  at  London  and  later 
as  Belgian  delegate  in  the  settlement  of  the  fi- 
nancial and  economic  questions  arising  out  of 
the  indemnity  conferences.  In  1910  he  was 
made  finance  minister,  and  at  the  end  of  1921 
he  became  premier.  Here  many  difficulties  con- 
fronted him,  among  them  the  problem  of  Flem- 
ish disaffection  and  the  occupation  of  the  Ruhr. 
In  1924  he  attended  the  Reparations  Commis- 
sion's conference  in  London  and  took  part  in 
the  deliberations  in  regard  to  the  Dawes  Report 
which  was  finally  adopted  in  August,  1924. 

THIBATJD,  JACQUES  (1880-  ).  A 
French  violinist,  born  at  Bordeaux.  He  re- 
ceived his  first  instruction  from  his  father  and 
then  entered  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  where  he 
studied  under  Marsick  and  won  the  first  prize 
in  1896.  After  his  d£but  at  Paris  in  1898,  he 


made  several  very  successful  tours  of  Europe 
and  visited  the  United  States  for  the  first  time 
in  1903.  In  December,  1914,  an  American  tour 
was  suddenly  interrupted  by  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  after  that  he  served  a  year  in  the 
French  army  The  experiences  through  which 
he  passed  must  have  made  an  indelible  impres- 
sion on  his  mind  and  affected  his  whole  concep- 
tion of  art.  On  his  reappearance  in  1916,  he 
revealed  a  breadth  of  conception  and  an  emo- 
tional intensity  of  which  his  previous  perform- 
ances had  given  no  intimation.  From  a  player 
of  charming  elegance  and  refinement  he  had, 
in  an  incredibly  short  time,  grown  into  one  of 
colossal  power. 

THIBAUDET,  ALBEBT  (1874-  ).  A 
French  literary  critic,  born  at  Tournus,  Sa6ne- 
et-Loire,  and  educated  at  the  Sorbonne,  where 
he  became  a  professor.  His  studies  on  Barres, 
Bergson,  and  the  intellectual  currents  of  the 
last  generation  in  French  letters,  are  genuine 
and  disciplined  analyses  of  modern  life.  His 
works  include:  La  Pocsie  de  Stcphanc  Mal- 
larmc  ;  Les  Ueures  de  VAcropolc;  Trente  Ans 
de  Vic  Fran^aisc ;  Gustave  Flaubert;  La  Vic  de 
M.  Maurice  Harris;  Le  Bergsonisme. 

THOMAS,  JAMES  HENRY  (1878-  ).  An 
English  Labor  politician,  born  at  Newport.  He 
started  to  work  when  but  nine  years  of  age  as 
errand  boy  and  later  was  engine  cleaner,  fire- 
man, and  engine  driver  for  the  Great  Western 
Railway  Company.  He  soon  became  prominent 
in  the  labor  unions  and  in  1910  was  elected 
president  of  the  Amalgamated  Society  of  Rail- 
way Servants,  since  merged  in  the  National 
Union  of  Railway  Servants,  of  which  he  was 
secretary  for  many  years.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  in  1910.  During  the  War  he  used 
his  great  influence  with  the  railway  men  in 
composing  labor  disputes  and  obtained  large  in- 
creases in  wages  for  them.  In  March,  1919,  he 
visited  Lloyd  George  in  Paris  by  airplane  to 
consult  him  in  regard  to  a  railway  strike  crisis. 
Ho  was  made  Privy  Councilor  in  1917  and  Colo- 
nial Seeretarv  in  the  Labor  cabinet  in  1924. 

THOMPS&N,  WILLIAM  BOYCE  (I860-  ). 
An  American  banker,  born  at  Virginia  City, 
Mont.,  and  educated  at  the  Columbia  Univer- 
sity School  of  Mines.  Engaging  in  business  in 
New  York  City,  he  became  director  and  officer 
in  many  important  financial  institutions. 
From  its  organization  until  1919  ho  was  a  di- 
rector of  the  Federal  Reserve  Bank  in  New  York 
and  in  1919  became  president  of  the  Roosevelt 
Memorial  Association.  He  headed  the  Amer- 
ican Rod  Cross  Commission  to  Russia  in  1917 
and  was  envoy  extraordinary  from  the  United 
States  to  the  'first  centennial  of  tho  Proclama- 
tion of  Independence  of  the  Republic  of  Peru. 
In  1921-22  he  was  a  member  of  the  advisory 
committee  of  the  American  delegation  at  the 
Disarmament  Conference. 

THOBEK,  MAX  (1880-  ).  An  American 
surgeon  who,  having  received  his  degree  from 
Rush  Medical  College  in  1904,  settled  in  Chi- 
cago and  for  a  time  was  connected  with  the 
medical  department  of  Loyola  University  as 
professor  of  clinical  surgory.  He  was  later 
chosen  president  and  surgical  chief  of  the  new 
American  Hospital  and  is  also  one  of  the  con- 
sulting surgeons  of  Cook  County  Hospital.  He 
has  done  considerable  work  in  experimental 
surgery,  has  written  numerous  surgical  papers, 
and  in  1909  translated  into  English  Krauae's 
Surgery  of  the  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord.  In 


THO&NDIKE 


ia98 


THUEINGIA 


1924  appeared  his  large  monograph  The  Hu- 
man Testis,  in  which  are  summed  up  all  the 
developments  in  the  grafting  of  the  male 
gonad.  

THOBNDIKE,  EDWARD  LEE  (1874-  ). 
An  American  educational  psychologist  (see  VOL. 
XXII).  He  became  in  1021  professor  and  di- 
rector of  psychology  of  the  Institute  of  Educa- 
tional Research.  He  published  after  1914  nu- 
merous important  monographs  and  papers  on 
the  application  of  mathematics  to  educational 
measurement,  and  also  new  editions  of  his 
standard  two-volume  work  on  Educational  Psy- 
chology 

THRACE.  Largely  a  transition  land  between 
the  Turkish  and  Balkan  peoples,  without  natural 
boundaries,  and  with  mixed  racial  groups. 
Thrace,  like  Macedonia  to  the  south,  has  been 
one  of  the  storm-centres  of  the  Balkans.  The 
Treaty  of  Bucharest  (1913)  placed  Greece,  on 
the  east,  at  the  Mesta  River.  Between  the 
Mesta  and  the  Maritza,  by  the  same  treaty, 
Bulgaria  acquired  the  region  known  as 
Western  Thrace.  East  of  the  Maritza,  including 
Adrianople  and  Kirk  Kilissa,  and  stretching  to 
the  Straits,  extended  the  region  known  as  East- 
ern Thrace,  which  continued  to  remain  in  Turk- 
ish hands.  Western  Thrace,  \\ith  a  total  popu- 
lation of  200,500,  comprised  44,000  Greeks, 
124,000  Turks,  29,500  Bulgars,  3000  others; 
Eastern  Thrace,  with  a  population  of  805,- 
369,  was  made  up  of  395,515  Greeks,  344,- 
011  Turks,  67,843  Bulgars.  For  the  reali- 
zation of  the  Greater  Greece,  therefore,  it  was 
necessary  to  expand  to  the  south  and  east  to 
absorb  these  Greek  populations  and  at  the  same 
time  complete  the  encirclement  of  Constanti- 
nople, the  barring  of  Bulgaria  from  the  ./Egean, 
and  the  shutting  off  of  Turkey  from  its  con- 
tacts with  Europe.  Thus,  in  the  way  of 
Greece  stood  Bulgaria  and  Turkey,  ana  largely 
because  these  were  allied  with  the  Central  Pow- 
ers, was  Venizelos  convinced  that  Greece's  lot 
had  to  be  thrown  in  with  the  Entente.  Bul- 
garia, of  course,  was  not  unaware  of  where  her 
own  interests  lay.  In  1915,  as  the  price  of  her 
entry  into  the  War,  she  exacted  from  Turkey 
two  important  strips  of  territory,  one  being  the 
Adrianople  enclave,  particularly  Karagach,  and 
the  second  the  left  bank  of  the  Maritza.  But 
with  the  Entente  triumphant  the  realization  of 
Greek  nationalistic  hopes  seemed  assured.  By 
the  Treaty  of  Neuilly  (Nov.  27,  1919)  Bulgaria 
was  compelled  to  cede  Western  Thrace  to  the 
Allies  for  Greece,  and  Greek  sovereignty  was 
circumscribed  only  in  these  three  respects: 
( 1 )  Bulgarian  freedom  of  transit  of  the  /Egean 
was  guaranteed;  (2)  the  Maritza  might  be  con- 
stituted an  international  river  if  Greece  and 
Bulgaria  requested  it;  (3)  racial  minorities, 
particularly  at  Adrianople,  were  to  be  pro- 
tected. While  the  cession,  territorially,  was 
of  no  great  importance — the  region  has  only 
a  length  of  80  miles  and  an  average  depth  of 
30 — and  really  left  Bulgaria  with  a  strategic 
boundary  line,  economically  it  meant  Bulgarian 
disaster.  Bulgaria  was  deprived  of  her  front 
on  the  ^Egean,  of  contact  with  the  ports  of 
Kavalla,  Porto  Lagos,  Dedeagach — in  short  of 
the  fruits  of  the  First  Balkan  War — and  com- 
pelled to  be  once  again  a  Black  Sea  country. 
Bulgarians,  in  1919,  felt  that  they  were  then 
where  they  had  been  in  1911. 

Here  was  the  realization  of  one  part  of  the 
Greek  programme.  But  it  was  only  a  minor 


part,  for  Eastern  Thrace  was  the  section  Veni- 
zelos, above  all  things,  desired.  Lloyd  George 
had  shown  himself  consistently  friendly  to  the 
Greek  aspirations.  By  gaining  over  the  power- 
ful British  support,  Veni/elos  saw  his  hopes 
crowned  with  success  when  in  1920  Greek  troop* 
received  permission  to  occupy  Eastern  Thrace. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Sevres  (Aug.  10,  1920),  the 
stamp  of  permanencv  seemed  to  be  put  on  the 
proceedings,  for  Turkey  was  compelled  to  grant 
to  Greece  all  of  Eastern  Thrace  to  the  Chatalja 
lines  (i.e.  the  western  boundaries  of  the  Zone 
of  the  Straits).  Greece  now  not  only  had  a 
firm  foothold  on  the  whole  Mgea.ii,  posseswed 
Adriauople  and  Kirk  Kilissa,  but  also  had  an 
outlet  on  the  Black  Sea.  But  Venizelos  fell  in 
November,  1920,  and  with  his  passing  the  star  of 
Greece  entered  into  its  decline.  The  fortunes  of 
Greece  in  the  years  1921  and  1922  are  reviewed 
elsewhere  in  this  work  (see  GREECE,  TVKKKY, 
SMYRNA).  The  destiny  of  Eastern  Thrace  de- 
pended upon  the  success  or  failure  of  the  Greek 
arms,  ana  with  the  Turkish  nationalist  victoiy, 
Greeks  were  compelled  to  see  their  representa- 
tives renounce  Eastern  Thrace  and  Adrianople  to 
the  "Grand  National  Assembly  of  Turkey."  by 
the  Mudania  Agreement  of  Got*  11,  1922.  Turk's 
immediately  occupied  the  area  up  to  the  right 
bank  of  the  Maritza.  By  the  Treaty  of  Lau- 
sanne (July  24,  1923)  Greece  was  completely 
humiliated.  Not  only  was  she  compelled  to 
part  with  Smyrna  (q.v.)  and  the  Dodecanese 
(q.v.),  hut  the  whole  of  Eastern  Thiare  was 
taken  from  her  to  be  turned  back  to  Turkey 
Greece's  frontier  stopped  at  the  "Marit/a,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Karagach  district  opposite 
Adrianople;  Turkish  sovereignty  was  once  more 
proclaimed  over  Adrianople  and  Kirk  Kilissa 
For  the  prevention  of  boundary  disorders,  tin- 
Treaty  of  Lausanne,  in  an  annexe,  provided  foi 
the  demilitarization  of  a  special  area  stretching 
from  the  jEgean  between  Makri  and  Imbrijo 
Burnu  to  the  Black  Sea  between  Anberler  and 
Serkes  Burnu,  and  including  the  Greek,  Bul- 
garian, and  Turkish  boundaries  in  Eastern 
Thrace 

THBOOP    POLYTECHNIC    INSTITUTE. 
See  CALIFORNIA  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY 

THUKINGIA.  A  Free  State  of  Germany 
formed,  on  Dec.  24,  1919.  by  the  union  of  the 
following  states:  Saxe-Weirnar,  Saxe-Meinin- 
gen,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 
Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen.  Saxe-Gotha  (Coburg 
had  merged  with  Bavaria),  Reuss  (formed  on 
Apr.  4,  1919,  of  the  two  republics  of  Reuss) 
Total  area,  4546  square  miles;  population  in 
1919,  1,512,806.  Principal  towns  with  their 
1919  population:  Weimar,  the  capital,  41,403; 
Gera,  74,003;  Gotha,  48,543;  Jena,  53,906  The 
German  Reich,  on  Apr  30,  1920,  recogni/ed  the 
union  as  being  consonant  with  the  provisions  of 
Article  18  of  the  new  German  constitution  of 
1919.  Elections  to  the  first  diet  of  Thuringia 
were  held  in  June,  1920,  and  this  body,  on  Mar. 
11,  1921,  adopted  the  constitution  which  a 
Volksrat  or  People's  Council,  made  up  of  rep- 
resentatives of  the  old  legislatures  had  drawn 
up  Like  the  other  states  of  the  Reich,  Thur- 
ingia  has  a  single-chamber  diet  elected  by  pro- 
portional representation.  The  executive  power 
is  vested  in  a  ministry  elected  by  the  diet  and 
made  up  (1921)  of  five  ministers  with  portfolio 
and  three  councilors  of  state  (without  poit- 
folio).  There  is  no  president  Legislative 
power  is  in  part  delegated  and  in  part  directly 


THTJBSTON 


1399 


TIBOL 


applied,  for  the  electorate  may  exercise  the  in- 
itiative and  referendum.    See  GERMANY. 

THTJBSTON,  ERNEST  TEMPLE  (1879-  ). 
An  English  novelist,  born  at  Halesworth.  At 
the  age  of  16  he  published  two  volumes  of  verse, 
and  his  first  novel  appeared  two  years  later. 
His  writings  include:  The  Apple  of  Eden 
(1905)  ;  Traffic  (1906)  ;  The  Evolution  of  Kath- 
crine  (1907);  The  Realist  (1907),  Sally  Bish- 
op (1908);  The  City  of  Beautiful  Xonsense 
(1909);  The  Greatest  Wish  in  the  World 
(1910);  The  Garden  of  Resurrection  (1911); 
The  Antagonists  (1912);  Richard  Furlong 
(1913);  The  Passionate  Crime  (1915);  The 
Five-Barred  Gat4  (1916)  ;  Enchantment  (1917) ; 
The  World  of  Wonderful  Reality  (1920);  The 
Green  Bough  (1921);  The  Eye  of  the  Wtft 
(1922).  His  plays  include:  The  Greatest 
Wish  (1912)  ;  Driven  (1914)  ;  The  Cost  (1914)  ; 
The  Wandering  Jew  (1920). 

TIBET.  A  Chinese  outer  territory,  with  an 
area  of  463,200  square  miles,  and  a  population 
estimated  at  from  2,000,000  to  6,000,000. 
Lhasa,  the  capital,  had  from  15,000  to  20,000 
inhabitants  in  1923.  Agriculture  was  carried 
on,  but  only  to  a  slight  extent  because  of  the 
difficult  topography.  Pastoral  pursuits  were 
more  common.  Communications,  by  means  of 
caravan,  were  maintained  with  China  and  In- 
dia, an  active  barter  in  tea,  silks,  cotton  goods, 
carpets,  leathers,  dried  fruits  and  household 
utensils  for  the  native  wool,  fox  skins,  musk, 
salt,  and  borax,  being  prosecuted.  In  1921-22, 
a  typical  post-war  year,  exports  into  India, 
mainly  raw  wool,  totaled  £231,100;  imports 
from  India,  £551,300,  mainly  cotton  goods.  The 
British  penetration,  actuated  by  a  desire  to 
establish  economic  relations  between  India  and 
Tibet  and  to  reach  southern  China,  continued 
during  the  period  1914-24.  The  political  sit- 
uation remained  anomalous.  The  Chinese  gov- 
ernment's refusal  to  accept  the  terms  of  the 
Simla  agreement  of  1914  which  provided  for  an 
autonomous  Outer  Tibet  and  an  Inner  Tibet 
ruled  from  Peking,  and  the  continued  demands 
of  Tibetans  for  independence,  brought  about  a 
state  of  suspicion  and  hostility  which  broke  out 
into  open  war  in  1917.  Tibetans  marched  on 
Chamdo,  claimed  for  both  Outer  and  Inner 
Tibet,  and  took  it  in  1918.  An  armistice  fol- 
lowed, and  in  the  next  year  the  Chinese  dis- 
played their  desire  for  peace  by  proposing  a  re- 
newal of  treaty  discussions  But  the  Chinese 
government  showed  its  weakness  by  its  inability 
io  put  down  native  uprisings  in  the  Inner  Tibet, 
while  Great  Britain's  interest  in  safeguarding 
the  Indian  frontier  complicated  matters.  By 
1924,  it  was  evident  that  Outer  Tibet  had  prac- 
tically become  a  dependency  of  Great  Britain. 
The  Dalai  Lama  remained  at  the  head  of  the 
native  government. 

TICK  EBADICATION.  See  VETEBINABT 
MEDICINE. 

TIFFANY,  Louis  COMFORT  (1848-  ).  An 
American  artist  (see  VOL.  XXII).  He  estab- 
lished the  Louis  Comfort  Tiffany  Foundation  for 
art  students  at  Oyster  Bay  in  1918  and  gave  it 
a  $1,000,000  fund,  the  income  from  which  was 
1o  be  used  for  maintenance  and  operation.  The 
Foundation  consisted  of  his  country  home,  the 
Museum,  Tiffany  Chapel,  and  over  00  acres  of 
land,  and  he  deeded  to  it  his  entire  collection  of 
paintings,  glass,  and  other  art  objects. 

TILDEN,  WILLIAM  T.  II,  ( T-  ).  Ten- 
nis player,  born  at  Philadelphia,  Pa.  11«  won 


the  national  singles  championship  of  the  United 
States  from  William  M.  Johnston  in  1920  and 
has  retained  the  title  ever  since.  As  a  member 
of  the  American  Davis  Cup  team  his  magnificent 
playing  has  contributed  greatly  to  the  success- 
ful defense  of  the  international  trophy. 

TILNEY,  FREDERICK  (1875-  ).  An 
American  neurologist,  born  in  Brooklyn,  and 
educated  at  Yale  University  and  the  Long  Is- 
land College  Hospital.  In  1903  he  settled  in 
New  York  City  and  was  appointed  visiting 
neurologist  to  Roosevelt  and  Bellevue  Hospitals 
He  became  full  professor  of  neurology  at  Colum- 
bia University  in  1914.  In  addition  to  nu- 
merous contributions  on  neurological  subjects 
to  periodical  literature  he  wrote:  .1  Study 
of  the  Hypophysis  Cerebri  (1911);  Morphology 
and  Ciolutionary  Significance  of  the  Pituitary 
Body,  with  L.  F.  Warren  (1919)  ;  Epidemic  En- 
cephalitis, with  H.  S.  Howe  (1920)  ;  The  Form 
and  Functions  of  the  Central  Nervous  System, 
with  H.  A  Riley  (1920,  1923). 

TIMBEB.    See  FORESTRY. 

TIN.  In  1914,  the  world  production  of  tin 
amounted  to  116,569  long  tons,  of  which  more 
than  one-half  came  from  the  Straits  Settlements 
and  the  Malay  Peninsula.  In  1917,  the  tin  pro- 
duction for  the  world  was  estimated  at  128/243 
long  tons,  and  from  this  point  there  was  a  de- 
cline until  1921,  when  the  world  produced  but 
99,728  long  tons.  In  1922,  the  output  increased 
to  128,586  long  tons  and  supplies  reached  thn 
level  of  pre-war  days.  The  leading  producers  in 
1922  were  the  Malay  Straits  with  35,288  long 
tons,  Bolivia  with  31,942  long  tons,  Banka  with 
15,922  long  tons,  Billiton,  etc.,  with  14,500  long 
tons,  China  with  12,435  long  tons,  Australia  with 
2657  long  tons  and  Siam  and  India  with  6500 
long  tons. 

The  most  notable  tendency  in  regard  to  the 
production  of  tin  was  the  increase  in  the  exports 
from  Bolivia,  which  increased  from  22,355  metric 
tons  tin  contents  of  ore  in  1914  to  32,123  metric 
tons  tin  contents  of  ore  in  1922,  this  being 
shipped  in  the  form  of  black  tin  concentrates, 
part  of  which  came  to  the  United  States  and 
was  smelted  in  American  refineries.  During  the 
decade  the  tin-mining  industry  virtually  became 
extinct  in  Cornwall,  England,  after  having  flour- 
ished there  for  a  number  of  years.  The  world 
possessed  a  large  smelting  capacity  for  tin,  a 
substantial  portion  of  it  located  in  the  United 
States,  and  as  a  result  there  was  found  consider- 
able variation  in  the  imports.  Thus  in  1912  im- 
ports in  the  United  States  were  116,003,385 
pounds,  valued  at  $50,371,102.  In  1914  there 
was  an  import  of  95,049,012  pounds,  valued  at 
$32,861,188;  and  in  1919  maximum  imports  of 
164,579,905  pounds,  valued  at  $104,588,690. 
Tliis  import  declined  to  154,201,000  pounds,  val- 
ued at  $46,302,701,  in  1922. 

In  the  season  of  1920-21  there  was  a  very 
limited  demand  for  tin,  and  even  on  the  re- 
duced basis  the  production  exceeded  the  con- 
sumption. Accordingly,  various  large  producers 
and  certain  colonial  governments  decided  to  en- 
ter into  an  agreement  to  hold  the  accumulated 
supplies  rather  than  sacrifice  them  on  the  mar- 
ket, or  in  other  words,  form  a  pool  which  would 
be  gradually  liquidated  under  favorable  cir- 
cumstances. " 

TIBES.     See  MOTOR  VEHICLES  ;  RUBBER. 

TIBOL.  A  province  of  the  Republic  of  Aus- 
tria. Its  area  in  1910  was  10.301.7  square 
miles;  in  1923,  4882  square  miles.  Its  popula- 


TIROL 


1300 


TITTONI 


tion  in  1010  was  946,613;  in  1023,  313,600.    See 
AUSTKIAX  REPUBLIC;  TIROL,  GERMAN  SOUTH. 

TIBOL,  GERMAN  SOUTH.  On  the  possession 
of  this  area,  made  up  of  the  districts  of  Tren- 
tino  (area,  2454  square  miles)  and  Alto  Adige 
(area,  2053  square  miles)  centred  a  bitter  strug- 
gle between  Austria  and  Italy,  and  though 
Italy  emerged  victorious  in  1010  by  gaining  the 
region  through  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain,  subse- 
quent events  revealed  that  it  still  remained  a 
source  of  grave  conflict.  Racial  figures  reveal 
the  situation.  The  Trentino,  in  1010,  seated  13,- 
450  Germans  and  360,847  Italians;  Alto  Adige 
had  215,706  Germans,  6704  Italians,  and  10,605 
Lading  (who  speak  a  dialect  akin  to  Italian). 
Italy's  claims,  therefore,  for  frontier  rectifica- 
tion north  of  the  Trentino  could  be  based  only 
on  strategical  grounds.  Austrian  control  of  the 
Alpine  passes  meant  that  the  plains  of  Lombardy 
and  Venetia  lay  always  open  to  a  hostile  attack, 
and  the  easy  success  with  which  the  Austrian 
armies  had  poured  into  Italy  in  1016  gave  point 
to  the  contention.  This  consideration  had  been 
behind  one  of  the  guiding  principles  of  the 
Italian  foreign  policy.  In  the  early  months  of 
the  War,  when  both  sides  were  exerting  all  their 
efforts  to  gain  either  Italian  adhesion  (Allies) 
or  to  assure  Italian  neutrality  (Central  Pow- 
ers), a  series  of  conversations  was  carried  on 
between  the  Italian  and  Austrian  foreign  offices 
that  indicated  a  readiness  on  the  part  of  Austria 
to  listen  to  Italian  demands.  On  Apr.  8,  1015, 
the  proposals  of  Sonnino  called  for  territorial 
compensations  that  included  the  Trentino  and  a 
part  of  Alto  Adige  stretching  to  north  of  Bozen 
and  cutting  athwart  the  Meran  railway  from 
the  Brenner  Pass.  Baron  Burian  for  Austria 
made  two  Austrian  offers,  the  second  of  which 
offered  to  cede  the  Trentino,  but  halted  at  the 
transfer  of  Bozen.  On  May  3,  stating  that  an 
agreement  was  impossible,  Sonnino  declared  for 
Italy  that  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  Austria 
was  terminated  and  that  henceforth  Italy  re- 
served to  herself  "complete  liberty  of  action." 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  week  preceding, 
on  Apr.  26,  1015,  Italy  had  signed  with  the  Allies 
the  secret  Treaty  of  London,  by  which,  for  her 
actual  support  in  the  War,  she  was  assured  not 
only  the  Trentino  and  Bozen  but  the  whole  Ger- 
man South  Tirol  to  the  Brenner  Pass,  including 
the  old  German  towns  of  Bozen,  Brixen,  and 
Meran  and  the  wholly  German-populated  valleys 
of  the  Oltzthal  and  the  Zillerthal.  On  this 
treaty  Italy  plainly  took  her  stand  at  the 
Peace  Conference.  Regardless  of  the  fact  that 
there  were  230,000  Germans  in  the  territory, 
that  the  Lad  ins  in  October,  1018,  had  expressed 
their  sympathies  as  being  with  the  German 
Tirolese,  and  that  the  whole  Tirol  was  a  perfect 
political  and  economic  unit,  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence finally  yielded  to  the  Italian  demands  and 
incorporated,  substantially,  the  London  line  into 
the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  (on  May  20,  1010). 
Thus,  in  the  conflict  between  Point  Nine  of 
President  Wilson's  Fourteen  Points  and  the 
matter  of  treaty  obligations,  the  highly  vaunted 
democratic  principles  of  the  War  met  with  de- 
feat. There  was  widespread  disaffection,  too,  on 
the  part  of  the  smaller  powers  because  Italy,  un- 
like themselves,  was  not  compelled  to  sign  a 
Minorities  Treaty.  It  was  plain  that  for  an 
Italia  Irredenta  an  Austria  Irredenta  had  been 
substituted.  The  events  of  1010-24  only  served 
to  confirm  this  fact.  On  Jan.  20,  lino,  the 
Austrian  Tirolese  Diet  passed  a  resolution  refus- 


ing to  recognize  the  cession  of  South  Tirol;  in 
April,  1021,  the  Austrian  Tirolese,  realizing  that 
the  weakness  of  their  own  country  might  stand 
in  the  way  of  an  eventual  readjustment,  voted 
for  union  with  Germany.  Economically,  the 
leading  Tirolese  industries  of  wine  and  fruit 
growing  were  languishing  because  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  former  Austrian  and  German  mar- 
kets. On  the  other  hand,  Italy,  perversely  it 
seemed,  did  everything  to  fan  the  flame  of  Tiro- 
lese discontent.  'From  April,  1022,  on,  with  the 
advent  of  Fascism,  the  population  was  sub- 
jected to  a  series  of  outrages,  which,  under  the 
Mussolini  regime,  turned  into  legal  oppression. 
Italianization  of  the  inhabitants  proceeded  rap- 
idly in  1023-24:  Italian  place  names  were  sub- 
stituted for  the  universally  known  German ; 
Italian  was  prescribed  as  the  official  language  of 
public  bodies  and  the  courts;  Italian  officials 
began  to  be  introduced  in  completely  German- 
speaking  parishes  and  Austrian  railway  and 
postal  employees  were  dropped  for  Italians;  all 
instruction  in  elementary  schools  was  being 
changed  to  Italian  while  religious  instruction 
was  undergoing  the  same  change  (beginning  Oc- 
tober, 1023).  Finally,  in  1024,  Italians  began 
to  confiscate  the  property  of  the  German  citizens 
residing  iii  the  South  Tirol,  in  direct  violation  of 
the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain.  Thus,  there  was  bit- 
terness and  want  and  the  development  of  a 
deep  seated  hostility  in  1024. 

TITANIUM  OXIDE.     See  CHEMISTRY. 

TITCHENER,  EDWARD  BRADFORD  (1867- 
).  A  leading  American  psychologist  (see 
VOL.  XXII).  On  the  twenty-fifth  anniver- 
sary of  his  association  with  the  Cornell  Uni- 
versity laboratory  he  was  honored  with  a  volume 
of  commemorative  Essays  (1017)  written  by  his 
former  pupils.  In  1024  he  was  preparing  Sys- 
tematic Psychology,  which  was  to  incorporate 
the  experimental  findings  of  the  Cornell  labora- 
tory on  perception,  movement,  and  the  integra- 
tion of  sensational  attributes.  Besides  scien- 
tific papers,  the  only  work  published  by  Titch- 
ener  since  1014  is  A  ttcgvnner's  Psychology 
(1015). 

TITTONI,  TOMMASO  (1885-  ).  An  Ital- 
ian statesman,  born  at  Rome,  educated  at 
Naples,  Oxford,  and  Liege.  He  was  elected  to 
Parliament  as  deputy  for  Civitavecchia  in  1886 
and  resigned  in  1807  to  accept  the  post  of  pre- 
fect of  Perugia.  He  held  a  similar  office  in 
Naples  in  1000  and  was  made  a  senator  in  1002. 
As  foreign  minister  in  the  cabinet  of  Giolitti, 
he  made  an  effort  to  bring  Italy  into  closer  con- 
nection with  Austria  and  also  with  France. 
Later,  as  foreign  minister  in  the  Fortis  cabinet, 
he  proposed  to  reduce  the  duty  on  Spanish 
wines;  the  storm  occasioned  by  this  proposal 
wrecked  the  cabinet,  Dec.  24,  1005.  In  March, 
1006,  he  was  appointed  ambassador  to  London, 
but  in  a  couple  of  months  he  was  again  called 
to  his  former  post  under  Giolitti;  this  he  re- 
tained till  1000.  In  1010  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  France.  He  declared  himself  in 
favor  of  Italian  neutrality  in  1014,  and  after 
Italy's  entry  into  the  War  he  resigned  from 
the  French  ambassadorship.  Premier  Nitti 
gave  him  the  post  of  foreign  minister  in 
1010  and  that  of  first  delegate  to  the  Peace 
Conference,  but  he  was  obliged  to  resign  in  No- 
vember because  of  ill  health.  He  was  appointed 
president  of  the  Senate  in  December,  10 10,  and 
later  Italian  delegate  to  the  Council  and  As- 
sembly of  the  League  of  Nations,  but  his  health 


TODD 


1301 


TOLEDO 


did  not  permit  him  to  act.  His  publications  in- 
clude: Sei  Anni  di  Politico  Estcra  (1012); 
Italy's  Foreign  and  Colonial  Policy  (1915)  ;  The 
Responsibility  of  the  War  (11110)  ;  Conflitti  Po- 
litici  e  Riforme  Costitueionali  (1919);  Per  la 
Uiierra  e  per  la  Pace  (1919). 

TODD,  ABTIIUB  JAMES  (1878-  ).  An 
American  sociologist,  born  at  Pctaluma,  Cal., 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  California  and 
Yale  University  and  in  Paris  and  Munich.  He 
was  connected  with  settlement  and  probation 
work  in  San  Francisco  for  several  years  and  in 
191]  became  instructor  in  sociology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois.  Tn  1914-ir>  he  was  professor 
and  head  of  the  department  of  the  University  of 
Pittsburgh,  and  from  3915  to  1921,  professor  of 
sociology  and  director  of  the  training  course  for 
social  and  civic  work  at  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota. In  1919  Professor  Todd  was  also  visiting 
professor  of  sociology  at  Northwestern  Univer- 
sity. ^Ile  was  editor  for  the  American  Inptitute 
of  Criminal  Law  and  Criminology  and  wrote: 
The  Primitive  Family  as  an  Educational  Agency 
(1913);  Theories  of  $orial  Progress  (1018); 
and  The  Scientific  Spirit  and  Social  Work 
(1919). 

TODD,  HENRY  DAVIS,  JR.  (1800-  ).  An 
American  army  officer,  born  at  Claverack,  N.  Y., 
and  graduated  at  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  in  1890.  He  entered  the  artillery  divi- 
sion of  the  army  and  was  promoted  through  the 
grades  until  he  readied  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  artillery  in  1913.  He  commanded  the 
33d  Division  from  September  18  to  Dec.  7,  1917, 
the  artillery  supporting  the  1st  Division  in  the 
St.  Mihiel  offensive,  and  the  68th  Field  Artillery 
Brigade  at  the  Meuac- Argon nc  battle.  He  was 
with  the  33d  Division  in  Luxemburg  as  part  of 
the  army  of  occupation.  In  August,  1919,  on 
the  demobilization  of  the  33d  Division,  he  entered 
the  General  Staff  College  in  Washington.  He 
was  made  brigadier-general  in  the  Kegular 
Army  in  1920  and  was  assigned  to  command 
the  coast  defenses  of  Manila  Bay  on  June  3, 
1921. 

TOQOLAND.  Formerly  a  German  protecto- 
rate on  the  coast  of  West  Africa,  between  the 
Gold  Coast  and  Dahomey,  but  since  1919  parti- 
tioned between  Great  Britain  and  France  as  man- 
date territories.  It  had  an  area  of  33,700  square 
miles,  and  a  native  population  of  1,032,000.  The 
whites,  on  Jan.  1,  1913,  numbered  308,  of  whom 
320  were  Germans.  Lome  uas  the  chief  port. 
Products  for  export  were  palm  kernels  and  oil, 
rubber,  ivory,  and  copra,  though  cotton,  coffee, 
tobacco,  and  cacao  were  becoming  important. 
Exports  for  1913  were  9,138,000  marks  (£456,- 
000)  and  imports  10,031,000  marks  (£531,000). 
For  1913-14,  the  budget  balanced  at  4,057,130 
marks  and  the  colony  was  self-supporting  Rail- 
ways totaled  204  miles.  In  1913  a  cable  line 
linked  Germany  with  Togoland,  and  a  wireless 
station  at  Kamina  was  in  direct  communication 
with  Berlin.  German  local  officials  attempted 
to  keep  the  territory  neutral  during  the  War, 
but  the  offer  was  refused  and  local  British  and 
French  troops  invaded  the  country  Opposition 
was  slight  with  tho  result  that  the  colony  was 
completely  occupied  in  August,  1914.  Mandates 
were  granted  Great  Britain  and  France  by  the 
Supreme  Council  in  May,  1919;  in  July,  1919, 
the  country  was  partitioned  by  both  interested 
parties  provisionally,  and  in  'September,  1920, 
permanently.  France  received  the  port  of  Lome 
and  the  entire  seacoast  of  32  miles.  Her  total 


area,  which  is  contiguous  to  Dahomey,  is  21,200 
square  miles,  with  a  population  of  672,000.  The 
British  mandate,  contiguous  to  the  Gold  Coast, 
has  an  area  of  12,500  square  miles,  and  a  popu- 
lation of  about  200,000.  Under  the  British  and 
French  the  two  zones  were  made  self-supporting. 
Revenues  for  1918,  for  both,  were  £127,444  and 
expenditures  £118,953.  The  British  zone  was  at- 
tached to  the  Gold  Coast;  the  French  to  Da- 
homey, pending  the  issue  of  definite  mandates. 
The  country,  under  the  new  administration,  rap- 
idly regained  its  stability  so  that  trade  for 
1919  surpassed  the  1913  figures.  Imports  for 
the  whole  in  1919  were  £665,332,  and  exports 
£850,744.  In  1921,  imports  to  the  British  area 
were  £34,000  and  exports  from  it  £46,000  In 
the  French  area  for  1921  these  were  10,918,270 
francs  and  6,129,677  francs.  The  most  im- 
'  portant  recent  development  was  the  growth  of 
the  cotton  and  cocoa  crops.  The  three  railway 
lines  of  204  miles  were  all  in  the  French  terri- 
tory. In  1923,  the  French  administration  took 
measures  against  slavery  and  the  use  of  alcohol 
and  narcotics  among  the  natives. 

TOLEDO.  The  third  city  of  Ohio  and  the 
third  railroad  transportation  centre  of  the  Unit- 
ed States.  The  population  increased  from  239,- 
905  in  1914  to  283,000  in  1924.  Toledo's  071 
manufacturing  industries  are  so  diversified  that 
the  great  development  in  the  decade  1914-24  can 
be  attributed  to  no  special  group,  although  tho 
manufacture  of  automobile  accessories  and 
equipment  has  played  an  important  part.  To- 
ledo is  the  world's  leading  city  in  soft  coal 
shipments  and  the  centre  of  the  metal  wheel  in- 
dustry. The  area  of  the  city  increased  C>  square 
miles.  The  assessed  value  of  property  was 
almost  doubled  in  the  decade  1914-24.  The 
bonded  debt  was  increased  from  $9,732,577  to 
$18,591,244.  The  tax  rate  was  advanced  to 
take  care  of  improvements  and  to  provide  fa- 
cilities. The  Summit  Street  extension,  to  link 
up  the  South  Side  by  a  direct  route  to  the  busi- 
ness section,  was  completed.  The  Art  Museum, 
costing  originally  $850,000,  a  gift  from  E.  D. 
Libbey,  was  outgrown  and  in  1924  was  being 
doubled  in  si/e  through  another  gift  from  Mr. 
Libbey.  The  sewerage  system  was  increased  by 
41  miles  to  provide  intercepting  sewers  and 
pumping  station.  The  street  railway  company 
was  operating  under  a  service-at-cost  plan. 
Bank  deposits  increased  from  $50,503,338  in 
1914  to  $137,000,000  in  1924  There  was  under 
construction  in  1924  a  Safety  Building  to  house 
Police  and  Fire  Department  headquarters,  at 
a  cost  of  approximately  $1,000,000.  Building 
in  tho  city's  business  district  received  a  tremen- 
dous stimulus  in  1924,  and  a  survey  showed 
that  construction  estimated  at  $40,000,000  was 
in  progress.  The  public  school  system  expand- 
ed greatly  in  the  decade.  In  1924  there  were 
41,000  pupils.  In  ten  years,  $6,500,000  was 
spent  on  buildings,  including  a  million-dollar 
higli  school  to  match  the  two  constructed  in 
1913.  The  Great  Lakes-St.  Lawrence  Water- 
way will  establish  Toledo  as  the  leading  port  of 
the  Great  Lakes  in  ocean  shipments. 

TOLEDO,  UNIVEBSITY  OF  THE  CITY  OF,  A 
municipal  institution  at  Toledo,  Ohio,  founded 
in  1872.  The  student  enrollment  increased  from 
1147  in  1918  to  1506  in  1923,  the  faculty  from 
30  to  60  members  and  the  library  from  4558  to 
Il,0,i7  volumes.  The  annual  income  rose  from 
$145,000  to  $174,000.  A  new  science  building 
was  completed  in  1921  and  a  department  of  ele- 


TOLLER 


1302 


TOWN8HEND 


mentary  teachers'  training  was  established   in 
1022.    President,  A»  Monroe  Stowe,  Ph.D. 

TOLLEB,  ERNST  (1893-  ).  A  German 
dramatist,  born  at  Samitschin.  He  attended  col- 
lege at  Bromberg,  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Heidelberg,  Munich,  and  Grenoble  and  entered 
politics  in  1018.  He  was  second  chairman  of 
the  council  of  workingmen,  soldiers,  and  peas- 
ants during  the  revolution  in  Munich  (1910) 
and  was  condemned  for  his  participation  to  five 
years'  imprisonment  in  the  fortress  of  Nieder- 
schonfeld.  There  he  wrote  the  plays  which  have 
profoundly  stirred  audiences  in  Germany: 
Wandlung  (1919);  Masse  Mcnsch  (1921);  Die 
Ludditen  (1921);  and  Der  Deutsche  Hincke- 
mann  (1922).  He  has  also  written  some  verse. 

TOLHAN,  RICHARD  CIIACE  (1S81-  ).  An 
American  chemist,  horn  at  West  Newton,  Mass., 
and  educated  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology,  where  he  was  a  Dalton  fellow.  He 
also  studied  at  Berlin  and  Crefeld.  He  was  an 
assistant  and  instructor  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  (1907-09)  and  a  re- 
search associate  (1909-10).  In  1911  he  became 
assistant  professor  of  chemistry  at  Cincinnati 
University  and  in  1912  accepted  a  similar  ap- 
pointment at  California  University.  In  1916  he 
became  professor  of  physical  chemistry  at  Il- 
linois University.  At  the  l>eginning  of  the  War 
he  was  made  chief  of  the  dispersoid  section  of  the 
Chemical  Warfare  Service  with  the  rank  of 
major  and  in  1919  was  made  associate  director 
of  the  fixed  nitrogen  research  laboratory  of 
the  Ordnance  Bureau  of  the  United  States  Army, 
of  which  he  became  director  in  1920.  His  early 
investigations  had  to  do  with  colloids,  ioniza- 
tion,  and  similar  subjects  in  physical  chemistry. 
He  later  investigated  the  behavior  of  smokes 
and  reactions  of  nitrogen  compounds.  In  addi- 
tion to  various  minor  publications,  he  is  the 
author  of  Investigations  on  the  Relativity  of 
Motion  (1917). 

TOLMINO.  See  WAS  IN  EUROPE,  Italian 
Front. 

TOMMASINI,  VICENZO  (1880-  ).  An 
Italian  composer,  born  in  Home.  He  studied 
there  under  Pinelli  (violin)  and  Falchi  (compo- 
sition) and  later  under  Max  Bruch  in  Berlin. 
He  is  one  of  the  few  living  impressionists  who 
have  not  yet  crossed  the  border-line  into  futur- 
ism. He  wrote  the  operas  Medea  (Trieste, 
1906),  Amore  di  Terra  Lontana  (not  produced), 
and  Vguale  Foriuna  (Rome,  1913)  ;  a  ballet  on 
themes  of  Scarlatti,  Le  Donne  di  Buoti  Umorc 
(Rome,  1917);  the  symphonic  poems,  Poema 
Erotico  and  //  Beato  Kegno;  a  prelude  to 
UUywne  &  la  Beaute;  a  suite  and  Chiaro  di 
Luna  for  orchestra;  two  string  quartets  and  a 
violin  sonata;  choruses  &  cappella;  songs;  and 
piano  pieces. 

TdNDER.    See  SCHLESWIG. 

TONGO,  OB  FRIENDLY  ISLANDS.  See  PACIFIC 
OCEAN  ISLANDS. 

TONKING.    See  FBENCH  INDO-CHINA. 

TORONTO,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  An  institution 
founded  in  1827  at  Toronto,  Canada,  consisting 
of  seven  faculties  with  four  arts  colleges,  sup- 
ported by  the  provincial  government.  The  stu- 
dent enrollment  in  1014  was  4000,  compared  with 
an  enrollment  of  5044  in  the  year  1922-23.  The 
figures  varied  in  the  years  between,  reaching 
their  lowest  owing  to  the  War  in  1918  with  a 
registration  of  2296,  and  their  highest  in  1922 
with  a  registration  of  5349  due  chiefly  to  re- 
turned soldiers.  The  faculty  was  increased  dur- 


ing the  decade  fom  453  to  621  members,  and 
the  library  from  138,658  bound  volumes  and 
40,648  pamphlets,  to  187,426  volumes  and  63,327 
pamphlets.  The  income  also  increased  from 
$936,727  in  1914  to  $1,932,700  in  1923.  The 
Rockefeller  Foundation  after  1921  had  been  giv- 
ing annually  the  interest  on  $1,000,000  for  the 
development  of  the  faculty  of  medicine.  Trinity 
College  was  under  construction  in  1923-24. 
President,  Sir  Robert  A.  Falconer,  K.C.M.Q., 
M.A.,  LL.D.,  Litt.D. 

TORPEDO  BOAT.     See  VESSEL,  NAVAL. 

TORTS.    See  LAW,  PBOGBESS  OP  THE. 

TOTEMISM.     See  ANTHROPOLOGY. 

TOTTBET,  FBANK  HALE  (1875-  ).  An 
American  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop,  born  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  and  educated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity and  the  Episcopal  Theological  Seminary. 
In  1903  he  was  ordained  to  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal priesthood  and  was  curate  of  churches  in 
Providence,  Troy,  and  Colorado  Springs  until 
1908,  when  he  became  rector  of  St.  Luke's 
Church  in  Fort  Collins,  Colo.  From  1910  to 
1917  he  was  director  of  Grace  Church  in  Colo- 
rado Springs  and  in  1916  was  elected  bishop  of 
the  Missionary  District  of  Western  Colorado, 
lie  was  elected  bishop  of  Idaho  in  1919. 

TOVEY,  DONALD  FBANCIS  (1875-  ).  An 
English  composer,  born  at  Eton.  He  waa  a 
private  pupil  of  S.  VVeisse  (piano),  Sir  W. 
Parratt  (counterpoint),  and  J.  Higgs  (compo- 
sition). From  1900  to  1912  he  gave  several  of 
his  own  works  at  chamber  music  concerts  (The 
Chelsea  Concerts)  in  London.  In  1914  he  was 
appointed  Reid  Professor  of  Music  at  the  lTni- 
\ersity  of  Edinburgh,  where,  in  1917,  he  estab- 
lished the  Reid  Symphony  Concerts.  He  con- 
tributed numerous  articles  on  music  to  the  elev- 
enth edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia,  Britannica  and 
also  to  its  supplement.  As  a  composer  he  shows 
decided  preference  for  chamber  music,  in  which 
field  he  produced  a  piano  quintet,  a  piano 
quartet,  a  'cello  sonata,  a  clarinet  sonata,  two 
string  quartets,  and  three  trios.  He  also  wrote 
a  symphony:  a  suite  for  string  orchestra;  a 
piano  concerto;  incidental  music  to  Maeterlinck's 
Anlavaine  ct  &6lysette;  church  music;  and  piano 
pieces.  An  opera,  The  Bride  of  Dionysus,  al- 
though published,  had  not  yet  been  produced  in 
1924. 

TOWNEB,  HOBACE  M.  (1855-  ).  A  gov- 
ernor of  Porto  Rico,  born  at  Belvidere,  111.,  and 
educated  at  the  University  of  Chicago.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1877  and  after  prac- 
ticing law  for  some  years  became  judge  in  the 
third  judicial  district  of  Iowa.  From  1911  to 
1923  he  served  continuously  in  Congress,  and 
although  he  was  elected  for  another  term  in 
1923,  he  resigned  to  accept  the  post  of  Governor 
of  Porto  Rico,  for  whicn  his  service  as  chair- 
man of  the  Congressional  Committee  on  Insular 
Affairs  had  especially  prepared  him. 

TOWN  PLANNING.     See  CITY  PLANNING. 

TOWNSHEND,  CHARLES  (VEBE  FEBREBS) 
(1861-1924).  A  British  soldier,  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Mesopotamia  campaign  in  the  War 
(see  VOL.  XXII).  Although  he  failed  in  his 
attempt  to  reach  Bagdad  and  was  made  a  pris- 
oner at  Constantinople,  the  Turks,  when  they 
saw  that  War  was  going  against  them,  gave 
him  the  opportunity  to  help  the  Allies  and  at 
the  same  time  to  gain  his  freedom.  He  after- 
ward told  how  he  walked  from  a  meeting  with 
the  Turkish  cabinet,  with  the  edict  for  the 
opening  of  the  Dardanelles  in  his  pocket,  a  free 


TRACKLESS  TROLLEYS 

man.  General  Townsliend  resigned  from  the 
army  in  1020  after  40  years  of  service  He  pub- 
lished My  Mesopotamia  Campaign  (1020).  He 
died  in  1024. 

TRACKLESS  TROLLEYS.  See  MOTOR 
VEHICLES. 

TRACTOR.     See  FABM  TBACTOR. 

TRADE  COMMISSION  ACT.     See  TBUSTS. 

TRADE  UNIONISM.  The  hint 017  of  trade 
unionism  during  1014-24  may  roughly  be  di- 
vided into  three  periods,  the  stagnation  during 
the  War,  the  tremendous  expansion  in  the  years 
after  the  Armistice,  and  the  relative  decline  in 
the  succeeding  few  years  due  to  the  industrial 
depression  resulting  from  the  War  and  the  peace 
treaties.  For  some  years  before  the  \\ar,  trade 
unionism  had  been  steadily  growing  in  most 
countries.  The  War  brought  this  growth  to  a 
sudden  halt.  The  International  Federation  of 
Trade  Unions  and  the  Trade  Internationals 
ceased  to  exist  and  international  relations  among 
trade  unionists  were  in  abeyance.  The  effect  of 
the  War  on  trade  unionism  was,  however,  by 
no  means  uniform  in  the  various  countries. 
While  in  some  countries,  as  in  Germany,  trade 
unions  loht  in  membership  and  influence,  other 
countries,  like  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  saw  a  steadily  growing  development  of 
organized  labor.  The  postwar  period  witnessed 
an  immediate  rebirth  of  international  trade 
unionism  as  well  as  an  unprecedented  increase 
in  the  membership  of  the  labor  organizations 
of  practically  all  countries,  although  where  such 
increase  had  been  due  to  war  prosperity  the 
membership  fell  off  again  once  the  after-effects 
of  the  War  made  themselves  felt.  But  in  gen- 
eral trade  unionism  had  far  more  strength  in 
1024  than  it  had  in  1014.  The  total  number  of 
trade  unionists  in  the  world  had  at  least  doubled 
within  the  10  years.  As  for  mode  of  organiza- 
tion, the  trade  or  craft  union  still  remained  the 
standard.  With  the  appearance  of  new  indus- 
tii,\l  problems,  however,  and  with  the  increasing 
hold  which  the  idea  of  industrial  democracy  had 
obtained  in  one  form  or  another  on  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  worker,  industrial  unionism  had 
made  rapid  progress,  although  it  was  still  more 
a  potentiality  and  an  aim  than  an  actual  system 
of  organization.  The  industrial  world  which 
confronted  the  trade  unionist  of  1024  was  more 
complex  than  it  was  in  1014.  New  industrial 
pioblems  had  come  to  the  fore  and  with  them 
new  attempts  at  solution.  The  various  forms 
of  industrial  democracy  (q.v.),  which  had  been 
advanced  and  in  some  cases  applied,  were  en- 
tirely a  product  of  the  decade,  and  they  had 
taken  different  shape  in  the  various  countries. 
Another  important  development  was  the  spread 
of  syndicalism  (q.v.),  not  only  in  strictly  syn- 
dicalist labor  organizations,  but  also  within  the 
rank  and  file  of  orthodox  craft  unions.  See 
HOURS  OF  LABOR;  LABOR  ARBITRATION:  LABOR 
BANKS  ;  LABOR  LEGISLATION. 

International  Trade  Union  Organizations. 
The  most  important  trade  union  international  be- 
fore the  War  was  the  International  Federation 
of  Trade  Unions  with  headquarters  at  Amster- 
dam. In  1012  it  had  a  membership  of  7,304,461, 
representing  10  countries.  It  was  a  rather  loose 
organization  and  went  to  pieces  immediately  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  War.  During  the  War  an 
Inter- Allied  Trade  Union  Conference  was  held 
at  Leeds  in  1010  and  a  Central  Powers  and  Neu- 
tral Conference  was  held  at  Berne  in  1017.  Al- 
though both  conferences  and  the  three  labor  bu- 


T&ADE  UNIONISM 

reaus  at  Amsterdam,  Paris,  and  Berlin  made  at- 
tempts to  revive  some  sort  of  international  labor 
activity,  the  International  Federation  of  Trade 
Unions  was  as  dead  as  the  Socialist  Interna- 
tional. After  the  War,  at  the  conference  at 
Amsterdam  in  July,  1010,  the  old  International 
•was  reconstructed,  although  in  1024  it  was  in 
reality  a  new  organization.  It  was  an  alliance 
of  national  trade  union  federations  and  trade 
internationals  or,  as  they  are  commonly  termed, 
international  trade  union  "secietariats.  Its  ob- 
jects were  the  promotion  of  the  interests  of  the 
organizations  affiliated  with  it  and  of  the  trade 
union  movement  in  countries  not  affiliated  with 
it,  the  promotion  of  combined  action  on  all 
questions  of  trade  union  interest,  the  prevention 
of  international  blacklisting,  and  the  provision 
of  funds  for  these  purposes.  In  July,  1020,  the 
International  declared  a  boycott  of  the  White 
government  in  Hungary,  which  20  days  later 
had  to  be  abandoned  as  unsuccessful.  The 
American  Federation  of  Labor  had  been  one  of 
the  constituent  organizations  which  formed  the 
International  in  1020.  Because  of  the  close  al- 
liance between  the  International  Federation  of 
Trade  Unions  and  the  Socialist  International, 
Samuel  Gompers  denounced  the  former  as  Social- 
ist and  the  A.  F.  of  L.  withdrew  in  the  autumn 
of  1021.  In  May,  1024,  the  advisability  of  a 
reaffiliation  of  the  A  F.  of  L.  with  the  Inter- 
national was  under  discussion.  The  total  mem- 
bership of  the  new  International  at  the  time  of 
its  formation  was  about  24,000,000.  Due  to  the 
heavy  losses  in  the  membership  of  the  British, 
Italian,  French  and  other  affiliated  organ  nations 
and  to  the  withdrawal  of  the  A.  F.  of  L,  the 
membership  sank  to  18,023.031  at  the  end  of 
1022.  The  International  Federation  of  Working 
Women,  established  at  Geneva  in  October,  1021, 
having  a  membership  of  3,500,000  in  December 
of  the  same  year,  was  an  organization  indepen- 
dent of  the  International  Federation  of  Trade 
Unions,  but  had  the  friendliest  relations  with 
that  l>ody  and  accepted  its  principles.  Apart 
from  the  great  International,  but  affiliated  with 
it,  there  existed  also  28  Trade  Internationals  or 
international  "secretariats,"  each  one  of  them 
comprising  the  workers  within  a  single  industry. 
Their  combined  membership  in  1022  was  a  little 
over  18,000,000.  The  International  Federation 
of  Christian  Trade  Unions  claimed  in  1022  over 
3,000,000  members.  Because  of  the  moderate 
tendencies  of  the  great  International,  the  Inter- 
national Council  of  Trade  and  Industrial  Unions 
or  Red  International  of  Labor  Unions  was  formed 
in  July,  1020,  by  representatives  of  the  Ail- 
Russian  Trade  Unions'  Central  Council,  and  a 
group  of  communist  and  syndicalist  national 
federations,  and  the  Executive  Committee  of  the 
Third  International,  "to  act  as  a  militant  inter- 
national committee  for  the  reorganization  of  the 
trade  union  movement.  As  may  be  surmised, 
this  organization  was  in  close  connection  with 
the  Third  International  for  the  purpose  of  joint 
action.  It  carried  on  an  active  campaign  against 
the  International  Federation  of  Trade  Unions, 
whose  methods  it  termed  "yellow "  Figures 
given  out  on  the  occasion  of  its  Second  Congress, 
Moscow,  December,  1022,  and  purporting  to  be 
complete  statistics,  claimed  the  affiliation  of  32 
countries  and  a  membership  of  12,274,000,  of 
which,  however,  7,014,000  fell  to  the  share  of 
Russia.  For  the  Syndicalist  International  see 
SYNDICALISM. 

United  States.     American  trade  unionism  is 


TRADE  UNIONISM 


1304 


TRADE  UNIONISM 


confronted  with  specifically  American  conditions 
and  difficulties  which  preclude  a  development 
along  European  lines  and  give  the  American 
labor  movement  a  distinct  character.  In  spite 
of  these  obstacles,  however,  American  organized 
labor  advanced  very  far  during  the  10  years. 
From  1914  onward  American  public  opinion 
changed  its  attitude  toward  organized  labor, 
coming  to  accept  it  as  a  legitimate  expression  of 
American  democratic  ideals.  The  active  support 
which  organized  labor  gave  to  the  government 
in  the  prosecution  of  the  War  increased  its 
prestige  greatly.  It  benefited  materially  from 
the  war  prosperity  as  well  as  from  the  relative 
absence  of  the  competition  of  immigrant  labor 
during  the  War.  With  the  close  of  the  War, 
however,  unemployment  arrived  and  gave  labor 
a  decided  setback.  An  offensive  for  the  "open  , 
shop,"  which  reached  its  most  intensified  form 
in  the  great  steel  strike  of  1019,  was  carried  on 
by  the  employers'  organizations  and  did  serious 
harm  to  American  trade  unionism.  Another 
blow  to  labor  was  the  settlement  of  the  Coronado 
Case  in  1922.  The  verdict  pronounced  the  lia- 
bility of  trade-union  funds  for  damages  in  case 
responsibility  had  been  established.  The  new 
movement  for  industrial  democracy  found  its 
chief  expression  in  the  United  States  in  the 
Plumb  Plan,  a  scheme  sponsored  by  the  railway 
unions  for  tripartite  control  of  the  railroads  by 
the  State,  the  owners,  and  the  workers.  There 
was  a  big  increase  in  the  number  of  trade  union- 
ists between  1914  and  1924.  Perhaps  the  out- 
standing event,  however,  in  the  American  labor 
movement  during  that  period  was  the  successful 
organization  of  the  sweated  workers  in  the 
needle  trades  into  such  powerful  bodies  as  the 
Amalgamated  Clothing  Workers  of  Ameiica  and 
the  International  Ladies'  Garment  Workers' 
Union  and  the  formation  of  other  groups  such 
as  the  Amalgamated  Textile  Workers,  the  Amal- 
gamated Food  Workers,  and  the  American  Fed- 
eration of  Teachers. 

American  Federation  of  Labor.  This  organ- 
ization, comprising  most  of  the  trade  unionists 
in  the  United  States  and  many  of  those  in  Can- 
ada, counted  a  great  increase  in  its  membership, 
1914-24,  although  the  later  years  of  industrial 
depression  cut  in  on  this  advance.  From  2,020,- 
671  in  1914  the  membership  rose  steadily  to  4,- 
078,740  in  October,  1920,  after  which  it  showed 
a  falling-off.  At  its  Portland  Convention  in  Oc- 
tober, 1923,  the  A.  F.  of  L.  reported  a  member- 
ship of  2,926,468.  The  organization  was  strictly 
a  federation  of  craft  unions,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  its  largest  affiliated  body,  the  United  Mine 
Workers  of  America,  with  a  membership  of  400,- 
000,  was  an  industrial  union  and  that  there 
existed  within  its  ranks  an  active  minority  in 
favor  of  industrial  unionism,  which,  in  1918,  led 
the  A.  F.  of  L.  into  its  unsuccessful  policy  to- 
ward unionization  of  the  steel  workers  and 
brought  about  the  great  steel  strike  of  1919  with 
its  decisive  victory  for  the  "open  shop."  The 
A.  F.  of  L.,  being  conservative  in  policy,  did  not 
appeal  to  the  unskilled  worker.  This  conserva- 
tive tendency  manifested  itself,  aside  from  the 
withdrawal  from  the  Amsterdam  International, 
in  its  consistent  opposition  to  the  formation  of 
an  American  Labor  party  and  in  its  friendly 
relationship  with  the  American  Legion.  The  au- 
thority of  the  official  element  led  by  President 
Oompers  and  the  rigid  central  control  had  so 
far  been  able  to  keep  down  the  radical  elements, 
although  in  the  last  years  of  the  decade  a  stead- 


ily growing  opposition  with  new  tendencies  had 
appeared.  This  became  apparent  in  the  Montreal 
Convention  in  1920  when  a  resolution  for  gov- 
ernment ownership  of  railroads  arid  inland 
waterways  with  democratic  control  was  adopted 
in  spite  of  Goinpers's  opposition. 

Next  to  the  A.  F.  of  L.  the  four  railroad 
brotherhoods,  with  a  membership  of  400,000, 
were  of  foremost  importance  in  the  American 
labor  movement.  They  made  handsome  gains 
during  the  War  and,  although  conservative  in 
character,  were  more  progressive  than  the  A.  F. 
of  L.  They  were  the  sponsors  of  the  Plumb 
Plan  and  snowed  sympathy  for  separate  politi- 
cal representation  of  labor.  The  needle-trade 
unions  are  perhaps  the  most  wide-awake  labor 
organizations  in  the  United  States.  During  the 
10  years  they  changed  materially  the  working 
conditions  in  their  industry  and  won  important 
concessions  for  their  members.  They  were 
socialist  in  tendency  and  showed  most  active 
sympathy  for  the  struggles  of  the  other  workers 
in  the  United  States.  Their  membership  was 
approximately  285,000. 

Great  Britain.  British  trade  unionism  made 
important  numerical  gains  after  1914.  Its  mem- 
bership rose  from  3,918,809  in  that  year  to  8,- 
023,701  in  1919.  In  the  following  years,  how- 
ever, the  membership  fell  to  about  5,000,000  or 
40  per  cent  of  the  \va«e  earners,  as  a  result  of 
post-war  conditions  and  unemployment.  The 
Trade  Union  Congress,  the  national  organization 
of  the  British  trade  union  movement,  reported 
2,806,077  members  in  1914;  6,505,482  in  1920; 
and  4,352,818  in  1923.  Far  more  significant 
than  their  numerical  increase  was  the  giowth  of 
the  influence  of  the  British  trade  unionists, 
which  may  be  measured  by  the  fact  that  in  1924 
the  Labor  party,  which  is  primarily  the  polit- 
ical expression '  of  British  trade  unionism,  be- 
came the  governing  party.  Another  feature  of 
this  great  development  was  the  tendency  to  form 
large  labor  aggregations.  The  movement  for 
''less  unions  and  more  unity"  through  amalgama- 
tion brought  the  majority  of  the  British  trade 
unionists  into  relatively  few  and  large  bodies, 
such  as  the  Miners'  Federation  (750,000  mem- 
bers), the  National  Union  of  Railwaymen  (327,- 
000),  the  General  Labor  Union  (500,000),  the 
Amalgamated  Transport  Workers  (1,000,000), 
the  Amalgamated  Engineering  Union,  and  the 
United  Textile  Factory  Workers'  Association. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  British  labor  agreed 
to  a  general  truce  between  labor  and  capital. 
At  the  famous  Treasury  Agreement  of  1915  the 
trade  unions  through  their  officers,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Miners'  Federation,  abrogated 
their  trade-union  rights  and  agreed  to  compul- 
sory arbitration.  This  agreement  was  given 
legislative  force  for  the  trades  concerned  with 
the  supply  of  munitions  in  the  Munitions  of 
War  Act  of  1915.  Under  the  increasing  hard- 
ships of  the  War,  however,  sections  of  the  rank 
and  file  grew  restive,  felt  that  they  had  been  be- 
trayed by  their  leaders,  and  expressed  their 
revolt  through  a  number  of  unofficial  strikes. 
This  revolt  of  the  men  against  their  leaders 
culminated  in  the  shop  stewards'  movement  and 
in  the  strikes  on  the  Clyde  during  1916  and  1917, 
and  threatened  at  times  to  disrupt  the  old  form 
of  trade-union  organization.  The  miners,  who 
had  not  abrogated  their  freedom  to  act,  showed 
an  independent  attitude  throughout  the  War. 
The  rebellious  spirit  of  British  labor  manifested 
itself  also  through  the  widespread  acceptance  of 


TBAIN 


1305 


TRANSYLVANIA 


various  theories  of  industrial  unionism,  syn- 
dicalism, and  industrial  democracy.  The  estab- 
lishment of  Whitley  Councils  in  various  trades 
by  the  government  was  a  concession  to  this 
spirit  This  unrest  did  not  abate  with  the  Ar- 
mistice. Guild  socialism  (q.v.)  spread  in  the 
years  after  the  War  and  the  miners  made  their 
demand  in  1019  for  the  nationalization  of  mines 
which  resulted  in  the  Coal  Commission  and  the 
Sankey  Report.  In  1920,  at  the  time  of  the 
Russo-Polish  conflict,  the  trade  unions  formed 
councils  of  action  and  by  this  direct  method 
exerted  successful  pressure  on  the  British  gov- 
ernment in  favor  of  nonintervention.  In  the 
later  years,  as  a  result  of  the  after  effects  of 
the  War,  British  labor  went  through  a  severe 
crisis  of  unemployment,  which  cut  sharply  into 
the  membership  of  the  trade  unions  and  de- 
creased their  power  of  action.  The  outstanding 
single  event  of  the  postwar  period  and  the  most 
severe  blow  to  British  labor  was  the  failure  of 
the  miners'  strike  in  1021  and  the  resultant 
breakup  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  the  most  power- 
ful single  labor  organization  in  the  world. 

Germany.  The*  German  trade-union  move- 
ment is  undoubtedly  the  largest  and  most  influ- 
ential national  labor  movement.  The  German 
Republic  could  not  last  without  its  consent,  as 
became  clearly  apparent  in  1020  when  the  Ger- 
man trade  unionists  by  a  general  strike  brought 
to  nought  the  otherwise  successful  Kapp  Putsch. 
Dining  the  \\ar,  German  trade  unionism  was 
stagnant,  but  after  the  War  it  increased  by  leaps 
and  bounds  until,  in  1024,  there  were  about  12,- 
000,000  trade  unionists  in  the  country.  The 
luigest  oigani/ation  was  the  General  Federation 
of  Gennan  Trade  Unions  with  a  membership  of 
7874,000.  It  ifl  affiliated  with  the  Amsteidam 
International,  as  is  also  the  Federation  of  Unions 
of  Salaried  Employees,  with  a  membership  of 
040,000.  The  Federation  of  Christian  Trade 
Unions,  and  the  Federation  of  Unions  of  Chris- 
tian Salaried  Employees,  with  a  combined  mem- 
bership of  1,500.000,  were  affiliated  with  the 
International  Federation  of  Christian  Trade 
Unions.  The  Federation  of  Chil  Ser\ants  was 
a  postwar  development  and  had  1,500,000  mem- 
bers. The  Union  of  Hand  and  Brain  Workers 
with  320,000  members  adhered  to  the  Red  Inter- 
national of  Labor  Unions.  See  SYNDICALISM. 

TRAIN.  See  ARMIES  AND  ARMY  ORGANIZA- 
TION. 

TBAIN,  ARTHUR  (CHENEY)  (1875-  ). 
An  American  lawyer  and  writer,  born  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  and  educated  at  Harvard  University  and 
its  law  school.  Tie  practiced  for  several  years 
in  New  York  and  fiom  1901  to  1908  was  As- 
sistant District  Attorney,  a  position  in  which 
he  served  again  in  1914-15.  He  was  a  fiction 
writer  of  considerable  talent,  his  books  including: 
The  Man  Wlw  Pocked  the  Earth  (1915):  The 
Earthquake  (1918)  ;  Tutt  and  Mr.  Tutt  (1920)  ; 
The  Hermit  of  Turkey  Hollow,  By  Adrice  of 
Counsel,  and  As  It  Was  in  the  Beginning  (1921 ) ; 
Tut,  Tut,  Mr.  Tult!  and  His  Children's  Children 
(1923). 

TRANSCATJCASIAN  SOVIET  REPUB- 
LICS, FEDERATION  OP.  See  RUSSIA;  ARMENIA; 
AZERBAIJAN;  GEORGIA. 

TRANSFORMERS.  See  ELECTRIC  POWER 
TRANSMISSION  AND  "DISTRIBUTION. 

TRANSJORDANIA,  EMIRATE  OP,  or  KERAK. 
A  territory,  inhahited  by  Arabs,  lying  to  the 
east  of  the  Jordan  and  to  the  north  of  the  king- 
dom of  Hedjaz.  Area,  undetermined;  popula- 


tion, estimated  at  between  300,000  and  500,000, 
mostly  Arabs  and  Moslems,  though  there  were 
about  30,000  Christians.  Amman,  the  capital, 
had  2300  inhabitants.  Other  towns  are  Kerak 
(2500),  Ks  Salt  (8000),  Ma'an  (3000),  Madeka 
(2000),  Jerash  (1500).  The  country  is  for  the 
most  part  desert,  except  for  the  30-mile  district 
between  the  Jordan  and  the  Hedjaz  railway. 
The  population  being  nomadic  la>gely,  pastoral 
pursuits  were  the  leading  activity.  Phosphate 
deposits  have  been  found,  as  well  as  potash,  in 
the  Dead  Sea.  Communications  were  maintained 
by  a  motor  road  from  Amman  to  Jerusalem  and 
by  the  portion  of  the  Hedjaz  railway  running 
through  the  country  from  Daraa  to  Ma'an.  The 
estimated  revenue  for  1922-23  waa  £204,000; 
the  British  grant-in-aid,  £100,000.  The  country 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  Crusades,  then 
with  the  defeat  of  the  Cluistians  fell  to  a  series 
of  independent  rulers  who  came  out  of  Egypt. 
Under  the  Ottoman  Turks  (1517-1918)  its  part 
was  an  obscure  one  until  the  building  of  the 
Hedjaz  railway  made  it  easily  accessible.  In 
April,  1918,  it  was  invaded  by  the  Emir  Faisal, 
and  by  the  Peace  Treaty  it  was  made  part  of  the 
Palestine  mandate  under  the  supervision  of  the 
British  high  commisRioner.  Emir  Faisal,  as 
ruler  of  Syria,  was  recognized  as  sovereign  in 
Transjordania,  but  after  his  fall,  his  brother,  the 
Amir  Abdullah,  was  set  upon  the  throne  (April, 
1921).  In  May,  1923,  local  autonomy  was 
formally  granted  the  Territory  by  the  British 
high  commissioner  in  Palestine"  That  Arab  dis- 
satisfaction was  widespread,  however,  \\as  in- 
dicated in  September,  1923,  when  demands  were 
made  for  a  parliamentary  government  and  the 
expulsion  of  the  Europeans.  See  PALESTINE. 

TRANSMISSION  AND  DISTRIBUTION, 
OF  ELECTRIC  POWER.  See  ELECTRIC  POWER 
TRANSMISSION  AND  DISTRIBUTION. 

TRANSPORT.     See  VFSSEL,  NAVAL. 

TRANSPORT  SERVICE,  UNITED  STATES 
NAVAL.  See  WAR  IN  EUROPE,  Naval  Operations. 

TRANSVAAL  PROVINCE.  See  SOUTH 
AFRICA,  UNION  OF. 

TRANSYLVANIA.  Before  the  War  an  in- 
tegral part  of  Hungary,  but  since  December, 
1918,  a  Rumanian  province.  Area,  22,312  square 
miles;  population  in  1910,  2,078,307.  Cluj 
(Klausenburg) ,  the  principal  city,  had  an  esti- 
mated population  of  G.r>,500  in  1920.  The  in- 
habitants in  1910  were  divided  racially  as  fol- 
lows: 55  per  cent  Rumanian,  34.3  per  cent  Mag- 
yar (known  locally  as  S/cklers),  8.7  per  cent 
German  (i.e.  Saxons).  There  were  also  some 
Huthenians  and  Slovaks.  Among  all  these  the 
Jews  numbered  about  65,000.  The  people  pur- 
sued for  the  most  part  agricultural  and  pastoral 
activities,  the  industrial  life  occupying  only  a 
small  place.  The  Rumanians  were  chiefly  peas- 
ants, herdsmen,  and  hillsmen,  largely  illiterate, 
and  culturally  and  economically  completely 
dominated  by  their  Magyar  overlords.  Klausen- 
burg, the  capital,  waa  the  centre  not  of  Ru- 
manian, but  of  Ihingarian  intellectual  life.  The 
limit  of  Tiansylvania,  on  the  edge  of  the  Ru- 
manian Forelands,  coincided  with  a  number  of 
important  towns  in  the  Banat,  i.e.  Arad,  Temes- 
vflr,  and  Nugy  Varad,  and  it  was  to  gain  these 
towns,  so  important  as  focal  points  to  the  sur- 
rounding agricultural  country,  that  Rumania 
sought  the  inclusion  of  the  Banat  (q.v.)  in  her 
territories.  On  Dec.  2,  1918,  a  Transylvanian 
Assembly,  perceiving  how  imminent  was  the  dis- 
ruption *  of  the  Dual  Monarchy,  declared  its 


TREATY  OF  LONDON 


1306      TRENCH  WJLRVARE  MATERIAL 


union  with  Rumania.  The  Saxons  acceded;  the 
Magyars,  sensing  their  racial  submergence,  re- 
fused their  allegiance  until  well  into  1921.  On 
Jan.  11,  1919,  Rumania  by  royal  decree  annexed 
the  territory;  the  subsequent  treaties  confirmed 
the  transfer.  In  1920,  the  Transylvanian  na- 
tional council  was  dissolved  and  a  provincial 
government  was  erected.  Transylvania  was 
represented  by  45  senators  and  112  deputies  in 
the  Rumanian  parliament.  The  leading  problem 
here,  as  in  all  the  Rumanian  lands,  was  that  of 
racial  minorities.  That  the  Rumanians  had  no 
intention  of  treating  the  Magyars  tenderly  was 
shown,  beginning  with  1919,  when  they  pro- 
ceeded to  expel  large  numbers  of  Magyar  land- 
lords, ostensibly  in  the  interest  of  land  reform. 
Here,  so  soon,  was  appearing  a  new  irredentism 
in  the  heart  of  the  once  Rumania  Irredenta.  See 
WAB  IN  EUKOPE,  Balkan  Front. 

TREATY  OF  LONDON  (APR.  26,  1915). 
See  WAB,  DIPLOMACY  OF  THE. 

TREES.     See  FORESTRY. 

TBELEASE,  WILLIAM  (1857-  ).  An 
American  botanist,  born  at  Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  and 
educated  at  Cornell,  Harvard,  Michigan,  and 
Washington  Universities.  After  serving  as  lec- 
turer at  Johns  Hopkins  University,  he  became  in- 
structor in  botany  at  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin (1881-85).  He  was  then  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  botany  in  Washington  University  and 
in  1913  professor  of  botany  at  the  University  of 
Illinois.  From  1889  to  1912  he  was  director  of 
the  Missouri  Botanical  Garden.  Professor  Tre- 
leuse  wrote:  The  Genus  Phoradendron  (1916)  ; 
Plant  Materials  of  Decorative  Gardening  (1917)  ; 
'Winter  Botany  (1918);  and  many  papers  and 
reports  on  botany  and  entomology. 

TBENCHABD,  SIB  HUGH  MONTAGUE  (1873- 
).  A  British  air  marshal.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1893,  served  through  the  South  African 
Wrar,  and  afterward  took  part  in  three  cam- 
paigns as  a  member  of  the  West  African  Fron- 
tier Force,  receiving  the  D.  S.  O.  in  1906.  He 
became  an  assistant  commandant  of  the  Royal 
"Flying  Corps  at  Upavon  in  1912.  Before  the 
end  of  the  first  year  of  the  War  he  was  made 
head  of  the  military  wing  of  the  air  forces  under 
Sir  J.  French,  in  which  office  he  was  markedly 
successful.  By  1917  he  had  reached  the  rank 
of  major-general,  and  when  the  air  ministry 
was  formed  in  the  same  year  he  went  back  to 
England  as  chief  of  staff.  He  resigned  in  April, 
1918,  and  shortly  afterward  was  given  the  com- 
mand of  the  Independent  Force  and  raided  Ger- 
man territory  during  the  last  months  of  the 
War.  In  1919  he  was  made  air  marshal  and 
became  chief  of  the  air  staff. 

TRENCH  WARFARE  MATERIAL. 
Trench  warfare  was  a  development  peculiar  to 
the  War  in  Europe.  The  line  of  battle  extended 
from  the  English  Channel  to  Switzerland,  its 
flanks  resting  on  militarily  impregnable  obstacles 
which  precluded  outflanking.  The  numbers  en- 
gaged made  the  battle  lines  practically  continu- 
ous, reduced  the  chance  of  success  of  a  war  of 
manoeuvre,  and  eventually  resulted  in  the  dead- 
loci:  inevitable  to  a  war  of  position  when  the  op- 
posing forces  are  evenly  matched.  A  recurrence 
of  trench  warfare  of  the  sort  experienced  in  the 
War  will  depend  on  the  likeness  of  the  condi- 
tions of  any  future  conflict  to  those  just  de- 
scribed. The  possibility  of  similar  conditions 
being  encountered  is  considered  so  slight  that 
little  attention  is  being  paid  to  improvement  of 
devices  which  And  effective  employment  only 


during  a  war  of  position.  The  state  of  the  art, 
therefore,  was  in  1924  practically  the  same  as  at 
the  signing  of  the  Armistice.  See  ORDNANCE. 

Grenades.  The  modern  grenade  is  in  effect 
a  small  explosive  shell  thrown  at  the  target 
by  the  soldier  with  his  good  right  arm  or  by 
means  of  an  attachment  (tromblon)  fastened  to 
the  muzzle  of  his  rifle.  The  so-called  defensive 
grenade  consisted  of  a  gray-iron  casting,  the 
grenade  body,  which  contained  an  explosive 
charge  of  nitrostarch  and  a  suitable  firing  mech- 
anism designed  to  prevent  explosion  until  the 
thrown  grenade  was  a  safe  distance  from  the 
thrower.  The  defensive  grenade  was  intended 
to  burst  into  fragments  and  was  used  only  by 
men  actually  within  the  trenches,  the  walls  of 
which  would  protect  the  thrower  from  flying 
fragments.  This  fragmentation  type  of  grenade 
was  the  most  used  and  the  most  useful  of  all 
developed  during  the  \Var.  An  American  con- 
tribution to  trench  warfare  was  the  offensive 
grenade,  the  body  of  which  was  made  of  paper 
which  produced  its  deadly  effect  by  the  flame  or 
concussion  of  the  explosive  itself.  This  type  was 
safe  to  use  in  open  offensive  movements  since 
there  were  no  fragments  of  metal  to  fly  back 
and  injure  the  throuer.  Gas  grenades,  the  bodies 
of  which  consisted  of  two  sheet-metal  cups  welded 
so  ns  to  be  gas-tight,  were  under  development 
and  were  used  principally  to  make  the  enemy 
trenches  and  dugouts  uninhabitable  on  release 
of  their  toxic  contents. 

Phosphorus  grenades,  of  construction  similar 
to  the  gas  type,  weie  used  to  scatter  burning 
phosphorus  over  an  area  10  to  15  feet  across 
The  dense  cloud  of  >\hite  smoke  thus  produced 
was  utilized  to  build  smoke  screens  for  the  pro- 
tection of  troops  in  open  attack  on  maehine-#uii 
nests.  Incendiary  grenades  were  essentially 
paper  bombs  filled  with  highly  inflamable  ma- 
terial and  intended  for  use  in  destroying  fitiuc- 
tures  by  fire.  In  still  another  clans  was  the 
Thermit  grenade,  consisting  of  a  tcrne-plate  con- 
tainer filled  with  Thermit,  a  patented  composi- 
tion which  developed  an  intense  heat  while  melt- 
ing. These  grenades  found  their  principal  use 
in  destroying  captured  guns  which  could  not  bo 
moved,  by  fusing  the  breech  mechanism  to  an 
extent  preventing  further  use.  A  combination 
mount  and  rifle  grenade  was  also  developed  by 
the  British  and  later  adopted  by  the  United 
States  Army.  The  great  majority  of  rifle  gre- 
nades were  of  the  French  Viven-Bessiere  type, 
provided  with  a  hole  extending  entirely  through 
the  middle  of  the  grenade.  In  order  to  use  this 
grenade  a  specially-designed  holder  is  fitted  to 
the  muzzle  of  an  ordinary  service  rifle.  \Vhen 
the  rifle  is  fired,  the  bullet  passes  through  the 
hole  in  the  grenade  and  the  discharged  gasps 
following  the  bullet  have  enough  energy  left  to 
throw  the  grenade  approximately  200  yards  The 
rifle  grenade  was  used  both  as  a  defensive  and 
an  offensive  weapon,  since  the  fircrs  were  well 
out  of  range  of  the  exploding  missile,  which  had 
an  effective  radius  of  nearly  75  yards  on  burst 

Trench  Mortars.  The  trench  mortar,  in  its 
simplest  form,  consisted  merely  of  a  seamless 
drawn-steel  tube  three  inches  in  diameter,  closed 
at  one  end  and  provided  with  a  projecting  firing- 
pin  at  the  closed  end.  A  simple  bipod,  which 
with  the  tube  itself  constituted  a  tripod,  gave 
elevation  and  direction  to  the  tube.  In  action, 
a  very  simple  form  of  projectile  consisting  of  a 
lap-welded  3-inch  steel  tubing,  filled  with  nitro- 
starch explosive  and  provided  at  its  lower  end 


TRENCH  WARFARE  MATERIAL       1307 


TRINIDAD 


with  means  for  attaching  an  ordinary  shot-gun 
shell,  was  dropped  gently  down  the  muzzle. 
When  the  primer  of  the  shot-gun  shell  struck  the 
projecting  firing-pin  at  the  bottom  of  the  closed 
lube,  the  cartridge  was  discharged,  and  the 
shell  was  thrown  with  considerable  velocity  in 
a  high  arc  for  several  hundred  yards.  In  order 
to  obtain  greater  range,  rings  of  black  powder  in 
muslin  bags  were  wrapped  around  the  shot-gun 
shell  and  were  ignited  on  its  discharge.  Light 
vanes,  added  in  prolongation  of  the  shell  body, 
surrounded  the  shot-gun  shell  in  order  to  pre- 
vent tumbling  of  the  projectile  in  fire.  This  ma- 
terial was  indeed  ordnance  reduced  to  its  sim- 
plest terms,  but  due  to  the  simplicity  of  design 
and  ease  of  manufacture,  the  readiness  with 
which  troops  could  lie  trained  in  its  employment, 
and  its  adaptability  to  the  peculiar  conditions 
of  trench  warfare,  it  found  an  enormous  use. 
Three-inch  and  four-inch  Newton-Stokes  mortars 
of  British  design,  in  general  conformity  to 
the  above  description,  were  used  to  a  great  ex- 
tent by  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces. 
Provided  with  more  accurate  elevating  and  tra- 
versing mechanism  and  separate  propelling 
charges,  six-inch  Newton-Stokes  and  French 
24mm.  mortars  were  also  used  to  a  considerable 
extent.  See  STRATEGY  AND  TACTICS,  MILITARY. 

The  Livens  projector,  of  British  design,  was 
essentially  a  long  steel  tube,  closed  at  one  end, 
intended  to  be  buried  in  the  ground,  and  sup- 
ported by  a  pressed  steel  base  plate.  These  tubes 
were  set  up  in  groups  of  25  or  multiples  thereof 
and  were  fired  simultaneously  by  electricity, 
sometimes  to  the  number  of  2500.  The  pro- 
jectile used  was  a  gas  drum  cylindrical  in  shape, 
about  24  incites  long  and  eight  inches  in  diam- 
eter; and  when  fired  in  large  numbers,  it  worked 
great  havoc  in  the  ranks  of  the  enemy.  Al- 
though the  British  used  this  type  with  great 
success  throughout  the  latter  period  of  the  War, 
and  the  French  and  Americans  also  adopted  it 
and  used  it  freely,  the  Germans  were  never  able 
to  discover  the  nature  of  the  device  which  was 
causing  such  damage  and  were  never  able  to 
produce  anything  similar  to  it. 

Pyrotechnics.  Pyrotechnics  found  very  ex- 
tensive use  in  the  War.  The  exigencies  of  trench 
warfare  frequently  demanded  the  transmission 
of  orders  and  information  simultaneously  by  sev- 
eral different  methods.  In  order  to  supplement 
the  telephone,  telegraph,  and  visual  signaling, 
fire  signaling  was  resorted  to,  and  pyrotechnic 
devices  were  developed  to  meet  all  needs,  in- 
cluding signal  rockets,  parachute  rockets,  signal 
pistols  and  their  ammunition,  position  and 
signal  lights,  flares,  smoke  torches,  and  lights 
to  be  thrown  by  the  Viven-Bessiere  tromblon, 
the  French  device  attached  to  the  end  of  the 
rifle  in  which  a  rifle  grenade  fits. 

Pyrotechnics  won  themselves  a  reputation  as 
a  dependable  means  of  communication  when  all 
other  means,  except  by  runners,  were  inter- 
rupted, and  it  is  probable  that  they  will  find  a 
continuing  place  in  the  liaison  systems  of  all 
armies.  After  the  War,  considerable  attention 
was  devoted  to  producing  pyrotechnic  signals 
which  would  be  entirely  dependable  as  to  func- 
tioning, could  stand  rough  handling,  and  would 
not  deteriorate  after  storage  under  field  condi 


a  candle  power  of  800,000  and  a  burning-time  of 
four  minutes.  Wing-tip  flares  giving  a  candle 
power  of  10,000  and  burning-time  of  one  minute 
have  also  been  developed  for  use  by  aviators  at- 
tempting to  make  forced  landings  at  night  or  on 
fields  not  otherwise  illuminated. 

TRENGGANU.  See  MALAY  STATES,  NON- 
FEDERATED. 

TRENTINO.  See  TIROL,  GERMAN  SOUTH; 
W!AB  IN  EUROPE,  Italian  Front. 

TRENTON.  A  manufacturing  city,  the  capi- 
tal of  New  Jersey.  The  population  increased 
from  96,815  in  1910  to  119,289  in  1920,  and  to 
127,390  by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census 
for  1923.  A  high  school  and  a  grade  school 
were  built  between  1914  and  1924;  another  high 
school  costing  $1,250,000  was  under  construc- 
tion in  1924.  A  comprehensive  zoning  ordi- 
nance was  prepared  and  public  hearings  held 
prior  to  its  adoption.  The  assessed  valuation  of 
the  city  rose  from  $09,948.350  in  1914  to  $137,- 
263,001  in  1924,  capital  invested  in  manufactur- 
ing from  $55,535,000  to  $108,000,000,  and  the 
value  of  the  finished  product  from  $53,588,000 
to  $125,000,000. 

TREVES,  SIR  FREDERICK  (1853-1923).  A 
British  surgeon  (see  VOL.  XXII).  During  the 
War  he  was  president  of  the  Headquarters 
Board  at  the  War  Office  and  a  member  of  the 
Advisory  Board  of  the  Army  Medical  Service. 
His  Surgical  Applied  Anatomy  passed  through 
its  seventh  edition  in  1918.  His  chief  contri- 
bution to  literature  since  1914  is  a  book  of  rem- 
iniscences, The  Elephant  Man  (1923). 

TRIANON,  TREATY  OF  THE.  See  PEACE  CON- 
FERENCE AND  TREATIES. 

TRIESTE.  See  FIUME-ADBIATIO  CONTRO- 
VERSY. 

TRINIDAD.  An  island  in  the  West  Indies 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  constituting 
with  the  island  of  Tobago  (114  square  miles)  a 
British  colony.  Area  of  Trinidad,  1862  square 
miles;  population  in  1911,  333,552;  in  1922, 
374,630.  In  1922  there  were  121,249  East  In- 
dians in  the  colony  as  compared  with  110,000 
in  1911.  The  largest  city,  Port  of  Spain,  had 
61,531  inhabitants  in  1921  (60,000  in  1911). 
In  1920,  Trinidad  was  chosen  as  the  seat  of  a 
West  Indian  agricultural  college.  The  leading 
products  continued  to  be  the  following,  as  in- 
dicated by  export  values  in  1922:  cacao,  £1,- 
342,331  (1913,  £1,403,379);  sugar,  £1,145,278 
(1913,  £418,067);  asphalt,  £339,824  (1913, 
£230,565);  coconuts,  £77,420  (1913,  £85,369); 
petroleum,  £472,767  (1913,  £75,020).  The  last 
made  great  advances  in  1914-24.  During  1922, 
85,566,303  gallons  of  crude  oil  were  exported; 
in  1923,  this  was  increased  to  106,804,098.  Im- 
ports for  1913  were  worth  £2,828,550;  for  1920, 
£8,490,232;  for  1921,  £6,903,694;  for  1922, 
£4,604,880.  Exports  for  the  same  years  were 
(£3,065,863,  £8,408,611,  £4,683,988,  £4,229,403. 
Transhipments  for  the  same  years  were  £2,139,- 
810,  £1,077,934,  £509,988,  £612,527.  The  United 
States  trade  with  Trinidad  in  1923  was:  ex- 
ports to,  $4,394,054  (1915,  $3,971,000);  im- 
ports from,  $5,161,979  (1915,  $6,739,000).  In 
1922  there  were  123  miles  of  railway  as  com- 
pared with  95  in  1914.  Government  accounts 
follow  for  1922  (1913-14  figures  in  parenthe- 


tions.     Airplane  flares,  to  be  dropped  from  air-  ses)  :  revenue,  £1,661,607    (£970,789);  of  which 

craft  for  the  illumination  of  No  Man's  Land,  customs  was  £525,723    (£433,276) ;   expenditure, 

have  been  developed   since  the  War  to  give  a  £1,939,215    (£951,962)  ;  public  debt,  as  for  Dec. 

candle  power  of  400,000  and  a  burning-time  of  31,   1922,  £3,452,424    (£1,476,615).     There  were 

seven  to  eight  minutes,  with  a  larger  size  having  no  changes  in  administration. 


TRINITY  COLLEGE 


1308 


TRUSTS 


TRINITY  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
the  higher  education  of  men  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
founded  in  1823.  The  enrollment  in  1014  was 
248;  in  1923,  260.  The  faculty  numbered  27  in 
1914  and  30  in  1023,  and  the  library  was  in- 
creased from  70,000  to  100,000  volumes.  The 
productive  funds  in  1023-24  were  $2,300,000. 
The  library  and  administrative  buildings,  the 
gift  of  J.  P.  Morgan,  were  completed  in  1014, 
and  a  gift  of  $150,000  was  received  by  the  col- 
lege from  the  J.  P.  Morgan  fund  in  *1017  In 
1023  the  centennial  celebration  was  held,  and 
the  centennial  fund  of  $1,000,000  was  completed 
The  Rev.  Remsen  BrinckerhofT  Ogilby,  LL.D., 
succeeded  the  Rev.  F  L.  Luther,  LL.D  *  as  presi- 
dent in  1020. 

TRINITY  COLLEGE.  A  Roman  Catholic 
institution  for  women  founded  in  1865  at  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  by  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  of 
Namur;  it  is  affiliated  with  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity of  America.  The  number  of  students  in- 
creased from  166  in  1014  to  380  in  1024,  the 
number  of  members  in  the  faculty  from  20  to 
50,  and  the  volumes  in  the  library  from  16,000 
to  29,000.  The  Stewart  estate  adjoining  the 
campus  was  bought  in  1015.  A  building  and 
endowment  fund  was  undertaken  in  1^24.  Sis- 
ter Raphael.  A.B.,  M.D.,  succeeded  Sister  Cath- 
erine Aloysius,  A.B.,  as  president 

TRINITY  COLLEGE.  An  institution  in 
Durham,  N.  C,  founded  in  1851  The  student 
enrollment  increased  more  than  57  per  cent, 
from  671  in  1014  to  1058  in  1024,  not  including 
a  summer  term  established  in  1010  and  en- 
rolling, in  the  summer  of  1023,  371.  The  fac- 
ulty membership  increased  185  per  cent  in  the 
same  period,  from  40  to  140:  and  the  endow- 
ment approximately  100  per  cent,  from  $1.500- 
316  to  $3,0(J3,S06.  The  number  of  volumes  in 
the  library  rose  from  60,882  to  105.808.  The 
annual  income  mounted  from  $101,806  to  $300.- 
808,  and  the  value  of  the  buildings  from  $503,- 
000  to  $875,537.  President,  William  P.  Few, 
Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE.  See  WAB  IN  EU- 
ROPE. 

TRIFLE  ENTENTE.    See  WAB  IN  EUBOPE. 

TRIPOLITANIA.     See  LIBYA, 

TROELTSCH,  ERNST  D.  (1865-1023).  A 
German  religious  philosopher,  born  at  Augs- 
burg, and  educated  at  the  leading  German  uni- 
versities. He  was  called  to  a  professorship  in 
the  University  of  Berlin  in  1012.  At  the  close 
of  the  War  he  entered  politics  under  the  demo- 
cratic standard.  In  1020  he  became  minister 
of  education  and  religion  in  the  Prussian  state 
government,  and  in  1021  he  was  appointed  to 
the  same  office  in  the  German  federal  cabinet. 
His  writings  are  concerned  largely  with  the 
philosophy  of  Protestantism.  They  include: 
Foziallehren  der  Chrisllirhen  Kirchen  und  Grup- 
pen  (1012);  Zu  Reliqions  Lage,  Religions 
Philosophic  und  Ethik  M913);  August  in 
(1015);  Deutsche  Zukunft  (1916);  JJumanis- 
mns  und  Naturalismvs  (1016)  ;  and  Ge which te 
der  Philosophic  des  PoftHivismus  (1010). 

TROLAND,  LT.  See  PSYCHOLOGY,  EXPERI- 
MENTAL. 

TROPISMS.  See  ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY; 
ZOOLOGY. 

TROTSKY,  LEON  (DcoN  BBAUNSTEIN)  (1877- 
).  A  Russian  Communist  leader,  liorn 
near  Elisavetgrad,  South  Russia,  and  educated 
at  tin*  University  of  Odessa.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  left'  wing  of  the  Social-Democratic 


party  and  in  1808  WUH  arrested  and  later  do 
ported  to  Ust-Kut,  Siberia.  He  soon  escaped, 
however.  He  attended  the  International  Social- 
ist Conference  at  Stuttgart,  that  at  Copenhagen, 
and  the  Pan-Slavonic  Congress  at  Sofia  in 
1010.  In  1014  ho  criticized  the  Socialists  for 
supporting  their  governments  in  the  War  and 
considered  the  Zimmciwald  Manifesto  too  mod- 
erate. Neithei  France,  Switzerland,  nor  Spain 
would  haibor  him.  so  he  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1017  and  helped  publish  the  Rus- 
sian newspaper  Xovy  Mir  in  New  York  City. 
After  the  rexolution  of  March,  1017,  he  went 
hack  to  Russia  and  was  elected  president  of  the 
Petrograd  Soviet.  As  he  represented  the  ex- 
treme leit  wing  of  the  Communist  party,  he 
often  opposed  Lenine's  more  moderate  proposals. 
He  signed  the  Peace  of  Brest-Litovsk  and 
organized  the  Red  Army,  whose  commander-in- 
chief  he  botanic  Ho  made,  as  ho  said,  "an 
armed  alliance  of  the  workman  and  peasant, 
where  there  is  no  loom  either  for  the  middle- 
class  property  holder  or  the  rich  peasant.  The 
state  tolerates  them  economically  but  does  not 
give  them  political  rights,  much  loss  weapons  " 

TROWBKIDGE,  Ai  uusTrs  (1870-  ) 
An  Arnoiican  physicist,  born  in  New  Yoik  City, 
and  educated  at  Columbia  Umveisity  and  in 
HOT!  in.  During  1808-1000  he  was  'instructor 
in  physics  at  the  University  of  Michigan  and  in 
lOOIMMi  a  member  of  the*  faculty  at  the  Uni- 
\eisity  of  Wisconsin,  in  1!MM»  he  became  pro- 
fessor* of  physics  at  Princeton  University.  Dur- 
ing the  War  he  served  in  the  intelligence  de- 
partment at  Peishing's  headquaitors  in  France 
and  was  honorably  discharged  in  1010  with  the 
lank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  lie  rccei\ed  the 
Distinguished  Seivice  Modal  and  the  Distin- 
guished Service  Order,  as  well  as  the  decoration 
of  the  Jx'giou  of  Honor.  He  was  chairman  of 
the  division  of  physical  sciences  and  member  of 
the  fellowship  board  of  the  National  Research 
Council  (1020-21). 

TRTJCIAL  OMAN.     See  ARABIA. 

TRUSTS.  The  year  1014  was  important  for 
students  of  trust  legislation.  During  this  year 
two  noteworthy  acts  were  passed  by  Congress, 
the  Federal  Trade  Commission  Act  and  the 
Clayton  Act.  The  Hureau  of  Corporations 
which  went  into  operation  in  1004  had  been 
rendering  \ery  distinct  aid  in  the  curbing  of 
certain  evils  in  the  trusts.  The  creation  of  the 
Federal  Trade  Commission  was  a  direct  outcome 
of  the  Bureau  of  Corpoiations.  The  chief  pro- 
visions of  the  Trade  Commission  Act  follow 
(1)  A  Federal  Trade  Commission  of  five  mem- 
bers appointed  for  seven  years  at  an  annual 
salary  of  $10,000  each  was  created.  (2)  The 
act  specifically  condemned  as  unlawful  unfair 
competition  by  industrial  combinations.  (3) 
The  principal  duty  of  the  Trade  Commission  was 
to  take  action  against  unfair  practices  when  it 
was  convinced  that  such  existed.  The  Com- 
mission was  to  servo  a  complaint  and  hold  a 
hearing  and  was  authorized  to  order  the  dis- 
continuance of  any  practices  found  to  be  unfair. 
In  case  the  order  of  the  Commission  was  not 
obeyed,  it  had  the  power  to  lay  the  case  before 
the  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  The  court  might 
issue  an  injunction.  The  decision  of  the  Com- 
mission was  greatly  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  its  findings,  if  supported  by  adequate  testi- 
m9ny,  were  regarded  as  conclusive.  (4)  The 
power  of  the  Commission  was  extended  to  in- 
clude the  investigation  of  corporations  engaged 


TRUSTS 


1309 


TRUSTS 


in  interstate  commerce,  with  the  exception  of 
banks  and  common  carriers.  (5)  The  Commis- 
sion was  authorized  to  demand  from  corpora- 
tions annual  reports  and  other  information 
relative  to  the  conduct  of  their  business.  (6) 
It  might  initiate  investigations  relative  to  the 
manner  in  which  previous  decrees  had  been 
carried  out  by  industrial  combinations  The 
Commission  might  publish  its  findings  if  it 
seemed  in  the  public  interest  (7)  On  direction 
of  the  President  or  of  either  house  of  Congress, 
or  on  application  of  the  Attorney  General,  the 
commission  was  required  to  investigate  any  al- 
leged violations  of  the  antitrust  acts  and  to 
recommend  such  changes  as  should  bring  the 
practices  into  conformity  with  the  requirements 
of  the  act.  (8)  If  the  Federal  Court  made  the 
formal  request,  the  Federal  Trade  Commission 
might  act  in  an  advisory  rapacity,  relative  to 
the  form  which  the  decrees  of  the  court  should 
take.  The  purpose  of  the  Federal  Trade  Com- 
mission Act  was  to  prevent  unfair  practices  of 
industrial  combinations  rather  than  to  inflict 
punishment  when  such  practices  occurred.  The 
power  of  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  was 
made,  under  the  provisions  of  the  act,  much 
more  definite  and  real  than  that  of  any  previous 
governmental  body  created  for  the  purpose  of 
regulating  industrial  combinations. 

The  Clayton  Act  contained,  first,  a  series  of 
prohibitions  against  local  price  discriminations, 
holding  companies,  tying  contracts,  and  inter- 
locking directorates;  secondly,  a  statement  of 
the  remedies  to  be  applied;  and  thirdly,  a  de- 
fining of  the  position  which  labor  was  to  oc- 
cupy under  it.  Price  discrimination,  where  the 
effect  might  be  to  lessen  competition  or  to  create 
a  monopoly,  was  declared  unlawful.  This  pro- 
vision was  not  intended  to  interfere  with  bona 
fide  transactions  and  the  selection  of  customers. 
Any  exclusive  selling  or  leasing  contracts  whose 
effect  was  to  limit  competition  was  declared 
unlawful:  "The  acquisition  of  stock  in  one 
corporation  by  another,  or  the  combination  of 
two  or  more  corporations  through  stock  owner- 
ship, where  the  effect  'may  be  specifically  to 
lessen  competition,  ...  to  restrain  .  .  .  com- 
merce, ...  or  to  tend  to  create  monopoly*  is 
prohibited."  Interlocking  directorates  were  pro- 
hibited, provided  the  object  of  forming  such  a 
directorate  was  to  restrain  competition  by  com- 
bination in  a  way  not  permitted  by  the  act.  The 
violation  of  any  of  the  measures  of  the  act  was 
considered  the  definite  responsibility  of  the  in- 
dividual directors,  officers,  or  agents  who  au- 
thorized or  permitted  the  acts  constituting  such 
violation.  It  was  definitely  declared  in  the  act 
that  all  laws  relating  to  combination  were  not 
to  apply  to  combinations  of  labor.  The  courts 
were  forbidden  to  issue  injunctions  in  labor 
disputes  unless  necessary  to  prevent  irreparable 
damage.  Trials  for  contempt  of  court  in  labor 
cases  was  to  be  by  jury,  except  when  the  con- 
tempt was  committed  in  the  presence  of  the 
court. 

Tn  foreign  countries  combinations  are  not  for- 
bidden either  for  domestic  or  foreign  trade 
For  this  reason  industrial  enterprises  in  the 
United  States  are  at  a  distinct  disadvantage 
in  competing  against  foreign  corporations. 
After  the  Clayton  Act  was  passed  in  1014,  many 
writers  called  attention  to  this  handicap  under 
which  American  exporters  labored.  The  result 
was  the  Webb-Pomercne  Act  of  1918,  which  was 
sponsored  by  President  Wilson.  This  law  per- 


mitted the  American  exporters  to  combine  for 
the  purposes  of  foreign  trade  on  the  condition 
that  they  file  annual  reports  with  the  Federal 
Trade  Commission  regaiding  the  character  of 
their  enterprises.  From  one  point  of  view  this 
act  might  be  considered  a  success,  as  a  large 
number  of  combinations  had  already  been  formed 
in  1924.  From  another  point  of  view,  the  Unit- 
ed States  was  in  an  anomalous  position.  The 
Clayton  Act  forbade  combinations  for  domestic 
manufacture  and  sale  but  permitted  combina- 
tions for  selling  abroad 

Under  the  existing  legislation  relating  to 
trusts,  the  Sherman  Act  of  1800  and  the  Clay- 
ton Act  and  Federal  Trade  Commission  Act  of 
1914,  many  important  suits  were  fought  in  the 
courts.  The  work  of  the  Commission  had  not 
been  generally  spectacular,  but  it  had  rendered 
real  service  in  checking  unfair  practices  and  dis- 
couraging combinations  likely  to  affect  public 
welfare  unfavorably.  A  few  cases  are  outstand- 
ing both  in  importance  and  in  public  interest. 
Chief  among  these  was  the  United  States  vs. 
the  United  States  Steel  Corporation  The  gov- 
ernment brought  suit  apainst  this  giant  com- 
bination on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  monopoly 
and  wan  engaged  in  unlawful  restraint  of 
trade.  The  decision  of  the  District  Court,  ren- 
dered in  October,  1011,  was  favorable  to  the  cor- 
poration. The  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court 
was  not  rendered  until  March,  1020;  in  effect  it 
was  that  the  United  States  Steel  Corporation 
had  not  used  aggressive  measures  against  its 
competitors,  and  that  the  corporation  did  not 
possess  full  monopolistic  advantages.  The  ma- 
jority decision  of  the  members  of  the  Supreme 
Court  was  definite  in  its  statement  that  mere 
size  does  not  necessarily  mean  monopolistic 
powers.  While  the  United  States  Steel  Corpora- 
tion was  much  larger  than  any  of  its  competi- 
tors, it  was  not  in  a  position  to  dominate 
prices  of  steel  products,  for  the  value  of  its 
output  was  not  as  great  as  the  total  value  of 
all  its  competitors  combined.  The  great  argu- 
ment was  that  the  object  of  antitrust  legislation 
was  to  condemn  monopoly  and  unfair  methods 
of  competition.  The  corporation  could  not  be 
condemned  on  either  count.  The  majority 
opinion  of  the  judges  was  that  the  public  in- 
terest would  suffer  more  if  the  corporation 
should  be  compelled  to  break  up  into  smaller 
units.  Certain  practices  in  \\hich  the  corpora- 
tion had  indulged  for  the  purpose  of  maintain- 
ing prices  were  condemned.  Certain  pools,  as- 
sociations, and  gentlemen's  agreements  had  been 
formed  with  the  competitiors  of  the  trust,  but 
they  had  not  been  successful  and  had  been  aban- 
doned nine  months  before  suit  was  brought 
The  court  held  that  the  formation  of  such  price 
agreements  was  proof  that  monopolistic  advan- 
tage did  not  exist.  Four  judges  were  in  favor 
of  the  decision  outlined  above,  and  thiee  dissent- 
ed. Two  judges  did  not  vote ;  one  had  previous- 
ly been  associated  with  a  proceeding  against 
the  corporation,  and  the  other  had  publicly  ex- 
pressed the  opinion  that  the  corporation  was  us- 
ing unlawful  methods.  Had  all  the  members  of 
the  Supreme  Court  participated,  the  decision 
would  probably  have  been  different  The  public 
may  expect  a  wide  variation  in  opinion  in  the 
application  of  the  so-called  "rule  of  reason"  to 
different  suits  brought  by  the  government 
against  industrial  combinations. 

Another  important  action  of  the  late  years 
of  the  iecade  against  industrial  combination 


TSAO  RUN 

was  that  of  the  meat  packers  of  Chicago.  In 
1910  suits  were  brought  against  the  Nation- 
al Packing  Company,  an  organization  hold- 
ing certain  independent  properties  which  had 
been  acquired  by  the  Swift,  Morris  and 
Armour  companies.  The  board  of  directors 
of  this  company  was  made  up  of  repre- 
sentatives of  the  three  large  packing  firms.  In 
1912,  while  under  fire,  the  National  Packing 
Company  was  dissolved  by  the  members  them- 
selves, and  its  assets  were  distributed  among 
the  three  companies  involved.  The  extent  to 
\\hich  this  dissolution  actually  restored  com- 
petitive conditions  was  not  generally  known. 
In  December,  1919,  a  decree  was  issued  which 
materially  affected  the  packers,  known  as  the 
"Big  Five"  (the  Armour,  Swift,  MorrU,  Wil- 
son, and  Cudahy  companies).  Under  threat  of 
a  suit  for  dissolution,  the  "Big  Five"  agreed  to 
a  decree  enjoining  certain  practices  which  were 
considered  opposed  to  the  public  interest.  The 
decree  of  the  court  was  entered  on  Feb.  27, 
1920.  It  provided  that  the  "Big  Five"  were 
forbidden  perpetually  to  form  any  contract  or 
combination  in  restraint  of  interstate  commerce. 
The  companies  concerned  were  forbidden  to  own 
stock  in  any  stockyard  market  in  the  United 
States  or  in  any  stockyard  terminal  railroad  in 
the  United  States.  The  defendants  were  en- 
joined from  carrying  on  either  directly  or  in- 
directly the  manufacture,  jobbing,  selling,  or 
distributing  of  a  large  number  of  commodities, 
including  vegetables,  confectionery,  fish,  soft 
drinks,  preserves,  coffee,  tea,  chocolate,  flour, 
and  sugar  The  exception  permitted  was  when 
these  commodities  were  utilized  by  the  defend- 
ants in  carrying  on  their  business  as  packers. 
From  this  part  of  the  decree  it  is  obvious  that 
the  "Big  Five"  were  entering  other  lines  of  en- 
deavor and  had  acquired  considerable  influence 
on  the  prices  of  foodstuffs  in  different  localities. 
The  packers  were  also  enjoined  from  owning  or 
operating  in  the  United  States  any  markets  ex- 
cept those  located  at  their  plants.  They  were 
also  forbidden  to  own  stock  in  public  cold -stor- 
age warehouses  and  to  engage  in  the  business 
of  buying  and  selling  fresh  milk  and  cream. 

From  these  and  other  sections  of  the  decision 
it  is  obvious  that  the  court  objected  to  the  in- 
fluence which  the  "Big  Five"  might  exert  on 
the  prices  of  the  foods  of  the  nation.  The  pack- 
ers were  limited  by  decree  to  the  ownership  and 
operation  of  the  meat  industry.  In  so  far  as 
the  commodities  over  which  they  had  attempted 
to  gain  control  were  meat  substitutes,  it  is  clear 
why  this  decision  of  the  court  was  made.  The 
judgment  of  the  court  in  this  case  is  interest- 
ing because  of  the  peculiar  character  of  the  limi- 
tations placed  on  the  combination.  The  opinion 
of  many  students  of  the  trust  problem  was  that 
the  packing  industry  was  more  democratic  and 
less  monopolistic  than  formerly.  The  packers 
themselves  made  efforts  to  convince  the  public 
that  such  was  the  case.  See  LABOR  LEGISLA- 
TION. 

TSAO  KUN  (1865-  ).  A  president  of 
China,  born  at  Tientsin  of  humble  parentage. 
His  career  began  when  as  a  boy  he  entered  the 
provisional  army,  where  his  ability  was  soon  rec- 
ognized. He  attended  the  Pelyang  Military 
Academy  and  saw  service  in  the  Chino-Japanese 
war  in  1894;  after  graduating  he  was  appointed 
director  of  the  Soldiers'  Training  School  at 
Shiao  Chan.  He  was  at  Mukden  almost  two 
years  and  in  1911  assisted  in  the  revolution 


13x0 


TUFFIEB 


which  overthrew  the  Manchu  dynasty  and  es- 
tablished the  republic.  His  political  power 
grew  rapidly.  In  1917,  when  Li  Yuan-hung  was 
president,  General  Chang  Hsun  effected  his 
coup  d'etat  which  put  the  young  Emperor  on 
the  throne,  but  Tsao  Kun  and  his  army  forced 
him  out.  In  1918  he  fought  against  Dr.  Sun 
Yat-sen's  South  China  army.  Later  he  gained 
control  at  Peking  and  was  elected  president  on 
Oct.  5,  1923.  On  October  10,  he  dismissed  lax 
officials  who  had  permitted  brigandage,  and  on 
Jan.  13,  1924,  he  accepted  the  resignation  of 
the  entire  cabinet.  See  CHINA,  History. 

TSINGTAU.     See  SHANTUNG. 

TUAMOTU  ISLANDS.  See  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
ISLANDS. 

TUBERCULOSIS.  During  the  decade  1914- 
24,  medical  views  about  this  affection  under- 
went numerous  and  notable  modifications.  It 
is  known  that  the  mortality  has  notably  less- 
ened, except  in  some  European  countries  sub- 
jected to  hardship;  and  underfeeding.  The  ex- 
planation of  this  improvement  has  not  been  so 
clearly  ascertained.  Crusades  against  the  dis- 
ease in  the  past  were  based  on  very  imper- 
fect knowledge,  such  as  the  assumption  of  the 
danger  of  man-to-man  contact  in  spreading  the 
disease  and  of  the  deadly  quality  of  the  ex- 
pectoration. In  1924  the  best  opinion  was  that 
nearly  all  individuals  entertain  the  bacillus  in 
their  tissues  when  young  an  I  that  the  harboring 
of  this  germ,  so  far  from  being  a  menace  to  later 
years,  induces  a  process  of  immunization,  in 
the  absence  of  which  a  vast  number  of  indi- 
viduals might  develop  the  disease  in  active  form 
in  adolescence  and  maturity.  It  is  this  im- 
munization which  may  protect  the  individual  in 
later  life  from  contact  with  the  bacillus  as 
spread  by  open  cases  of  tuberculosis.  In  other 
words,  a  strain  of  mankind  without  this  im- 
munity might  develop  the  disease  in  a  true 
pestilential  form  such  as  has  often  appeared 
among  aboriginal  races. 

Wje  are  still  quite  unable  to  understand  why 
well-nourished  and  intelligent  men  and  women 
develop  the  disease  in  the  absence  perhaps  of 
any  obvious  factor  of  causation.  The  only  help 
in  accounting  for  these  cases  may  be  supplied  by 
a  theory  of  Ferran,  the  Spanish  bacteriologist, 
who  believes  that  the  bacillus  goes  through  a 
series  of  mutations,  only  one  of  which  is  danger- 
ous to  the  organism.  Should  this  phase  be 
reached,  apparently  the  ordinary  safeguards  of 
good  health,  abundant  nourishment,  etc.,  are 
insufficient  for  defense.  Trudeau  and  other 
phthi siologist B  state  that  of  a  certain  number 
of  incipient  cases,  some  are  already  beyond 
hope  because  they  simply  will  not  respond  to 
curative  measures.  It  seems  doubtful  whether 
this  large  fraction  can  ever  be  salvaged  without 
the  discovery  of  a  true  specific. 

TUBERCULOSIS,  BOVINE.  See  VETERINARY 
MEDICINE. 

TUBES.     See  RAPID  TRANSIT. 

TUBUAI  ISLANDS.  See  PACIFIC  OCEAN 
ISLANDS. 

TUFFIER,  THEODORE  (1857-  ).  A  dis- 
tinguished French  surgeon,  a  pioneer  in  the 
surgery  of  the  thorax,  including  the  lungs,  ori- 
fices of  the  heart,  arch  of  the  aorta,  etc.  H<» 
was  born  in  Relleme  in  Orne  and  was  educated 
in  medicine  at  the  University  of  Paris.  Some 
of  his  writings  are  of  small  compass,  the  more 
pretentious  comprising  Du  R6le  de  la  Conges- 
tion dans  lea  Maladies  des  Voies  Urinaires 


TUFTS  COLLEGE 


13x1 


TUNNELS 


(1885);  Etudes  EarpMmentales  sur  la  Chirur- 
gie  du  Rein  (1889);  Chirurgie  du  Poumon 
(1897) ;  Petit  Chirurgie,  with  Desfosses,  5th  ed. 
(1019);  Trait 6  M  tdico-Chirurgicale  des  Mala- 
dies de  I'Estomac.  with  Matthieu  and  Sencert 
(1913). 

TUFTS  COLLEGE.  A  coeducational  insti- 
tution at  Medford,  Mass.,  founded  in  1855.  Its 
School  of  Medicine  and  Dentistry  is  at  416 
Huntington  Avenue,  Boston,  Mass.  The  Htudent 
enrollment  of  the  college  was  1223  in  1014,  aa 
compared  with  2087  in  the  year  1923-24.  The 
faculty  also  was  increased,  from  242  in  the 
earlier  year  to  320  in  the  later;  the  library 
from  72,000  to  85,000  volumes,  and  the  produc- 
tive funds  from  approximately  $2,000,000  to  $2,- 
834,588.  In  1923-24  a  chemistry  laboratory  was 
being  built  at  a  cost  of  $275,000.  John  A. 
Coiisens,  LL.D.,  succeeded  H.  C.  Bumpus,  Ph.D., 
as  president  in  1919. 

TULANE  UNIVERSITY  OF  LOUISI- 
ANA. An  institution  for  higher  learning, 
founded  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  in  1834.  The  stu- 
dent enrollment  on  Nov.  1,  1914,  was  2510,  as 
compared  with  a  registration  of  4047  on  Nov. 
1,  1923,  an  increase  of  more  than  GO  per  cent. 
During  that  period  the  faculty  increased  from 
207  to  369  members;  the  number  of  volumes  in 
the  library,  from  68,700  to  03,184;  the  produc- 
tive endowment,  from  $4,207,087  to  $6,340,715; 
and  the  revenue  fro  i  the  productive  endowment 
only,  from  $221,533  to  $357,660.  In  1020  Presi- 
dent Dinwiddie  inaugurated  a  campaign  for  ad- 
ditional endowment.  Pledges  amounting  to  $2,- 
100,000  were  received,  and  of  this  amount  $1,- 
216,000  had  been  collected  at  the  close  of  1023. 
In  1018  Newcomb  College  for  Women  removed 
to  its  new  campus  adjoining  the  other  university 
buildings  and  erected  three  new  buildings.  Al- 
bert B.  Dinwiddie,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  succeeded  Rob- 
eit  Sharp,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  as  president  in  1018. 

TULSA.  A  city  of  Oklahoma.  Situated  in 
the  centre  of  a  vast  and  newly-opened  oil-pro- 
ducing area,  the  city  increased  phenomenally  in 
population,  from  18,182  in  1010  to  72,075  in 
1020,  and  to  102,018  by  estimate  of  the  Bureau 
of  the  Census  for  1023.  Between  1010  and  1024 
Tulsa  County  built  150  miles  of  paved  roads 
radiating  in  every  direction  from  the  city.  A 
water  supply  project  which  was  to  bring  water 
60  miles  by  gravity  from  a  50-foot  dam  in  the 
O/ark  Mountains,  at  a  cost  of  $7,500,000,  was 
under  way  in  1024.  Building  permits  rose  from 
$1,194,639  in  1910  to  $7,781,252  in  1023,  and 
bank  deposits  from  $33,000,000  in  1916  to  $62,- 
050,000  in  1024.  The  International  Petroleum 
Exposition  was  established  in  1023.  In  a  race 
riot  in  June,  1021,  between  25  and  50  persons, 
white  and  colored,  were  killed,  many  were  in- 
jured, and  several  blocks  of  the  city  were 
burned.  Two  years  later,  in  1023,  Governor 
Walton  declared  martial  law  in  Tulsa  County 
and  sent  a  military  court  of  inquiry  to  the  city 
to  investigate  the  whippings  and  mob  violence 
that  had  been  rife  for  several  months. 

TUMULTY,  JOSEPH  PATRICK  (1870-  ) 
Secretary  to  President  Wilson,  born  at  Jersey 
City,  N.  Y.,  educated  at  St.  Peter's  College.  lie 
practiced  law  in  New  Jersey  and  was  elected  to 
the  New  Jersey  Assembly  in  1907.  In  1010  he 
was  appointed  private  secretary  to  Woodrow 
Wilson,  then  governor  of  New  Jersey,  and  clerk 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  New  Jersey  in  1912. 
When  Mr.  Wilson  became  President  of  the  Unit- 
ed  States  in  1913,  Mr.  Tumulty  was  made  his 

43 


private  secretary  and  served  in  that  capacity 
till  1921.  His  close  association  with  President 
Wilson  made  his  book,  Woodrow  Wilson  as  I 
Know  Him  (1921),  of  especial  interest. 

TUNGSTEN  FILAMENT  LAMPS.  See 
ELECTBIC  LIGHTING. 

TUNIS,  or  TUNISIA.  A  French  protecto- 
rate in  North  Africa  with  an  estimated  area  of 
50,000  square  miles.  By  the  1021  census  the 
population  totaled  2,003,046,  of  whom  48,436 
were  Jews,  1,880,388  Arabs  and  Bedouins,  54,- 
476  French,  84,799  Italians,  13,520  Maltese. 
Total  European  population  was  156,122,  a  gain 
of  7646  over  1911.  Populations  of  large  cities 
were:  Tunis,  the  capital,  170,381;  Bizerta, 
20,763;  Ferryville,  4675.  Agriculture  contin- 
ued to  predominate  and  showed  gratifying  ad- 
vances. The  1,491,518  acres  under  wheat  yield- 
ed 289,000  tons  in  1921;  1,227,704  acres  under 
barley,  250,000  tons;  158,441  acres  under  oats, 
60,000  tons;  58,367  acres  of  vineyards  produced 
3,733,266  gallons  of  wine.  The  mean  production 
of  dates  during  1917-21  was  about  38,000  metric 
tons.  Olive  trees  produced  about  45,000  metric 
tons  of  oil  in  1922.  Other  products  were  al- 
monds, oranges,  lemons,  shaddocks,  pistachios, 
alfa  grass,  henna,  and  cork.  Other  important 
products  were  phosphates  (2,357,000  tons  in 
1923)  and  iron  (845,000  tons  in  1921).  Fish- 
ing and  the  sponge  inchistry  also  continued  to  be 
important.  The  great  increase  in  live  stock  over 
the  period  1013-21  is  noteworthy.  Cattle  in 
1913  and  1021,  157,100  and  488,348;  horses, 
29,500  and  74,245;  mules  and  asses,  107,700 
and  174,351;  camels,  123.000  and  132,106;  sheep, 
843,100  and  2,037,551;  goats,  561,700  and  1,- 
113,845.  In  1021,  the  total  area  occupied  by 
French  colonists  was  2,530,000  acres;  by  Ital- 
ians, 427,000  acres;  and  by  other  KuropeanR, 
116,200  acres.  The  presence  of  an  agricultural 
bank  and  central  cooperatives  among  farmers 
greatly  stimulated  the  whole  industry.  The 
advances  made  were  mirrored  in  the  trade  rec- 
ord. Exports  for  1013  and  1922  were  178,663,- 
000  francs  and  444,680,000  francs;  imports  for 
the  same  years  were  144,254,000  francs  and 
856,377,000  francs.  Proportions  by  countries 
of  origin  (imports)  and  destination  (exports) 
of  the  Tunis  trade  for  1922  were:  France,  48 
and  48  per  cent;  Italy,  9  and  22  per  cent;  Uni- 
ted Kingdom,  12  and*5  per  cent;  United  States, 
7  and  2  per  cent.  The  1022  budget  called  for 
expenditures  of  207,164,000  francs;  in  1013, 
this  was  only  85,000,000  francs.  The  charges 
for  the  debt  service  constituted  almost  a  fourth 
of  the  total  expenditures.  The  debt,  Jan.  1, 
1022,  totaled  about  580,000,000  francs.  In  1020 
a  loan  of  255,000,000  francs  was  authorized,  of 
which  the  first  section  of  40,000,000  francs  was 
floated.  The  reigning  bey,  Side  Mohammed,  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  July  10,  1922.  In  1922, 
an  increased  share  in  the  government  was  be- 
stowed on  the  natives.  Five  regional  councils 
at  Tunis,  Bizerta,  Susa,  Kef,  and  Sfax  were 
erected  as  well  as  a  grand  council  for  the  whole 
protectorate.  The  latter,  made  up  of  two  sec- 
tions, one  French  and  the  other  native,  was 
given  the  power  to  examine  the  governmental 
budget. 

TUNNELS.  In  the  United  States  consider- 
able tunnel  construction  was  undertaken  in  the 
period  from  1914  to  1924  in  connection  with 
various  important  power  and  irrigation  projects, 
as  well  as  in  connection  with  railways  and  ur- 
ban rapid  transit  and  acqueducts.  (See  RAPID 


TUNNELS 


13x9 


TUNNELS 


TRANSIT;  AQUEDUCTS).  The  hydraulic  tunnels 
naturally  varied  considerably  in  importance, 
ranging  from  such  pressure  tunnels  as  that  at 
Niagara  Falls  to  those  in  connection  with  pow- 
er and  irrigation  development,  in  the  western 
United  States.  The  Niagara  Falls  rock  tunnel, 
which  was  32  feet  in  diameter  inside  the  con- 
crete lining  and  3fl  feet  inside  the  rock  break 
line,  was  constructed  with  a  length  of  4300 
feet  on  the  American  side  around  the  Falls,  to 
parallel  the  hydraulic  canal  and  to  supply  water 
to  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company.  It  was 
a  siphon  tunnel  dipping  down  from  the  level  of 
the  upper  river  to  a  maximum  depth  of  130 
feet  and  rising  to  practically  upper  river  level 
again  from  the  forehay  of  the  upper  plant, 
which  was  an  extension  *of  Hydraulic  Plant  No. 
3  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company.  The 
tunnel  was  designed  for  a  flow  of  10,000  feet 
per  second,  to  afford  power  for  a  new  plant 
containing  three  70,000  horse-power  reaction 
turbines.  The  new  tunnel  had  a  semicircular 
arch  and  a  trapezoidal  base  section  with 
rounded  corners  and  was  concrete  lined. 

An  important  tunnel  in  the  West  was  that  for 
the  Kern  River  plant  which  was  originally  con- 
structed with  a  section  of  6  feet  6  inches.  This 
measurement  was  enlarged  to  13  feet  6  inches 
by  a  14-foot  section. 

Liberty  Tunnel,  Pittsburgh.  Up  to  the  in- 
ception of  the  Hudson  Eiver  vehicular  tunnel, 
the  largest  highway  tunnel  built  was  the  Liberty 
Tunnel,  through  the  South  Hills  at  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.  This  tunnel  provided  two  separate  road- 
ways each  for  two  lines  of  traffic,  with  space 
for"  street  cars,  and  was  excavated  in  shale; 
each  tube  was  of  horseshoe  form  with  semicir- 
cular  roof  arch  of  13  feet  3*4  inches  radius  and 
with  side  walls  7  feet  2  inches  high  within  the 
crown  of  the  roadway.  The  length  from  por- 
tal to  portal  was  5715  feet,  and  the  tunnel  was 
designed  for  an  estimated  capacity  of  1600 
vehicles  per  hour  in  each  direction  at  tbe  maxi- 
mum, or  two  lines  of  vehicles  both  traveling 
at  15  miles  per  hour,  tbe  vehicles  100  feet 
apart  in  each  line. 

When  construction  of  long  vehicular  tunnels 
to  accommodate  considerable  motor  traffic  was 
first  proposed,  opinion  was  not  unanimous  as 
to  whether  such  traffic  was  essentially  different 
from  ordinary  street  traffic  in  its  difficulties  or 
dangers.  One  group  argued  that  tbe  danger 
of  carbon  monoxide  poisoning  was  very  seri- 
ous in  view  of  tbe  confined  space  of  the  tunnel. 
Here  at  Pittsburgh  tbe  icgion  served  was 
purely  residential,  so  that  in  addition  to  street 
cars  the  traffic  consisted  largely  of  passenger 
motor  vehicles,  and  the  problem  was  to  provide 
for  the  ventilation,  particularly  as  the  motor 
cars  would  emit  carbon  monoxide  pas,  with  the 
possibility  of  disastrous  effects  on  persons  pass- 
ing through,  from  the  high  concentration  of  such 
exhaust  gases.  After  considering  this  question 
very  carefully,  elaborate  ventilating  machinery 
was  installed  at  the  Liberty  Tunnel,  but  the 
tunnels  themselves  were  first  operated  with  re- 
stricted traffic,  with  a  constant  check  of  the 
air  conditions  to  determine  tbe  carbon  -monoxide 
content  Not  only  the  local  authorities  but 
representatives  of  the  Pittsburgh  Station  of  the 
Federal  Bureau  of  Mines  were  actively  inter- 
ested in  this  matter  and  were  constantly  on 
duty  in  the  tunnel  to  watch  the  air  conditions. 

In  the  preliminary  studies  based  on  the  max- 
imum traffic  of  114  automobiles  in  either  tube 


of  the  tunnel  at  any  one  time,  it  was  assumed 
that  the  total  carbon -monoxide  emission,  taken 
at  1.5  cubic  feet  per  vehicle  per  minute,  would 
be  170  cubic  feet  per  minute  for  each  tube  of 
the  tunnel.  It  was  concluded  from  experi- 
mental data  that  the  carbon-monoxide  content 
of  6  parts  in  10,000  at  the  exit,  or  one-half 
that  quantity,  would  be  an  allowable  average; 
so  it  was  planned  to  supply  280,000  cubic  feet 
of  fresh  air  per  minute  to  each  tube.  Tbe  tun- 
nel itself  former!  a  ventilation  duct  drawing  in 
air  at  one  end  through  suitable  lateral  nozzles 
in  tbe  side  walls  located  near  the  entrance  and 
facing  toward  the  other  end  of  the  tunnel.  Tbe 
ventilating  currents,  consequently,  would  move 
\\  ith  the  traffic,  but  there  was  provided  for  each 
tunnel  an  air-pumping  plant  which  would  af- 
ford an  emergency  maximum  pump  age  of  280,- 
000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  per  tube,  or  a 
normal  maximum  of  20,000  cubic  feet  of  air 
per  minute.  Normal  pumpage  discharge  veloc- 
ity at  each  nozzle  would  be  2040  cubic  feet  per 
m'inute  or  about  33  miles  per  hour,  and  with  a 
maximum  pumpage  the  discharge  velocity  would 
be  4210  feet  per  minute  or  about  47  miles  per 
hour. 

While  tbe  system  of  ventilation  desigii  was 
based  on  work  done  by  Saccardo  in  ventilating 
tunnels  in  Italy  and  bad  been  used  on  sonic 
American  railway  tunnels,  nevertheless  a  con- 
siderable amount'of  experimental  work  was  car- 
ried on  and  conditions  were  formulated  for 
safe  operation.  Accordingly  the  Liberty  Tunnel 
in  Pittsbuigh,  with  its  twin  passages,  was  the 
subject  of  considerable  discussion,  and  although 
ventilating  apparatus  was  provided  in  its  de- 
sign, yet  for  six  months  it  was  operated  with- 
out artificial  ventilation,  and  during  this  time 
the  natural  ventilation  seemed  to  dispose  of 
the  gas  satisfactorily  for  moderate  traffic. 
When  there  was  congestion  of  traffic,  owing  to 
a  chance  interruption  or  to  an  unusual  move- 
ment of  vehicles,  the  heavy  production  of  gas 
was  likely  to  develop  a  serious  situation;  ac- 
cordingly it  was  reali?ed  that  artificial  venti- 
lation was  essential  and  that  at  the  same  time 
there  must  be  adequate  policing  and  supervision 
to  control  operation. 

Ordinarily  a  normal  monoxide  content  of  4 
parts  in  10,000  was  considered  permissible,  and 
when  this  amount  was  exceeded,  traffic  was  re- 
duced. It  was  found  that  the  variation  of  the 
carbon  monoxide  depended  not  only  on  the 
amount  of  traffic  but  also  on  the  air  currents 
due  to  the  direction  of  the  wind  and  the  move- 
ment of  the  vehicles.  Up  to  May,  1924,  there 
had  been  no  serious  trouble  in  the  tunnel. 
Then  a  gas  poisoning  accident  in  which  a  pedes- 
trian who  had  gone  into  the  tunnel  to  seek 
refuge  from  the  rain  was  overcome  was  attrib- 
uted largely  to  the  unfavorable  wind.  In  the 
following  week,  on  May  10,  congestion  resulting 
from  abnormal  traffic  due  to  the  street  rail- 
way strike  was  such  that  a  number  of  persons 
were  seriously  affected  by  the  high  concentra- 
tion of  automobile  exhaust  gases.  The  police 
and  fire  departments  and  the  Bureau  of  Mines 
local  corps  were  called  on  to  remove  a  number 
of  persons  overcome  in  the  tunnel.  While  no 
serious  aftereffects  were  reported,  it  was  real- 
ized that  the  safe  operation  of  the  tunnels  could 
lie  secured  only  by  considerable  vigilance. 

Hudson  Elver  Vehicular  Tunnel.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  notable  tunnels  for  rapid  transit 
or  subway  service  around  New  York  City,  which 


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TUNNELS 


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TUNNELS 


for  the  most  part  involved  cut  and  cover  meth- 
ods, active  \\ork  was  started  in  1922  on  a  twin- 
tube  vehicular  tunnel  under  the  Hudson  River 
between  New  York  and  Jersey  City.  This  proj- 
ect involved  twin  tubes  of  cast  iron  with  a 
mean  length  of  6881  feet,  with  subway  and 
open  eut  approaches.  The  distance  between 
grade  points  was  0300  feet.  As  originally 
planned,  the  outside  shell  diameter  of  both  tubes 
was  29  feet,  and  the  estimated  cost  was  $28,- 
000,000;  but  further  consideration  and  special 
investigation  of  ventilation,  based  on  Pittsburgh 
experience  and  other  studies,  demonstrated  the 
necessity  for  larger  ducts  both  of  fresh  and  of 
exhaust  air  than  the  original  diameter  per- 
mitted, so  that  the  diameters  of  the  undcr-river 
tubes  were  therefore  increased  to  29  feet  6  in- 
ches, and  the  diameter  of  the  north  tube  in  New 
Jersey  was  increased  to  30  feet  4  inches,  adding 
$750,000  to  the  original  estimated  cost. 

For  the  construction  of  these  tunnels,  twin 
shafts  were  sunk  on  the  shore,  although  on  the 
New  York  side  one  river  shaft  served  both 
tubes.  From  these  shafts  five  shields  were  in 
operation,  two  working  west  from  New  York  and 
tuo  cast  from  New  Jersey,  and  one  working  west 
from  the  north  tunnel  shore  shaft  in  New  Jer- 
sey After  the  south  tunnel  inland  had  been 
completed,  the  shields  driving  the  river  tubes 
were  to  meet  under  the  river.  As  the  work  of 
developing  and  executing  this  project  went  on, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  increase  its  general 
scope  considerably.  Not  only  were  widened  ap- 
proach roadways  decided  on,  but  more  elaborate 
designs  for  the  approach  section  were  made,  and 
a  tiled  lining  was  contemplated  along  with  con- 
siderable architectural  tieatmcnt. 

The  ventilating  system  provided  for  the  ad- 
mission of  fresh  air  from  a  duct  in  each  tube 
beneath  the  roadway,  which  was  20  feet  in 
width,  while  above  the  roadway  an  exhaust  air 
duct  was  piovided.  With  the  experience  and 
skill  acquired  in  many  tunneling  operations 
about  New  York  City,  no  extraordinary  difficul- 
ties were  encountered,  as  the  under-river  work 
involved  boring  through  silt  or  soft  mud  The 
various  extensions  and  improvements  brought 
the  estimated  cost  up  to  some  $42,000,000,  a 
considerable  increase  over  the  original  estimates. 

Moffat  Tunnel.  One  of  the  most  notable  tun- 
nel projects  put  under  way  between  1914  and 
1924  was  the  0-mile  Moffat  Tunnel  through  the 
Continental  Divide  about  50  miles  west  of  Den- 
ver, Colo.  Work  was  begun  on  it  in  1923.  In 
the  previous  year  the  Legislature  of  Colorado 
authorized  a  commission  which  might  issue 
bonds  for  the  prosecution  of  the  work,  and  on 
Sept  18,  1923,  the  Moffat  Tunnel  Commission 
entered  into  a  contract  to  construct  the  tunnel 
for  $5,250,000,  the  contractors  agreeing  to  do 
the  work  for  a  fixed  fee  of  $140,000.  The  tun- 
nel passes  under  James  Peak  and  was  to  be  a 
part  of  the  line  of  the  Denver  and  Salt  Lake 
Railroad,  replacing  the  grade  over  Summit  Pass. 
According  to  the  plans,  the  Moffat  Tunnel  was 
to  be  32,150  feet  in  length,  or  almost  exactly 
0  miles.  The  east  portal  is  3  miles  be\ond  Tol- 
land,  on  the  Denver  and  Salt  Lake  Railroad,  and 
the  west  portal  1  mile  from  Irving;  these  two 
stations  are  about  50  and  80  miles  respectively 
from  Denver.  A  grade  of  0.3  per  cent  ascends 
from  the  east  portal  at  El.  9198  to  the  summit 
at  mid-length  and  at  El.  9242;  thence  on,  a 
grade  of  0.9  per  cent  descends  to  the  west  por- 
tal at  El.  9085.  Maximum  grades  of  2  per  cent 


are  provided  on  the  approaches,  which  are  short 
and  consist  largely  of  fills. 

Shandaken  Tunnel.  The  Shandaken  Tunnel 
of  the  Catskill  water  supply  for  New  York  City 
(see  AQUEDUCTS)  was  completed  early  in 
1924  and  put  into  service.  This  tunnel,  the 
longest  built  up  to  1923,  extended  through  rock 
a  distance  of  18  13  miles,  exceeding  the  length 
of  the  Simplou  Tunnel  through  the  Alps  by  5.8 
miles.  Work  was  started  on  it  in  the  fall  of 
1917  under  plans  and  specifications  prepared 
by  the  Board  of  Water  Supply  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  The  tunnel  is  concrete-lined  and  has 
a  finished  horseshoe-shaped  section  10  feet  3 
inches  wide  and  11  feet  0  inches  high.  Its  slope 
is  4  feet  5  inches  per  mile,  and  its  carrying 
capacity,  000,000,000  gallons  in  24  hours.  For 
its  construction  seven  shafts  were  sunk  ranging 
in  depth  from  320  to  030  feet  and  spaced  at  in- 
tervals of  2  miles.  From  these  shafts,  however, 
only  12  headings  were  worked  simultaneously. 

Rove  Tunnel.  The  world's  largest  tunnel 
was  put  through  in  1910  as  an  important  ele- 
ment of  the  Marseilles-Rhone  Canal  (see 
CAXALS),  an  artificial  waterway  51  feet  in 
length  which  extends  from  the  Rhone  River  at 
Aries  to  the  Bay  of  Marseilles.  A  typical  sec- 
tion of  this  canal  is  82  feet  wide  and  10  feet 
deep,  and  the  tunnel  was  constructed  so  as  to 
pierce  the  mountain  ridge  noith  of  the  city  of 
Marseilles  and  to  give  direct  access  to  the  har- 
bor. The  tunnel  is  4%  miles  in  length  and  is 
built  with  an  approximately  semicircular  arch 
of  41-foot  radius,  affording  an  excavated  section 
79  feet  wide  and  50  feet  high,  with  the  canal 
proper  forming  a  square  invert  59  feet  wide  and 
15  feet  deep.  Thus  there  is  a  clear  area  of 
3250  square  feet  or  a  section  about  six  times  as 
great  as  an  ordinary  double-track  railway  tun- 
nel. Although  the  length,  41X»  miles,  was  not  as 
great  as  that  of  other  European  and  American 
tunnels,  nevertheless  the  excavation  in  cubic 
yards  amounted  to  2,800,000  as  compared  with 
2,100,000  for  the  Simplon  Tunnel  which  had  a 
length  of  12.3  miles. 

The  method  of  construction  followed  was  to 
excavate  three  arch  headings  which  were  opened 
one  into  the  other  so  that  a  central  section  of 
rock  was  left  to  be  removed.  The  headings 
were  about  100  feet  in  cross  section  and  were 
pushed  forward  at  a  rate  of  15  to  18  feet  a  day. 
In  driving  these  headings,  compressed-air  loco- 
motives were  used,  and  in  the  main  section 
steam  locomotives  with  artificial  ventilation. 
The  tunnel  was  masonry-lined,  backed  on  con- 
crete made  of  a  specially-lined  cement;  and 
work  was  carried  on  from  both  ends,  mostly 
through  hard  rock,  so  that  little  if  any  timber- 
ing was  needed  The  canal  and  tunnel  were 
comprehensively  described  in  Le  Gtnie  Civil 
(May  20,  1910) 

Ot'ira  Tunnel.  Tn  1922  there  was  completed 
for  the  New  Zealand  Government  Railways,  on 
the  line  connecting  the  ports  of  Christchurch  and 
Orcatmouth  on  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the 
South  Island,  a  tunnel  under  Arthur's  Pass, 
known  as  the  Otira  Tunnel,  5*4  miles  in  length. 
At  this  pass  the  summit  elevation  was  3050  feet 
and  that  of  the  tunnel  243.1  feet ;  previous  to  the 
construction  of  the  tunnel,  the  transfer  of  pas- 
sengers and  freight  had  to  be  made  by  stages 
and  wagons.  The  tunnel  was  for  a  single- 
track  line  of  3% -foot  gauge  and  was  built  on  ai 
tunnel  grade  of  3  per  cent.  In  section  it  was 
10  feet  "9  inches  above  subgradc  and  13  feet 


TUNNELS 


1314 


TUJUUSJT 


wide  at  subgrade,  with  Bides  flaring  outward  to 
a  width  of  14  feet  6  inches  at  the  spring  of  the 
semicircular  roof,  and  it  was  excavated  through 
solid  rock;  the  arch  was  lined  with  precast 
blocks  of  concrete. 

Tana  Tunnel,  Japan.  For  the  Tokkadia  line 
of  the  Imperial  Government  Railway  of  Japan 
there  was  begun  in  1918  an  important  double- 
track  tunnel  as  a  part  of  the  30-mile  cut-off  in 
mountainous  country.  This  tunnel,  15  miles  in 
length,  was  of  horseshoe  section  with  a  width 
of  28  feet  and  a  height  of  22%  feet  above  sub- 
grade,  and  accommodated  two  tracks  of  2%  feet 
grade.  Here  also  brick  or  concrete  blocks  were 
used  for  the  arch,  while  brick  or  monolithic 
concrete  was  used  for  the  side  walls. 

Second  Simplon  Tunnel.  The  War  in  Eu- 
rope and  the  restriction  of  European  govern- 
ment activities  naturally  interfered  with  tunnel 
projects  which  might  have  been  possible  under 
normal  conditions.  In  1921,  however,  the  sec- 
ond Simplon  Tunnel  was  completed,  with  a 
total  length,  from  portal  to  portal,  of  19,825 
meters  (12.36  miles).  This  second  tunnel  was 
not  altogether  a  new  construction,  as  it  in- 
volved the  enlargement  of  the  pioneer  or  ven- 
tilation heading  which  was  driven  parallel  to 
the  first  tunnel  when  the  latter  was  constructed. 

English  Channel  Tunnel.  The  War  did  not 
put  an  end  to  discussion  of  the  proposed 
crossing  of  the  English  Channel  by  means  of  a 
submarine  tunnel  under  the  Straits  of  Dover. 
Because  of  the  continued  refusal  of  the  British 
government  to  grant  the  necessary  authority 
nothing  positive  was  accomplished.  The  dis- 
tance was  27  miles,  and  in  view  of  the  great  de- 
velopments in  tunnel  construction,  many  believed 
the  project  was  entirely  feasible.  In  1923  Sir 
Percy  Tempest,  the  chief  engineer  of  the  tunnel 
company  organized  for  this  work,  and  also  gen- 
eral manager  for  the  Southern  Railway,  whose 
lines  would  connect  with  the  tunnel,  issued  a 
statement  in  which  he  said  that  the  material  to 
be  encountered  for  the  entire  distance  excavated 
was  very  favorable;  the  deep  bed  was  of  chalk 
marl  or  chalk  infiltrated  with  clay.  He  be- 
lieved that  with  the  special  boring  machine  de- 
signed for  this  work,  a  heading  12  feet  in  diam- 
eter could  be  driven  at  the  rate  of  120  feet  per 
day,  and  that  two  machines  started  at  the  oppo- 
site ends  should  meet  in  less  than  three  years. 
The  plan  proposed  was  first  to  finish  this  pilot 
tunnel  or  heading  and  then  to  enlarge  it  to  full 
section  so  that  the  concrete-lined  tunnel  would 
be  finished  by  the  estimated  time  of  four  and  a 
half  years.  The  estimated  cost  of  this  undertaking 
was  $145,000,000.  With  the  existing  traffic  the 
annual  revenue  would  pay  more  than  5  per  cent 
of  the  costs.  It  was  obvious,  however,  that  po- 
litical and  military  considerations  other  than 
the  engineering  possibilities  were  the  governing 
reasons  for  the  failure  of  the  British  govern- 
ment to  authorize  the  undertaking.  On  July  7, 
1924,  Premier  Macdonald  announced  in  the 
House  of  Commons  that  the  government  had 
decided  against  the  Channel  Tunnel.  It  was  be- 
lieved that  the  scheme  would  be  quiescent  for  a 
time.  See  RAPID  TRANSIT. 

Bibliography.  Recent  works  in  this  field 
include:  Brunton,  David  W.,  and  Davis,  John 
A.,  Modern  Tunneling,  revised  edition  (New 
York,  1922).  This  edition  includes  new  chapters 
on  railroad  tunneling  by  J.  Vipond  Davies; 
considerable  attention  is  devoted  in  them  to 
American  practice  in  tunnel  construction.  See 


also  Hewett,  B.  H.  M.,  and  Johannesson,  S.f 
Shield  and  Compressed-Air  Tunneling  (New 
York  and  London,  1922),  as  well  as  the  en- 
gineering journals. 

TTTBBIinS,  STEAM.  See  STEAM  ENGINES 
AND  TURBINES. 

TTJBKESTAN,  CHINESE.    See  SIN-KIANG. 

TtJBKESTAN,  RUSSIAN.  Since  the  Russian 
.  Revolution,  an  autonomous  republic  in  Central 
Asia  federated  with  the  Union  of  Socialist  So- 
viet Republics.  It  was  governed  after  Apr.  12, 
1921,  when  Moscow  relinquished  control,  by  its 
own  Central  Executive  Committee  and  Council 
of  People's  Commissaries.  It  comprised  the 
provinces  of  Ferghana,  Samarkand,  Semiryet- 
chensk,  Syr-Darya,  and  Transcaspia  and  has  an 
area  of  571,650  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  7,201,651  (1920.)  The  population  in  1912 
was  6,416,700.  The  leading  cities  with  their 
estimated  populations  are:  Tashkent  200,000; 
Khokand,  110,000;  Namangan,  100,000;  Samar- 
kand, 90,000.  The  people  were  largely  Mussul- 
mans of  Turko-Mongol  origin  belonging  to  the 
Kirghiz,  Uzbeg,  Sart,  and  Turkoman  groups. 
This  racial  diversity  militated  against  all  at- 
tempts on  the  part  of  the  Turks  to  win  over 
the  population  to  Pan-Turanian  ism.  There  were 

r radio  movements  of  this  kind  both  during 
War  and  after,  notably  in  1922,  when  Enver 
Pasha  appeared  in  the  country  for  a  short 
time,  only,  however,  to  be  driven  back  into  the 
hills  of  Bokhara.  For  the  same  reason  what 
little  government  authority  existed  was  taken 
over  by  the  Russian  Communists,  who  repre- 
sented an  infinitesimal  part  of  the  population. 
All  the  Russians  in  the  region  did  not  comprise 
more  than  6  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants.  Cotton 
culture  continued  to  thrive  to  such  an  extent 
that  wheat  growing  was  largely  abandoned.  Be- 
fore the  Revolution  there  was  an  increased  ac 
tivity  manifested  in  the  cultivation  of  the  vine 
and  in  orcharding,  while  factories  were  being 
erected  for  the  exploitation  of  cotton  products. 
The  events  of  1917  broke  communication  with 
European  Russia  and  put  an  end  to  the  sources 
of  oil  from  Baku  upon  which  the  factories  de- 
pended for  fuel,  with  the  result  that  the  new 
industrial  life  immediately  languished.  Starva- 
tion and  disease  left  their  marks  on  the  popu- 
lation, the  ravages  of  malaria  in  1923  being 
particularly  heavy.  See  RUSSIA. 

TURKEY.  A  country  on  the  Mediterranean, 
in  1924  almost  completely  confined  to  Asia 
Minor.  In  1914,  Turkey  possessed  a  total  area, 
excluding  Arabia,  of  about  700,000  square  miles. 
Its  population  at  that  time  was  about  21.274,000. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Lausanne  of  July  24,  1923,  the 
Turkish  boundaries  were  delimited  so  as  to  in- 
clude only  about  half  of  its  area  of  1914,  and 
less  than  half  of  its  former  population.  Turkey's 
territory  was  thus  made  up  of  Anatolia,  the 
Constantinople  district,  Thrace  east  of  the  Marit- 
za  River  (in  Europe),  Kars,  Ardahan,  and  some 
few  islands,  especially  Imbros  and  Tenebos. 
The  population,  too,  was  seriously  reduced.  The 
Greeks  and  Armenians  were  expelled,  the  loss  of 
men  on  the  battlefields  ran  into  hundreds  of 
thousands,  and  disease  probably  had  an  even 
heavier  toll  among  men  of  military  age.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  population  of  Anatolia  was 
reduced  by  about  three  million.  The  great  ma- 
jority of  the  inhabitants  in  1924  were  Turks; 
there  were  some  Kurds,  Laz,  Yuruks,  Turco- 
mans, Jews,  and  Gypsies.  The  established  state 
religion  was  Mohammedanism,  and  until  March, 


TTJBKEY 


1315 


TURKEY 


1924,  the  caliph  was  the  supreme  head.  How- 
ever, late  in  the  evening  of  Mar.  3,  1024,  the 
Mayor  and  Chief  of  Police  called  on  Caliph  Abdul 
Medjid  and  his  BOH  and  notified  them  that  they 
and  their  families  were  to  be  expelled  across  the 


metric  tons  as  against  33,000;  figs,  20,000  metric 
tons  as  against  40,000;  raisins,  30,000  metric 
tons,  as  against  40,000;  mohair,  30,000  bales  as 
against  100,000;  cotton,  00,000  bales  as  against 
120,000;  silk,  100  metric  tons  as  against  8000. 


frontier  at  dawn.     There  were  still  a  few  follow-      While  there  was  no  dairy  industry  or  any  stock 
ers  of  the  Russian  church  as  well  as  Jews  and  a      breeding,  Turkey's  sheep  and  goats  were  a  source 


few  Protestants.  Owing  to  the  disturbed  condi 
tions  throughout  Turkey,  a  number  of  business 
men  left.  Sonic  Germans  were  reported  to  have 


of  considerable  revenue  for  their  fleeces  (wool 
and  mohair),  skins  arid  casings.  Although  the 
War  drew  heavily  on  stocks  of  horses,  mules. 


reached  Turkey  during  the  latter  part  of  1922      water    buffaloes,    camels,    donkeys,    sheep,    and 


and  the  first  part  of  1923;  most  of  these  sought 
either  employment  or  concessions.  Recent  sta- 
tistics gave  the  following  principal  cities  with 
their  inhabitants*  Constantinople,  about  000,- 
000,  Smyrna,  00,000;  Konia,  71,000;  Brousa, 
05,000;  Adana,  64,000;  Adrianople,  56,000; 
Kaisariya  (Oaesarea)  50,000;  Aintab,  48,000; 
Ourfa,  43,000;  Angora,  35,000;  Sivas,  31,000; 
Maidine,  31,000;  Magnesia,  28,000;  and  Trebi- 
zond,  27,000.  Other  important  cities  of  more 
than  20,000  are  Kiliss,  Diar-Bekir,  Maraash, 
Kski-Shehir,  Tarsus,  Erzerum,  Samsoun,  and 
Adalia 


goats,  it  was  estimated  that  from  40  to  60  per 
cent  of  the  flocks  and  herds  still  existed.  How- 
ever, in  1013  the  number  of  sheep  and  goats  is 
stated  to  have  been  35,185,000,  and  cattle  and 
buffaloes  6,132,000.  The  census  of  1023  indi- 
cated only  14,200,000  sheep  and  goats,  and  3,- 
800,000  cattle.  These  figures  cover  approxi- 
mately the  same  area  In  the  Konieh  plain, 
where  about  150,000  acres  >\cre  brought  under 
cultivation  in  1015  through  a  German  irriga- 
tion scheme,  the  yield  of  wheat  and  oats  multi- 
plied from  three  to  fifteenfold.  It  is  possible 
also  to  reclaim  by  irrigation,  drainage,  or  dry 


Agriculture.     As  Turkey  was  primarily  an      farming  vast  areas  lying  fallow  in   1024.     The 


agricultural  and  pastoral  commonwealth,  land 
\\as  the  cardinal  factor  of  its  economics.  How 
to  revise  land  tenure,  inheritance,  and  mortgage 
laws  so  RH  to  insure  clear  titles  and  develop 
pnvate  initiative  was  a  paramount  problem. 
Iveal  pioperty  in  Turkey  fell  within  the  follow- 
ing categories.  Mulk,  Vakuf,  Mirie,  Metruke, 
and  Mewat.  The  last  two  did  not  enter  into  the 
<jiu'stion,  as  they  comprised  lands  devoted  to 
public  loads,  prayer  grounds,  or  pastures  and 
uncultivated  waste  lands.  Mirie  lands  were 
State-owned  but  capable  of  u&e  and  disposal  by 
prhate  individuals  within  multifarious  restric- 
tions Vakuf  lands,  the  usufruct  of  which  re 


conditions  of  tenants  during  the  period  were  de- 
plorable, but  with  an  increase  in  production  it 
was  expected  that  this  condition  would  be  much 
improNcd.  The  woods  from  Turkey's  forests 
equal  any  in  the  world  for  hardness,  strength, 
and  durability.  As  the  principal  forests  (about 
88  per  cent)  were  the  property  of  the  govern- 
ment, they  constituted  a  national  asset  of  capital 
importance,  covering  an  estimated  area  of  about 
20,000,000  acres.  Although  these  forests  pre- 
vailed over  the  entire  Black  Sea  slope  of  Asia 
Minor,  heaviest  in  Kastamuni,  there  were  also 
extensive  timber  lands  about  Sivas,  Brousa,  and 
Adalia,  and  in  the  Taurus  Mountains.  About 


\erted  to   pious   foundations,  such  as  mosques,  745,000  trees  were  cut  annually  from  the  forests 

schools,  libraries,  and  fountains,  were  adminis-  in  Kastumuni.     The  principal   forests  consisted 

tured  by  the  government;   they  were  in   reality  of  pine  and  oak.     The  best  woods  were  oak,  pine, 

only  leaseholds,  but  might  be  held  and  operated  birch,  chestnut,  and  walnut.     Water  power  was 

by  natives  and  foreigners  alike.     The  only  free-  plentiful  in  Turkey,  but  almost  entirely  unused. 


holds  in  Turkey  were  mulk  lands,  and  these  were 
not  extensive  aside  from  the  "tchifliks"  or  feudal 
estates  (originally  miric  lands).  An  important 
portion  of  the  real  estate  of  the  country,  espe- 
cially in  or  near  cities  and  towns,  except  for  the 
<liurt  income  from  it,  was  practically  useless 
as  a  basis  of  credit,  since  it  could  not  in  effect 
be  mortgaged.  The  cultivated  area  was  esti- 
mated at  about  11  per  cent  of  the  total.  It  was 
estimated  that  the  number  of  peasant  farms 
amounted  to  about  000,000,  and  the  individual 
farms  averaged  between  2Vfe  to  12%  acres,  but  as 
the  landlord  and  tenant  system  was  commonly 


Mining*.  While  no  comprehensive  geological 
survey  was  undertaken  in  Turkey,  it  was  gen- 
erally believed  that  the  country  possessed  vast 
mineral  \\ealth  Some  of  it,  such  as  coal, 
chrome,  emery,  lead,  copper,  boracite,  meer- 
schaum, salt,  marble,  mercury,  antimony,  and 
gypsum,  was  already  being  extracted,  with  a 
promise  of  material  development.  Coal  was 
mined  after  1000  in  the  western  section  of  Kas- 
t  a  muni  near  Herat-lea  and  Zunguldak.  The  coal 
production  in  this  region  from  1004  to  1007  aver- 
aged about  633,000  long  tons  a  year ;  from  1008 
to  1012  about  830,000;  from  1013  to  1018  only 


practiced  in    Kurdistan,   Anatolia,  and   Thrace,      about    360,000 — probably    owing   to   the   Wai 

At .1 ; .. l^...__l_.    ^.^^^-.l n 4- 1 .**>        IVT^wA  <>«J     i»»      1  nofl     n1ts\ii4-      ^rtn  nnO     i/tna         Tn     1  O9.9 


these  conclusions  were  largely  speculative.  More 
than  one-third  of  the  cultivated  area  was  de- 
voted to  wheat;  other  cereals,  particularly  bar- 
ley, corn,  rye,  oats,  millet,  rice,  raised  the  total 
cereal  area  to  about  four-fifths  of  the  total  land 
under  cultivation.  Besides  cereals  and  a  large 
variety  of  vegetables,  Turkey  produced  cotton, 
tobacco,  several  kinds  of  valuable  seeds  (includ- 
ing linseed,  sesame,  poppy,  and  canary  seed), 
oli/e  oil,  opium,  nuts,  fruits  (especially  figs  and 
raisins),  silk,  wine,  gum  tragacanth,  rose  oil, 
licorice  root,  and  valonea.  Crops  during  1023 
were  far  below  normal  Exact  statistics  were 
unavailable.  Cereal  production  was  far  below 


and  in  1020  about  500,000  tons.  In  1022,  the 
production  was  alnnit  450,000  tons,  and  in  1923 
about  600,000  tons.  The  normal  annual  output 
in  metric  tons  of  the  Turkish  mines  in  operation 
in  1024  was  as  follows:  Antimony  ore,  1500 
metric  tons;  asphalt,  7000;  boracite,  16,000; 
chrome  ore,  15,000;  copper,  1500;  emery  ore, 
15,000;  iron  pyrite,  20,000;  lead,  13,000;  lignite, 
30,000;  manganese  ore,  12,000;  meerschaum,  250; 
zinc  ore,  2000,  gold,  45  kilos;  silver,  250;  and 
mercury,  4500  flasks. 

Manufacturing.  Industries  in  Turkey  were 
mostly  quite  primitive.  In  1024  it  was  evident 
that  factories  were  being  started  on  a  small 


Hie  prewar  level.    The  production  of  opium  in      scale,  but  the  supply  of  labor  seemed  likely  to 

_  _  _    '  ..  .      .         ,        *   .  .  ._^.«.-.*  _ »          j  i          i_       i .  ar» i  j_       •_ £ xi.  _      _      _  « 


1023  was  estimated  at  only  about  3000  cases  as 
against  a  normal  crop  of  5000;  tobacco,  23,000 


make  the  work  difficult,  in  so  far  as  the  real 
laborers  of  Turkey,   viz.,  the   Greeks   and   Ar- 


TURKEY 


meniang,  had  been  expelled.  TLe  chief  industry 
was  the  cotton  manufacturing  industry,  which 
had  a  total  of  about  50,000  spindles.  The  Bulle- 
tin de  la  Chamlre  de  Commerce  et  &  Industrie 
de  Constantinople  gave  the  total  number  of  es- 
tablishments, with  the  exception  of  Constanti- 
nople, Smyrna,  Brousa,  Dalikesser  and  Eski- 
Shehir,  as  33,058,  during  1921,  with  the  total 
number  of  workmen  as  75,216.  Of  this  number 
of  establishments,  the  textile  comprised  20,057. 
The  other  establishments  were  leather,  metal, 
wood,  foodstuffs,  pottery,  and  chemicals.  The  ex- 
pulsion of  the  Greeks  and  Armenians  practically 
denuded  the  carpet  and  rug  industry  of  Turkey 
and  transferred  this  industry  to  Greece.  At 
Smyrna  and  Adana  private  enterprises  began 
to  manufacture  cotton  cloth  and  cotton  oil; 
at  Constantinople,  yarn,  paper,  and  cement;  at 
Smyrna,  machinery,  soap,  shocks,  and  tannin; 
at  Brousa,  towels,  garments,  and  leather;  at 
Kutaia,  glazed  tiles  and  pottery;  at  Constanti- 
nople, Smyrna,  and  Mersma,  ice.  Statistics  of 
these  industries  were  unavailable.  Apart  from 
porters  and  boatmen  in  the  seaports  there  was 
no  professional  labor  class  in  Turkey  Skilled 
artisans  worked  mostly  on  their  own  account. 
In  silk  spinnerics  and  cotton  mills,  women  and 
children  were  employed.  Generally  speaking, 
labor  was  casual. 

Cost  of  Living.  Unlike  most  of  the  coun- 
tries of  the  Near  East,  the  cost  of  living  in  the 
interior  of  Turkey  did  not  increase  materially. 
An  increase  was  felt  only  in  the  larger  cities 
and  on  the  coast.  The  index  of  the  cost  of  living 
at  Constantinople  (1914  as  100)  stood  at  1058 
in  June,  1922;  1197  in  June,  1923,  and  1194  in 
August,  923.  The  legal  tender  of  Turkey  is  the 
gold  pound,  the  par  value  of  which  is  $4.40. 
The  Turkish  paper  pound  averaged  only  about 
$1.50  in  1919;  70  cents  in  1920;  65  cents  in 
1921;  62  cents  in  1922;  61  cents  in  1923;  and 
52  cents  in  February,  1924. 

Commerce.  Owing  to  the  fact  /that  during 
the  period  1914-24  the  territory  of  Turkey  un- 
derwent marked  changes,  comparative  figures  of 
foreign  trade  would  be  practically  meaningless. 
Constantinople  might  be  called  the  receiving 
port  of  Turkey,  and  Smyrna  its  shipping  port. 
However,  a  number  of  exports  were  shipped  from 
Constantinople.  No  figures  were  available  for 
the  trade  of  the  interior  of  Turkey,  i.e.  Anatolia, 
Huch  statistics  having  never  been  made  up,  inas- 
much as  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities 
hindered  the  movement  of  this  trade.  In  fact, 
the  grain -producing  regions  were  regularly  un- 
able to  dispose  of  their  products  to  the  non- 
producing  regions,  except  by  caravan,  which  was 
a  very  slow  process.  Official  trade  statistics, 
as  given,  ended  with  the  year  1914,  since  which 
time  the  only  figures  available  are  for  the  trade 
of  Constantinople.  Of  course,  a  considerable 
amount  of  this  trade  would  be  reexports  from 
the  interior.  The  total  trade,  according  to  Turk- 
ish official  statistics  for  the  financial  year  1914 
(Mar.  14,  1913,  to  Mar.  13,  1914)  was  £T62,- 
245,803  ($273,881,533;  converted  at  par,  1 
Turkish  pound  =  $4.40).  Imports  for  the  year 
totaled  £T40,809,682  ($179,562,601);  exports, 
£T21,436,121  ($94,318,932).  The  following 
statement  shows  the  trade  of  Constantinople  for 
the  financial  years  indicated: 

Imports  Exports 

1918-19 $139,143,564  $57,641,808 

1919-20   118,577,887  38/138,117 

39i:0~21    78,864,202  19,740,878 


1316 


TUJUUSz 


Complete  figures  for  the  trade  of  1922  were  un- 
available. The  total  imports  into  Constanti- 
nople amounted  to  £T67,884,181  ($42,088,192). 
The  total  value  of  the  trade  of  Constantinople 
for  the  first  half  of  1923  was  as  follows:  im- 
ports, £T38,474,991  ($24,623,994);  exports, 
£T12,941,998  ($8,282,847).  Conversions  were 
made  at  the  average  exchange  rate  of  the  Turk- 
ish pound  for  the  first  half  of  1923,  $0.64.  The 
principal  articles  of  import  during  1921  were 
cotton,  cotton  goods,  cereals,  wool  and  woolens, 
petroleum  products,  Colonial  products,  and  met- 
als and  metal  raanufactuies.  The  principal  ai- 
ticles  of  export  from  Turkey  were  opium,  dried 
fruit,  hides  and  skins,  nool  and  mohair,  oil 
seeds,  carpets,  and  tobacco.  The  principal  coun- 
tries selling  to  Turkey  during  1921  were  the 
United  Kingdom,  the  United  States,  Italy,  and 
France.  The  chief  purchaseis  from  Turkey  were 
Rumania,  Greece,  the  Netherlands,  the  United 
Kingdom,  ami  France.  The  Tuikiah  trade  bal- 
ance from  1914  on  was  unfavorable. 

Communications.  New  Turkey  bad  in  opera- 
tion 24.15  miles  of  normal -gauge  and  329  miles 
of  narrow-gauge  railways.  The  Angora-Sivas 
line  was  being  constructed  in  1924,  and  various 
other  projects  were  under  consideration  for  the 
further  construction  of  railway  lim»a  and  branch 
lines.  The  Minister  of  Public  Works  set  the 
total  mileage  of  highways  at  15,104,  but  added 
that  only  1829  miles  were  in  good  condition. 
There  weie  no  navigable  rivers  in  Turkey,  but 
the  long  coast  line  compensated  to  some  extent 
for  the  lack  of  highways  and  waterways.  The 
number  of  post  oflices  in  Turkey  was  estimated 
at  1814.  The  length  of  telegraph  lines  in  Tui- 
key  was  about  28,800  nulen,  and  the  length  of 
wire  about  49,200  miles.  There  were  about  1017 
telegraph  offices.  Turkey's  shipping  after  the 
War  was  in  poor  condition.  It  was  estimated 
that  Turkey  had  not  more  than  110,000  tons  of 
shipping  at  the  beginning  of  the  War.  The 
Turkish  Chamber  of  Commerce  estimated  the 
strength  of  the  Turkish  merchant  marine  of 
Nov.  1,  1923,  at  about  83,000  tons.  Six  of  these 
vessels  exceeded  3000  tons,  and  all  were  under 
the  Turkish  Shipping  Uoaid  which  also  con- 
trolled 35  vessels  aggregating  a  tonnage  of  37,000. 
Most  of  the  Turkish  shipping  was  limited  in 
equipment.  Turkey  under  the  National  Assembly 
limited  its  coastal  shipping  exclusively  to  ves- 
sels under  Turkish  registry,  with  the  result  that 
a  new  impetus  was  given  to  the  development 
of  a  national  merchant  marine. 

Finance.  Tuikey's  external  debt  on  Mar.  1, 
1923,  was  160,404,940  Turkish  gold  pounds.  On 
Dec.  31,  1921,  the  total  amount  of  treasury 
notes  in  circulation  was  £T1 53,859,936,  and  treas- 
ury bonds  £T5, 147,010.  On  this  date  piewar 
metal  money  stood  at  £T38, 000,000  and  other 
metal  money  £T20,000,000,  coined  by  the  Turk- 
ish mint  during  the  War.  Turkey's  external 
debt  increased  over  1014-24,  not  because  of  any 
further  loans,  but  because  interest  payments  on 
existing  debts  were  defaulted.  The  budgeted  rev- 
enue for  1921-22  was  £T22,889,661 ;  expenditure 
£T21,890,867.  No  later  official  figures  were 
available.  The  budget  for  the  1923-24  and  for 
1924-25  showed,  as  far  as  known,  heavy  deficits. 

Education.  In  Turkey,  elementary  education 
was  nominally  obligatory  for  all  children  of 
both  sexes.  The  provisional  law  of  Oct.  6,  1913, 
stated  that  all  children  from  7  to  16  were  to  re- 
ceive primary  instruction.  The  state  schools 
were  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Minister  of 


TTJBKEY 


1317 


TUBKEY 


Public  Instruction.  Besides  state  schools  there 
were  various  madressls,  or  theological  semina- 
ries. The  schools  numbered  about  36,230  and 
contained  about  1,331,000  pupils.  There  were  a 
number  of  foreign  schools,  mostly  conducted  by 
French,  English,  and  American  missionaries. 
The  newly  expressed  chauvinistic  attitude  of  the 
Turks  tended  to  decrease  materially  the  number 
of  foreign  schools. 

Defense.  It  is  stated  that  up  to  the  time  of 
the  Armistice  nearly  2,700,000  men  had  been  re- 
cruited for  military  service  in  Turkey.  During 
the  War  the  maximum  combatant  *t  length  \vat* 
approximately  650,000.  The  strength  of  the 
Kcrnalist  army,  which  drove  the  Greeks  out  of 
Turkey  in  August,  1022,  was  estimated  to  have 
been  100,000  men,  oT  which  20,000  were  in  East- 
ern Tin  ace.  The  naval  forces  of  the  Angora 
government  were  insignificant. 

History.  The  consistently  friendly  policy 
which  the  German  Emperor  had  pursued  toward 
Turkey  with  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury bore  fruit  before  the  War  was  many  months 
old.  Kussia's  known  designs  on  the  Straits, 
England's  retention  of  Cyprus  and  the  spread  of 
the  English  influence  in*  Egypt,  the  Pan-Slavic 
movement  which  implied  the  irretrievable  loss 
of  Turkish  territory  in  Europe — all  militated 
against  the  maintenance  of  a  friendly  attitude 
Inward  the  Allies.  Late  in  October  Turkey's 
hand  was  forced  when  a  German-Tin  kish  squad- 
ron, headed  by  the  Cieiuian  Admiial  von 
Souchon,  bombarded  Russian  Black  Sea  ports. 
On  October  31,  Kussia  retaliated  by  declaring 
war  Ihe  other  Allies  followed  suit.  The  char- 
acter of  the  struggle  was  immediately  and  pro- 
foundly changed.  From  being  a  war  iocali/ed  in 
Europe,  its  incidence  spread  over  the  Near  East 
and  touched  India.  The  gieat  Moslem  popula- 
tions under  the  British  rule  whose  allegiance  to 
the  Caliph  always  presented  the  danger  of  a 
Holy  War,  became  an  ever-present  reminder  of 
the  volcano  upon  which  the  British  Empire  was 
perched,  with  the  result  that  attention  had  to 
be  diverted  increasingly  to  thin  area.  So  far  the 
German  diplomacy  succeeded.  English  troops 
before  long  were  engaged  in  Mesopotamia  an4 
in  defense  of  the  Suez  Canal.  Here  was  the 
origin  of  the  ill-fated  expedition  to  force  the 
Dardanelles  and  of  the  prolonged  struggle  in 
the  Saloniki  region.  War,  by  Turkey,  was  car- 
ried on  with  the  usual  ferocity.  (At  any  rate, 
BO  it  was  generally  believed  "during  the  War. 
After  the  War,  numerous  American  and  Euro- 
pean students  of  Levantine  affairs  concluded 
that  the  "Turkish  atrocities"  and  "massacres" 
had  been  much  exaggerated,  and  were  not  by 
any  means  one-sided.)  According  to  war-time 
reports,  a  policy  of  extirpation  against  Greeks 
and  Armenians  was  carried  out  relentlessly, 
with  the  result  that  whole  villages  were  wiped 
out,  men  butchered  or  driven  into  the  south, 
and  women  and  children  carried  off.  The  Ar- 
menians caught  the  greater  part  of  the  Turkish 
fury.  Out  of  a  population  of  2,000,000,  by  1910 
it  was  estimated  lhat  1,000,000  had  been  de- 
ported and  500,000  slain.  (See  ARMENIA.) 
Their  nearness  to  the  Russian  frontier  saved 
200,000  others  who  sought  refuge  in  flight.  But 
only  one  insurgent  spirit  was  stilled  in  this  fash- 
ion. A  more  potent  one  was  that  of  the  Arabs, 
headed  by  the  Grand  Sherif  of  Mecca,  who  struck 
at  the  security  of  the  whole  Ottoman  Empire  by 
refusing  to  take  up  the  Caliph's  Holy  War,  and 
finally,  in  1016,  by  declaring  independence. 


(See  ARABIA.)  Turkish  arms,  except  on  one 
front,  were  from  thence  on  everywhere  unsuc- 
cessful. After  an  initial  setback  the  British 
succeeded  in  overrunning  Mesopotamia;  in  1917, 
Palestine  was  lost  to  the  Turks;  and  in  1918, 
Syria.  In  Transcaucasia,  Turkey  emerged 
tiiumphant  after  the  collapse  of  Russia,  and 
by  the  Brest-Litovsk  Treaty  received  back  the 
former  Turkish  provinces  of  Kara  and  Ardahan. 
Beset  by  enemies  on  all  sides  and  confronted 
by  pressing  internal  problems  of  which  famine 
and  brigandage  were  only  the  more  evident,  on 
Oct.  12,  1918,  the  Turkish  government  appealed 
to  the  United  States  by  way  of  the  Spanish 
ambassador  at  Washington  for  an  immediate 
cessation  of  hostilities.  On  October  30  Turkey 
surrendered  to  the  British  Vice  Admiral  Cal- 
thorpe  and  on  the  next  day  accepted  the  terms 
of  the  armistice  of  Mudros  Its  conditions  were 
drastic:  the  Dardanelles,  Bosporus,  and  Black 
Sea  were  to  be  opened  to  the  Allies;  the  army 
was  to  be  demobilized,  and  all  Turkish  war  and 
merchant  ships  surrendered;  troops  were  to  be 
withdrawn  from  Transcaucasia  With  its  ac- 
ceptance collapsed,  too,  the  Young  Turk  move- 
ment, and  Enver,  Taalat,  and  Djemal  with  the 
other  members  of  their  party  fled  the  country. 

The  subsequent  history  of  Turkey  was  star- 
tling. Unlike  her  allies,  she  refused  to  accept 
the  status  of  a  conquered  nation,  and  in  the 
period  1919-24  so  assiduously  played  the  dip- 
lomatic game  that  as  a  result  of  the  Greek  de- 
feat and  the  mutual  jealousies  of  the  French 
and  the  British,  Turkey  emerged  to  a  large  ex- 
tent triumphant.  In  1919,  her  rulers  \\ere  pre- 
pared to  accept  the  loss  of  Mesopotamia,  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Arabia  as  well  as  the  restoration 
of  the  Capitulations  (which  Turkey  had  ter- 
minated on  her  entrance  into  the  War),  and  an 
international  control  of  the  Straits.  But  the 
unwise  decision  of  the  Supreme  Council  early  in 
1919,  at  the  prompting  no  doubt  of  Veni?elos,  to 
deprive  Turkey  of  Thrace  as  well  as  Smyrna, 
aroused  a  storm  that  could  not  be  stilled.  Tur- 
key was  soon  to  be  swept  by  the  same  national- 
istic aspirations  that  held  all  the  unrecognized 
races  of  Europe.  The  arrival  of  Greek  troops 
in  Smyrna  in  May,  1919,  was  the  cause  for 
Mustapha  Remains  journey  into  Asia  Minor  on 
an  errand  whose  purpose*  was  destined  to  be 
completely  and  victoriously  reali/ed  four  years 
later.  Mustapha  Kemal  Pasha,  a  brilliant 
young  army  officer  who  had  rendered  distin- 
guished service  at  Gallipoli  and  elsewhere,  put 
himself  at  the  head  of  a  Nationalist  movement, 
aiming  to  save  Turkey  from  dismemberment  and 
exploitation,  to  rouse  Turkish  patriotism  on  a 
purely  national,  rather  than  a  religious  basis, 
and  to  liberalize  the  Turkish  government.  So 
successful  was  his  ardent  appeal  that  within  a 
year  he  had  established  at  Angora  a  National 
Assembly  obeyed  tluoughout  Anatolia.  The  Sul- 
tan was  discredited;  the  Caliphate  maintained 
its  position  only  on  sufferance.  The  signing  of 
the  Treaty  of  Sevres  on  Aug.  10,  1920,  b.y  Turk- 
ish representatives  who  were  not  recognized  by 
the  Nationalists  merely  added  strength  to  ail 
those  hostile  forces  that  were  preparing  for  a 
struggle  The  document  reflected  the  selfish  in- 
terests and  warring  rivalries  of  the  powers  in 
the  Near  East.  By  it,  Turkey  was  to  become  a 
shadow  of  its  former  self.  Thrace,  the  islands 
of  Tenedos  and  Imbros,  the  Dodecanese,  Smyrna 
(for  five  years  preceding  a  ^plebiscite ) ,  Cyprus, 
Egypt,  Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Palestine, 


X3i8 


TURKEY 


the  Hedjaz,  were  lopped  off.  Constantinople  was 
to  remain  Turkish,  but  the  Dardanelles,  the  Sea 
of  Marmora,  and  the  Bosporus  were  to  form  a 
"Zone  of  the  Straits"  under  international  control. 
An  independent  Armenia  was  established  and  the 
drawing  of  its  frontiers  entrusted  to  Piesident 
Wilson.  President  Wilson  finally  delimited  a 
state  of  30,000  square  miles  with  an  outlet,  Tre- 
bizond,  on  the  Black  Sea,  but  the  Turkish  Na- 
tionalists refused  to  accept  the  treaty,  as,  ironi- 
cally enough,  did  the  governments  o'f  all  of  the 
signatories.  Meanwhile,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Supreme  Council,  Greek  forces  had  occupied 
Eastern  Thrace  and  spread  over  Smyrna.  Hos- 
tilities, which  were  to  end  so  disastrously  for 
the  Greek  ambitions,  did  not  begin  for  another 
year.  During  the  interim,  the  Nationalists 
availed  themselves  of  every  pause  for  the  con- 
solidation of  their  position.  Attempts  at  con- 
ciliation by  the  Constantinople  government  were 
spurned.  It  was  toward  Soviet  Russia  that 
Kemal  turned  for  aid.  In  an  understanding 
effected  late  in  1920,  Nationalist  Turkey  was 
promised  financial  and  material  aid  as  well  as 
supplies  of  men ;  to  facilitate  a  readier  communi- 
cation with  Transcaucasia,  a  Turkish  army 
marched  into  the  Armenian  Republic  of  Erivan 
in  September,  1920,  and  by  November  had  not 
only  humbled  it  but  celebrated  its  victories  by 
bloodshed.  The  massacres  recalled  the  days  of 
1915-16.  The  result  was  the  establishment  of  a 
Soviet  state  of  Armenia,  the  cession  once  again 
of  the  provinces  of  Kara  and  Ardahau  to  Turkey, 
and  the  establishment  of  communications  be- 
tween Erzerum  and  Azerbaijan. 

Greece  was  the  pivotal  point  of  the  Near  East 
and  the  destiny  of  Turkey  waited  on  the  revela- 
tion of  the  Greek  purpose.  The  startling  re- 
versal that  Venizelos  met  in  the  Greek  elections 
of  1920;  the  triumphant  return  of  King  Con- 
stantine  as  a  result  of  the  plebiscite  of  Dec.  5, 
1920;  the  withdrawal  of  Allied  aid  to  Greece, 
the  flight  of  Venizelos,  all  these  gave  substance 
to  the  belief  that  the  persecution  of  Turkey 
could  not  continue.  Dissension  in  the  Allied 
councils  was  now  too  plain.  The  English  sup- 
port of  Greece  had  been  uncertain;  the  French 
in  a  year  had  made  a  volte-face  and  were  openly 
favorable  to  Turkey.  The  purposes  of  the  two 
countries  conflicted  sharply,  as  a  result  of  their 
imperialistic  ambitions  in  the  Near  East.  All 
these  factors  led  to  an  attempt  in  February, 
1921,  to  revise  the  Treaty  of  Sevres,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  Greece,  and  for  the  grudging  recon- 
ciliation of  the  Nationalists.  Greece,  against 
the  advice  of  the  Supreme  Council,  refused  to 
compromise  and  in  March,  1921,  took  into  her 
own  hands  the  enforcement  of  the  Treaty  of 
Sevres.  King  Constantine,  up  to  bis  abdication 
the  staunch  sympathizer  of  his  imperial  brother- 
in-law,  was  now  fighting  the  battle  of  Christen- 
dom against  the  "unspeakable  Turk."  As  tho 
bloody  and  unnecessary  war  between  Turks  and 
Greeks  dragged  on  during  1921-22,  France  took 
the  opportunity  to  seek  her  own  advantage,  at 
the  expense  of  Allied  unity.  On  Oct.  20,  1921, 
an  agreement  was  signed  with  the  Angora  gov- 
ernment by  which,  for  the  price  of  withdrawal 
from  Cilicia,  the  French  gained  immunity  in 
Syria,  as  well  as  important  financial  and  mining 
rights  and  a  lease  of  a  part  of  the  Bagdad  rail- 
way. Italy  likewise  concluded  a  secret  agree- 
ment with  Angora.  In  the  war  in  Asia  Minor 
the  Greeks  were  partially  successful  in  1921 ;  in 
tne  summer  of  1922,  exhausted,  poorly  led,  with 


a  shattered  morale  as  a  result  of  the  uncertain- 
ties of  the  home  situation,  the  Greeks  everywhere 
gave  way,  murdering  and  pillaging  as  they  re- 
tired, and  in  September,  were  compelled  to  evacu- 
ate the  city  of  Smyrna.  Before  the  end  of  Oc- 
tober the  country  was  free  of  the  invader.  (For 
a  discussion  of  the  war,  see  GREECE.)  The  alarm 
of  Europe  at  this  turn  of  events  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  exaggerate.  A  triumphant  Turkey  men- 
aced the  security  of  Thrace,  Syria,  Mesopotamia, 
Arabia,  the  well-being  of  the  Christian  popula- 
tions of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Jews  of  Palestine, 
and  the  peace  of  mind  of  the  whole  Moslem 
world.  Possibly  it  was  the  firmness  of  Great 
Britain  that  averted  serious  trouble  if  not  a 
general  war.  Premier  Lloyd  George  strenuously 
objected  to  the  appearance  of  a  Turkish  force  in 
Europe,  hastened  troops  into  the  Chanak  region 
to  oppose  a  passage  into  Thrace,  and  in  spite  of 
a  studied  French  and  Italian  indifference, 
worked  heroically,  by  a  mixtuie  of  doggedness 
and  forbearance  for  the  arrangement  of  a  peace. 
An  armistice  was  signed  at  Mudania,  October 
10,  which  was  tantamount  to  a  Turkish 
triumph,  for  the  Greeks  were  compelled  to 
evacuate  Thrace.  The  Turks  met  with  the 
Allies  on  Nov.  20,  1922,  at  Lausanne,  to  draft 
a  definite  peace  treaty.  The  conference  sat  for 
11  weeks,  broke  down  in  February,  1923,  with- 
out hope  for  continuance,  it  seemed,  because  of 
the  Turkish  rejection  of  the  Allies'  proposals, 
and  then  resumed  sittings  on  April  23.  On 
July  24  a  treaty  was  signed  by  Great  Britain, 
France,  Italy,  'Japan,  Greece,  Rumania,  and 
Turkey  which  unmistakably  revealed  the  re- 
geneiation  of  the  Turkish  spirit  and  the  break- 
down of  Allied  unity.  In  an  atmosphere  of  in- 
tiigue  which  clearly  indicated  that  Europe  had 
learned  nothing  from  the  War,  a  peace  was 
effected  which  left  Turkey  bccine  in  Europe  and 
in  control  of  Constantinople,  the  Bosporus  and 
the  Straits  Syria,  Palestine,  Mesopotamia,  the 
Hedjaz,  and  Yemen  were  severed  from  Turkey, 
the  Dodecanese  were  given  to  Italy  and  not  to 
Greece,  while  Eastern  Thrace  to  the  Maritza 
line  and  the  whole  of  Anatolia,  including 
Smyrna,  were  left  in  Turkish  hands.  The 
Capitulations  were  abandoned  in  unequal  ex- 
change for  promises  of  judicial  reform,  the 
Armenians  discreetly  forgotten,  and  the  Chris- 
tian problem  solved  by  the  elimination  of  the 
Christians;  that  is,  provision  was  made  for  a 
wholesale  exchange  of  Turk  subjects  in  Greece 
for  Greek  subjects  in  Asia  Minor.  Conventions 
for  the  regulation  of  the  Straits  and  the 
demilitarization  of  the  Greek-Bulgarian-Turk- 
ish frontier  in  Eastern  Thrace  were  also 
signed. 

From  the  date  of  the  signing  of  the  National 
Pact  on  Sept.  13.  1919,  which  committed  Mus- 
tapha  Kemal  and  his  party  to  a  common  pro- 
gramme of  reform,  to  the  signing  of  the  Lau- 
sanne Treaty,  the  world  witnessed  Turkey's 
transformation  not  only  internationally  but  in- 
ternally as  well.  By  the  fundamental  law  of 
Jan.  20,  1921,  all  legislative  and  executive  au- 
thority was  vested  in  the  Grand  National  As- 
sembly, elected  for  four  years,  and  established 
at  Angora.  By  this  body  Kemal  was  chosen  its 
president  as  well  as  commander-in-chief,  first  in 
1921,  and  again  in  1923.  On  Nov.  3,  1922,  the 
National  Assembly  became  in  name  what  it  had 
been  in  effect,  the  government  of  Turkey,  by 
the  forced  abdication  of  Sultan  Mohammed  VI, 
who  had  ascended  the  throne  in  1018.  Abdul 


13X9 


TUTANKHAMEN 


Mejid  was  then  elected  Caliph  or  supreme  re- 
ligious head  of  the  Moslem  world,  by  the  Na- 
tional Assembly.  The  plans  of  the  new  govern- 
ment called  for  the  reduction  of  the  tithe  on 
agricultural  products  and  the  revision  of  taxa- 
tion, reduction  of  the  army  and  navy  to  the  low- 
est possible  limit,  strengthening  of  the  police,  im- 
provement of  education,  etc.  The  social  posi- 
tion of  women,  in  conformity  with  western  ideas, 
was  revolutionized,  and  even  their  legal  posi- 
tion was  given  serious  attention.  Nothing  so 
clearly  indicated  the  parting  with  the  old  ways 
as  the  readiness  with  which  the  Turks  surren- 
dered the  Caliphate.  This  office,  for  centuries 
held  by  Ottoman  sultans,  nominally  implied 
spiritual  headship  over  the  entire  Moslem  world, 
and  had  been  exploited  by  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment during  the  War  in  relatively  futile  efforts 
to  rally  all  the  faithful  in  a  Holy  War;  but  its 
real  importance  was  grossly  exaggerated  by 
public  opinion  in  tlie  Occident.  In  reality,  the 
Caliph  had  long  been  disregarded  not  only  by 
the  schismatic  Shiahs  of  Persia,  but  by  the 
millions  of  orthodox  Mohammedans  in  non- 
Ottoman  countries  In  accordance  with  their 
policy  of  substituting  Turkish  national  patriot- 
ism for  Ottoman  Pan-Islamism,  the  Nationalists 
at  Angora  in  March,  1024,  deposed  Abdul  Mejid 
and  renounced  the  Ottoman  claim  to  the  Cali- 
phate. Immediately  rival  aspirants  to  the  Ca- 
liph's vacant  office  appeared  on  every  hand — the 
King  of  Egypt,  the  Sultan  of  Morocco,  the  Aga 
Khan  of  Bombay,  and  the  King  of  the  Hedjaz. 
But  the  Caliphate  remained  an  unappropriated 
honor.  Toward  foreign  influence  in  Turkish  af- 
fairs, the  Assembly,  remembering  the  unfortu- 
nate history  of  the  previous  two  decades,  re- 
mained hostile,  and  every  project  to  speed  re- 
const  ruction  by  the  aid  of  foreign  money  was  dis- 
couraged. For  the  history  of  the  Chester  con- 
cession, see  CHESTER  CONCESSION.  For  the  dis- 
pute regarding  Mosul,  see  MESOPOTAMIA.  See 
also  the  following  articles:  PEACE  CONFERENCE 
AND  TREATIES;  SMYRNA;  THRACE;  CILICIA; 
ARMENIA;  AZERBAIJAN;  GEORGIA;  ARABIA;  PAN- 
ISLAMISM;  PAN-TURANIANISM;  CALIPHATE; 
BAODAD  RAILWAY,  GREECE. 

TURNER,  WILLIAM  ( 1 871-  ) .  An  Amer- 
ican Roman  Catholic  bishop,  born  at  Kilmallock 
in  Ireland.  He  graduated  from  the  Royal  Uni- 
versity of  Ireland,  in  1888  and  studied  at  the 
American  College  at  Rome  and  in  Paris.  In 
1893  he  was  ordained  priest  and  from  1894  to 
1906  was  professor  of  philosophy  at  St.  Paul 
Seminary.  From  the  latter  date  to  1919  ho 
occupied  the  same  chair  at  the  Catholic  Uni- 
versity of  America.  In  1919  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Buffalo.  Bishop  Turner  is  the  author 
of  History  of  Philosophy  (1903),  and  Lessons  in 
Logic  (1911).  He  edited  The  American  Ec- 
clesiastical Review  and  was  associate  editor  of 
The  Catholic  Historical  Review. 

TTJRPAIN,  ALBFRT  CAMILLE  LEOPOLD 
(1867-  ).  A  French  physicist,  born  at  La 
Rochelle,  and  educated  there  at  the  Ecole  Fe*ne"- 
Ion.  Tie  became  professor  of  physics  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Poitiers  and  was  one  of  the  first  to 
perform  experiments  in  wireless  telegraphy. 
His  works  include:  Recherches  Expdrimentales 
sur  Ics  Oscillations  Electriques  (1899)  ;  La  Tclc- 
graphic  sans  Fil  et  les  Applications  Pratiques 
des  Ondcs  Electriques ,  2d  ed.  (1908);  Lemons 
de  Physique,  2  vols.,  6th  ed.  (1920)  ;  Manipula- 
tions de  Physique  (1908);  Telephonic  (1909); 
Teltgraphie  (1910);  La  Lumicre  (1913);  Vers 


la  Houille  Blanche  (1918);  and  Manipulations 
Electro-Techniques  ( 1920 ) . 

TUSKA,  GUSTAVE  ROBISIIER  (1869-  ). 
An  American  civil  engineer,  born  in  New  York 
City,  and  educated  at  the  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York  and  at  the  Columbia  University 
School  of  Mines.  He  entered  on  the  practice 
of  his  profession  as  assistant  engineer  with  the 
Link  Belt  Engineering  Company  (1891)  and 
became  in  1899  chief  engineer  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  arid  of  the  Panama  Steamship  Com- 
pany. During  1897-1921  he  was  with  the  Amer- 
ican Process  Company  in  charge  of  the  con- 
struction of  plants  handling  waste  products  and 
also  served  as  consulting  engineer  on  municipal 
waste  disposal  plants  in  New  York,  Chicago, 
Buffalo,  St.  Louis,  Washington,  and  other  cities. 
During  the  War  he  served  on  the  staff  of  the 
chief  of  engineers  of  the  United  States  Army 
and  was  a  member  of  the  steel  committee  of  the 
War  Industries  Board.  During  1015-17  he  lec- 
tured at  Columbia  on  municipal  disposal  work 
and  in  1919  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
Mexican  Commission  by  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment. 

TUSKEGEE  NORMAL  AND  INDUS- 
TRIAL INSTITUTE.  A  nonsectanan,  co- 
educational normal  and  industrial  school  for  the 
education  of  negro  youth,  at  Tuskegee,  Ala., 
founded  by  Booker  T.  Washington  in  1881.  The 
student  enrollment  rose  from  1527  in  1914  to 
2440  in  1923-24  with  a  summer  school  for  teach- 
ers, registering  more  than  GOO  annually.  In  the 
same  period,  the  faculty  increased  from  192  to 
241  members  and  the  library  from  20,000  to 
28,000  \oluines.  The  productive  funds  rose  from 
$1,942,112  to  $2,709,110  and  the  yearly  income 
from  $473,704  to  $515,412.  A  group  of  boys' 
trades  buildings  was  constructed  in  1919  at  a 
cost  of  $220,000,  and  the  Kllen  Cuitiss  James 
Hall,  a  dormitory  for  girls,  and  1920.  Junior 
college  courses  of  three  years  in  agriculture 
and  two  years  in  teacher  training  and  business 
practice  were  added  to  the  regular  academic 
course.  The  Institute  received  an  anonymous 
gift  of  $250,000  for  permanent  improvements 
in  191C  and  $800,000  from  the  will  of  Mrs. 
Kussell  Sage  in  1919.  Robert  Rusaa  Moton, 
LL.D ,  succeeded  Booker  T.  ^  ashington  as  prin- 
cipal on  his  death  in  1915. 

TUTANKHAMEN.  It  would  probably  bo 
difficult  to  discover  an  Egyptian  king  of  whom 
less  is  known  historically  and  who  at  the  same 
time  is  better  known  to  the  civilized  world. 
The  fame  is  of  course  due  to  the  discovery  of 
his  tomb  and  its  indescribably  sumptuous  con- 
tents by  Lord  Carnarvon  (q.v.)  and  Howard 
Carter  (q.v  )  in  1922.  This  Pharaoh  whose 
funerary  fmnishings  are  the  most  splendid  yet 
discovered  belongs  chronologically  to  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  dynasty.  He  was  the  husband 
of  the  third  daughter  of  Akhenaten,  or  Amen- 
hotcp,  the  famous  heretic  king,  arid  came  to 
the  throne  a  short  time  before  or  after  the 
death  of  his  father-in-law — probably  after  it. 
We  do  not  know  whether  he  was  of  royal  blood. 
It  is  believed  that  he  died  when  he  was  hardly 
more  than  a  boy.  At  the  time  of  his  marriage 
his  wife,  Ankh-es-en-pa-Aten,  could  hardly  have 
been  over  ten  years  old.  Just  how  long  Tut- 
ankhamen ruled  is  also  unknown,  though  cer- 
tainly it  was  at  least  for  six  years. 

It  is  common  knowledge  that  Akhenaten,  the 
dreamer,  by  his  substitution  of  a  monotheistic 
religion  had  alienated  the  priestly  caste,  who 


TUTUILA 


1320 


T  V  U  YAM  U  JN 1TE 


found  themselves  well  in  the  way  of  losing 
power.  It  is  equally  well  known  that  in  all 
probability  the  idealism  of  the  king  was  in- 
comprehensible to  the  uneducated,  who  must 
have  longed  for  a  return  to  the  traditional  form 
of  worship  of  the  country  During  the  reign  of 
Akhenaton  also,  the  foreign  policies  of  Egypt 
lacked  vigor,  and  the  Empire  abroad  was  crum- 
bling. It  is  small  wonder  that  soon  after  his 
death  there  should  have  been  a  violent  reaction 
toward  the  traditionally  accepted  forms  of  re- 
ligion. How  soon  this  took  place  may  be  es- 
timated from  the  fact  that  on  the  back  of  one 
of  the  chairs  found  in  the  tomb  of  Tutankhamen 
appears  the  symbol  of  the  god  A  ten,  while  else- 
where in  the  same  room  the  name  of  the  youth- 
ful ruler  is  spelled  with  the  ending  "amon," 
showing  that  the  maintenance  of  his  position 
upon  the  kingly  throne  probably  required  him 
to  return  to  an  allegiance  to  the  older  form  of 
worship.  In  view  of  his  youth  it  is  a  matter 
of  speculation  how  lie  came  to  occupy  the  throne 
at  all.  lie  seems  to  have  been  too  young  to 
have  counted  for  much  on  his  own  part.  Per- 
haps the  answer  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
his  successor.  Aye,  who  during  Tutankhamen's 
reign  was  chief  priest,  represented  himself  on 
the  wall  of  the  burial  chamber  of  the  young 
king's  tomb.  Since  it  is  most  unusual  for  any 
other  than  the  deceased  king  himself  to  appear 
in  decorations  of  his  tomb,  the  suspicion  arises 
that  tliis  priest  chose  to  have  the  young  Tut- 
ankhamen on  the  throne  as  a  matter  of  policy, 
for  the  boy  would  be  likely  to  prove  pliable 
in  the  hands  of  this  powerful  friend  of  the 
family,  who  felt  perhaps  that  the  time  was 
not  ripe  for  him  to  seize  the  throne  for  him- 
self. 

TUTUILA.     See  SAMOA,  AMERICAN. 

"TWENTY-ONE  DEMANDS."  See  CHINA; 
JAPAN;  SHANTUNG. 

TYPHOID  FEVER.  In  the  War,  typhoid 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  events  would  have 
been  a  tremendous  menace  to  the  troops,  but  the 
successful  use  of  mass  preventive  measures,  as 
carried  out  in  the  mobilization  of  15,000  United 
States  troops  along  the  Rio  Grande  when  hos- 
tilities with  Mexico  threatened,  had  shown  what 
can  be  done  in  war  time.  The  warring  troops 
were  as  rapidly  as  possible  immuni/ed  against 
typhoid,  the  two  paratyphoid  fevers,  and  dys- 
entry;  usually  three  serial  inoculations  were 
practiced.  In  addition,  the  older  sanitary  meas- 
ures, such  as  proper  construction  of  latrines  and 
disposal  of  feces,  antifly  campaigns,  etc.,  were 
practiced.  As  a  result  the  troops  were  remark- 
ably free  from  these  infections  throughout  the 
War,  although  it  was  found  that  protective  inoc- 
ulation of  troops  after  prolonged  exposure  to 
hardships  could  not  always  be  guaranteed.  In 


civil  practice  it  was  shown  over  and  over  that 
combined  prophylaxis  against  typhoid  in  cities 
can  stamp  out  the  disease  even  in  communities 
as  large  as  Chicago.  The  water  supply  must  be 
pure,  and  city  dwellers  about  to  go  on  summer 
vacation  and  to  drink  from  doubtful  wells  were 
urged  to  subject  themselves  to  preventive  inocu- 
lation. Campaigns  against  the  house  and  stable 
fly  were  encouraged  by  health  authorities.  It 
is  often  found  that  the  greatest  obstacle  en- 
countered in  eradicating  the  disease  entirely  is 
the  so-called  "typhoid  carrier"  who  still  harbors 
the  virus  about  his,  or  more  often  her,  person, 
and  who  is  able  to  contaminate  the  food  supply 
of  houses  and  institutions.  The  worst  carriers 
are  cooks  and  others  who  come  in  contact  with 
the  food. 

TYPHUS  FEVER.  During  the  War  in 
Europe,  knowledge  of  this  affection  was  notably 
augmented.  Much  was  also  learned  from  a 
study  of  Mexican  typhus,  which  occasionally 
crosses  into  the  United  States;  during  1923 
there  was  a  small  epidemic  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia. The  part  placed  by  the  louse  as  the  sole 
medium  of  transmission  became  fully  realized, 
and  prevention  of  its  spread  was  effected  chiefly 
by  delousing  and  by  the  use  of  approximately 
louse-proof  apparel  bv  those  necessarily  exposed. 
A  few  cases  appeared  in  western  Europe  during 
the  War  but  gave  no  trouble,  and  it  \vas  shown 
in  the  intenshe  antityphua  campaign  that  there 
were  a  few  cases  in  Paris  \\hich  may  not  have 
been  imported,  recalling  the  so-called  Brill's 
disease  sometimes  encountcied  in  New  York. 
It  ^as  realized  that  the  true  virulent  disease 
might  run  a  mild  course  and  that  the  malig- 
nancy of  epidemics  is  due  to  rapid  passage 
through  its  victims,  facilitated  by  overcrowding 
and  the  low  resistance  of  the  patients,  who  are 
often  in  a  state  of  semistarvation.  During  the 
War  the  countries  ravaged  by  typhus  were  Rus- 
sia, the  Balkans,  Poland,  and  Cialicia,  and  the 
disease  extended  eastward  into  Asia.  Its  in- 
vasion of  the  rest  of  Europe  was  held  in  check- 
only  by  the  most  intensive  efforts;  only  a  few 
hundred  cases  occurred  in  mid-Europe.  The 
cause  has  never  been  determined,  although  many 
organisms  have  been  accused  and  serologieal 
studies  have  been  of  use  in  diagnosis.  No  spe- 
cific remedy  has  been  discovered. 

TYRWHITT,  SIB  REGINALD  YORKE  (1870- 
).  A  British  admiral,  born  at  Oxford.  Tie 
joined  the  navy  in  1883  and  was  promoted 
through  the  grades  till  he  reached  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral  in  1019.  He  had  an  important- 
part  in  the  War  as  commander  of  the  destroyer 
flotillas  in  actions  in  Heligoland  Bight  in  August 
and  December,  1014,  and  off  Dogger  Bank  in 
101.5. 

TYUYAMUNITE.     See  Article  on  RADIUM. 


u 


UBOAT     WABFABE.     See     GER- 
MANY;  VESSEL,  NAVAL. 
UFEB,     WALTER      (1878-         ). 
An    American    painter,    born    in 
Louisville,    Ky.      He    studied 
chiefly  at  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Dresden  and  then  in  Chicago  and  at  Munich.    Re- 
turning to  the  United  States,  lie  settled  at  Taos, 
N.  M.,  and  became  known  from  1014  as  one  of  the 
foremost    painters   of    the    Pueblo    Indians.     He 
paints  their  life  and  country  with  deep  and  sympa- 
thetic insight  into  the  Indian  character,  in*  vivid 
color,  and  with  fine  decorative  feeling      He  re- 
cently   received    many    awards,    including    the 
First    Logan    Medal    of    the    Art    Institute    of 
Chicago    (1017);    the    Altman    Prize,    National 
Academy  of  Design,  New  York   (1021),  and  the 
Temple    Gold    Medal,    Pennsylvania    Academy, 
Philadelphia   (1023).     He  is  represented  in  the 
Public  Museums  of  Brooklyn,  Chicago,  and  Phil- 
adelphia;   the    Corcoran    Gallery,    Washington, 
D.  C.,  and  in  other  museums. 

UGANDA.  A  British  protectorate  in  East 
Africa  with  an  area  of  110,300  square  miles, 
including  10,000  square  miles  of  water,  and  an 
estimated  population  (December,  1022)  of  3,- 
132,312.  Of  these,  natives  numbered  3,12r>,r>22, 
Asiatics,  5529,  Europeans,  1261.  There  were 
3651  Asiatics  in  1014  and  1017  Europeans. 
Chief  towns  are:  Mengo,  in  Kampala  (popula- 
tion 40,000)  ;  Entebbe,  the  capital  (population 
12,000).  Cotton  continued  the  most  important 
single  activity.  In  1013-14  the  cotton  export 
was  valued  at  £317,687;  in  1021  at  £1,281,000; 
in  1022,  at  £877,625.  Next  in  order  were  (ex- 
ports of  1022):  coffee,  £00,227;  hory,  £47,000 
(1021);  oilseeds,  £41,000  (1021);  chillies,  £52,- 
768;  hides  and  skins,  £26,000  (1021);  rubber, 
£3741.  Coffee  and  rubber  production  showed 
advances  particularly  as  a  result  of  European 
interest.  The  total  exports  in  1022  were  £1,- 
215,703  as  compared  with  £524,260  in  1013-14. 
After  1017,  the  customs  administrations  of 
Uganda  and  Kenya  were  combined  and  imports 
weie  credited  to 'the  Kenya  Colony.  Revenues 
for  1013-14  were  £256.550  and  expenditures 
£200,180;  for  1023  (estimate)  these  were  £870,- 
050  and  £1,062,871.  The  poll  tax  accounted  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  rexemiOH  in  the  postwar 
years.  The  debt  was  £844,805  in  December, 
1022.  After  1014  a  cessation  was  made  of  im- 
perial grants-in-aid.  British  penetration  into 
the  interior  continued  so  that  by  1015  almost 
the  whole  protectorate  was,  with  the  exception 
of  Rudolf  province,  well  in  hand  During  the 
War,  great  numbers  of  natives  (estimated  at 
150,000)  saw  service  as  carriers  in  the  African 
campaigns.  In  1921,  a  legislative  council,  made 
up  of  nominated  members,  met  for  the  first 
time.  The  Indians  refused  to  participate  be- 
cause of  the  social  and  economic  segregation  to 
which  they  were  subjected.  See  KENYA  COLONY. 
UKRAINE.  While  the  Ukrainians  had 


some  claim  to  self-determination  on  the  grounds 
of  language,  it  is  doubtful  whether  socially 
and  culturally  they  formed  a  distinct  and 
homogeneous  nation.  Before  the  War,  there 
were  some  35,000,000  of  them  in  central-eastern 
Europe.  In  Russia,  30,000,000  were  to  be 
found;  3,500,000  in  Austria,  in  Galicia  and 
Bukovina  chiefly,  and  known  more  commonly  as 
Kuthenians;  and  500,000  in  Hungary.  In  Hun- 
gary, their  national  consciousness  had  )>een  kept 
alive  by  the  repressive  policy  of  the  Magyars; 
in  eastern  Galicia,  because  of  their  hatred  of 
the  Poles,  they  clung  to  their  language,  religion 
and  folkways  (see  GALICIA;  POLAND.)  In  Rus- 
sia, with  the  l>eginning  of  the  twentieth  century, 
there  began  to  appear  evidences  of  a  tenderly 
fostered  and  not  very  virile  Ukrainian  move- 
ment that  aimed  at  regional  automony.  Though 
most  of  the  Ruthenians  in  Galicia  were  peasants 
and  60  per  cent  were  illiterate,  Lemberg  became 
tne  cultural  seat  of  the  agitation  and  from  it 
radiated  thin  lines  of  influence  into  the  Rus- 
sian provinces.  The  break-up  of  the  Russian 
empire  gave  the  Ukrainians  their  long  sought 
opportunity.  The  independence  of  Russian 
Ukraine  was  proclaimed  on  Nov.  21,  1017; 
that  of  Austrian  Ukraine,  on  Nov.  10,  1018; 
on  Dec.  14,  1018,  the  government  of  Ukraine,  a 
directory  of  five  members,  uas  set  up  as  a  pro- 
visional government;  and  on  Jan.  3,  1010,  tfie 
union  of  Eastern  (Russian)  and  Western 
(Austrian)  Ukraine  took  place.  Though  the 
Ukrainians  had  been  recognized  as  constituting 
a  nation  by  Russia  and  the  Central  Powers  in 
the  Breat-hitovsk  treaties  (March,  1918),  they 
were  pointedly  refused  a  hearing  by  the  Paris 
Peace  Conference.  In  fact,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  see  their  hopes  vanish  as  the  commis- 
sioners apportioned  out  territories  they  claimed 
as  peculiarly  their  own.  To  Rumania,  Czecho- 
slovakia, aiid  Poland  went  Bessarabia,  the  Car- 
pathian Ruthenians,  Bukovina,  and  Galicia. 
The  region  itself  was  ne\er  for  long  under  a 
single  rule  nor  did  it,  until  1022,  enjoy  any 
surcease  from  the  trials  of  war.  In  1010,  the 
central  government,  under  lletman  Petlura,  was 
waging  war  against  the  Poles.  In  1920,  the 
Ukraine  joined  arms  with  Poland  against  Rus- 
sia with  the  result  that  its  representatives  were 
signatory  to  the  treaty  of  Riga  (October,  1920), 
by  which  the  region's  independence  was  recog- 
nized by  both  powers.  However,  by  the  treaty 
the  Polish  boundary  was  pushed  so  far  east 
that  Galicia  and  Volhynia  were  lost  to  the 
Ukraine.  Petlura's  government  continued  to  ex- 
ist for  a  time;  but  gradually  power  was  being 
accumulated  in  the  hands  of  a  Soviet  which 
made  its  appearance  first  in  1920.  Nothing 
quite  so  completely  revealed  the  incompetence  of 
any  group  to  rule"  as  the  ease  with  which  ban- 
dits made  the  country  their  prey.  From  1910 
on,  armed  forces  terrorized  the  countryside. 
The  Jews  in  particular  were  singled  out  as  vic,- 


1321 


TTLSTEB 


1322 


UNEMPLOYMENT 


time,  the  tale  of  their  suffering  being  possibly 
the  darkest  of  all  those  miserable  annals  with 
which  the  history  of  central  and  eastern  Europe 
was  filled  in  the  three  years  following  the 
Armistice.  In  the  words  of  the  Chief  Rabbi  of 
the  British  empire:  "150,000  human  beings 
were  bayoneted,  bombed,  buried  alive,  drowned, 
thrown  alive  into  lime  pits,  and  subjected  to 
the  most  diabolical  tortures  that  only  a  Dantes- 
que  imagination  could  conceive "  *  Not  until 
1922  was  it  evident  that  the  country  was  set- 
tling down  to  a  peaceable  activity,  and  this  was 
due  only  to  the  loss  of  its  national  identity, 
for  on  Dec.  30,  1022,  delegates  from  the  Ukraine 
in  company  with  those  of  Russia,  White  Russia 
and  the  Transcaucasian  Federation  completed  a 
treaty  by  which  the  Union  of  Socialist  Soviet 
Republics  was  set  up.  From  thence  on  the  his- 
tory of  the  Ukraine  was,  more  properly,  that 
of  Russia.  Economically,  there  was  every 
justification  for  the  federation;  for,  while  the 
Ukraine  possesses  great  wheat,  barley,  and 
sugar  fields,  as  well  as  valuable  coal  and  iron 
deposits,  it  is,  like  the  other  Russian  regions, 
dependent  upon  the  oil  from  Baku,  the  lumber 
of  the  northern  forests,  Siberia's  dairy  products, 
and  the  cotton  of  Transcaucasia  and  Turkestan. 
See  RUSSIA. 

ULSTER..     See   IRELAND. 

ULTEAMODEBNISTS,  IN  Music.  See 
Music. 

UNCONSCIOUS  MIND.  See  CONSCIOUS- 
NESS AND  THE  UNCONSCIOUS. 

UNDERWOOD,  OSCAB  WILDER  (1862-  ). 
An  American  legislator  (see  VOL.  XXII).  He 
was  first  elected  to  the  Senate  in  1915,  after 
serving  20  years  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives. He  was  Democratic  leader  of  the  Senate 
in  the  67th  and  68th  Congresses  until  he  re- 
signed this  post  in  1923.  He  served  as  Ameri- 
can delegate  to  the  Conference  for  the  Limita- 
tion of  Arms  in  1921-22.  In  1024  he  was  a 
candidate  for  the  presidential  nomination. 

UNDEBWOOD  TABIFF  BILL.  See  TAR- 
IFF IN  THE  UNITED  STATES;  UNITED  STATES, 
History. 

UNEMPLOYMENT.  The  decade  1014-24 
saw  severe  unemployment  crises,  especially  in 
the  years  following  the  War.  In  the  belligerent 
European  countries  unfavorable  conditions  of 
employment  gave  way  during  the  War  to  less 
than  normal  unemployment,  because  of  the  draft- 
ing of  many  millions  of  workers  into  the  armies, 
the  stimulation  of  many  lines  of  production  by 
military  needs,  and  the  establishment  of  central 
control  in  industry.  Neutral  countries  whicli 
were  in  a  position  to  cater  to  the  military  needs 
of  the  belligerents  enjoyed  a  rather  lasting  war 
prosperity.  The  most  severe  crises  of  unemploy- 
ment occurred  a  few  years  after  the  Armistice 
when  the  war  prosperity  came  to  an  end  and 
the  after  effects  of  the  War  threw  the  indus- 
trial machinery  of  the  world  into  violent  dis- 
orders. Millions  of  men  returned  from  the  front 
seeking  their  old  positions,  while  the  substi- 
tutes who  had  taken  their  places  during  the  War 
clung  tenaciously  to  their  new  means  of  liveli- 
hood. The  great  postwar  unemployment  crisis 
began  to  accumulate  force  in  1920  and  was  still 
existent  in  1924  in  some  countries  like  Great 
Britain  and  Germany.  The  occupation  of  the 
Ruhr  was  a  potent  cause  of  renewed  unemploy- 
ment. 

United  States.  Chiefly  as  a  result  of  the 
War,  the  United  States  experienced  its  most 


severe  unemployment  crisis  in  many  years  in 
1014  and  the  early  part  of  1915.  The  unem- 
ployed constituted  15.8  per  cent  in  1914,  and  16 
per  cent  in  1915,  of  the  total  labor  force.  In 
New  York  alone  their  numl>er  was  variously 
estimated  at  from  140,000  to  500,000.  Numer- 
ous emergency  measures  were  instituted  by  city 
governments,  committees  of  citizens,  and  diverse 
leagues  and  associations.  The  very  sharp  up- 
ward turn  in  business,  however,  during  tlie  sum- 
mer and  the  early  fall  of  1915  had  a  very  whole- 
some effect  on  the  lalx>r  market,  and  employ- 
ment conditions  improved  rapidly,  chiefly  be- 
cause of  the  enormous  manufacture  of  munitions. 
This  improvement  continued  during  1916  and 
1917  when  the  proportion  of  the  unemployed  to 
the  total  labor  force  was  7.1  per  tent  and  4.7 
per  cent,  respectively.  In  1917  there  was  great 
scarcity  of  labor  and  consequently  a  great  de- 
mand for  it.  This  was  due  both  to  the  drafting 
of  millions  of  men  into  the  military  service  and 
the  great  increase  in  industrial  activity.  Tins 
situation  remained  unchanged  until  the  late  fall 
of  1918  when  some  of  the  employers  began  to 
lay  off  their  workmen,  although  there  was  still 
a  great  deal  of  demand  for  manufactured  p ind- 
ucts and  the  labor  market  continued  to  be  good 
until  the  early  fall  of  1920  At  that  time  there 
was  considerable  curtailment  of  production  and 
many  workers  were  thrown  into  unemployment. 
Statistics  show  that  in  September,  1920,  theie 
occurred  in  many  important  industries  decreases 
of  from  4  to  14  per  cent  in  the  employment. 
Unemployment  gained  momentum  in  the  last 
months  of  the  year  and  reached  its  maximum  in- 
tensity in  January  and  February,  1921.  The, 
outstanding  e\ent  of  this  latter  year  in  the  un- 
employment situation  \\as  President  Ilarding'a 
National  Unemployment  Conference  in  October, 
which  set  unemployment  before  the  country  in 
an  official  way  as  being  chiefly  a  problem  of 
industiy.  The  conference  estimated  the  num- 
ber of  unemployed  at  from  3,500,000  to  5,000,- 
000.  During  this  period  Michigan  had  the 
greatest  decrease  in  employment  with  82  per 
cent,  and  Ohio  and  Indiana  with  50  per  cent 
Secretary  of  Labor  James  J.  Davis  estimated  the 
unemployed  in  the  beginning  of  11)22  at  between 
5,000,000  and  6,000,000,  but  this  figure  is  piob- 
ably  an  exaggeration.  During  the  coin  so  of 
1922  the  situation  impioved  materially.  In 
1923,  unemployment  declined  still  further  and 
production  became  normal.  The  United  States 
Bureau  of  I^abor  Statistics  published  in  recent 
years  a  study  of  the  extent  and  the  causes  of 
unemployment,  which  summed  up  the  situation 
as  follows:  "Industrial  wage  earners  in  thoso 
States  for  whicli  data  are  available  lose  about 
10  per  cent  of  their  working  time  through  un- 
employment, mainly  from  lack  of  work  and  ex- 
clusive of  idleness  due  to  slackness  and  labor 
disputes.  On  this  basis  an  average  of  at  least 
a  million  and  a  half  industrial  wage  earners  in 
the  United  States  are  constantly  unemployed, 
taking  poor  and  prosperous  years  together." 

Great  Britain.  From  the  outbreak  of  the 
War,  until  1917,  unemployment  declined  steadily 
in  Great  Britain.  In  the  first  seven  months  of 
the  latter  year  the  percentage  of  unemployment 
among  trade  unions  paying  unemployed  benefits 
averaged  less  than  one-third  of  one  per  cent  as 
compared  with  an  average  of  nearly  four  per 
cent  during  the  preceding  10  years.  After 
August,  1917,  the  number  of  unemployed  in- 
creased, and  in  1019  the  situation  became  seri- 


UNIIXOW  ENGINE 


1323    UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 


ous  due  to  the  rapid  demobilization.  Following 
upon  this  unfavorable  condition  of  the  labor 
market  there  came  an  interval  of  about  eight 
months  during  which  the  rate  of  unemployment 
was  low.  But  in  the  autumn  of  1020  the  most 
acute  crisis,  that  of  unprecedented  unemploy- 
ment, began.  It  was  still  grave  in  1024.  In 
June,  1021,  the  number  of  men  out  of  work, 
entered  on  the  insurance  list,  was  2,177,000, 
and  those  partially  unemployed  were  008,000. 
The  average  of  the  unemployed  during  1022  and 
1023  was  1,500,000.  While  the  direct  causes  of 
the  great  unemployment  crisis  in  Great  Britain 
must  be  sought  in  the  War  and  its  after  effects, 
the  general  cause  of  it  was  the  excess  of  the  in- 
dustrial population  which  during  the  eight  pre- 
vious years  had  not  been  able  to  flow  through 
the  channels  ot  emigration  into  employment 
abioad.  The  government  instituted  various  re- 
lief measures.  The  main  principle  of  its  policy 
was  the  extension  of  compulsory  unemployment 
insurance.  The  chief  official  sources  of  relief  in 
1924  were:  (1)  national  schemes  of  work  or 
assistance;  (2)  local  schemes  of  work ;  (3)  poor 
law  relief;  (4)  unemployment  insurance. 

Germany.  The  employment  situation  in 
Germany  was  very  bad  in  the  fall  of  1014,  but 
it  improved  steadily  during  the  four  years  of 
the  War,  due  primarily  to  government  efforts. 
The  rapid  demobilization  at  the  end  of  the  War 
caused  a  serious  unemployment  crisis.  The  gov- 
ernment started  various  measures  for  relief  and 
in  six  months  there  was  a  marked  improvement. 
The  number  of  the  unemployed  was  reduced  from 
1,500,000  at  the  beginning  of  1010  to  500,000 
at  the  end  of  the  year.  During  the  following 
years  the  labor  market  continued  to  gain.  The 
ratio  of  unemployed  to  the  total  number  of 
workingmen  was  reported  to  be  less  than  one 
per  cent  during  the  first  seven  months  of  1022. 
After  that  an  increase  in  unemployment  oc- 
curred, and  at  the  end  of  1023  there  were  3,- 
000,000  without  work;  60  per  cent  of  the  work- 
ers were  employed  only  two  or  three  days  a 
week  during  that  year.  See  other  countries  of 
Europe  for  similar  figures.  See  also  SOCIAL 
INSURANCE. 

TJNIFLOW  ENGINE.  See  STEAM  EN- 
GINES  AND  TURBINES. 

UNION  COLLEGE.  A  nonsectarian  insti- 
tution for  men  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  founded 
in  1705.  The  student  enrollment  increased 
from  474  in  1014  to  728  in  1023-24,  the  faculty 
increased  during  the  decade  from  38  to  65  mem- 
bers and  the  library  from  43,000  to  62,000  vol- 
umes. The  productive  funds  increased  approx- 
imately 103  per  cent  from  $050,000  to  $2,500,- 
000.  President,  Charles  Alexander  Richmond. 

UNION  OF  SOCIALIST  SOVIET  RE- 
PUBLICS. See  RUSSIA. 

UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA.  See  SOUTH 
AFRICA,  UNION  OF. 

UNITARIANS.  In  the  United  States  this 
denomination  developed  within  New  England 
Congregationalism.  The  American  Unitarian 
Association,  organised  in  May,  1825,  for  mission- 
ary purposes,  became  the  executive  arm  of  the 
denomination.  The  Unitarian  church  imposes 
no  theological  test  of  membership  on  either  the 
laity  or  clergy.  It  had  three  divinity  schools 
throughout  the  decade  1014-24  as  well  as  the 
Tuckerman  School  for  the  training  of  parish 
assistants,  the  Hackley  School  at  Tarry  town, 
Proctor  Academy  at  Andover,  N,  H.,  and  several 
philanthropic  organizations.  Instead  of  foreign 


missions  it  conducted  a  department  of  foreign 
relations,  which  kept  dn  touch  with  and  often 
extended  aid  to  the  liberal  religious  movements 
in  other  lands,  such  as  South  America,  the 
countries  of  northern  and  central  Europe,  Italy, 
Egypt'  India,  China,  Japan.  It  maintained  de- 
partments of  religious  education,  social  service, 
new  Americans,  and  a  publishing  department. 
There  were  also  the  Alliance  of  Unitarian  and 
Other  Liberal  Christian  Women,  and  the  Lay- 
men's League.  The  basis  of  its  membership 
differs  so  widely  from  established  custom  that 
the  term  communicants  is  rejected  and  adherents 
used  as  more  nearly  correct.  According  to  fig- 
ures issued  by  the  denomination,  covering  Dec. 
31,  1023,  there  were  110,000  adherents,  398  ac- 
tive churches,  20  inactive  churches,  12  preaching 
stations,  and  483  clergymen.  According  to  the 
Federal  Census  of  1016,  there  were  82,515  mem- 
bers, 300  church  edifices,  414  organizations,  and 
483  clergymen.  Headquarters  were  at  25  Bea- 
con Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST.  An 
outgrowth  of  the  German  Reformed  and  Men- 
nonitc  Churches,  organized  in  Maryland  in  1800, 
and  later  divided  into  two  bodies,  the  Old  and 
the  New  Constitutions  In  polity  and  theology 
the  United  Brethren  in  Christ  is  similar  to  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  During  the  10 
years  1013-23,  inclusive,  the  membership  of  the 
Old  Constitution  remained  practically  station- 
ary at  approximately  20,000.  The  membership 
of  the  New  Constitution  increased  from  310,886 
in  1013  to  370,314  in  1023;  the  Sunday  school 
enrollment  from  382,388  to  433.6UO,  and  the 
members  of  the  Christian  Endeavor  Society 
from  80,051  to  06,585.  The  aggregate  salaries 
of  ministers  increased  from  $1,113,114  to  $2,- 
202,515;  the  giving  to  benevolences  from  $452,- 
570  to  $1,384,640;  and  the  giving  for  all  pur- 
poses from  $2,014,313  to  $6,315,903.  During 
the  period  the  United  Brethren  Church,  New 
Constitution,  was  building  up  three  homes  for 
orphaned  children,  which  had  an  aggregate  of 
4250  acres  of  land  and  property  valued  at  $1,- 
103,000.  A  preachers'  pension  plan,  recently 
adopted,  was  being  standardized  in  1024. 

UNITED  KINGDOM.     See  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

UNITED  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 
OF  NORTH  AMERICA.  This  denomination 
was  formed  in  1858  through  the  union  of  the 
Associate  and  Associate  Reformed  Churches. 
In  organization  and  government  it  is  in  accord 
with  other  Presbyterian  bodies.  During  the 
decade,  1014-24,  its  development  was  as  follows, 
taking  into  account  American  churches  only. 
The  membership  increased  from  148,220  to  165,- 
186;  the  number  of  congregations  declined  from 
088  to  024;  the  number  of  ministers  from  000 
to  037;  the  number  of  presbyteries  from  64  to 
58;  the  number  of  Sabbath  schools  from  1001 
to  020;  the  number  of  pupils  increased  from 
146,262  to  171,022;  the  young  people's  societies 
increased  from  800  to  018,  and  decreased  in 
membership  from  31,480  to  26,837;  the  contri- 
butions of  the  American  church  increased  from 
$3,120,076  to  $5,845,370. 

Missions  were  maintained  in  India,  Egypt, 
the  Sudan,  and  Abyssinia.  The  statistics  of 
these  mission  fields  showed  11  presbyteries; 
235  ministers;  183  congregations;  341  mission 
stations;  56,534  communicants;  contributions  of 
mission  congregations,  $122,150;  123  young  peo- 
ple's societies,  with  a  membership  of  5041; 
302  Sabbath  schools,  with  26,620  pupils  en- 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA        1334       UNITED  STATES  0V  AMEB10A 


rolled.  The  matter  of  union  with  other  Pres- 
byterian bodies  was  under  consideration  during 
the  decade,  but  all  that  was  accomplished  was 
in  the  line  of  much  more  closely  federated 
work.  A  New  World  Movement  was  inaug- 
urated in  1910,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  dedi- 
cation of  life  and  the  enlistment  of  prayer,  and 
the  endowment  of  the  educational  and  mission- 
ary work  of  the  Church.  The  subscriptions  of 
the  churches  to  this  movement  amounted  to  $11,- 
000,000.  A  committee  was  appointed  in  1019  to 
prepare  a  new  Confessional  Statement  for  the 
denomination.  The  General  Assembly  of  1924 
adopted  this  revised  statement  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  article  and  the  preamble,  which  went 
over  to  the  next  meeting  of  the  General  As- 
sembly. 

TJNITED  STATES  OF  AMEBICA.  The 
United  States  of  America  consists  of  48  states 
and  the  District  of  Columbia,  located  between 
the  25th  and  40th  parallels  of  latitude  north, 
and  in  addition  the  noncontiguous  territories 
of  Alaska,  Hawaii,  Guam,  Panama  Canal  Zone, 
Philippine  Islands,  Porto  Rico,  American  Samoa 
and  the  Virgin  Islands.  The  total  land  area  of 
continental  United  States  exclusive  of  Alaska  is 
2,973,800  square  miles,  and  the  population  at 
the  1920  census  wa8  103,710,620.  The  areas 
and  population  of  the  noncontiguous  territories 
are  given  in  Table  I. 

TABLE   I— AREA    AND   POPULATION   OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES 


Territory 

Continental  United  States   .  . 
Alaska      

Area  . 
Square  miles 
2,973,774 

590  884 

Population 
m!920 
105,710,620 
•S5  036 

210 

13  275 

Hawaii        
Panama  Canal  Zone  

6,449 
527 

255.912 

22,858 

Philippine   Islands    

115,026 

10,607,872 

Porto  Rico  

3,435 

1,299,809 

77 

8  056 

Virgin  Islands  

132 

0  26  051 

Total  

3  690  514 

117  999  489 

•Nov.  1,  1917. 

POPULATION 

The  United  States  is  the  only  important 
country  of  the  world  which  has  even  a  fairly 
complete  history  of  the  giowth  in  population 
from  its  beginning.  The  first  Federal  census 
was  taken  in  1700  and  subsequent  enumerations 
at  10-year  intervals.  In  1700,  the  total  popu- 
lation of  the  United  States  as  then  constituted 
was  3,020.214  and  at  the  last  census  in  1020 
it  was  105,710,070,  an  increase  of  2565  per  cent 


TABLE    II— POPULATION    OP    THE    UNITED 
STATES,  WITH  DECENNIAL  INCREASE 

1790-1920 

Total 
decennial 


Census  year 


Population. 


increase 


Per  cent 

of 
increase 


1790    3,929,214 

1800    5,308483  1,379,269 

1810     7,2-59.881  1,931,398 

1820     9,0'J8,453  2,398,572 

1830    12.866,020  3,227,567 

1840    17,069,453  4,203,433 

1850     23,191,870  6,122,423 

1860    31,443,321  8,251,445 

1870     •39,818,449  -8,375,128 

1880     50,155,783  «  10,337,334 

1890    62,947,714  12.791,931 

1900    75,994,575  13,046,801 

1910    91,972,266  15,977,691 

1920 105,710,620  13,738,354 


85.1 
36.4 
33.1 
33.5 
32.7 
35.9 
35.6 
•26.6 
•26.0 
25.5 
20.7 
21.0 
14.9 


for  the  130  years.  Table  II  gives  the  popula- 
tion of  continental  United  States  at  each  census, 
together  with  the  actual  and  percentage  in- 
crease for  each  decade. 

The  Bureau  of  the  Census  estimates  the  total 
population  for  intercensal  years  and  periods. 
Table  III  shows  the  estimated  total  population 
of  continental  United  States  on  July  1  of  each 
year  from  1910  to  1924. 


TABLE  III— ESTIMATED  TOTAL  POPULATION  ON 
JULY  1  FOB  INTERCENSAL  YEARS 


Year        Population 
Julyl 

1910 92,267,000 

1911 93,682,000 

J912  95,097,000 

1913 96,512,000 

1914 97,927,000 

1915 99,343000 

1916 100,758,000 

1917 102,173,000 


Year 


Popul 
Jul 


lation 


uly  1 


1918 103588000 

1919 105,003,000 

1920 106,418,000 

1921 107,833,000 

1922 109,248,000 

1923    110,663,000 

1924 112,800,000 


Estimated   correction  for  error  in  reubus  of  1870. 


From  1790  to  1860  the  population  showed  a 
relatively  uniform  rate  of  growth  amounting 
to  an  increase  of  about  one-third  per  decade 
Had  this  ratio  of  increase  continued  after  1800 
the  total  population  of  continental  United 
States  in  1020  would  have  been  upwards  of 
180,000,000. 

The  decline  in  the  percentage  rate  of  increase 
in  the  first  three  decades  following  the  Civil 
War  was  very  gradual.  From  1800  to  1800, 
the  average  increase  was  approximated  20  per 
cent  per  decade.  For  1800  to  1000,  "the  rate 
dropped  to  20.7  per  cent.  From  1000  to  1010, 
it  was  at  21  per  cent,  but  for  the  dcrnde  be- 
tv^een  1010  and  1020,  the  rate  of  increase  showed 
a  marked  decline  to  14.0  per  cent.  This  sharp 
decline  in  the  rate  of  increase  for  that  decndc 
is  partly  due  to  the  decline  in  immigration  and 
to  the  leturn  of  many  former  immigrants  to 
their  native  land,  during  the  War  However, 
even  if  the  effect  of  immigration  and  emigration 
is  allowed  for  there  has  been  a  very  significant 
decline  in  the  rate  of  population  increase  during 
that  last  decade.  (See  discussion  by  \V.  S. 
Rossiter:  "Increase  of  Population  in  the  Uni- 
ted States/'  Census  Monograph  A  o.  /,  Bureau 
of  the  Census,  Department  of  Commerce,  1022  ) 
If  the  decline  in  the  rate  of  increase  for  the 
next  decade  should  be  as  large  as  for  the  one 
just  passed  the  increase  shown  by  the  fifteenth 
census  in  1930  would  be  less  than  0  per  cent 

The  United  States  has  passed  the  pioneer 
stage  of  development  and  it  is  probable  that 
future  censuses  will  continue  to  show  moderate 
rates  of  increase  characteristic  of  more  fully 
settled  and  developed  countries.  The  rates  of 
increase  in  population  for  England  and  Belgium 
before  the  War  were  between  10  and  11  per 
cent,  while  Germany  increased  15  per  cent,  Italy 
6.6  per  cent  and  France  only  1.6  per  cent  per 
decade. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note,  however,  that  al- 
though the  rate  of  increase  has  been  rapidly  de- 
clining the  actual  numerical  increase  in  popula- 
tion has  been  relatively  stationary  for  the  past 
four  decades.  The  largest  numerical  increase 
recorded  for  any  decade  was  15,977,601  between 
1900  and  1910.  Between  1910  and  1920,  the 
increase  was  13,738,354.  On  the  average,  there- 
fore, the  United  States  is  adding  about  1,400,- 
000  persons  to  its  population  each  year  or  al- 
most 4000  persons  per  day.  The  increase  alone 
during  any  one  of  the  last  four  decades  was 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AXEBZOA 


1335 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


greater  than  the  entire  population  of  the  coun- 
try in  1830. 

Increase  in  Population  by  Geographic 
Divisions,  States  and  Cities.  The  distribu- 
tion of  population  by  geographic  divisions  and 
individual  States  for  1010  and  1920  and  the 
increases  for  this  decade  with  comparisons  with 
the  percentage  increase  in  the  preceding  decade 
are  shown  in  Table  JV. 


migration  of  population  compared  with  the 
period  between  1000  and  1010.  In  the  last 
mentioned  decade  the  population  of  the  Pacific 
States  increased  73.5  per  cent  and  the  Mountain 
States  57.3  per  cent.  Between  1010  and  1020, 
these  two  divisions  continued  to  show  higher 
percentages  of  increase  than  other  sections  of 
the  country  but  the  rates  of  increase  declined 
to  32.8  and  26.7  per  cent  respectively.  Only  one 


TABLE   IV—  INCREASE   OF  POPULATION,    BY  DIVISIONS  AND  STATES:      1910-1920 
Population 
1920                                   1910                               Increase  • 
1910  to  1920 

Per  cent 
of  in- 

Per cent 

Per  cent 

crease 

Division  and  State 

Number 

of 

Number 

of  total 

Number 

Per  cent 

1900  to 

totul 

1910 

United   States    

.    .    105,710,620 

1000 

91  972,266 

100  0 

13,738,354 

149 

21.0 

Geographic  Divisions 
New    England    . 

7,400,909 

70 
21  1 

6,552.681 
19,315,892 

7  1 
21  0 

848,228 
2,945,252 

12  9 
1")2 

17.2 
25.0 

Middle  Atlantic    .    . 

.       22,261,144 

East  North  Central 

..     .       21.475.513 

203 

18.J50.621 

19.8 

3,224,922 

17  7 

14.2 

West  North  Central 

.       12,  544.1!  49 

11.9 

11,037,921 

12  7 

900,328 

7  8 

12  5 

South    Ytlanhc 

13,990.272 

H  2 

12,194,895 

13  3 

1,79-5,377 

14  7 

16  8 

East   South   Central    . 

8,893,307 

8.4 

8,409,901 

9  1 

483,406 

5  7 

11  4 

West   South    Central 

10,212,224 

9.7 

8,784,534 

9.6 

1.457.690 

10  0 

34.5 

Mountain             

.     ..         3,3:56,101 

3  2 

2,633,517 

2.9 

702,584 

26  7 

57.3 

Pacific                             .  .    . 

5,500,K71 

5  3 

4,192,304 

4  0 

1,374,507 

32  8 

73  5 

New  England 

Maine               .       . 

768,014 

0  7 

712,371 

0.8 

25,613 

3  5 

69 

New   Hampshire 

44IJ,  083 

0.4 

430,572 

0.5 

12,511 

2  9 

46 

Vermont 

.    .             352,428 

03 

355,956 

0  4 

-3,528 

-10 

3.6 

Massachusetts 

3,  852,  350 

3.0 

3,360,410 

3  7 

485.940 

14  1 

•JO  0 

Rhode    JsLmd 

004,397 

0.6 

542,610 

0  6 

61,787 

11  4 

20.6 

Connecticut 

1,  380,631 

1  3 

1,114,756 

12 

265,875 

23  9 

22  7 

Middle  Atlantic 

New   York    . 

.     .       10,385,227 

9  8 

9,113,614 

99 

1,271,613 

140 

254 

New   Jersey 

3,155,900 

3.0 

2.537  107 

2  8 

618,733 

21.1 

34.7 

Pennsylvania 

.       .         8,720,017 

82 

7,665,111 

8.3 

1,054,900 

13  8 

21  b 

East  North   Central 

Ohio        .                  ... 

5,759,394 

54 

4,707,121 

5  2 

992,273 

20  8 

14.7 

Indiana                      .       .    . 

2,930,390 

2  8 

2,700,876 

2.9 

229,514 

8  5 

7.3 

Illinois 

G,  185,  280 

(>  1 

5,638,591 

6.1 

846  689 

150 

16.9 

Michigan 

3,668,412 

3  5 

2,810,173 

3.1 

8I58,L'3Q 

30  r> 

16  1 

WibconMn   

2,632,067 

2  5 

2,333,860 

2  5 

298,207 

12  8 

12  8 

West    North    Central 

Minnesota          .       ... 

2,387,125 

O   «j 

2,075,708 

2  3 

311.417 

15  0 

18.5 

Iowa 

2,404,021 

2  3 

2,224,771 

2  4 

179,250 

H  1 

—03 

Missouri             .    . 

3,404,055 

32 

3,293,335 

3  b 

110.720 

3  4 

6.0 

North   Dakota          .    .      . 

640  872 

06 

577,056 

0  0 

69.810 

1J  1 

80  8 

South    Dakota 

636,517 

0  6 

5R3.88H 

0  (> 

52,659 

9  0 

45.4 

Nebraska         ... 

1,296,372 

1.2 

1.192,214 

1  3 

104,  15K 

8  7 

11  8 

Kanstib   ... 

1,709,257 

1  7 

1,690,949 

1.8 

78.308 

4  0 

15.0 

South  Atlantic 

Delaware 

.  .     .            223,003 

02 

202,322 

02 

20,681 

102 

9.5 

Maryland        . 

.  .     .         1,449,661 

1  4 

1,295,346 

1  4 

154,315 

11  9 

9.0 

District    of    Columbia 

437,571 

04 

331,009 

0  4 

100,502 

32.2 

18.8 

Virginia 

.     .         2,309,187 

2.2 

2.061,612 

2.2 

247.575 

12  0 

11.2 

West  Virginia    .             ... 

.       .         1,403,701 

1  4 

1,221.119 

1  3 

242.582 

19  9 

27.4 

North     Carolina 

.       .         2,559,123 

2  4 

2,206,287 

2.4 

352.836 

160 

16.5 

South    Carolina 

1,683,724 

1  6 

1,515.400 

1  fi 

108,324 

11  1 

13.1 

....         2,895,832 

2  7 

2,609,121 

2  8 

286,711 

11  0 

17.7 

Florida                       ... 

....            968,470 

09 

752,619 

6.8 

215,851 

28  7 

42.4 

East  South  Central 

Kentucky        

.     .  .        2,416,630 

2.3 

2,289,905 

2  5 

126.725 

5.5 

6.6 

Tennessee     .... 

2,337,885 

2.2 

2,184,789 

2  4 

153,096 

70 

8.1 

Alabama      ... 

2,348,174 

22 

2,138,093 

2  3 

210.081 

9.8 

16.9 

Mississippi 

1,790,618 

1.7 

1,799,114 

20 

-6,496 

-0.4 

15.8 

West  South  Central 

Arkansas       

1,752,204 

17 

1,574,449 

1  7 

177,755 

11  3 

20.0 

Louisiana      

.       .         1,798,509 

1.7 

1,656.388 

1  8 

142,121 

8.6 

19.9 

Oklahoma     .    .             . 

.    .        2,028.283 

1.9 

1,657,155 

1  8 

371,128 

22.4 

1097 

Texas    

4,663,228 

4.4 

3,896,542 

42 

766,686 

19.7 

27.8 

Mountain 

Montana     

548,889 

0.5 

376,053 

0.4 

172,830 

46.0 

54.5 

Idaho       ... 

431,866 

0.4 

325,594 

0.4 

106,272 

32.0 

101.8 

Wyoming        

.       .             194,402 

0.2 

145,965 

0.2 

48.437 

33.2 

57.7 

.    .  .            939,629 

0.9 

799,024 

0.9 

140.605 

17.6 

48  0 

New  Mexico  

860,350 

03 

327,301 

0  4 

33,049 

10  1 

-  67.6 

Arizona     .    . 

....            334,162 

0  3 

204,354 

0.2 

129,808 

63  5 

66.2 

Utah     

449,396 

0.4 

373,351 

0.4 

76,045 

20.4 

34.9 

Nevada  

77,407 

0.1 

81,875 

0.1 

-4,468 

-5.5 

98.4 

Pacific 

Washington    

1  356,621 

1.8 

1,141,990 

1.2 

214,631 

18.8 

120.4 

783  389 

0.8 

672,765 

0.7 

110,624 

16.4 

62.7 

California         

8.426,861 

3.2 

2,377,549 

2  6 

1,049,312 

44.1 

60.1 

•  A   minus   sign    (-)    denotes   decrease. 

It  ia  clear  from  the  data  in  thin  table  that 
there  was  a  decided  slackening  in  the  westward 


of  the  nine  geographic  divisions  showed  a  rate 
of  increase  in  the  last  decade  higher  than  in 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


1336 


UNITED  STATES  OF  A  MIGHT C  A 


the  decade  1900  to  1910.  This  was  the  East 
North  Central  Division  consisting  of  the  States 
of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wis- 
consin. This  was  the  region  which  showed  the 
most  notable  industrial  expansion  of  this  period. 
In  marked  contrast  is  the  low  rate  of  increase 
shown  for  the  East  South  Central  States  and  the 
West  North  Central  Division.  In  the  former 
region  the  northward  migration  of  Negroes  dur- 
ing and  after  the  War  was  at  least  partly  re- 
sponsible for  the  low  rate.  In  the  West  North 
Central  States  the  decline  in  the  rate  of  increase 
was  largely  due  to  stabilized  agriculture  and  ab- 
sence of  any  marked  industrial  development. 

The  largest  numerical  increase  occurred  in  the 
East  North  Central  States  with  a  total  of  3,- 
224,072  more  persons  than  in  1910.  The  Middle 
Atlantic  States  reported  the  next  largest  increase 
amounting  to  2,045,252;  the  South  Atlantic  Di- 
vision increased  1,795,377,  while  the  West  South 
Central  and  the  Pacific  Divisions  each  increased 
approximately  1,400,000. 

Of  the  48  states  of  the  Union,  45  showed  in- 
creases of  population  from  1910  to  1920.  The 
three  reporting  decreases  were  Mississippi,  0.4 
per  cent,  Vermont,  1  per  cent,  and  Nevada,  5.5 
per  cent.  The  largest  rate  of  increase  for  any 
State  was  63.5  per  cent  in  Arizona,  followed  by 
Montana  with  46  per  cent,  California  with  44.1 
per  cent,  Wyoming  with  33.2  per  cent,  Idaho 
with  32.6  per  cent,  and  Michigan  with  30.5  per 


the  United  States  having  a  population  between 
2500  and  25,000;  219  cities  having  from  25,000 
to  100,000  inhabitants,  and  68  having  more  than 
100,000  persons.  During  the  10-year  period  1910 
to  1920,  474  towns  and  other  communities 
passed,  because  of  population  increases,  into  the 
class  of  cities  having  2500  to  25,000  inhabitants. 
During  the  same  period,  59  cities  passed  from 
this  class  into  that  having  25,000  to  100,000 
population,  while  18  left  this  class  for  the  one 
comprised  of  cities  of  over  100,000. 

By  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  large  cities 
is  located  in  the  Eastern  and  Central  industrial 
States.  At  the  1920  census,  38  out  of  the  68 
cities  of  over  100,000  inhabitants  were  located 
in  the  three  geographic  divisions  of  New  Eng- 
land, Middle  Atlantic  and  East  North  Central 
States.  These  38  cities  had  a  total  population 
of  approximately  10,500.000  out  of  an  aggregate 
for  the  group  of  27,r>00,000.  Also  144  out  of 
the  219  cities  in  the  class  2.),0(ro  to  100,000  were 
located  in  these  three  divisions  and  they  fur- 
nished 6,500,000  out  of  the  10,340,000  inhabitants 
in  this  class  of  cities. 

Of  the  68  cities  having  100,000  or  more  in- 
habitants hi  1020,  there  were  25  which  had  a 
population  of  2r>0,000  or  over.  A  study  of  the 
changes  in  the  population  of  these  25  cities  at 
the  last  two  censuses  illustrates  the  changing 
trends  in  large  urban  populations  for  the  last 
two  decades. 


TABLE    V  —  POPULATION 

OP    CITIES    HAVING    250,000    INHABITANTS    OR 
INCREASE  AND  RANK       1920  AND  1910 

MORE    IN 

1920, 

WITH 

City 

Population 

Increase  1910-1920 

Rank 

1920 

1910 

Numbor 

Per  cent 

1920 

1910 

New  York  

5,620,048 

4,766,883 

853,165 

179 

1 

1 

Chicago        

2,701,705 

2,185,283 

516,422 

23  f> 

•» 

2 

Philadelphia    

1,823,779 

1,549,008 

274,771 

17  7 

3 

3 

Detroit         

.       .         .  .          993,678 

405,766 

527,912 

113,3 

4 

9 

Cleveland     

796,841 

560,663 

236,178 

42  1 

5 

6 

St.   Louis        

.  .    .                 772,897 

687,029 

H5,868 

12  5 

6 

4 

Boston      

748,060 

670,585 

77,475 

11  6 

7 

5 

Baltimore    

733,826 

558,485 

175,341 

31.4 

8 

7 

Pittsburgh   

588,343 

533,905 

54,438 

10  2 

9 

8 

Los  Angeles   

576,673 

319,198 

257,475 

80  7 

10 

17 

Buffalo      

506,775 

423,715 

83,000 

19  G 

11 

10 

San  Francisco  

506,676 

416,912 

89,764 

21  S 

12 

11 

Milwaukee  

457,147 

373,857 

83,290 

22  3 

13 

12 

Washington          

437,571 

331,069 

106,502 

32  2 

14 

16 

Newark        

414,524 

347,469 

67,055 

19  3 

15 

14 

Cincinnati    

401,247 

363,591 

37,656 

104 

lf> 

13 

New   Orleans    

387,219 

339,075 

48,144 

142 

17 

15 

Minneapolis     

380,582 

301,408 

79,174 

2h  3 

18 

18 

Kansas   City,   Mo  

324,410 

248,381 

76,029 

30  0 

19 

20 

Seattle     

315,312 

237,194 

78,118 

329 

20 

21 

314,194 

233,650 

H0.54  1 

34  5 

21 

22 

Jersey  City   

298,103 

267,779 

30,324 

11  3 

128 

19 

Rochester        

295,750 

218,149 

77,601 

35  6 

23 

25 

Portland,   Ore  

258,288 

207,214 

51,074 

24.6 

124 

28 

Denver         

256,491 

213.381 

43,110 

20.2 

25 

27 

cent.  Six  other  states — Florida,  New  Jersey, 
Connecticut,  Oklahoma,  Ohio,  and  Utah — each 
showed  rates  of  increase  between  20  and  30  per 
cent  for  the  decade. 

Aside  from  the  three  states  showing  decreases, 
the  five  states  showing  the  lowest  rates  of  in- 
crease were  New  Hampshire,  2.9  per  cent;  Mis- 
souri, 3.4  per  cent;  Maine,  3.5  per  cent;  Kansas, 
4.6  per  cent;  and  Kentucky,  5.5  per  cent. 

Eight  states  contributed  more  than  half  of  the 
total  increase  of  13,738,354  shown  at  the  last 
census.  These  in  the  order  of  their  contributions 
were:  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  California, 
Ohio,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Texas,  and  New  Jersey. 
The  first  three  each  showed  an  increase  of  over 
1,000,000  persons,  while  in  the  other  five  the 
increase  ranged  between  600,000  and  1,000,000 
each. 

At  the  1920  census,  there  were  2500  cities  in 


Only  four  out  of  these  25  cities  retained  the 
same  ranks  in  1020  as  they  had  in  1910,  while 
10  improved  their  positions  and  11  took  lower 
ranks  than  in  1910.  Detroit  moved  from  ninth 
up  to  fourth  place,  Los  Angeles  from  17th  to 
10th,  while  two  cities,  Portland,  Oregon,  and 
Denver,  which  were  outside  the  first  25  in  1910, 
moved  into  this  class  in  1920. 

Urban  and  Rural  Population.  There  has 
long  been  observed  in  the  United  States  a  strong 
movement  of  population  from  the  country  to  the 
city  and  this  tendency  seems  to  be  increasing. 
The  census  defines  urban  population  as  that  liv- 
ing in  cities  or  other  incorporated  places  of  2500 
inhabitants  or  more. 

In  1790,  this  country  was  substantially  all 
rural.  Only  six  cities  had  a  population  of  8000 
or  more.  From  this  time  urban  population  has 
been  increasing  until  at  the  1920  census  more 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMEBICA        1337        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMEBICA 


than  half  of  the  population  lived  in  cities  of 
2500  or  over.  Even  aa  recently  as  1880,  714 
per  cent  of  the  population  was  rural  and  only 
28.6  urban.  In  181)0  the  proportions  were  63.9 
per  cent  rural  and  36.1  per  cent  urban;  by  1900 
the  latter  proportion  had  moved  to  40  per  cent 
and  in  1910  to  45.8  per  cent.  In  1920,  for  the 
first  time,  urban  population  passed  the  highway 
mark,  forming  51.4  per  cent  of  the  total,  while 
rural  population  made  up  only  48.6  per  cent. 
Between  1910  and  1920  urban  population  in- 
creased by  over  12,000,000  or  28.8  per  cent, 
while  the  rural  population  increased  only  1,- 
600,000  or  3.2  per  cent.  Part  of  this  increase 
in  urban  population  was  due  to  the  fact  that  474 
small  towns  which  in  1910  had  less  than  2500 
inhabitants  had  passed  this  mark  by  1920  and 
were  included  as  urban.  However,  even  if  al- 
lowance is  made  for  this,  the  predominating  in- 
crease in  urban  population  is  still  evident 


showed   a   decidedly   larger   increase   than   the 
urban  class. 

Changes  in  Population  Considered  by  Sex, 
Nativity  and  Color.  The  following  tabula- 
tion shows  the  sex  distribution  of  the  population 
of  continental  United  States  at  each  of  the  last 
three  censuses: 


Census  year 
1900  

Males 
38  816  448 

Males  to 
Females    100 
females 
37  178  127   104  4 

1910  

47  332  277 

44  639  989   106  0 

1920  

53  900  431 

51  810  189   104  0 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  population  statistics 
that  the  number  of  males  in  nearly  all  instances 
exceed  the  number  of  females.  This  has  been 
true  of  every  census  of  the  United  States  since 
1830,  when  for  the  first  time  the  returns  showed 
the  sex  of  every  person  enumerated.  In  1920 


TABLE  VI— INCREASE  IN   URBAN  AND    RURAL    POPULATION:    1890-1920 


Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Census 

Total 

Increase 

of  in- 

Per cent 

Total 

Increase 

of  in 

crease 

urban 

crease 

1890        

22  720  223 

30  1 

40,227,491 

1900 

3o!a8o!433 

7,660,210 

34.2 

40  0 

45,614,142 

5,386,651 

13  4 

1910          .    . 

4'J,1  66,120 

11,785,687 

38.8 

45  8 

49,806,146 

4,192,004 

92 

1920 

54.304.GO:! 

12,138,483 

28  8 

514 

51,406  017 

1,599,871 

3  2 

If  the  population  living  in  all  incorporated 
placet)  instead  of  tluit  in  places  of  2.100  and  over 
had  been  considered  as  urban,  the  total  urban 
population  in  1920  would  have  been  (>3,277,000 
or  50.9  per  cent  of  the  total  and  the  rural  popu- 
lation only  42,434,000  or  40.1  per  cent  On  this 
basis  the  corresponding  proportions  in  1910  were 
54.7  and  45.3  per  cent. 

In  1020,  the  census  for  the  first  time  compiled 
the  numbers  of  persons  living  on  farms  or  the 
total  agricultural  population.  This  figure  was 
31,014,219  or  30  per  cent  of  the  total  population, 
and  61.5  per  cent  of  the  population  classified  as 
rural. 

For  the  decade  1910  to  1920,  the  movement 
from  rural  to  urban  continued  to  be  heaviest  in 
the  areas  in  which  it  began,  i.e.  the  industrial 
North  Eastern  and  North  Central  States  The 
three  groups  New  England,  Middle  Atlantic  and 
East  North  Central  States  showed  a  stationary 
rural  population  from  1900  to  1010  and  slight 
decreases  for  1910  to  1020,  while  all  of  the  heavy 
increases  in  these  sections  fell  to  the  urban 
population.  Even  in  the  three  southern  divi- 
sions of  the  country  the  increase  in  urban  popu- 
lation in  the  last  decade  far  exceeded  the  rural. 
Likewise,  in  the  Pacific  States,  the  urban  in- 
crease was  much  greater  than  the  rural.  It  was 


the  number  of  males  exceeded  by  more  than  2,- 
000,000  the  number  of  females,  \vhich  was  a 
considerably  smaller  excess  than  in  1010  when 
the  males  exceeded  females  by  nearly  2,700,000 
Also,  the  proportion  of  males  to  females  was 
lower  in  1920  than  in  any  of  the  three  preceding 
censuses.  A  similar  decrease  in  the  proportion 
of  males  was  noted  after  the  Civil  War  in  the 
decade  between  18(50  and  1S70.  No  doubt  the 
greater  mortality  of  males  due  to  the  Avar,  the 
emigration  of  more  males  than  females  and  per- 
haps an  increase  in  the  proportion  of  female 
immigrants  tended  to  aftect  the  1020  ratio.  The 
statistics  show  that  about  three-fifths  of  the  de- 
crease in  the  excess  of  males  in  1020  was  among 
the  foreign -born  \vhite  population. 

With  regard  to  nativity  and  color,  the  census 
divides  the  population  into  the  following  chief 
gioups:  (1)  native  whites  of  native  parentage; 
(2)  native  whites  of  foreign  parentage;  (3) 
native  whites  of  mixed  parentage,  (4)  foreign- 
born  whites  and  (5)  colored,  separating  the 
latter  two  classes  by  nationality.  It  would  lie 
too  far  outside  the  scope  of  this*  article  to  treat 
this  subject  in  detail.  The  accompanying  table 
gives  the  more  important  classes  and  the  rates  of 
increase  in  each  since  1890  in  comparison  with 
the  total. 


TABLE  VII — GROWTH  OF  WHITE  AND    COLORED  ELEMENTS  IN  POPULATION 
j  "  Whites  j 


1 

Native 

Whites 

1 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Census 
year 

Total 
population 

cent       Total 
of  in- 

cent      Total 
of  in- 

cent 
of  in- 

Of native 
parents 

cent 
of  in- 

Foreign 
born 

cent 
of  in- 

Colored     cent 
of  in- 

crease 

crease 

crease 

crease 

crease 

crease 

)..  62947714  249   55101258   207   45,979,391    245  34,475,716  202     9,121867   39.1      7,864,456   16.2 

3      .!!     75|994i575   207  66>09*196  212   56,595379    23.1  40,949362   18.8   10,213,817   120     9,185,379   171 


1890. 

1900 

1910    ..".."    91,'972,'266  210  81,731  95?'  223   6rt|386,412    20.8  49,488,575  208   13,345,545  307   10.240,309  115 

1920    105,710,620   149  94,82o',915   16.0  81,108,161     18.6  58,421957  181   13,712.754     28   10,889705     63 


only  in  the  mountain  group  of  States  (Montana, 
Idaho,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Ari- 
zona, Utah,  and  Nevada)  that  the  rural  element 


It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  the  rate  of  in- 
crease of  whites  in  the  decade  1010  was 
18.6  per  cent  compared  with  14.0  for  the  total 


T7NITED  STATES  OF  AMB&ICA         1328        UNITED  STATES  07  AMERICA 


population.  For  native  whites  of  native  parents 
the  rate  of  increase  was  18.1.  For  the  two 
classes  not  shown  in  the  table,  the  native  whites 
of  foreign  parentage  increased  by  21.5  per  cent, 
a  higher  rate  than  that  for  any  other  group 
of  the  white  population.  In  many  urban  and 
industrial  sections  the  rate  of  increase  in  this 


It  is  of  some  interest  to  present  the  geographic1 
distribution  of  the  number  of  workers  in  agri- 
culture compared  with  the  number  in  manufac- 
turing and  mining  combined.  These  figures  to- 
gether with  the  value  of  the  products  of  each 
group  by  geographic  divisions  are  shown  in 
Table  VIII. 


TABLE    VIII— COMPARISON    OP    AGRICULTURE     WITH     MANUFACTURES     AND     PRODUCTION 
MINERALS  ON  BASIS  OF  NUMBER  OF  PERSONS  ENGAGED  AND  VALUE   OF  PRODUCT. 
BY  GEOGRAPHIC   DIVISIONS-      1919 


OF 


Persons  engaged  in  — 

Manufactures 
Geographic  Division                      Agriculture          and  production 
of  minerals  • 

Value  of 
agricultural 
products  * 

Value  added  l>j 
manufacture 
plus  value  of 
products  of 
mineral 
industries  « 

United    States    

10,636,826 

11,893,558 

$20,933.487,000 

$28,206,165,000 

221  162 

1  «)43  095 
M,  8  16,  142 
3,091.676 
708,772 
1,073,132 
480,570 
413,  803 
•J2U  382 
543.026 

463,106,000 
1,497,641,000 
4,323,955,000 
5,540,245,000 
2.509,061,000 
1,722,324,000 
2,702,109,000 
914.7H7  000 
1,259,599,000 

3,249.884,000 
9,287,921,000 
7  596,27-4,000 
l.C9(),H04,000 
2,211,025  000 
840.211,000 
1,220/195,000 
634,204.000 
1,168,  587,000 

Middle   Atlantic    
East   North    Central    

633,664 
1  586,291 

"West   North    Central 

1  064  919 

South   Atlantic    

2  114,586 

Eant    South    Central     .    .    . 

1  782  628 

West  South  Central   .... 

1  781  389 

Mountain     .      .        

414,009 

Pacific     

438  178 

•Including    production    of    oil    and    gas. 

*  Total  value  of  crops  plus  total   value  of  live  htodc   products    and   domestic   animals   sold   or   slaughtered   on 
farms,   includes  some  duplication  representing  value  of   crops  consumed  by  live  stock. 


class  of  the  population  exceeded   30   per  cent. 

In  1920,  the  foreign  -born  white  population  to- 
taled 13,712,754,  which  represented  an  increase 
of  only  2  8  per  cent  over  those  shown  in  this 
class  at  the  1910  census.  Foreign-born  whites 
in  1920  foimed  only  18  per  cent  of  the  total 
population  hut  it  is  significant  to  note  that  of 
the  adult  male  population  over  21  years  of  age, 
they  formed  22.1  per  cent  or  over  one-fifth  of 
the  total. 

The  colored  population  increased  only  0.5  per 
cent  in  this  decade,  as  compared  with  11.5  per 
cent  in  the  preceding  decade.  The  total  colored 
population  in  1920  numbered  13,712,754,  of  \\hich 
10,463,131  were  Negroes,  244,437  American  In- 
dians, 111,010  Japanese,  61,039  Chinese.  The 
increase  in  the  total  Negro  population  from  1910 
to  1920  was  only  635,000  or  0.5  per  cent,  the 
lowest  ever  recorded.  The  number  of  Indians 
declined  by  21,246  in  the  last  decade  while  the 
Japanese  increased  38,853  or  54  per  cent,  and 
the  Chinese  decreased  by  9892. 

Persons  Gainfully  Employed.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  decennial  enumeration,  the  Bureau 
of  the  Census  also  compiles  the  number  of  per- 
sons engaged  in  specified  gainful  occupations. 
These  occupations  are  classified  into  nine  main 
groups.  The  1920  census  showed  a  total  of  41,- 
014,248  persons  gainfully  employed  or  a  little 
less  than  40  per  cent  of  the  total  population. 
Of  the  total  number  of  workers,  24,862,000,  or 
about  60  per  cent,  were  employed  in  the  basic 
industries  of  agriculture,  mining  and  manufac- 
turing The  following  tabulation  gives  the 
number  of  workers  in  each  of  the  nine  principal 
groups  at  the  census  of  1920: 


Agriculture,  forestry,  and  animal  husbandry 

Extraction   of   mineraln 

Manufactures    and    mechanical    industries 

Transportation     

Trade          

Public    service    (not   elsewhere  classified) 

Professional    service    

Domestic  and  personal  service   

Clerical    


Total 


10,953,158 
1,090,228 

12.818.524 
3,003,582 
4,242  979 
770,460 
2.143.889 
3,404.892 
3,126,541 

41.614,248 


Agriculture.  General  statistics  and  other 
information  in  respect  to  agriculture  in  tlic 
United  States  are  given  in  the  article  Auiticui  - 
TUBE.  For  special  discussions  of  the  important 
crops  see  CORN,  OAIH,  POTATOES,  WHEAT,  COT 
TON.  etc.  The  following  articles  ln»ar  on  agri- 
cultural activities-  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION, 
AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS;  AGRICUL- 
TURAL EXTENSION  WORK,  AGRICULTURAL  CRI.DIT: 
AGRICULTURE,  INTERNATIONAL  INSTITUTE  OF: 
AGRICULTURE,  UNITED  STATES  DEPARTMENT  OF, 
HORTICULTURE;  BOTANY;  DISEASES  OK  PJANTS, 
TRACTOR;  RECLAMATION;  DAIRYING;  LIVE  STOCK: 
FOOD  AND  NUTRITION;  FERTILIZERS;  SOIL:  VET- 
ERINARY MEDICINE,  The  articles  on  individual 
States  consider  local  agricultural  matters  in  de- 
tail. 

Mineral  Production.  It  was  natural  that 
the  War  should  serve  as  a  stimulus  to  a  greater 
mineral  production  and  from  1914  to  191H  there 
was  a  continuous  increase  in  the  value  of  motalli'- 
and  non-metallic  mineials  ruined.  Table  IX 
shows  the  condition  of  the  industry  over  the 
period  1013-23. 

Table  X  presents  a  survey  of  the  principal 
minerals,  by  production  and  value,  for  the  years 
1913,  1020  (the  peak  year  of  the  period),  1022, 
arid  1023. 

The  more  important  minerals  mined  in  the 
United  States  are  treated  under  the  following 
separate  heads:  COAL;  COKE;  COPPER;  GOLD; 
IRON  AND  STEEL;  LEAD;  PETROLEUM;  SIIVKR. 
See  also  ALUMINIUM;  ASPHALT;  BAUXITE;  CF- 
MENT;  GRAPHITE;  OYPHUM;  LIME;  NATURAL 
GAR;  PHOSPHATE  ROOK;  PLATINUM;  QUICK- 
SILVER; RADIUM;  TALC  AND  SOAPBTONE;  STONF; 
SULPHUR;  TIN;  ZINC.  The  articles  on  the  in- 
dividual States  contain  sections  on  mineral  pro- 
duction. 


MANUFACTURES 

Twenty  years  ago  the  United  States  was 
known  chiefly  as  an  agricultural  and  raw  ma- 
terial producing  nation.  The  developments  of 
the  last  two  decades  brought  this  country  to  the 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMEEIOA 


133$ 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


TABLE   IX—  TOTAL  VALUE   OP  MINERAL   PR( 

Year                                Metallic 
Value 
1913      878  860.000 

)DUOTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  PROM  1913  TO  1923 
Ntnmetallic                  Unspecified                       Total 
Value                     (metallic  and                     Value 
nonmetalhc) 
1,554,298,000                      378,000                   2,433,545,000 
1,424,063,000                      470,000                  2,111,172,000 
1,400,484,000                    2,430,000                   2,394,044,000 
1,884,41J,000                   3,281,000                   3,508,1.19,000 
2,900,402,000                   5,800,000                  4,992,490,000 
3,380,690,000                    6,700,000                   5,540,708,000 
3,232,626,000                   3,400,000                  4,595,770,000 
5,214,170,000                   4,820,000                  6,981,340,000 
3,481,890,000                    2,650,000                   4,138,670,000 
8,650,410,000                    »,  700,000                   4,047,290,000 
4,515,800,000                    4,000,000                   0,018,000,000 

1914      

686,639  000 

1915        

991,730  000 

1916      

1,620,745,000 

J917      

2,086,234,000 
2,153,318,000 

1918      

1919      

.  .    .        1,359,744,000 

1920        

1,762,350,000 

1921      .... 

654  130  000 

1922     

987,180  000 

1923      

1,498,200,000 

Grand    total    .    . 

28,392,410000 

51,738,902,000 

93,117,000 

80,221,429,000 

TABLE  X— PRODUCTION  AND  VALUE  Otf  PRINCIPAL  MINERALS  FOR  1913,   ]922,  1923 


Aluminium,  pounds        .  . 
Copper,   pounds    '. 

EXPRESS] 

1913 
Ain't           Value 
72,379       $13,845 
1,224,484       189,795   : 
4,299         88,884 
30,388      458,342 
4J6        38,405 
66  801         40,348 
337         37,772 
92,949         93,001 
181,289 
478,523       565,307 
81,718       195.181 
3,595         14,648 
87,846 
248,446       237121 
34,399         10.123 
83,732 
311           5,479 

ED   IN    Till 

19! 
Am't 

1,2*09,  06  i 
2,470 
35,710 
476 
55,361 
450 
97,079 

568,666 
79.998 
3,570 

442,929 

Of  SANDS 

20 
Value 
$41,375 
224,467 
51,186 
1,140,904 
76,296 
60  801 
72,907 
195,589 
JJ73.670 
2,  129,9-53 
434,J52 
37,543 
100,259 
1,360,745 
29  894 
133,541 
30,000 

19 

Am't 

950,285 
2,303 
27,670 
408 
56,240 
353 
118,590 

422,268 
48,824 
3,639 

557,531 

22 
Value 
$13,622 
128,289 
48,849 
608,144 
51,562 
56,240 
40,273 
208,464 
321,494 
1,274,820 
273,700 
33,255 
221,535 
895,111 
27,404 
122,066 
22.000 

191 
'Am't 

1,434,999 
2,502 
38,3(>3 
543 
73,335 
508 
137,183 

'  545,400 
85,218 
4,057 

23 
Value 
$28,305 
210,945 
51,734 
935,908 
76,138 
60,134 
69,134 
259,631 

1,636,200 
491.537 
39,413 
250,000 
930  760 
27,600 
161.880 
26,000 

Gold,    fine    ounres 
Iron,   pig,   long  tons    .  . 
Lead,    short    ton*         .      .    . 
Silver,    fanu    ounces    . 
Zinc,  Hhort  tons            .      .    . 

Clay    products 
Bituminous    coal,    short    tons 
Anthracite  coal    long  tons 
Lime,   short  tons 
Natural  gas    .               .... 
Petroleum,    barrels 
Salt,  barrels    .    .  . 
Stone         
Sulphur,   long  tons        ...    . 

733,260 

"l',5i7 

'  1,343 

1,618 

Total    metallic         .      ... 

882,980 
1,562,324 

1  762,350 
5,184,240 

987,180 
3,656,410 

.. 

1,498,200 
4,515,800 

Total    mineral    products 

2,445,805 

6,9->l,410 

•• 

4,647,290 

6,018,000 

forefront  as  an  industrial  nation.  If  develop- 
ment continues  in  the  futuie  as  it  has  in  recent 
years  Jt  will  not  be  long  until  Eastern  United 
States  will  be  one  of  the  highly  industrialized 
aieas  of  the  world.  The  growth  of  industrial 
activity  is  best  brought  out  by  the  data  from 
the  census  of  manufactures  which  are  available 
at  varying  intervals  since  1850.  These  figures 
are  summarized  in  Table  XI. 


in£  the  figures  for  later  years  by  the  use  of 
price  index  numbers.  Table  XII  gives  figures  on 
cost  of  material  used,  value  of  products  and 
value  added  by  manufacture  for  each  census  of 
manufactures  since  1899  (1)  as  stated  by  the 
Census  and  (2)  estimated  on  the  basis  that 
prices  in  succeeding  periods  had  remained  at 
the  same  level  as  in  1S(){).  These  latter  compu- 
tations are  based  on  the  all  commodity  whole- 


TMBLK 

XI—  SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES  OF  TTTK   UNITED  STATES, 

1850-1921 

CensuH 

No    of  es- 

No   of  ^age 

Wages 

Cost  of          Value  of             Value  added 

year 

tablish  men  ts 

earners  —  average 

paid 

materials 

products          by 

manufacturing 

Mill: 

ions  of  dollars 

1850    .      . 

123,025 

957.059  * 

237 

555 

1,019 

464 

1860 

.    .  .                 140,433 

1,311.246  * 

379 

1.0J2 

1,886 

854 

1879 

25  t.852 

2,  7  32.  59  5  6 

918 

3  397 

5,370 

1,973 

1889 

355  405 

4.251,535 

1,891 

5,102 

9,372 

4,210 

1899    .  .  . 

207,514 

4,712  763 

2,008 

0,576 

11,407 

4,831 

l')04 

...     210,180 

5,468,383 

2,010 

8,r>00 

14,793 

6,294 

1909 

.  .       .  .              20H.491 

6,615,046 

.1,427 

12,143 

•J0.672 

8,529 

1914 

275,791 

7,036,337 

4,079 

14,368 

24,246 

9,878 

1919 

290,106 

9,090,372 

10,5.14 

37,376 

62,418 

25,042 

3921  • 

190.267 

6,940.570 

8,200 

25,337 

43,653 

18.317 

0  Tho  1921  census  of  manufactures  relates  oiilv  to  establishments  having  products  valued  at  $5000  or  more, 
whereas  at  previous  censuses  the  corresponding  limit  wns  $500.  It  is  estimated  that  establishments  with  prod- 
ucts valued  between  $500  and  $5000,  while  constituting  about  21  per  cent  of  the  total  number  employed,  only  con- 
stituted «ix  tenths  of  one  per  cent  of  total  wage  earners  and  had  an  output  of  only  three-tenths  of  one  per 
rent  of  the  total  value  of  products 

*  Includes  salaried  officials,  clerks,  etc. 


In  1850  the  total  value  of  products  of  the 
manufacturing  industries  of  the  United  States 
was  only  $1,010,000,000.  By  1809  these  had  in- 
creased to  $11,407,000,000;  hy  1900  this  latter 
value  had  heen  nearly  doubled,  and  in  1919  they 
reached  the  enormous  total  of  $62,418,000,000. 
A  considerable  portion  of  this  latter  figure,  how- 
ever, was  due  to  higher  prices  per  unit  and  not 
entirely  to  increased  quantity  of  product.  Some 
approximation  to  the  increase  in  physical  vol- 
ume of  production  can  be  arrived  at  by  reduc- 


sale  price  index  of  the  Bureau  of  Labor  Statis- 
tics, United  States  Department  of  Labor  The 
index  given  in  the  first  column  of  the  table  is 
the  same  as  that  computed  by  the  Bureau  ex- 
cept that  for  convenience  the  base  has  been 
transferred  from  1913  to  1899.  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  Department  of  Labor  index 
is  based  on  many  products  which  do  not  enter 
into  manufacture  and  for  many  reasons  can 
give  only  rough  approximations  when  used  in 
this  way.  However,  the  resulting  figures  do 


TWITED  STATES  OF  AHBBIOA 


1330 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AHB&IOA 


stand  in  approximately  the  same  relation  to 
each  other  as  the  weighted  physical  volume  of 
the  products  and  serve  to  give  some  idea  of  the 
physical  growth  of  the  manufacturing  industries 
independent  of  the  effect  of  price  changes. 


that  the  natural  growth  of  the  industries  was 
almost  sufficient  to  offset  the  lower  activity  due 
to  the  period  of  depression  from  which  industry 
was  recovering  in  1921. 

Another  measure  which  may  be  employed  to 


TABLE   XII— COMPUTATION   OF  APPROXIMATE   VALUE    OF    MATERIALS,    PRODUCTS    AND    VALUE 

ADDED  BY  MANUFACTURE  AT  1899  PRICES 

(Millions  of  Dollars) 


Year 
1899  

Price 
Index 
100 

Coat  of  Materials 

Aa             At  1899 
Stated             Prices 
6,576              6,576 
8,500              7,319 
12,143              9,413 
14,308            10,908 
37,376             13,591 
25,337            12,927 

Value  of  Products 

As            At  1899 
Stated           Prices 
11,407          11,407 
14,793           12,863 
20,072          16,025 
24,246          18,508 
62,418          22,697 
43,053          22,271 

Value  added  by 
Manufacture 
As           At  1899 
Stated         Prices 
4,831          4,831 
6,294          5,473 
8,529          6,012 
9,878          7,541 
25,042          9,106 
18,317          9,363 

1904  

115 

1909      

129 

1914  

131 

1919  

275 

1921 

196 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  value  of  products 
as  stated  by  the  census  rose  from  $20,072,000,- 
000  in  1909  to  the  maximum  of  $02,418,000,000 
in  1919,  an  increase  for  the  decade  of  over  200 
per  cent.  Based  on  1899  prices,  the  values  of 
these  products  for  the  same  years  were  $16,025,- 
000,000  and  $22,697,000,000,  or  an  increase  of 
$6,672,000,000,  or  41.6  per  cent.  In  the  preced- 
ing decade,  1899  to  1909,  computed  on  the  same 
basis,  the  value  of  products  rose  from  $11,407,- 
000,000  to  $16,025,000,000,  an  increase  of  40.5 
per  cent.  Computed  on  this  basis  the  relative 
increase  in  the  physical  output  of  the  manu- 
facturing industry  of  the  United  States  was 
about  the  same  during  the  last  decade  as  dur- 
ing the  preceding. 

The  census  of  1921  is  the  first  of  the  biennial 
censuses  of  manufactures  authori/ed  by  Con- 
gress. This  latter  census  relates  only  to  es- 
tablishments having  products  valued  at  $5000 
or  more,  whereas  at  previous  censuses  the  cor- 
responding limit  was  $500.  The  Bureau  of  the 
Census  states  that  although  the  establishments 
with  products  valued  between  $500  and  $5000 
constitute  21.G  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of 
establishments  in  1919,  they  represented  only 
six-tenths  of  one  per  cent  of  the  total  number 
of  wage  earners  and  only  three-tenths  of  one 
per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  products.  Con- 
sequently, their  omission  has  only  a  slight  ef- 
fect upon  the  completeness  of  the  data.  Bear- 
ing this  in  mind,  it  is  of  interest  to  note  that 
the  value  of  products  in  1921  when  computed 


gauge  the  trend  of  the  manufacturing  industries 
independent  of  the  price  factor  is  the  average 
number  of  wage  earueis  employed  aa  given  in 
Table  XIII.  In  this  case,  however,  the  increas- 
ing introduction  of  labor-Having  machinery  and 
the  varying  efficiency  of  labor  are  factors  which 
affect  the  results,  but  which  cannot  be  evaluated 
In  the  decade  between  1809  and  1909  the  number 
of  wage  earners  increased  40.3  per  cent  and  be- 
tween 1909  and  1919  the  increase  was  37.5  per 
cent.  These  figures  agree  fairly  well  with 
those  arrived  at  from  values  of  product  com- 
puted at  a  conwtant  price  if  allowance  is  made 
for  the  above-mentioned  factors.  However,  be- 
tween 1919  and  l!)21  the  average  number  of 
wage  earners  declined  from  9,090,000  to  0,!)47,- 
000,  a  decrease  of  nearly  24  per  cent.  It  is  im- 
probable that  this  decline  can  be  entirely  as- 
cribed to  labor-saving  machinery  or  greater  ef- 
ficiency of  labor,  although  both  factors  have 
played  a  large  part  during  the  post-war  recon- 
struction period.  In  all  probability  there  was 
a  greater  decline  in  industrial  output  in  these 
two  years  than  that  indicated  by  the  value  of 
product  at  constant  prices,  but  it  was  probably 
not  so  great  as  that  shown  by  the  figures  for 
the  number  of  wage  earners. 

Manufacturing  Industries  by  Groups. 
The  census  classifies  all  manufacturing  indus- 
tries in  14  general  groups.  These  groups  to- 
gether with  some  of  the  principal  figures  for 
the  censuses  of  1909,  1919  and  1921  are  shown 
in  Table  XIII. 


TABLE  XIII— SUMMARY  OF  MANUFACTURING  INDUSTRIES  BY  GENERAL  GROUPS 

Group  Average  Number  of  Cost  of  Materials  Value  of  Products 

Wage  Earners 

1909  1919  1921        1909         1919       1921        1909         1919        1921 

Millions  Millions  Millions  Millions  Millions  Millions 
684,672       568,734  $3,188   $10,112   $5,938    $3,938  $12,439    $7,850 

—      1,763        5.1H2      8,804       3,0*7        9,216       6,961 

1,800         ' -  -~-       

718 
670 
451 
186 
931 


Food   and  kindred   products    ...       411,^  .. 

Textiles    and    their    products  1,445,720   1,611,309   1,510,876 

Iron  and  steel  and  their  products  1,026,553    1,585,712   1,031,523 


Lumber  and  its  manufactures 
Leather  and  its  finished  products 

Paper  and  printing: 

Liquors  and  beverages       .    ... 
Chemicals  and  allied  products   . 
Stone,  clay  and  glass  products   . 
Metals  and  metal  products  other 

than    iron    and    steel    

Tobaec  o  manufactures    .    . 
Vehicles   for   land   transportation 

Railroad  repair  shops 

Miscellaneous  industries 


911,593 
309,766 
415,990 
77,827 
267  201 
342,827 

249,607 
166, 810 
202,719 
304,592 


839,008 
349,362 
509,875 
55,442 
427,008 
298,659 

339.469 
157,097 
495,939 
515,709 


482,206  1,227,111 


675,009 
280,071 
467,072 
35,374 
329,472 
250,812 

235,170 
149,985 
281,350 
418,285 
712,777 


184 

892  . 

177 

307 

215 

661 


4,816 
1,360 
1,714 
1,307 

223 
3,748 

409 

1,910 
484 

2,498 
548 

2,868 


3,003 
1,189 

934 
1,331 

158 
3,070 

421 

995 
609 

1,576 
507 

1,801 


. 

3,164 
1,588 

993 
1,179 

674 
1,527 

532 


9,404 
3,070 
2,610 


1,240 
416 
562 
438 

1,334 


601 
5,610 
1,086 

2,760 
1,013 
4,059 
1,354 
6,180 


5.601 
2,430 
1,544 
3,149 
292 
4,537 
1,019 

1,575 
1.018 
2.509 
1,267 
3,872 


at  1899  prices  is  only  slightly  less  than  the 
1919  figure  on  the  same  base.  This  is  quite  a 
different  conclusion  than  would  be  drawn  from 
the  decline  in  value  as  stated  by  the  census 
which  showed  a  decrease  of  $18,765,000,000  in 
value  of  product  for  the  two  years.  From  the 
figures  based  on  1899  prices  it  seems  probable 


The  most  important  group  from  the  stand- 
point of  value  of  products  is  that  of  foods  and 
their  products  which  increased  from  less  than 
*>4,000,000,000  in  1909  to  $12,439,000,000  in 
1919.  The  two  groups,  textiles  and  their  prod- 
ucts, and  iron  and  steel  and  their  products,  are 
practically  tied  for  second  place,  although  In 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMEBIOA        1331        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMBBIOA 


1021  the  former  group  was  well  in  the  lead.  A 
marked  increase  has  occurred  in  the  group  of 
chemicals  and  allied  products  which  were  valued 
at  $1,527,000,000  in  1000  and  at  $5,610,000,000 
in  1910.  Vehicles  for  land  transportation  shows 
the  development  of  the  automobile  industry. 
This  group  increased  from  $502,000,000  in  1909 
to  $4,050,000,000  in  1019,  an  increase  for  the 
10  years  of  622  per  cent.  The  next  largest  rela- 
tive increase  for  any  group  was  in  miscellaneous 
industries  which  expanded  during  the  decade 
1909  to  1919  from  $1,334,000,000  to  $6,180,000,- 
000,  an  increase  of  364  per  cent.  The  only 
group  to  show  a  decrease  for  the  decade  was  that 
of  liquors  and  beverages. 

Manufacturing  Industries  by  States  and 
Geographical  Divisions.     Table  XIV   summa- 


States,  including  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania.  The  value  of  the  products  pro- 
duced in  this  division  increased  $12,712,000,000 
during  the  10  years,  or  17B  per  cent  of  the  1909 
value.  The  East  North  Central  States,  includ- 
ing Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin, ran  a  close  second  in  actual  increase. 
The  value  of  products  produced  in  this  territory 
rose  from  $5,212,000,000  in  1909  to  $17,737,000,- 
000  in  1919,  an  increase  of  $12,525,000,000,  or 
240  per  cent.  The  greatest  relative  increase  for 
any  division  was  in  the  Pacific  States  where 
the  value  of  products  rose  from  $844,000,000  in 
1909  to  $3,158,000,000  in  1919,  representing  an 
increase  of  274  per  cent.  This  was  followed  by 
the  West  South  Central  States  with  an  increase 
for  the  same  10  years  of  204  per  cent. 


TABLE   XIV— SUMMARY   OP  MANUFACTURING   INDUSTRIES    BY    GEOGRAPHICAL    DIVISIONS    AND 

STATES,   1909,   1919  AND   1921 


Number  of  Wage  Earners 
Thou-      Thou-       Thou- 

Value  of  Products 
Mil-              Mil-             Mil- 

N umber  of  Establishments 

sands 

bands 

sands 

lions 

lions 

lions 

1909 

1919 

1921 

1909 

1919 

1921 

1909 

1919 

1921 

United  States  

268,491 

290,105 

196,267 

6,615 

9,096 

6,947 

$20,672 

$62,418 

$43,653 

New    England    

25,351 

25  528 

19  057 

1,101 

1,351 

1,072 

2  670 

7,1*3 

4,903 

Maine        

3,646 

2,995 

1,761 

80 

89 

76 

176 

457 

340 

New  Hampshire  .  . 

1,961 

1,499 

1,122 

79 

83 

67 

163 

407 

246 

Vermont 

1,958 

1.790 

1,102 

34 

33 

2fi 

68 

168 

114 

Massachusetts 

11,684 

11,906 

9,994 

585 

714 

579 

1,491 

4,011 

2  849 

Rhode    Island 

1  951 

2  466 

1,759 

114 

140 

113 

280 

747 

517 

Connecticut 

4,251 

4,  '8  72 

3,320 

211 

293 

211 

490 

1,392 

836 

Middle    Atlantic         .      ... 

81,315 

88.360 

67,181 

2,208 

2,873 

2/J46 

7,142 

19,855 

14,589 

New   York 

44,935 

49,330 

38,107 

1,004 

1,228 

1,000 

3  369 

8.867 

6,974 

New   Jersey 

8,H17 

11.057 

8,784 

326 

509 

382 

1,146 

3,672 

2,556 

PennsjUania 

27,563 

27.973 

20,290 

878 

1,136 

K64 

2,027 

7,316 

5,039 

East   North   Central 

60,013 

61,332 

43,549 

1,514 

2,397 

1,711 

5,212 

17,737 

11,805 

Ohio 

15.138 

16.125 

11,479 

447 

731 

494 

1.438 

5,100 

3,301 

Indiana     

7  969 

7  916 

5  109 

187 

278 

207 

579 

1,899 

1,378 

Illinois    . 

18[<)26 

18,'593 

13^952 

466 

r>53 

514 

1,919 

5,425 

3,705 

Michigan     

9  159 

8  305 

5,718 

231 

471 

301 

f»83 

3,466 

2,206 

Wisconsin 

9,721 

10,393 

7,291 

183 

264 

192 

590 

1,847 

1,215 

West    North    Central    .  . 

27,171 

29,166 

17,336 

374 

500 

385 

1,804 

5,187 

3,507 

Minnesota     

5,561 

6,225 

4,089 

85 

116 

86 

409 

1,218 

850 

Io\v  a 

5,528 

5,683 

3,527 

62 

81 

62 

259 

745 

521 

Missouri 

8^375 

8J592 

5  442 

153 

195 

156 

574 

1,594 

1,162 

North   Dakota    .      .      . 

752 

894 

'388 

3 

4 

3 

19 

57 

36 

South    Dakota    

1,020 

1,414 

574 

4 

6 

5 

18 

62 

42 

Nebraska    

2,500 

2,884 

1,390 

24 

37 

28 

199 

596 

334 

Kansas               

3,435 

3,474 

1,926 

44 

61 

45 

325 

914 

561 

South    Atlantic         

28,088 

29,976 

16,436 

663 

817 

646 

1,381 

4,455 

2,985 

Delaware        .          ... 

726 

668 

460 

21 

29 

IK 

53 

165 

87 

Maryland         .         ... 

4,837 

4,937 

3,128 

108 

140 

107 

316 

874 

638 

District   of   Columbia    • 

518 

595 

490 

8 

10 

9 

25 

69 

68 

Virginia                      .    . 

5,685 

5,603 

2,570 

106 

119 

89 

220 

644 

454 

West  Virginia    

2,586 

2,785 

1,550 

64 

83 

61 

162 

472 

310 

North   Carolina 

4,931 

5,999 

2,602 

121 

158 

n  « 

217 

944 

665 

South   Carolina 

1,854 

2,004 

1,107 

73 

79 

76 

113 

381 

236 

Georgia   .                

4.792 

4,803 

2,809 

105 

123 

98 

203 

693 

381 

Florida 

2,159 

2,582 

1,720 

57 

74 

53 

73 

213 

146 

East  South  Central    .  .  . 

15,381 

14,655 

7,254 

262 

329 

259 

630 

1,642 

1,094 

Kentucky         .         ... 

4,776 

3,957 

2.038 

65 

(.9 

59 

224 

396 

303 

Tennessee 

4,609 

4,589 

2,245 

74 

95 

75 

1*0 

556 

374 

Alabama 

3,398 

3,654 

1.855 

72 

107 

83 

146 

493 

303 

Mississippi 
West  South  Central    ...      . 

2,598 
12,339 

2,455 
13,909 

1,116 
8,104 

50 
205 

58 
285 

42 
230 

80 
625 

198 

2,278 

114 
1,724 

Arkansas 

2,925 

3,123 

1,289 

45 

50 

33 

75 

200 

119 

Louisiana           .    . 

2,516 

2,617 

1.851 

76 

98 

85 

224 

676 

479 

Oklahoma    .                  .    . 

2.310 

2,445 

1,398 

13 

30 

22 

54 

401 

284 

Texas               

4,588 

5,724 

3.566 

70 

108 

89 

273 

1,000 

842 

Mountain               

5,254 

7,612 

4,016 

75 

109 

82 

364 

923 

617 

Montana   

677 

1  290 

571 

12 

17 

11 

73 

167 

81 

Idaho    

725 

922 

485 

8 

14 

11 

22 

81 

57 

268 

576 

254 

3 

7 

7 

6 

81 

80 

Colorado   

2,034 

2.631 

1,491 

28 

35 

28 

130 

276 

221 

New    Mexico     

813 

387 

194 

4 

6 

4 

8 

18 

14 

Arizona      .         ... 

311 

480 

269 

6 

9 

5 

50 

121 

39 

Utah        

749 

1,166 

645 

12 

19 

13 

62 

157 

111 

Nevada              .... 

177 

166 

107 

2 

3 

2 

12 

23 

13 

Pacific       

16  579 

19,567 

13,334 

213 

435 

316 

844 

3,158 

2,431 

Washington         .  .         .      . 

3,674 

4,918 

2  908 

69 

133 

78 

221 

810 

448 

Oregon        .           

2,246 

2,707 

1,730 

29 

59 

40 

93 

.'J«i  7 

224 

California     

7,659 

11,942 

8,696 

115 

244 

198 

530 

1,981 

1.759 

rizes  the  most  important  items  from  the  three 
censuses  of  1900,  1919  and  1921  by  States  and  by 
the  nine  geographic  divisions  used  by  the  cen- 
sus. The  largest  actual  increase  in  the  value  of 
products  for  any  geographic  division  during  the 
decade  1909-19  was  for  the  Middle  Atlantic 


The  three  geographical  divisions,  New  Eng- 
land, Middle  Atlantic  and  East  North  Central, 
contain  the  principal  manufacturing  industries. 
This  territory,  which  may  lie  described  roughly 
as  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of  the  Ohio 
and  the  Mason  and  Dixon  line,  produced  72.7 


UNITED  STATES  OF  ATffTOTOA         1533         TJKITED  STATES  OF  AXBBIQA 


per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  manufactured  prod- 
ucts in  1900,  71.8  per  cent  in  1019,  and  71  7  per 
cent  in  1021.  See  also  articles  MOTOR  VEHI- 
CLES; FOOD  AND  NUTRITION;  IRON  AND  STEEL; 
BOOTS  AND  SHOES;  LEATHER;  RUBBER;  SILK; 
SILK,  ARTIFICIAL;  TEXTILE  MANUFACTURING ; 
WATER  POWER;  PAPER  AND  WOOD  PULP;  SHIP- 
PING; SHIPBUILDING;  MOVING  PICTURES;  RADIO; 
and  the  section  Manufactures  under  the  articles 
on  the  individual  States. 

FOREIGN  COMMERCE 

The  War  had  a  marked  effect  upon  the  foreign 
trade  of  the  United  States.  For  the  five  pre- 
war years,  1910  to  1014  inclusive,  the  average 
exports  of  domestic  merchandise  amounted  to 
$2,130,000,000  per  year  while  imports  averaged 
$1,680,000,000.  During  the  next  five  years,  1015 


nomic  importance,  is  not  entirely  satisfactory. 
Value  is  the  product  of  two  variables—quantity 
anjj  pricg  During  a  period  of  rapidly  changing 
price  levels  it  is  difficult  to  know  whether  the 
major  portion  of  changes  in  total  value  are  due 
to  this  factor  alone  or  whether  the  physical 
volume  of  trade  has  also  changed.  Various 
methods  have  been  employed  to  measure  the 
relative  physical  volume  of  foreign  trade  but 
probably  the  rnout  satisfactory  is  to  compute 
the  value  of  the  quantities  of  commodities  ex- 
ported or  imported  each  year  using  a  constant 
price.  The  Federal  Reserve  Board  computes  a 
monthly  index  of  foreign  trade  on  this  basis 
using  only  the  more  important  commodities. 
The  Department  of  Commerce  computed  the 
value  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States 
for  a  scries  of  years  based  cm  1023  prices. 


to  1920,  domestic  exports  averaged  $0,101,000,-      These  data  are  summari/cd  in  Table  XVT.     This 
000    and    imports    amounted    to    $3,223,000,000.      table  shows   that   while   the   value   of   domestic 


TABLE  XV  —  EXPORTS,  IMPORTS     \ND  BVLANCE   OF  TRADE  OP  THE 
(Values  in  millions  of  dollars) 
Merchandise  exports               Merchandise  imports 

Per 
cent 

UNITED  STATES 

EXCUSK  of  exports  (4  ) 
or  imports  (  —  ) 
Mer- 
(han- 

im- 

dise, 

Tears 

Do 

For- 

Total 

Free 

Duti- 

Total 

Per 

ports 

Mcr 

Gold 

gold. 

inestic 

eign 

able 

rent 

are  of 

chan 

and 

and 

free 

ex- 

dise 

silver 

silver 

Years    ended    June 

30— 

ports 

1875-1879    . 

599 

14 

612 

142 

323 

466 

30  6 

76  0 

4-147 

+27 

+174 

1880-1884 

794 

17 

811 

208 

477 

685 

30.3 

84.5 

+  125 

-25 

+100 

1885-1889    .    .  . 

702 

n 

715 

228 

447 

675 

3,3  8 

94.4 

+40 

+  13 

+  53 

1890-1894    .. 

887 

lf> 

902 

383 

414 

797 

48.1 

88.3 

4-106 

+50 

+156 

1895-1899 

1.021 

19 

1,040 

341 

377 

718 

47  5 

69.0 

+322 

+  10 

+332 

1900-1904 

1,403 

2fi 

1,429 

397 

522 

919 

43  2 

64.3 

+510 

+  17 

+  527 

1905-1909 

1,707 

26 

1.733 

567 

690 

1,257 

45.1 

72.5 

+476 

-6 

+471 

1910-1914    . 

.    2,130 

35 

2,1(>6 

906 

783 

1,689 

53  6 

78.0 

+477 

+38 

+  515 

Tears    ended,    Dec 

31— 

1915-1920    .  . 

e.ifii 

101 

6,261 

2,160 

1,063 

3,223 

67.0 

51.5 

+  3.039 

-85 

+2,953 

1921-1923 

.    4,078 

83 

4,162 

1,857 

1,281 

3,138 

59.2 

75.4 

+1,024 

-407 

+617 

Tears    ended    June 

30— 

1910 

1.710 

35 

1,745 

755 

802 

1,557 

48.5 

89.2 

+188 

+85 

+273 

1911 

2,014 

3G 

2,049 

777 

750 

1,527 

509 

745 

+  522 

-32 

+490 

1912 

2,170 

34 

2,204 

882 

772 

1,653 

53  3 

75  0 

+551 

+26 

+577 

1913 

.    2.429 

37 

2,466 

988 

825 

1,813 

54.5 

73  5 

+653 

+39 

4692 

1914 

.    2,330 

35 

2,365 

1,128 

766 

1,894 

595 

80  1 

+471 

+  70 

+541 

Tears    ended,    Dec. 

31— 

1915              .    .. 

.    3,493 

61 

3,555 

1,167 

611 

1,779 

65.6 

50.0 

+1,776 

-401 

+1.37r» 

1916        ...      . 

5,423 

(>0 

5,483 

1,612 

780 

2,392 

67.4 

43.6 

+3,091 

-492 

+2.591) 

1917 

6,170 

64 

6,234 

2,136 

817 

2,952 

72.3 

474 

+3,281 

-150 

-3.131 

1918 

6,048 

101 

6,149 

2,230 

801 

3.031 

73  6 

49.3 

+3,118 

+160 

+3.278 

1919 

,    7,750 

171 

7,920 

2,699 

1,206 

3,904 

69.1 

49  3 

+4,016 

+441 

+4  457 

1920 

.    8,080 

148 

8  228 

3.117 

2,161 

5  278 

59.1 

64.2 

+2  950 

—  69 

+2,880 

1921 

4,379 

106 

4.485 

1,562 

947 

2,509 

62  3 

55.9 

41,976 

-679 

+  l'.297 

1922 

3,7(55 

67 

3,832 

1.872 

1,241 

3  113 

60  1 

812 

+719 

-246 

+  473 

1923        .      . 

.    4.091 

77 

4,168 

2,136 

1,656 

3,792 

56  3 

91  0 

+376 

-296 

+  80 

The  foreign  trade  of  this  country  reached  its 
maximum  in  1020  when  domestic  exports  totaled 
$8,080.000,000  and  imports  $5.278,000,000  Aft- 
er that  the  value  of  the  foreign  trade  de- 
clined, amounting  to  $3,705,000.000  for  exports 
and  $3,113,000,000  for  imports  in  1022  and  in 


exports  in  1020  as  stated  was  370  per  cent  of  the 
five-year  pre-war  average,  the  physical  volume 
of  these  exports  was  only  142  per  cent  of  the 
pre-war  value,  or  an  increase  in  actual  quantity 
of  42  per  cent  In  1023,  domestic  exports  were 
92  per  cent  greater  in  actual  value  than  the 


•        1 

Tear 

1910-14    ... 
1920 
1921 

FABLE  XVI—  VALUE  OF  FOREIGN  TRADE  AS  STATED  AND  AT  1923  PRICES 

DOMESTIC    EXPORTS                                                                                      IMPORTS 

Value  as                          Value  at   1923                         Value  an                          Value  at  1923 
stated                                 prices                                   stated                                    prices 
Millions           Index           Millions             Index           Millions           Index           Millions           Index 
of                 num-                 of                   num-                  of                 num-                 of                 num 
dollars             bers             dollars               bers               dollars             bers             dollars             bers 
.    .      2,130                 100                3729                  100                1,689                 100                2,452                 100 
8,080                 380                5,290                   142                 5,278                 313                3,348                  137 
...        4,379                 207                4513                  121                2,509                 149                2897                 118 

1922. 
1923      . 

..      3,765                 177                4,159                  112                3.113                 184                3.607                 150 
.    ..      4,091                192               4,091                 110               3,792                225               8,792                 155 

1923    to    $4,001,000,000    and    $3,702,000,000    re- 
spectively. 

The  record  of  foreign  trade  in  value,  although 
of  prime  significance,  as  a  measure  of  its  eco- 


pre-war  average  but  in  value  at  1023  prices  or 
physical  volume  they  were  only  10  per  cent 
greater. 

Imports  in  1923,  on  the  other  hand,  while  they 


TOTTED  STATES  07  AKBBIOA 


1333 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMEBIOA 


were  125  per  cent  greater  than  the  pre-war 
average  in  value  as  stated,  were  55  per  cent 
greater  in  physical  volume. 

Thus,  although  both  exports  and  imports  were 
larger  in  the  latter  years  of  the  decade  than 
they  were  before  the  War,  imports  expanded 
much  more  than  exports  both  in  value  as  stated 
and  in  volume.  This  change  in  the  trend  of  our 
trade  towards  a  closer  balance  between  exports 
and  imports  was  largely  the  natural  result  of 
the  War  and  its  accompanying  developments. 
The  great  expansion  of  our  industries  required 
larger  supplies  of  raw  material,  much  of  which, 
like  silk  and  rubber,  must  be  imported.  Our 
higher  standards  of  living  and  the  growth  of 
our  population  required  more  of  our  products 
for  home  consumption  while  the  increasing  com- 
petition of  newly  developed  countries  like  Can- 
ada and  Argentina  tended  to  decrease  our  ex- 
ports of  crude  materials  and  foodstuffs. 

Furthermore,  the  shift  of  the  United  States 
from  a  debtor  to  a  creditor  nation  rendered  a 
large  favorable  balance  in  merchandise  trade 
less  necessary  as  well  as  less  desirable. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  was  a  steady  in- 
crease in  the  exports  of  manufactured  products, 
as  is  evident  from  the  data  in  Table  XVII.  He- 


consumption  formed  over  36  per  cent  of  the 
total  exports  and  crude  materials  only  29.4 
per  cent.  In  imports  the  opposite  tendency  was 
found,  with  crude  materials  becoming  more  im- 
portant than  formerly. 

Before  1914,  only  two  of  the  six  Grand  Divi- 
sions were  important  purchasers  of  products 
from  the  United  States.  These  were  Europe 
and  North  America,  which  together  in  the 
five  pre-war  years  1010-14  averaged  to  take 
85.5  per  cent  of  all  exported  goods.  Europe 
alone  took  62.3  per  cent;  North  America  23.2 
per  cent,  while  5.0  per  cent  went  to  each  of 
South  America  and  Asia,  2.2  per  cent  to 
Oceania  and  1.1  per  cent  to  Africa.  The  sig- 
nificant change  after  the  War  was  the  increased 
proportion  going  to  Asia,  which  in  1023  took 
12.3  per  cent  of  all  exports.  The  proportion 
going  to  North  and  South  America  also  in- 
creased, amounting  to  26.1  and  6.5  per  cent 
respectively  in  1923.  In  the  same  year  Oceania 
received  3.5  per  cent  and  Africa  1.5  per  cent, 
while  Europe  took  only  50.2  per  cent.  This 
was  the  lowest  proportion  of  our  exports  ever 
sent  to  Europe  m  any  year  for  which  records 
are  available. 

In  the  case  of  our  import  trade  approximate- 


TABLE   XVII—  FOREIGN  THADE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY  COMMODITY  GROUPS* 

EXrORTS    OF    DOMESTIC    MERCHANDISE 

(Values  m   millions  of  dollars) 
rriirto  material              Foodstuffs  in          Foodstuffs  part-             Manufactures                Manufactures 
for  use  in                 crude  condition           ly  or  \\holly               for  use  in  fur-                   ready  for 
Year                        manufnctunnR          and  food  animals           manufactured          ther  manufactures            consumption 

I 

*er  cent 

Per  cent 

1 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

1 

Per  cent 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

total 

total 

total 

total 

total 

1910 

5f.fi 

33  1 

110 

G.4 

259 

15.2 

268 

157 

499 

29.2 

1911 

713 

33  4 

103 

5  1 

282 

14.0 

:i09 

15.4 

598 

29  7 

191  a 

723 

33.U 

100 

4  6 

319 

14  7 

348 

160 

672 

31.0 

1913 

7,12 

30  1 

182 

7.5 

321 

132 

409 

16  8 

776 

32.0 

1914 

793 

34.0 

137 

5.9 

293 

12  6 

374 

16.1 

725 

31.1 

Avvrafro 

1910-1914 

705 

33.1 

127 

59 

295 

13.8 

342 

16  0 

654 

30  7 

1915 

510 

Irt  H 

507 

18.7 

455 

16.7 

356 

131 

807 

297 

191G 

53(> 

12  6 

381 

ft9 

599 

14.0 

658 

15.4 

1,998 

46.8 

1917 

732 

11.8 

532 

8  5 

738 

11  9 

1,191 

191 

2,943 

47  8 

1918 

897 

15  4 

375 

6.4 

1,154 

19.8 

1,201 

20  6 

2,185 

37.4 

1019 

1.610 

20  H 

678 

8  8 

1.903 

25  3 

922 

11.9 

2,563 

33.1 

1920 

l,H71 

2  :i  2 

918 

11.4 

1.117 

13.8 

958 

11  9 

3,205 

39.7 

1021 

981 

22  5 

692 

15  8 

670 

15.3 

399 

9  1 

1,626 

37.1 

1922 

981 

26  I 

459 

12  2 

588 

15.6 

438 

11  6 

1,292 

34.3 

1923 

1,202 

29  4 

257 

63 

583 

14.3 

564 

1.1  8 

1,478 

36  1 

"The  bixth  group  of  miscellaneous  commodities,  is  not  given  but  it  usually  compnses  less  than  one  per  cent  of 
the  total 


Year 

Crude  material 
for  use  m 
manufacturing 

TOTAL    IMPORTS 

(Values  m  millions  of  dollars) 
Foodstuff"  in          Foodstuffs  part- 
crude  condition           ly  or  \\holly 
and  food  animals          'manufactured 

Manufactures 
for  u&e  in  fur- 
ther manufactures 

Manufactures 
ready   for 
consumption 

I 

Jer  cent 

Per  cent 

I 

Jer  cent 

Per  cent 

] 

Per  cent 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

total 

total 

total 

total 

total 

1910 

566 

36.4 

145 

9  3 

182 

11  7 

285 

1R.3 

368 

23  6 

1*)1  1 

511 

33.5 

181 

11  8 

172 

11  :i 

288 

18.8 

361 

23.7 

1912 

55« 

33  6 

230 

13  9 

190 

11.9 

294 

17.8 

360 

21.8 

1913 

635 

350 

2J2 

11.7 

194 

10  7 

349 

19.3 

408 

22.5 

1914 

633 

33.4 

248 

13.1 

228 

12.0 

319 

16.9 

449 

23  7 

Average 

1910-14      . 

580 

84.4 

203 

120 

194 

11.5 

307 

18.2 

389 

23.1 

1915.    .       .    . 

575 

344 

224 

13.4 

286 

17,1 

237 

14.2 

336 

20.0 

1916. 

949 

43.2 

252 

11.5 

311 

14.1 

357 

16.2 

312 

142 

1917 

1,110 

41.7 

336 

12  6 

343 

12.9 

478 

18.0 

377 

14.2 

1918 

1,280 

41.8 

373 

12.7 

880 

12.9 

541 

18  4 

403 

18.7 

1919.  .. 

1,674 

42.9 

545 

14.0 

556 

14.2 

610 

15.6 

493 

12.7 

1920  

1.752 

33.2 

578 

10  9 

1.238 

23.5 

803 

15.2 

877 

166 

1921      ..     .    . 

853 

34  0 

304 

12.1 

369 

14.7 

344 

13.7 

619 

24.7 

1922  

1,161 

37.3 

330 

10.6 

387 

12.4 

553 

17.8 

663 

21.3 

1923      .  . 

.     1,389 

36.6 

363 

9.6 

530 

140 

719 

19.0 

770 

20.3 

fort*  the  War  crude  materials  formed  approxi- 
mately one-third  of  both  exports  and  imports 
while  manufactured  goods  ready  for  consumption 
formed  31  per  cent  of  exports  and  23  per  cent 
of  imports.  In  1923,  manufactures  ready  for 


ly  50  per  cent  was  received  from  Europe  be- 
fore the  War.  In  1918,  the  proportion  coming 
from  that  Grand  Division  fell  as  low  as  14  per 
cent  but  later  it  increased,  amounting  to  31.8 
per  cent  in  1922  and  30.5  per  cent  in  1923. 


TTNTTBD  STATES  OF  AXBBXOA 

The  proportion  of  imports  from  North  American 
countries  increased  from  an  average  of  20.6 
per  cent  for  the  five  pre-war  years  to  2C.4  per 
cent  in  1923,  while  those  from  Asia  amounted 
to  15.3  and  26.9  per  cent  for  the  same  periods. 
Small  increases  occurred  in  the  proportion  of 
imports  from  the  other  three  Grand  Divisions. 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMEBICA 

smaller  in  the  later  years  of  the  decade,  the 
rise  in  price  was  sufficient  to  make  the  total 
value  much  greater  than  before  the  War.  Re- 
fined mineral  oils  ranked  second,  while  auto- 
mobiles and  parts  ranked  third  in  1923  al- 
though before  the  War  they  were  of  very  much 
smaller  relative  importance.  Coal,  tobacco, 


TABLE  XVIII—  FOREIGN 

1910-1914 
Grand  Division                        Per 

TRADE  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY  GRAND  DIVISIONS 
Values  m  Millions  of  Dollars 
Total  Exports                                                         Total  Imports 
1922                       1923              1910-1914              1922                      1928 
Per                        Per                     Per                     Per                       Per 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

cent 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

Value       of 

Value 

of 

Value 

of 

total 

total 

total 

total 

total 

total 

.  .      1,350 

62  3 

2,083 

54.4 

2,093 

50.2 

836     49.5 

991 

31.8 

1,157 

30.5 

North  America    .  .  . 

501 

23.1 

916 

2B.9 

1,087 

26.1 

347      20.6 

822 

26.4 

1,002 

26.4 

121 

5  G 

2126 

59 

269 

6.5 

207      12.2 

359 

11.5 

467 

12.3 

121 

5.6 

449 

11.7 

511 

12.3 

259      15.3 

827 

26  6 

1  020 

26.9 

48 

2  2 

102 

2  7 

147 

3  5 

17        1.0 

49 

1  6 

59 

1.6 

Africa   

25 

1  1 

56 

1.5 

61 

1  5 

Ii3        13 

65 

2.1 

87 

2.3 

Total   

.  ..     2,166 

100  0 

3,832 

1000 

4,168 

1000 

1,689   100.0 

3,113 

100.0 

8,792 

100.0 

The  individual  countries  of  most  importance 
in  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States  are 
shown  in  Table  IX.  The  live  countries  which 
have  been  the  most  important  purchasers  of 
goods  from  this  country  are  the  United  King- 
dom, Canada,  Germany,  France,  and  Japan. 
The  United  Kingdom  averaged  to  take  26.2  per 
cent  of  our  total  exports  before  the  War  and 
21.2  per  cent  in  1923.  Canada  took  145  and 
15.6  per  cent  in  the  same  two  periods,  while  the 


pork  products,  wheat  and  flour,  copper,  and  lum- 
ber were  among  the  other  important  exports. 
Table  XXI  shows  a  few  of  the  most  important 
commodities  imported  into  the  United  States. 
Of  these,  silk  and  sugar  are  in  the  first  rank, 
with  coffee,  rubber,  wool,  hides  and  skins,  and 
pepper  of  next  importance.  Each  of  these  com- 
modities shows  a  large  increase  both  in  volume 
and  value  in  the  post-war  years  compared  with 
pre-war.  The  largest  increases  in  the  actual 


TABLE  XIX— LEADING  COUNTRIES  IN  THE   FOREIGN  TRADE  OP  THE  UNITED   STATES 
Country 


Values  m  Millions  of  Dollars 


United  Kingdom    .  . . 

France     

Belgium     .    . 

Netherlands     

Germany 

Scandinavia         .    . 

Spain 

Italy 

Balkan    Countries    . 
Egfypt         .      . 

Argentina    

Brazil  

Chile        

Cuba    

Mexico 

Canada 

China   ...           . 
Japan    and   Chosen 
British    East    Indies 
Australia 


Total  Exports 
1922 
Per 
cent 
Value     of 

total 

856     22.3 
267        7  0 


1923 
Per 
cent 

Value      of 
total 

882     21.2 

272        6.5 

101 

109 

317 

109 

62 

168 

18 

6 

113 

46 

31 

192 

121 

652      15  6 

135        3  2 

267        6.4 

40 
120 


2  4 

2  6 

7  6 

2  6 

1.5 

4.0 

.4 

.1 

2.7 

1.1 

.7 

4.6 

2.8 


.9 
29 


1910-1914 

Per 

cent 

Value 

of 

totul 

279 

16  5 

130 

7  7 

40 

2  4 

35 

2  1 

176 

104 

20 

1  2 

22 

1  3 

51 

3.0 

14 

8 

17 

1  0 

33 

1.9 

111 

66 

23 

1  4 

122 

7.2 

70 

4  '2 

117 

69 

38 

2  3 

85 

5  0 

91 

5.4 

12 

.7 

Total  Imports 
1922 
Per 
cent 

Value  of 
total 
11  5 


357 

113 

54 

64 

117 

53 

29 

64 

35 

35 

86 

120 

fiO 

208 

132 

364 

152 

354 

205 

36 


4 

1  7 

2  0 

3  8 
17 

9 

2  1 
1  1 

1  1 

2  8 
3.9 
1  9 
8  6 

4  2 
11  7 

49 

11  4 

6.6 

1.1 


1923 
Per 
cent 
Value     of 

total 

404 

150 

68 

78 

161 

63 

31 

92 

23 

39 

115 

143 

92 

376 


107 
3  9 

1  8 

2  0 
43 
1.7 

8 

2.4 
.6 
1.0 
8.0 
3.8 
2  4 
9.9 

140        3  7 

41<>      110 

212 

347 

310 


41 


5  fi 
9.2 
8  2 
1  1 


Total    of    20    countries  1,953     902       3,460     903       3,758     902       1,488      881       2,727      876       3,302      871 


trade  with  Germany  declined  from  14  per  cent 
pre-war  to  7.G  per  cent  in  1923.  Japanese  trade 
increased  from  2.1  per  cent  before  the  War  to 
0.4  per  cent  in  1923  while  France  took  approxi- 
mately 6.5  fcer  cent  of  the  total  in  each  period. 

In  the  case  of  imports,  Canada,  the  United 
Kingdom,  Japan,  Cuba,  and  the  British  East 
Indies  were  of  most  importance.  The  propor- 
tion from  the  United  Kingdom  declined  compared 
with  pre-war,  while  that  from  each  of  the  other 
countries  mentioned  increased.  Germany,  which 
before  the  War  furnished  10.4  per  cent  of  the 
total  imports,  sent  only  4.3  per  cent  in  1923. 

As  shown  in  Table  XX  unmanufactured  cot- 
ton is  by  far  the  most  important  single  com- 
modity exported  from  the  United  States.  Al- 
though in  actual  quantity  export  was  much 


quantity  imported  occurred  in  paper,  rubber, 
and  silk  See  also  the  articles  SHIPPING;  SHIP- 
BUILDING; PANAMA  CANAL. 

RAILWAYS 

The  total  railway  mileage  in  operation  in  the 
United  States  in  1922,  according  to  preliminary 
reports  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission, 
was  262,828  miles.  This  represents  a  net  gain 
of  only  4795  miles  over  the  figure  10  years 
previous  (1912),  and  represents  an  actual  loss 
in  operated  mileage  compared  with  the  peak  year 
of  1917  when  200,059  miles  were  reported  in 
operation.  The  era  of  railroad  building  in  the 
United  States  may  be  said  to  have  started  in 
1850.  At  that  time  there  were  only  9021  miles 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA          13 

35      UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

and    decline    is    summarized    in    Table    XXII. 
Table  XXIII  gives  total  miles  of  railroads  in 
the    United    States    by    states    for    1900,    1910, 
and   1920  as  reported  by  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission. 

TABLE  XX—  FIFTEEN  PRINCIPAL  COMMODITIES 
EXPORTED  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES 
Value  in  Thousands  of  Dollars 
Commodities             1910-1914     1922        1923 
Average 
Cotton,   unmanufactured      .    551,890    673,250    807,092 
Mineral     oils,     refined          .    110,r>14    312,563     326,599 
Automobiles   and   parts        .      23,362      98.069    166,343 
Coal           .       .                                   52638       91,243     154.124 
Tobacco    leaf         .       .           .      44,686    145,985     152,303 
Lard,   including   neutral            50,895      94,071     133,333 
Wheat    .     .                                        55,003    206.33M     116,490 
Copper,    refined         ...                     .       89,030    110  48<) 
Wheat    flour                  .    .          51,127      85.483      88,151 
Boards,   planks,    und   R<  ant- 
lings          .                         .           50,686       57,415       81,057 
Cotton    cloth                       .           27,052       85.232       79,313 
Fruits                                               '27,626       74,359       67.401 
Bacon         .                                      23,205       51,989       60,084 
Hams  and  shoulders,   cured     21,788      57.070      59  319 
Iron      and      steel,       plates, 
sheets,     etc                         .        22,674       45.760       58,613 

TABLE    XXIII  —  RAILROAD    MILEAGE    IN    THE 
UNITED    STATES    BY    STATES 
1900           1910           1920 
'New  England  States                  7,521          7,921          7,942 
Maine         .                                 1,915          2,248          2,295 
New  Hampshire    .                    1.U.J9           1,246           1,252 
Vermont          .       .                       1.012           1,100           1,077 
Massachusetts          ..              2,119          2,115          2,106 
Rhode  I*land        .                       212             212             211 
Conned  if  ut      ..           .             1,024          1,000          1,001 
Middle    Atlantic         .           .      20,708        21,980        22,293 
New  York        .           ...         8,121          b,430          8.J90 
New    Jersey                .  .             2,257          2,260          2,352 
Penns>lvama                .           10,330        11.290        11,551 
East  North  Central    ...    .      41,006        44,928        44,904 
Ohio   .       .           .                        rt.807          9,134          9.002 
Indiana         .                   ...         (*,471           7,420          7,426 
Illinois     11.003        11,878        12,188 
Michigan      ...         .         H  19r>          9,021          8734 
Wisconsin    ....               6,531          7,475          7,554 
West   North    Central      .          42,988       49,730       52.180 
Minnesota      .    .           .             6,943          8,f>G9          9.114 
Iowa         .                      ...        9,18">          9.755          9,808 
Missouu          6,875          8083          8117 

TABLE    XXI—  TEN    PRINCIPAL    COMMODITIES 
IMPORTED    INTO    THE    UNITED    STATES 
Valuo    in    Thousands    of    Dollars 
Commodity                 1910-1914      1922         1923 
Average 
Silk,  raw,  in  skeins,  etc.            77,058    365.787    391.942 
Sugar     (cane)          .                    103.517    2">1,U05    3H0.180 
Coffee                                               101,455     160,854     189,993 
India   rubber,    crude                    86,315     101,h43     185,008 
Wool,    unmanufactured,    in 
eluding    mohair                         39.259       86.546    129.711 
Hides  and  skins  (except  fur)    104,58'2     107,039     118  91H 
Paper,   newsprint                            4.  HO  1       72,314       98,0'21 
Furs,    undressed         .       .           14.767       62,495       79.042 
Wood    pulp                                       14.031       63,292       74.701 
Kuilnps,     jute                                 29,421       49.256       60971 

Noith    Dakota         .       .           2,731          4,201          5,'311 
South  Dakota        .       .             2,850          3,948          4.27G 
Nebraska             .                        5,6rt>          (>,OG7          (»,16G 
Kansas                     ....        8  719          9  007          9,388 
South     Atlantic          .            .      23,362        29,796        32.380 
Delauaie          .                              347              335             335 
Maryland          .            .  .             1,376          1.420          1,436 
District  of  Columbia      .              32                36                3G 
Virginia              .     .       ..           3779          4.535          4.703 
West    Virginia         .    .             U.228           3,001          3.996 
North    Carolina                         3  H31          4,932          5  522 
South    Carolina          .                2,818           3.442           3  K14 
Georgia    .                           .        5,652          7,056          7,326 
Florida                                          '3299          4.432           5212 
East  South   Central         .           13,343        17,074        17.754 
Kentucky              .         .             3,060          3,520          3,929 
Tennessee                .  .                  3.137          3.810          4,078 
Alabama              .       .          .         4.22G          5.226          5,378 
Mississippi                                     2,920           4.106           4  3fi9 
West     South     Central                16,898        31,122        32.972 
Aikansas          .            .                3  360          5,  SOn          5,052 
Louisiana         .       .                    2,824          5,5r»4          5/223 
Oklahoma       .           .                     H28          5,980          b,572 
Tevas      .     .            .                        9,886        14.2rt'2        16,125 
Mountain          .                .    .         17,130        22,95h        25.170 
Montana                  .       .             3.010          4,  '207          5072 
Idaho                      ...                  1,201          2,179          2.877 
Wjorning      1/229           1,645           1,931 
Colorado                ....             4  587          5  533          5  519 

of   railroad   in   operation   in   the   United   States. 
By   1800  this  had   increased   to   30,020  miles,   a 
growth  for  the  decade  of  21,005  miles,  or  nearly 
140  per  cent      During  the  next  decade  economic 
development  was  checked  somewhat  by  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Civil  War,  lint  in  spite  of  that, 
21,290  miles  or  practically  the  same  growth  as 
in  the  preceding  decade,  was  added  to  the  coun- 
try's   railroads      Between    1870    and    1880    over 
40,000  miles  were  built  and  between    1880  and 
1890  nearly  74,000  miles      For  the  next  decade 
building     slackened     somewhat,     the     increase 
amounting   to    only    31,773    miles,    but   between 
1900   and    1910   the    mileage   was    increased    by 
51,028  miles      However,  from  1910  to  1920  there 
was  a  net  increase  in  operated  mileage  of  only 
13,829.     Even  in  the  early  years  of  the  decade 
thr    growth    was    at   the    rate   of    between    3000 
and  4000  miles  per  year,  or  considerably  smaller 
than    the   rate   in   the   preceding  decade.     With 
the    beginning    of    the    War    in    1914,    railroad 
building  in  the  United   States  declined  greatly 
and  after   1917  the  number  of  miles  in   actual 
operation    decreased    each    year.     This    growth 

New    Mexico    .  .         .    .           3,075          3.032          2.972 
Aruona                      .                 1.512          2,097          2,478 
Utah                  ...         .         1,547          1,986          2161 
Nevada     ...                       909          2,277          2,100 
Pacific               10.3H9         14932         17248 

Washington        2  914          4  875          5  587 

Oregon          .  .          .  .                   1,724           2,2*5           3',305 
California         .           .       .        5,751          7,772          8.356 

Total         .            .       .         193.345      240,439      252,815 

Railroad      Traffic.     Coincident      with      the 
growth     in     mileage     there     was     a     large     in- 
crease  in   traffic.     Between    1890  and    1020,  the 
operated  mileage  increased  06,630  miles,  or  57 
per  cent,  while  the  number  of  passengers  carried 
rose   from   402,000,000   to    1,235,000,000,   an    in- 
crease   of   over    150    per    cent.     The    equivalent 
number  of  passengers  carried  one  mile  increased 
nearly  300  per  cent      The  tons  of  freight  car- 
ried   rose   from   632,000,000    in    1800   to   2,260,- 
000,000   in    1020,   or   more  than   250    per   cent, 
while    the    equivalent    tons    of    freight    carried 
one  mile  increased  432  per  cent. 
During  the  decade  1910-20,  there  was  a  sig- 
nificant  increase   in   tH  traffic   handled  by  the 
roads  without  a  corresponding  growth  in  mile- 
age.    In    1020    the   number   of   passengers   car- 
ried  was   263,000,000   more   than   in    1910   and 
the  equivalent  number  carried  one  mile  increased 
45  per  cent  over  the  1010  figure.    The  increase 
in  freight  traffic  during  this  decade  was  even 

TABLE    XXII—  RAILROAD    MILEAGE    OPERATED 
IN  THE   UNITED  STATES  «  1850  TO    1922 
Year                           Miles  of  line    Increase  per 
in  operation         decade 
Miles 
1850         .                             ...           9  021                   6.203 

1H60                        .  .     .                             30.626               21  605 
1870                              .                            52.922               21.296 
1880                93,262                40.340 
1890         ..                 ...                  107,191               73,926 
1900    .                               ...           198964               31.773 
1910           .              249.992               51,028 
1915        .  .              264  378 
1*J16    .  .            ...                   .             266.381 
1917                  .         ...                266,059                 ..     . 
1918    264  233                 
1919    263,707 
1920    263  821               13,829 

1921        262.544                .    .. 
1922    262  828  * 

•  Exclude*    mileage    of    switching    and    terminal    com- 
panies   but     includes     some     duplication     of     mileage 
operated    under   trackage   rights. 
»  Preliminary. 

TTNITEB  STATES  OF  AXSBXOA 


1336 


TVITliD  8TATB8  OF   AMK&TCA 


larger,  amounting  to  over  60  per  cent  in  the 
equivalent  tons  carried  one  mile. 

The  increase  in  efficiency  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  between  1010  and  1920  the  average  tons 
of  freight  per  train  increased  from  380  to  647 
while  the  average  number  of  passengers  per  train 
rose  from  56  to  80. 


31,  1922,  only  64,130.  In  tractive  power  the 
average  locomotive  had  increased  from  27,282 
pounds  in  1910  to  36,365  pounds  in  1920.  In 
total  tractive  power,  therefore,  the  locomotive 
equipment  in  1920  showed  a  gain  of  over  50 
per  cent  compared  with  1910. 

During  the  same  decade  the  number  of  pas- 


T 
Item 

\BLE  XXIV—  RA1 
1890 
492,430,865 
11,847,785.617 
285,575,804 
41 
24  00 
631,740,636 
77,207,047,298 
435,170,812 
177.42 

[LROAD  TRAFFIC 
1900 
576,831,251 
16,038,076,200 
363,469,596 
41 
27.80 
1,081,983,301 
141,590,551,161 
492,543,526 
270.86 

! 
1910 
971,683,199 
32,338,496,299 
549,015,003 
50 
33  50 
1,849,900,101 
255,016,910,451 
635,450,081 
380.38 

1920 
1,234,802,048 
46,848,067,987 
561,633,392 
KO 
37.91 
2,259,983,278 
410,300,209,802 
607,508.141 
040  87 

Number  passengers  carried  one  mile  . 
Mileage  of  revenue  pawenger  trams   . 
Average   passengers   per  tram    .  . 
Average   journey    per   passenger    .  .  . 
Tons    of    freight    carried       .... 

Tons  of  freight  earned  one  mile    .  . 
Mileage    revenues    freight    trains     . 
A\vrage  tons  per  tram    .    . 

The  change  in  the  character  of  the  freight 
traffic  handled  by  the  roads  between  1910  arid 
1922  is  indicated  by  the  figures  in  Table  XXV, 
which  summarizes  the  freight  movement  by  the 
principal  groups  of  commodities.  The  most 
significant  change  is  the  increase  in  the  quantity 
of  the  products  of  agriculture  handled.  For 
total  freight  carried  this  group  increased  from 
160,402,000  tons  in  1910  to  220,250,000  tons  in 
1920  and  221,847,000  tons  in  1922.  The  tonnage 


seuger  train  cars  increased  from  47,179  to  56,- 
102,  but  total  freight  cars  increased  from  2,- 
133,531  in  1910  to  only  2,322,025  in  1920.  This 
latter  figure  shows  a  decline  from  the  number 
during  the  War.  Table  XXVI  shows  the  number 
and  capacity  of  freight*  cars  by  classes  in  1910, 
1915,  and  *1920.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
number  of  flat  cars  decreased  very  greatly  while 
there  were  large  relative  increases  in  tank  and 
refrigerator  cars. 


TABLE  XXV— SUMMARY  OF  FREIGHT  TRAFFIC  MOVEMENT  ON  RAILROADS  BY 


PRINCIPAL  GROUPS  OF  COMMODITIES 


Commodity  group 

Products    of    agri(  ulture 

Animals    and    products     .      .    . 
Products   of  mines    .  .    . 

Products   of    forests 

Manufactuiod   and   miscellaneous 
Merchandise  L.  C.  L 


Total 


Thousands 
Originating 

1910 

78,737 

20,294 

544,004 

113,011 

175.397 

30,421 

968,464 


of  Tons 
on  Road 

1915 

113,040 

26,660 

556,582 

93,971 

103,988 

48,163 

1,002,404 


1918 
110,051 

35,777 
734,796 

97,25f. 
226,077 

53,387 

1.263,344 


1920 
110,840 

20,595 
712,154 
100,760 
251,864 

53,202 

1,255,420 


1922 
111,783 

U  0,2  3  5 
532,399 

89,071 
220,44r> 

43,177 

1,023,110 


Total  Freight  Carried 


Commodit>  group 
Products  of  agriculture 
Animals   and    products    .           ...        . 
Products  of   mines    ....                      .    . 
Products   of   forests    .                        ... 
Manufactured    and    miscellaneous     . 
Merchandise    L.    C     L.           .      . 

1910 
160,402 
38,625 
942,006 
19J.240 
339,392 
71,601 

1915 
221,916 
40,254 
951,041 
171,735 
320,092 
81,275 

1918 
228,322 
61,405 
1,263,503 
19J.617 
463  Oil 
98,368 

1920 
2J0.050 
44,854 
1,209,098 
190,580 
494,550 
89,901 

1922 
221,847 
45,090 
922,403 
172,929 
426,288 
70,927 

Total     .... 

.     1.745,325 

1,797,312 

2  307  226 

2,254,038 

1,859  484 

of  minerals  increased  during  the  War  and  up 
to  1020  but  in  J022  was  but  little  above  the 
1010  figure.  Forest  producta  showed  a  tend- 
ency to  decline,  being  less  in  both  1920  and 
1922  than  in  1910. 


Finances.  AB  a  result  of  the  demand  made 
upon  the  roads  during  the  War,  includ- 
ing operation  under  government  management 
and  the  difficulties  experienced  in  the  recon- 
struction period,  the  railroads  of  the  United 


TABLE  XXVI—  RAILROAD  FREIGHT  CARS 
Number  and  Capacity  by  Classes 
1910                                               1915 

1920 

Average 

Average 

Average 

Class  of  car 

Number 

capacity 
Tons 

Number 

capacity 
Tonh 

Number 

capacity 
Tons 

Box     

966,577 

33 

1,041,692 

35.5 

1,049,262 

37.3 

Flat  

153.91H 

33 

140,336 

3G.O 

104,987 

39  2 

Stotk      

77,584 

80 

86.326 

32.0 

80,774 

33  8 

Coal         

818,689 

41 

910,637 

45.9 

933,129 

494 

Tank     

7,434 

39 

10,164 

39.0 

10,380 

46.3 

Refrigerator     

30,918 

30 

52,446 

32.1 

59,677 

31  8 

Other    

78,411 

37 

93,955 

42.2 

83,816 

46.2 

Total     

2,133,531 

36 

2,341,556 

89.7 

2,322,025 

42.4 

Equipment.  In  the  matter  of  equipment 
the  railroads  showed  comparatively  small  in- 
creases during  the  decade  1910-20.  In  1910 
the  total  number  of  locomotives  in  service  on 
the  steam  roads  were  60,019  while  at  the  end 
of  1920  the  number  was  68,942,  and  on  Dec. 


States  Buffered  financially  during  the  past  dec- 
ade. As  shown  in  Table  XXVII,  the  total  rail- 
road capital  outstanding,  including  stocks  and 
bonds,  amounted  to  $18,417,000,000  in  1910  By 
1915  this  had  increased  to  $21,128,000,000,  a 
gain  of  $2,711,000,000.  During  the  next  five 


UNITED  STATES  OF   AKBBTOA 


X337 


TTNITED  STATES  OF  AMBBICA 


years  the  gain  was  only  $603,000,000,  entirely 
in  the  torm  of  preferred  stocks  and  bonds.  In 
1010,  the  total  dividend  and  interest  payments 
amounted  to  $805,000,000,  but  in  1920  less  than 
$750,000,000  WAH  paid  out  for  these  purposes. 

TABLE  XXVII— RAILROAD  CAPITAL 
ThousandR  of  Dollars 


1910 


191  r» 


19iiO 


Stock  : 
Common 
Preferred    
Total         .      . 
Funded   Debt. 
Bonds          .      .  . 
Other    
Total 
Total  Railroad  Cap- 
ital    .  .        :  . 

Amount  paid  in  div- 
idends    . 
Interest   on   funded 
debt         
Total  dividends  and 
interest 

6,710,169 
1,403,469 
8,113,657 

7,408,183 
2,895,291 
10,303,475 

18,417,132 
405,771 
399,582 
805,353 

7,599,938 
1.394,957 
8,994,895 

9,047,183 
3.085.8H2 
12,  13.1,001 

21,127,959 
31:8,478 
464,186 
792,664 

7,215.862 
1,897,824 
9,113,685 

10.H19.714 
1  9r>H  052 
12,777,766 

21,891,451 
331,103 
427,825 
758.928 

Table  XXVIII  gives  the  principal  items  in  the 
financial  statements  of  the  railroads  considered 
UH  a  whole  for  the  yearn  1910,  1915,  1920,  and 
preliminary  figures  for  1923,  based  upon  data 
published  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission. 

TABLE  XXVIII— RAILROAD  FINANCES 

SUMMARY  OF  EFFORTS  OF  CL\SS  1  RO  VDS.  IP.  RIKD* 
WITH  ANNUAL  OPERATING  REVKNUKS  AHOVK  $1.000,000 
Millions  of  dollars 


Item 
Revenue 
Freight 
Passencer          

1910 

1,926 
029 

1915 

2,038 
646 

1920 

4,324 
1  287 

1923 

4.624 
1.148 

Other    .    . 

196 

226 

014 

573 

Total  operating 
Expense  * 
Maintenance  of  way 
Equipment             .    . 
Transportation     .  . 
Other    

.    2,751 

369 
413 
916 
125 

2,910 

382 
510 
1,032 
140 

6,225 

1,031 
1,593 
2,902 
304 

6,345 

Total    operating     .    . 
Net  operating  revenue 
Not    income 

.    1,823 
928 
379 

2,064 
846 
355 

5,830 
395 
58 

4,943 
1,402 
978 

The  largest  single  item  of  expense  in  the 
railroad  budget  was  that  for  wages.  In  1910, 
the  average  number  of  employees  on  the  rail- 
toads  was  1,009.000  with  an  annual  payroll 
of  $1,144,000,000,  or  nn  average  of  $673  per 
employee.  In  1920,  the  number  of  employees  was 
nearly  20  per  cent  larger  while  the  payroll 
had  increased  more  than  200  per  cent,  giving 
un  average  annual  compensation  per  employee 
of  $1820.  After  that,  with  the  railroads  under 
private  management,  there  was  some  decrease, 
HO  that  in  1922  the  average  number  of  employees 
was  slightly  less  than  in  1910  but  the  pay 
roll  was  at  ill  133  per  eent  larger  arid  the  aver- 
age annual  salary  was  $1022. 


TABLE 

A 

Tear 
1900    . 
1910 
1915    . 
1918 
1919.  . 
1920.  . 
1923. 
1922.. 

XXIX—  RAILROAD    EMPLOYEES-     AVER- 
\GE  NUMBER  AND  COMPENSATION 
Average  number  Total  annual    Average  compensa- 
of  employees     compensation     tion  per  employee 
1,017,653        $577,264.841                I  567 
1,699,420        1,143,725,306                   673 
1,491,849        1,236,305,445                   829 
1,841,575        2,613,813,351                1,419 
1,913,422       2,843,128,432                1,486 
2,022,832        3,681,801,193                1,820 
1,660,617       2,765,236,353                1,605 
1,645,244       2,669,180,772                1,622 

Taxes  and  assessment s  paid  by  the  railroads 
increased  greatly  in  the  10  years.     In  1910, 


the  total  taxes  and  assessments  amounted  to 
$108,304,947  and  by  1920  these  had  risen  to 
$282,750,533,  an  increase  of  over  160  per  cent. 
To  compensate  for  these  and  other  increased 
expenses,  there  were  adjustments  in  the  freight 
and  passenger  rates  from  time  to  time.  In 
1924,  practically  all  freight  rates  were  at  least 
double  what  they  were  in  1910  and  some  were 
considerably  higher  The  receipts  per  ton  mile 
of  freight  in  1913  averaged  0.719  cents;  in 
1920  tins  amounted  to  1.052  cents  and  for  1923 
an  average  of  1  113  cents.  This  is  an  increase 
of  approximately  55  per  cent  for  the  10  years 
which  is  considerably  less  than  the  relative  in- 
crease in  the  major  items  of  expenditure  by  the 
roads.  See  also  the  articles  RAILWAYS;  CANALS. 

HISIORY 

Wilson  Administrations.  President  Wilson 
was  inaugurated  on  Mar  4,  1913,  the  first  Demo- 
cratic President  since  Cleveland  and  only  the 
third  since  the  close  of  the  Civil  War.  He  was 
reflected  in  1910.  During  his  two  terms  in 
office  he  selected  for  his  official  family  the  fol- 
lowing men:  Secretarv  of  State:  W.  J.  Bryan 
(to  1915),  Robert  Lansing  (to  1920),  B.  Colby; 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  W.  G.  McAdoo,  C. 
Glass,  I)  F.  Houston;  Secietary  of  War,  L.  M 
Garrison,  N.  D.  Baker:  Attorney  General,  J.  C. 
McfleynoldH,  T  W.  Gregory,  A.  M.  Palmer; 
Postmaster  General,  A.  S.  Burleson;  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  J.  Daniels;  Secretary  of  the  In- 
terior, F  K.  Lane,  J.  B.  Payne;  Secretary  of 
Agriculture,  IX  F.  Houston,  E.  T.  Meredith; 
Secretary  of  Commerce,  W.  C.  Redfield,  J.  W. 
Alexander;  Secretary  of  Labor,  W.  B.  Wilson. 

Domestic  Legislation.  Although  most  of 
Wilson's  administrations  were  almost  complete- 
ly overshadowed  by  the  events  of  the  War  both 
before  and  after  the  entry  of  the  United  States, 
nevertheless  the  Democratic  party  under  the 
supreme  leadership  of  Wilson  accomplished  much 
of  importance  in  purely  domestic  affairs. 

Financial  Legislation.  In  his  inaugural  ad- 
dress President  Wilson  lodged  special  protest 
against  the  Payne-Aldiich  tariff  which  "cuts  us 
off  from  our  proper  part  in  the  commerce  of 
the  world,  violates  the  first  principle  of  taxa- 
tion, and  makes  the  government  a  facile  instru- 
ment in  the  hands  of  private  interests;  a  bank- 
ing and  currency  system  based  on  the  necessity 
of  the  government  to  sell  its  bonds  50  years 
ago  and  perfectly  adapted  to  concentrating*  cash 
and  restricting  credits;  an  industrial  system 
.  .  .  which  holds  capital  in  leading  strings,  re- 
stricts the  liberties  and  limits  the  opportunities 
of  labor,  and  exploits  without  renewing  or  con- 
serving the  natural  resources  of  the  country; 
a  body  of  agricultural  activities  never  yet  given 
the  efficiency  of  great  business  undertakings  or 
served  as  it  should  be  through  the  instrumental- 
ity of  science  taken  directly  to  the  farm,  or 
afforded  the  facilities  of  credit  best  suited  to  its 
practical  needs:  watercourses  undeveloped; 
waste  places  unreclaimed;  forests  untended,  fast 
disappearing  without  plan  or  prospect  of  re- 
newal; unregarded  waste  heaps  at  every  mine." 

Tariff  Rmtoiom.  Shortly  after  his  election 
President  Wilson  called  the  03d  Congress  into 
session  (Apr.  7,  1913)  to  revise  the  tariff  down- 
ward. Wilson,  believing  in  a  closer  relationship 
between  the  executive  arid  legislative  branches 
of  government,  delivered  his  message  to  Con- 
gress personally,  thereby  breaking  a  precedent 
which  had  existed  from  the  time  of  tht  eldttr 


STATUS  OF 


1338 


XTKITBD  STATES  OF  AKEBIOA 


Adams.  The  leadership  in  the  tariff  revision 
was  taken  by  Oscar  Underwood  of  Alabama,  the 
chairman  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Committee. 
It  was  passed  in  the  House  without  any  special 
difficulty,  but  the  Democratic  majority  of  six 
in  the  Senate  was  scarcely  large  enough  to 
pass  it  in  toto.  The  usual  bargaining  and  com- 
promises followed.  The  Underwood  Act  as  fi- 
nally passed  made  an  average  reduction  of  26 
per  cent  on  the  figures  of  1007.  The  protective 
system  was  maintained  although  an  attempt 
was  made  to  allow  a  moderate  amount  of  foreign 
competition.  The  duty  on  958  articles  was  re- 
duced, on  307  it  remained  unchanged,  and  on 
86  (mainly  in  the  chemical  schedule)  it  was 
raised.  There  was  to  be  no  duty  on  wool  after 
Dec.  1,  1013;  the  duty  on  sugar  was  to  be  grad- 
ually reduced  and  taken  off  completely  on  May 
1,  1016;  duties  on  woolens  and  cottons  were 
heavily  reduced.  The  sugar  provisions  were 
never  completely  carried  out  owing  to  the  in- 
ternational situation.  An  important  feature  of 
the  tariff  bill  was  the  income-tax  provision  which 
was  made  possible  by  the  Sixteenth  Amendment 
which  was  proclaimed  in  effect  Feb.  25,  1013. 
The  law  provided  a  tax  of  1  per  cent  on  incomes 
over  $3000  ($4000  in  the  case  of  married  per- 
sons), with  an  additional  1  per  cent  on  incomes 
of  $20,000  to  $50,000;  an  additional  2  per  cent 
between  $50,000  and  $75,000;  3  per  cent  between 
$75,000  and  $100,000;  4  per  cent  between  $100,- 
000  and  $250,000;  5  per  cent  between  $250,000 
and  $500,000;  and  6  per  cent  above  $500,000. 
The  tariff  board  which  had  been  created  by  the 
Republicans  was  allowed  to  lapse  by  the  Demo- 
crats but  was  revived  in  1016  by  the  appointment 
of  a  bipartisan  commission  of  six  members  for 
12-year  terms.  See  TARIFF  IN  THE  UNITFD 
STATES  and  TAXATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Federal  Reserve  System.  As  soon  as  the  ques- 
tion of  the  tariff  was  out  of  the  way,  Congress 
and  the  President  turned  their  attention  to 
banking  and  currency.  The  result  was  the  pass- 
age in  December,  1913,  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
Act.  Generally  speaking,  this  connected  the  two 
outstanding  weaknesses  of  the  National  Bank- 
ing Act  of  1863,  which  was  a  war-time  measure 
and  adopted  primarily  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
plying a  market  for  United  States  government 
gold  bonds.  The  currency  which  resulted  from 
this  act  was  inelastic  and  nonfluid  It  could 
not  be  expanded  when  business  warranted,  and 
it  could  not  flow  from  one  section  of  the  coun- 
try to  another  in  time  of  need.  T\  act  con- 
tinued the  prohibition  of  the  issuance  of  State 
bank  notes;  it  put  the  control  of  the  system 
in  the  hands  of  a  group  of  Federal  officials 
known  as  the  Federal  Reserve  Board;  it  created 
12  Federal  Reserve  banks  to  which  all  national 
banks  had  to  belong,  other  banks  allowed  to 
become  members;  to  provide  for  elasticity  of 
currency  it  permitted  the  issuance  of  paper 
money  backed  up  largely  by  sound  commercial 
paper.  (See  FINANCE  AND  BANKING.)  In  or- 
der to  relieve  the  situation  of  the  farmers,  the 
Federal  Reserve  Act  was  supplemented  by  the 
Federal  Farm  Loan  Act  of  1016.  Under  this 
law  farm  loan  associations  are  formed  in  desig- 
nated areas  under  conditions  prescribed  in  the 
law,  their  members  being  borrowers  only.  The 
borrowers  submit  applications  for  loans  under 
specified  conditions  and  restrictions  as  to  size, 
security,  and  valuation  of  the  land.  See  AGRI- 
CULTURAL CREDIT. 

Antitrust  Legislation.    With   the  tariff,   and 


banking  and  currency  problems  cleared  up,  the 
Democrats  turned  their  attention  to  the  trust 
problem.  President  Wilson  appeared  before 
Congress  on  Jan.  14,  1914,  and  in  introducing 
the  question  of  trust  regulation  he  urged  that 
the  problem  be  approached  in  a  friendly  way 
and  stated  that  the  government  and  "big  busi- 
ness" were  ready  to  meet  each  other  halfway 
"in  a  common  effort  to  square  business  methods 
with  both  public  opinion  and  the  law."  Despite 
this  statement  Wilson  said  that  it  was  the 
purpose  of  the  Democrats  "to  destroy  monopoly 
and  maintain  competition  as  the  only  effective 
instrument  of  business  liberty  "  Two  important 
acts  were  passed  in  connection  with  trust  regu- 
lation, the  Federal  Trade  Commission  Act  of 
Sept.  14,  1914,  and  the  Clayton  Antitrust  Act  of 
October  15.  The  first  law  created  a  commission 
of  five  persons  to  carry  out  the  antitrust  laws 
and  to  prevent  unfair  methods  of  competition 
by  persons  or  corporations  subject  to  the  anti- 
trust laws.  The  Clayton  Act  prevented  price 
discrimination;  acquisition  of  stock  in  compet- 
ing companies,  interlocking  directorates,  and  the 
so-called  "government  by  injunction."  In  1918 
a  further  trust  act  provided  that  the  antitrust 
acts  should  not  apply  to  companies  engaged  in 
export  trade.  It  was  hoped  that  this  would  en- 
courage large  corporations  to  engage  in  foreign 
commerce  For  further  details  concerning  trusts 
and  trust  legislation  see  TRUSTS. 

Labor  Legislation.  The  Clayton  Act  contained 
very  important  provisions  concerning  labor. 
Human  labor  was  declared  not  to  be  a  com- 
modity, and  therefore  labor  and  agricultural 
organizations  could  not  be  considered  combina- 
tions in  restraint  of  trade.  Injunctions  in  labor 
disputes  were  forbidden  unless  necessary  to  pre- 
vent irreparable  injury  to  property  rights  for 
which  there  was  no  remedy  at  law.  Strikes, 
picketing,  and  boycotting  were  declared  not  to 
contravene  any  Federal  law.  Finally,  cases  of 
contempt  of  court  were  to  be  tried  by  jury,  ex- 
cept wneii  the  offense  was  committed  in  the 
presence  of  the  court. 

In  1915  the  La  Follette  Seamen's  Act  was 
passed.  This  required  a  language  test,  namely, 
that  76  per  cent  of  the  crew  on  American-owned 
or  operated  vessels  should  "understand  any  or- 
ders given  by  the  officers  of  such  vessel";  that 
65  per  cent  of  the  deck  crews  employed  on 
American  vessels  should  ultimately  be  able  sea- 
men, having  passed  physical  and  professional 
examinations  by  government  officers;  made  less 
serious  the  offense  of  desertion  by  members  of 
the  ship's  crew  under  special  conditions;  re- 
quired half  payment  of  wages  to  the  crew  in 
every  port;  and  required  refusal  of  clearance 
to  a  vessel  in  which,  on  information  to  the 
collector,  it  was  stated  that  the  provisions  of 
the  act  relating  to  language  and  full  quota  of 
able  seamen  had  not  been  complied  with.  This 
law  lost  a  good  deal  of  its  force  through  its 
loose  phraseology  and  diverse  constructions  put 
on  it  bjr  the  Department  of  Commerce.  Amer- 
ican shipowners  claimed  that  they  would  be  un- 
able to  meet  foreign  competition  under  the 
provisions  of  this  act  and  would  be  compelled 
to  go  out  of  business. 

In  1916  the  Adamson  eight-hour  law  was 
passed,  affecting  railway  labor.  This  act  was 
virtually  forced  on  Congress  by  the  threat  of  a 
great  strike  by  the  four  railway  brotherhoods. 
The  chief  provision  of  this  act  was  that  from 
Jan.  1,  1917,  employees  engaged  in  train  opera- 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMBBIOA 


1339 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AKEBICA 


tion  on  inter-State  steam  railroads  exceeding 
100  miles  in  length  should  be  paid  their  pres- 
ent daily  wage  for  the  first  eight  hours  and 
should  be  paid  pro  rata  for  overtime  rather 
than  on  the  basis  of  time  and  a  half,  which  was 
demanded  by  the  brotherhoods.  A  commission 
was  to  be  appointed  by  the  President  to  report 
back  to  Congress  on  the  wage  increase  by  Nov. 
1,  1017.  See  RAILROADS. 

Further  labor  measures  of  importance  pro- 
vided for  compensation  for  Federal  employees 
injured  in  the  pei  fornmnce  of  their  duty,  the 
prohibition  of  child  labor  under  certain  condi- 
tions, and  an  eight-hour  day  for  Alaskan  coal 
miners.  For  the  vicissitudes  of  the  attempt  on 
the  part  of  President  Wilson  and  Congress  to 
regulate  child  labor  through  the  Federal  con- 
trol over  inter-State  commerce  arid  taxation,  see 
CHILD  LABOR.  In  1017  Congress  passed  an  act 
appropriating  millions  of  dollars  to  the  various 
States  in  aid  of  vocational  education.  Sec  EDU- 
CATION IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Prohibition  Amendment.  For  a  complete  ac- 
count of  this  amendment,  including  its  intro- 
duction and  passage  in  Congress,  its  ratification 
by  the  se\eial  States,  and  the  passage  of  the 
Volstead  Enforcement  Act,  see  PROHIBITION. 

Woman  Suffrage  Amendment.  See  WOMAN 
SUFFRAGE. 

Colonial  and  Foreign  Policies.  Philip- 
/rines.  As  the  question  of  the  independence  of 
the  Philippine  Islands  had  figured  \ery  impor- 
tantly in  Democratic  platforms  since  1!K)0,  Presi- 
dent 'Wilson  continually  urged  on  Congress  the 
advisability  of  giving  the  islands  gi eater  self- 
government  and  of  definitely  promising  them 
their  independence.  The  icsult  was  the  Jones 
Organic  Act,  parsed  in  1910,  \\hich  declared  in 
its  pieamhle  that  it  \\a«  the  purpose  of  the 
United  States  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  the  islands  as  soon  as  a  stable  government 
should  have  been  established.  The  Senate 
amended  the  House  bill  to  the  effect  that  com- 
plete independence  should  be  granted  within 
two  or,  at  the  discretion  of  the  President,  four 
years.  The  House  killed  this  piousion.  The 
Jones  measure  abolished  the  old  commission  and 
piovided  for  an  upper  house  elective  for  all  but 
two  members.  The  feuiTrage  was  extended  to 
all  males  who  spoke  and  wrote  a  native  dialect. 
Fotmerly  the  vote  \vas  limited  to  some  225,000 
inhabitants.  Under  the  Jones  bill  800,000  could 
vote.  See  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

Porto  Rico  also  benefited  from  the  colonial 
administration  of  the  Democrats.  The  Porto 
Ricans  since  the  passage  of  the  Foraker  Act  of 
1900  had  seriously  objected  to  the  preponder- 
ance of  Americans  in  the  executive  council 
and  the  denial  of  full  rights  of  American  citizen- 
ship. In  1914  President  Wilson,  by  executive 
order,  directed  that  the  Porto  Ricau  Council  be 
changed  so  that  the  natives  should  have  a  ma- 
jority. The  question  of  citizenship  was  settled 
on  Mar.  2,  1917,  when  President  Wilson  signed 
a  Porto  Rican  civil  government  bill.  This  meas- 
ure extended  the  suffrage,  granted  an  elective 
upper  house,  and  conferred  full  American  citi- 
zenship on  all  inhabitants.  See  PORTO  Rico. 

Alaska.  On  Mar.  2,  1914,  an  act  authorizing 
the  President  to  construct,  maintain,  and  operate 
railroads  in  Alaska  not  exceeding  1000  miles  in 
length,  at  an  expense  not  exceeding  $35,000,000, 
was  approved.  Construction  began  in  1915. 
See  ALASKA. 

The  Caribbean.    Although  the  Democrats  fol- 


lowed the  policy  of  granting  a  greater  degree 
of  freedom  to  the  American  colonies,  they  never- 
theless greatly  expanded  the  doctrine  of  Roose- 
velt in  the  Caribbean  and  Latin  America  by 
knitting  more  closely  the  financial  and  eco- 
nomic ties  which  bound  the  United  States  to 
these  Spanish  republics,  and  virtually  estab- 
lished protectorates  over  several  of  them.  This 
policy  was  contrary  to  that  which  many  believed 
the  Democrats  would  follow.  (See  CUBA;  PAN- 
AMA). An  aggressive  American  policy  in  the 
Caribbean  started  during  Roosevelt's  administra- 
tion when  he  stepped  into  IS  an  to  Domingo  to 
supervise  her  finances.  He  explained  this  step 
on  the  grounds  that  if  the  United  States  refused 
to  permit  foreign  countries  to  intervene  in  Latin 
America  to  collect  their  just  debts  it  was  only 
fair  to  them  to  have  the  United  States  step  in 
and  collect  them  for  them.  Roosevelt's  financial 
supervision  in  Santo  Domingo  was  superseded 
by  a  virtual  protectorate  during  Wilson's  ad- 
ministration. American  marines  were  landed 
in  11)14  to  "oversee"  the  elections.  In  1910  the 
entire  country  was  occupied  by  American  mili- 
tary forces.  The  government  and  laws  of  the 
country  were  suspended,  and  the  American  ma- 
rines were  supreme.  In  1920  a  Dominican  com- 
mission, which  had  been  appointed  to  aid  the 
American  military  the  year  before,  resigned  be- 
cause its  request  for  the  restoration  of  the 
independence  of  the  republic  went  unheeded 
See  SANTO  DOMINGO. 

Haiti  fell  under  American  domination  as  a 
result  of  a  revolution  of  1915.  American  ma- 
rines were  landed  to  restore  order.  By  terms 
of  a  treaty  virtually  forced  on  the  republic, 
the  control  of  the  finances  and  the  constabulary 
was  taken  over  by  American  officers,  with  the 
announcement  that  "the  United  States  govern- 
ment has  no  purpose  of  aggression  and  is  en- 
tirely disinterested  in  promoting  this  protector- 
ate." The  occupation  was  continued  until 
the  summer  of  1924,  when  it  was  announced 
that  the  occupation  would  cease.  See  HAITI, 
History. 

A  icarngua.  For  the  terms  of  the  establish- 
ment of  the  protectorate  in  1916,  see  NICA- 
KAQUA,  History. 

Undoubtedly  one  of  the  prime  reasons  for 
this  extended  American  influence  in  the  Carib- 
bean was  the  protection  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
In  consonance  with  this  policy,  the  American 
government  purchased  the  Danish  West  Indies  in 
1917.  See  VIRGIN  ISLANDS;  see  also  CENTRAL 
AMERICAN  UNION.  See  NICARAGUA  for  a 
discussion  of  the  acquisition  of  a  naval  base 
in  Fonseca  Bay  and  a  99-year  lease  on  the  Corn 
Islands. 

Mexico.  President  Wilson  inherited  a  jum- 
bled Mexican  situation  from  his  Republican 
predecessor.  After  the  murder  of  Afadero  in 
1913  the  country  was  torn  into  factions,  and 
civil  strife  was  prevalent  under  the  leadership 
of  Huerta,  Zapata,  Villa,  and  Carranza.  In 
the  summer  of  1914  Carranza  became  president 
and  had  a  rather  hectic  administration,  lasting 
until  1920,  when  he  also  was  murdered.  His 
successor  was  Obregon.  Although  President 
Wilson  shortly  after  his  inauguration  announced 
a  policy  of  "watchful  waiting,"  he  was  em- 
broiled in  two  serious  conflicts  with  Mexico, 
the  Tampico  and  Columbus  affairs.  The  tender- 
ing of  their  good  offices  by  Argentina,  Brazil, 
and  Chile  averted  a  serious  conflict  in  the  for- 
mer instance.  For  the  details  of  American  re- 


tTNITED  STATES  OF  AMSBICA        1340        UNITED  STATES  OF  AltfiBXCA 


lations  with  Mexico  during  President  Wilson's 
administration  see  MEXICO,  History. 

The  Far  East.  Relations  with  Japan  were 
strained  by  the  passage  of  laws  by  the  State  of 
California  prohibiting  the  ownership  of  lands 
by  aliens  wno  could  not  be  naturalized.  Japan 
protested  against  the  discrimination  and  the 
violation  of  treaty  rights,  and  the  President 
sent  Secretary  of  State  Bryan  to  California  in 
an  effort  to  secure  a  change  in  the  State  legis- 
lation, without  success.  The  countries  ex- 
changed notes  and  a  modus  vivcndi  was  finally 
arranged  whereby  the  United  States  agreed  to 
test  the  laws  in  the  courts,  and  Japan  made 
promises  as  to  future  immigration,  In  1917 
Secretary  of  State  Lansing  and  Viscount  Ishii, 
special  ambassador  from  Japan,  concluded  an 
important  agreement  concerning  American  re- 
lations in  the  Orient.  The  United  States  ad- 
mitted the  interest  of  Japan  in  China,  but  both 
countries  agreed  to  oppose  the  acquisition  by 
any  country  of  special  rights  in  China  which 
would  tend  to  impair  her  integrity  and  sovereign- 
ty. (See  JAPAN,  History;  IMMIGBATION.)  On 
May  2,  1914,  President  Wilson  recognized  the 
Republic  of  China  despite  the  fact  that  he  had 
previously  advised  American  bankers  not  to 
participate  in  the  international  railway  loans 
affecting  that  country.  See  CHINA. 

Panama  Canal  Tolls  Act.  President  Wilson, 
by  exercising  his  power  as  leader  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party,  secured  the  repeal  of  the  Canal 
Tolls  Act  which  had  been  passed  in  the  latter 
part  of  Taft's  administration.  The  issue  had 
arisen  because  of  the  protest  of  Great  Britain 
that  the  Hay-Pa uncefote  Treaty  had  been  vio- 
lated by  the  exemption  of  American  coastwise 
vessels  "from  paying  tolls.  Wilson  in  a  special 
message  asked  for  the  repeal  on  the  grounds  that 
the  law  was  a  mistaken  economic  policy,  a 
contravention  of  treaty  obligations,  and  that 
the  repeal  would  aid  him  in  the  conduct  of 
foreign  affairs.  For  the  treaty  with  Colombia 
see  COLOMBIA,  History. 

Dependencies.  For  the  outlying  possessions 
of  the  United  States,  see  the  articles:  ALASKA; 
GUAM;  HAWAII;  PHILIPPINES;  POBTO  Rico; 
SAMOA,  AMERICAN;  VIRGIN  ISLANDS. 

Matters  pertaining  to  American  activities 
during  the  period  1914-24  are  also  discussed 
in  the  following  articles:  FISHERIES;  FINANCE 
AND  BANKING;  TELEPHONY;  TELEGRAPHY;  ELEC- 
TRIC MOTORS  IN  INDUSTRY;  ELECTRIC  POWER 
TRANSMISSION;  AERONAUTICS;  ARMIES  AND 
ARMY  ORGANIZATION;  NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD; 
EDUCATION ;  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES;  LAW, 
PROGRESS  OP  THE.  See  also  the  separate  articles 
on  the  Amoiican  religious  denominations,  uni- 
versities and  colleges,  and  the  important  cities. 

European  War.  The  European  War,  in 
which  the  United  States  promptly  declared  its 
neutrality,  had  immediate  important  economic 
and  legislative  effects  on  the  country.  In  Au- 
gust a  bill  was  passed  admitting  foreign -built 
ships  to  the  American  registry  with  certain  re- 
strictions as  to  coast wifle  trade.  A  War  Risk 
Insurance  Act  was  adopted,  providing  for  emer- 
gency insurance  for  ships.  It  was  promptly 
seen  that  the  stopping  of  .a  large  part  of  the 
imports  would  curtail  the  revenues  and  produce 
a  deficit.  To  prevent  this  development  an  emer- 
gency revenue  bill  was  passed,  providing  for  an 
increased  internal-revenue  taxation  system. 
The  election  of  1914  had  for  its  issues  the  new 
tariff  law  and  the  record  of  the  President.  The 


Democrats  were  successful  in  retaining  their  ma- 
jorities in  Congress,  but  they  were  reduced  in 
the  House,  the  alignment  being  Democrats  232, 
Republicans  104,  and  Progressives  7.  In  the 
Senate  the  number  of  Democrats  was  increased 
to  53  and  the  opposition  reduced  to  43.  The 
War  greatly  increased  the  export  trade,  especi- 
ally in  foodstuffs  and  munitions.  Nearly  all 
of  this  went  to  the  Allies,  since  German  ship- 
ping had  been  practically  driven  from  the  sea. 
To  meet  the  demand  for  more  shipping,  the 
President  introduced  in  December,  1914,  a  re- 
quest for  a  Ship  Purchase  Bill.  The  proposi- 
tion evoked  such  opposition  that  the  Repub- 
licans, in  February,  1015,  in  a  prolonged  fili- 
buster in  which  they  were  aided  by  seven  Demo- 
crats, defeated  it.  In  this  the  President  suf- 
fered his  first  serious  defeat  in  Congress. 

It  was  only  natural  that  the  United  States 
should  be  drawn  into  the  vortex  of  the  War  long 
before  she  became  a  participant.  As  the  lead- 
ing neutral,  the  exigencies  of  war  were  bound 
to  affect  her  rights  on  the  high  seas.  The  situ- 
ation was  very  similar  to  that  just  preceding  the 
War  of  1812.  Before  the  War  had  lasted  very 
long,  intricate  complications  developed  with 
both  Germany  and  Great  Britain.  Only  a 
slight  sketch  of  these  complications  will  bo 
given  here.  (For  details,  see  WAR,  DIPLO- 
MACY OF  THE.)  To  Germany  Secretary  Bryan 
sent  a  note  declaring  that  the  United  States 
would  hold  her  to  "strict  accountability," 
and  to  Great  Britain  a  firm  protest  against  the 
prevention  of  legitimate  Amei  icari  trade  by 
means  of  illegal  blockade,  interference  with 
mail,  and  vexatious  delays  in  prize  proceedings 
Deep  irritation  had  been  caused  by  the  destiuc- 
tion  of  the  steamer  Ovl  flight  by  a  German  sub- 
marine and  by  the  seizure  of  the  IVilhelmina  and 
Dacia  by  Great  Britain  and  France.  The  United 
States,  however,  was  horrified  when  the  Lusi- 
tania,  on  May  7,  1015,  was  torpedoed  without 
warning  and  more  than  1000  persons,  including 
114  Americans,  lost  their  lives.  On  May  13 
Wilson  sent  to  Germany  a  strong  note  demanding 
a  disavowal  of  the  act  and  indemnity  for  the 
violation  of  American  rights,  and  stating  that 
the  United  States  stood  firmly  on  the  ground 
that  Americans  had  the  right  to  travel  on  mer- 
chant ships  of  belligerent  nationality.  Rela- 
tions between  the  two  countries  reached  the 
breaking-point,  and  many  expected  and  desired 
war.  A  large  party  developed,  urging  military 
preparation  to  meet  complications  which  might 
involve  it  in  war.  Attention  was  directed  to- 
ward the  large  number  of  Americans  of  German 
birth  and  descent  who  thought  that  the  United 
States  should  preserve  true  neutrality  by  pro- 
hibiting the  export  of  munitions,  which  he- 
cause  of  the  control  of  the  sea  went  to  the 
Allies  exclusively.  They  emphasized  the  trade 
restrictions  of  Great  Britain  and  alleged  that 
Germany  was  being  deprived  of  food  for  its 
civil  population.  Notes  were  interchanged,  and 
the  tone  of  the  American  notes  became  more 
insistent,  until  on  September  1  Germany  de- 
clared that  liners  were  not  to  be  sunk  without 
warning.  Despite  the  fact  that  the  cases  of 
the  Nebraskan  and  the  Arabic,  disavowed  on 
October  5,  had  arisen  and  depended  on  separate 
negotiations,  this  announcement  was  hailed  as 
a  Wilson  victory.  There  remained  the  necessity 
for  Germany  to  disavow  the  sinking  of  the 
Lusitama  and  to  indemnify  American  citizens. 
Wilson's  position  in  the  correspondence  had 


tTKlTED  STATES  OP  AM2&&ICA        1341        UNITHSD  STATES  OF  AJCEBICA 


caused  the  resignation  of  Secretary  Bryan 
(June),  who  thought  that  his  ideas  might  lead 
to  war  and  who  urged  that  Americans  should 
be  warned  to  remain  off  passenger  ships  of  the 
warring  nations.  In  the  meanwhile  the  indig- 
nation among  German  sympathizers  respect- 
ing the  supply  of  munitions  to  the  Allies  led  to 
many  plans  for  interfering  with  this  supply 
by  fomenting  labor  disturbances.  Plots  were 
formed  and  executed  involving  the  explosion 
of  bombs  in  factories  and  on  steamships.  Or- 
ganized and  unorganized  labor  was  tampered 
with.  It  was  established  that  the  Austrian  Am- 
bassador, Dumba,  was  implicated,  and  his  re- 
call was  demanded  on  Sept  9,  1915  Attaches 
Hoy-Ed  and  Von  Papon  of  the  German  Embassy 
had  a  similar  fate  on  December  3. 

During  the  short  session  of  Congress  an  im- 
migration bill  was  adopted  (1915),  with  a  liter- 
acy test  included,  which  the  President  \etoed. 
In  June,  1915,  the  Supreme  Court  rendered  two 
important  decisions:  against  the  government  in 
the  dissolution  suit  against  the  Steel  Trust,  and, 
secondly,  that  the  grandfather  clauses  of  the 
Oklahoma  and  Maryland  constitutions  were 
void  In  December,  1915,  the  President's  mes- 
sage was  almost  wholly  devoted  to  the  champion- 
ship of  military  preparedness,  although  the  year 
before  he  had  opposed  those  who  would  turn 
America  into  an  armed  camp  At  the  opening 
of  1916,  the  question  of  preparedness  appeared 
flic  supreme  issue  in  American  politics.  In 
.February,  19 1C,  Secretary  of  War  Garrison  re- 
h'giicd  because  he  could  not  agree  with  Presi- 
dent Wilson  on  the  question  of  national  defense 
lie  was  succeeded  by  Newton  D  Baker  (qv) 
of  Cleveland,  Ohio.  In  December,  1915,  the  sink- 
ing of  the  Persia  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
again  brought  the  controversy  over  submarine 
warfare  to  the  fore.  While  'negotiations  were 
pending  over  this  incident  the  channel  boat 
NUSBCJ-  was  torpedoed  with  a  loss  of  more  than 
100  lives  Tins  aroused  considerable  comment 
inasmuch  as  the  Sunsetr  was  strictly  a  passenger 
vessel  and  unarmed.  The  question  of  arming 
merchantmen  for  defense  presented  a  serious 
problem  A  resolution  warning  Americans  not 
to  sail  on  armed  merchantmen  failed  to  pass 
both  Houses  of  Congress,  indicating  that  the 
Pieaident  was  to  have  a  free  hand  in  carrying 
on  foreign  affairs.  On  Apr.  14,  1916,  the 
United  States  government  demanded  that  a 
submarine  warfare,  as  it  affected  neutrals,  be 
abandoned  under  a  penalty  of  a  break  in  dip- 
lomatic relations.  For  the  German  reply  see 
WAR.  DIPLOMACY  OF  THE. 

Election  of  1916.  In  1916  Charles  E 
Hughes  and  Woodrow  Wilson  were  the  candi- 
dates nominated  for  the  presidency  by  the  Re- 
publican and  Democratic  conventions  respec- 
tively. Charles  W.  Fairbanks  and  Thomas  R. 
Marshall  were  the  vice-presidential  nominees 
An  element  of  the  Progressive  party  nominated 
Theodore  Roosevelt  for  president,  but  he  de- 
clined the  nomination  and  heartily  supported 
Huphes  during  the  campaign  Wilson  was  re- 
elected  by  an  extremely  small  margin,  and  the 
issue  was  in  doubt  for  several  days  It  was 
decided  only  by  his  success  in  winning  the 
electoral  vote  in  California  The  electoral  vote 
stood  277  for  Wilson,  254  for  Hughes.  The 
popular  vote  was  9,128,837  for  Wilson,  8,536,- 
380  for  Hughes.  The  surprising  thing  about 
this  election  was  the  fact  that  Wilson  was  able 
to  be  elected  without  carrying  New  York  or  any 


of  the  large  eastern  States.  The  result  in  Con- 
gress was  to  increase  the  Republican  member- 
ship in  both  houses  considerably.  In  the  House 
217  Republicans  were  elected,  212  Democrats, 
and  6  from  other  parties.  In  the  Senate  the 
Democrats  retained  their  majority,  which  was 
cut  from  14  to  12. 

The  War  Again.  Throughout  1916  the 
United  States  was  brought  nearer  to  war  with 
Germany.  The  German  submarine  U-53  entered 
Newport  harbor  on  Oct.  7,  1916,  and  after  de- 
livering mail  for  the  German  Embassy,  it  de- 
parted Within  the  next  two  days  it  had  sunk 
one  Dutch,  one  Norwegian,  and  three  British 
ships  within  sight  of  the  American  coast.  The 
submarine  escaped  unharmed.  The  President 
made  efforts  during  December,  1916,  and  Janu- 
ary, 1917,  to  bring  about  a  condition  among 
the  combatant  nations  which  would  lead  to  peace , 
he  endeavored  to  secure  from  both  sides  a  state- 
ment of  terms  on  which  the  War  could  be 
honorably  concluded.  (See  WAR,  DIPLOMACY  OF 
THE.)  Following  closely  on  these  efforts,  Ger- 
many, embarking  on  a  ruthless  submarine  war- 
fare, declared  that  all  merchant  ships  found  in 
a  forbidden  zone  would  be  sunk  after  Fcb  1, 
1917,  without  warning.  (See  WAR,  DIPLOMACY 
OF  THE  )  President  Wilson  addressed  both 
Houses  of  Congress  on  February  3  and  de- 
clared that  he  had  directed  the  Secretary  of  State 
to  announce  to  the  German  Ambassador  that  all 
diplomatic  relations  between  the  two  govern- 
ments were  severed  and  that  the  American  Am- 
bassador had  been  recalled  from  Berlin.  The 
President  further  declared  that  he  hoped  that 
Germany  would  not  actually  embark  on  the  ruth- 
less submarine  warfare  and  that  only  overt  acts 
on  her  part  would  convince  him  that  she  would 
do  so  There  followed  a  period  during  which 
the  President  waited  for  such  overt  acts.  In 
the  meantime  the  government  undertook  what- 
ever measures  were  possible  looking  toward  war. 
Congress  attempted  on  February  26  to  give 
President  Wilson  authority  to  supply  guns  and 
ammunition  to  American  merchant  ships,  but 
the  bill  was  defeated  by  a  filibuster  in  the 
Senate.  German  submarine  warfare  was  carried 
on  with  great  ferocity,  and  Allied  and  Amer- 
ican vessels  were  sunk.  Congress  was  called  in 
special  session  on  Apr.  2,  1917,  and  the  Presi- 
dent made  an  address  in  which  he  summarized 
the  offenses  of  Germany  against  the  United 
States  government  and  recommended  that  Con- 
gress declare  that  the  course  of  the  German  gov- 
ernment was  nothing  less  than  war  against  the 
government  and  people  of  the  United  States  A 
resolution  declaring  the  existence  of  a  state  of 
war  was  passed  by  both  Houses  and  signed  by 
the  President  on  April  6. 

The  Mexican  Note.  Fuel  was  added  to  the 
rising  an ti -German  feeling  in  the  country  by 
the  publication  on  March  1,  on  the  authority  of 
Secretary  of  State  Lansing,  of  a  note  from  Ger- 
many to  Mexico.  It  said  in  part:  "On  the  first 
of  February  we  intend  to  begin  submarine  war- 
fare unrestricted  In  spite  of  this  it  is  our  in- 
tention to  endeavor  to  keep  neutral  the  United 
States  of  America.  If  this  is  not  successful,  we 
propose  an  alliance  on  the  following  basis  with 
Mexico:  that  we  shall  make  war  together  and 
together  make  peace.  ...  It  is  understood  that 
Mexico  is  to  reconquer  the  lost  territory  in 
New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  Arizona.  The  Presi- 
dent of  Mexico,  on  his  own  initiative,  should 
communicate  with  Japan,  suggesting  adherence 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMEBICA 


1342 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


at  once  to  this  plan.  At  the  same  time  offer  to 
mediate  between  Germany  and  Japan/'  Need- 
less to  say,  this  note  amazed  and  angered  the 
entire  country.  Japan  hastened  to  affirm  in  no 
uncertain  tones  that  she  had  absolutely  nothing 
to  do  with  the  whole  affair. 

Participation  by  the  United  States  in  the 
War.  Prompt  action  followed  President  Wil- 
son's signature  of  the  war  resolution.  All 
American  ships  at  foreign  stations  and  the  gov- 
ernors and  military  posts  of  American  insular 
possessions  were  notified  by  wireless  of  the  dec- 
laration of  war  Orders  were  issued  by  the 
Xavy  department  for  the  mobilization  of  the 
fleet,  and  the  naval  reserve  was  called  to  the 
colors.  The  navy  at  once  proceeded  to  seize 
all  radio  stations  in  the  country.  Every  Ger- 
man and  Austrian  vessel  in  the  harbors  of  the 
country  and  its  possessions  were  seized.  There 
were  91  of  these,  aggregating  630,000  gross 
tonnage.  On  April  15,  the  President  issued  "a 
call  to  service"  in  which  he  appealed  especially 
to  the  agricultural  and  industrial  workers  of 
the  country  to  devote  their  utmost  efforts  to 
providing  and  equipping  the  armies  in  Europe 
He  said:  "We  must  supply  abundant  food  not 
only  for  our  armies  and  our  seamen,  but  also 
for  a  large  part  of  the  nations  with  whom  we 
have  made  common  cause,  in  whose  support  and 
by  whose  sides  we  shall  be  fighting. 

"We  must  supply  ships  by  the  hundreds  out 
of  the  shipyards  to  carry  to  the  oilier  side  of 
the  sea,  submarines  or  no  submarines,  what 
will  every  day  be  needed  there,  and  abundant 
materials  out  of  our  fields  and  our  mines  and 
our  factories  with  which  not  only  to  clothe  and 
equip  our  own  forces  on  land  and  sea,  but  also 
to  clothe  and  suppoit  our  people,  for  \\hom  the 
gallant  fellows  under  arms  can  no  longer  work ; 
to  help  clothe  and  equip  the  armies  with  which 
we  are  cooperating  in  Europe,  and  to  keep  the 
looms  and  factories  there  in  raw  material :  coal 
to  keep  the  fires  going  in  ships  at  sea  and  in 
the  furnaces  of  hundreds  of  factories  across  the 
sea;  steel  out  of  which  to  make  arms  and  am- 
munition both  here  and  there:  rails  for  worn- 
out  railways  back  of  the  fighting  fronts;  loco- 
motives and  rolling-stock  to  take  the  place  of 
those  every  day  going  to  pieces;  mules,  horses, 
rattle  for  labor  and  for  military  service;  every- 
thing with  which  the  people  of  England  and 
France  and  Italy  and  Russia  have  usually  sup- 
plied themselves,  hut  cannot  now  afford  the  men 
and  materials  or  the  machinery  to  make." 

War  I'reparations  by  ihe  Army  and  A'o?i/ 
Long  before  the  declaration  of  war  the  United 
States  government  \\as  engaged  in  putting  its 
physical  forces  into  first-class  condition.  On 
March  25,  an  executive  order  was  issued,  in- 
creasing the  enlisted  personnel  of  the  navy  to 
87,000  men ;  on  March  20,  another  order  was 
issued,  to  increase  the  Marine  Corps  to  17,400 
men.  Immediately  after  the  declaration  of  war 
the  naval  militia,  naval  reserve,  and  the  Coast 
Guard  passed  under  the  control  of  the  Navy 
Department.  Plans  for  the  mobilization  of  the 
army  went  forwaid  just  as  rapidly  as  those 
for  the  navy.  Before  war  was  declared  several 
National  Guard  units  were  called  out  to  do 
police  duty  at  bridges,  etc.  The  War  Depart- 
ment announced  that  20  camps,  with  a  capacity 
of  25,000  men,  would  be  established  through- 
out the  country  for  military  instruction  to 
civilians. 

Council  of  National  Defena*.    The   economic 


side  of  the  war  was  put  in  the  hands  of  the 
Council  of  National  Defense,  which  consisted 
of  the  members  of  the  President's  cabinet  and 
a  civilian  advisory  committee  made  up  of  busi- 
nessmen and  leaders  of  industry.  Numerous 
boards  were  appointed,  consisting  of  groups  of 
experts,  who  were  to  organize  war  activities 
along  special  lines.  The  Food  Board  was  placed 
in  the  charge  of  Herbert  0.  Hoover  (q.v.),  ex- 
ecutive head  of  the  Belgian  Relief  Commission. 
This  board  was  to  take  such  measures  as  would 
conserve  the  food  supplies  of  the  United  States, 
and  at  the  same  time,  as  far  as  possible,  it  was 
to  supply  the  needs  of  the  Allies.  It  also  dealt 
with  questions  of  food  shortages,  distributions, 
mobilization  of  agricultural  resources,  price 
control,  and  waste.  In  November,  1017,  it  held 
a  "conservation'*  week,  and  thousands  of  fam- 
ilies received  conservation  display  cards  show- 
ing that  they  would  observe  "wheatless  and 
meatless'*  days  to  aid  the  government.  Other 
important  boards  were  also  instituted.  A  com- 
mittee of  five  was  appointed  to  direct  the  opera- 
tions of  American  railways,  which  were  taken 
over  by  the  government  on  Dec.  28,  1017  (see 
RAILROADS).  A  General  Munitions  Board  had 
charge  of  supplying  munitions  and  equipment  to 
the  army  and*  of  adjusting  the  question  of 
whether  the  government  needed  a  man  more  in 
the  industrial  or  military  field.  This  board  was 
later  superseded  by  the  War  Industries  Board 
The  Economy  Board  was  organized  to  take  care 
of  the  commercial  interests  of  the  country  ami 
to  purchase  raw  materials  for  the  government 
The  Medical  Board  was  formed  by  many  promi- 
nent physicians  to  mohili/e  and  organize  the 
medical  men  and  resources  of  the  country.  The 
Federal  Shipping  Board  was  one  of  the  most 
important  organizations  established.  Its  prob- 
lem was  to  defeat  the  submarine  by  building 
a  vast  fleet  to  transport  the  American  army  and 
great  quantities  of  supplies  to  Europe.  It  wan 
organized  as  a  $50,000,000  corporation  with 
Colonel  Cioethals  as  general  manager.  The  effi- 
ciency of  this  board  was  marred  by  continual 
wranglings  over  the  nature  of  the  vessels  to  be 
built.  The  result  was  scveial  changes  of  per- 
sonnel without  apparent  harmony  of  action.  An- 
other important  board  was  the  Aircraft  Board 
Congress  appropriated  $040,000,000  for  the 
aerial  service,  and  every  one  confidently  ex- 
pected that  America  would  take  the  lead  in  sup- 
plying machines  of  all  types.  In  September, 
1017,  a  gloving  account  of  the  new  Liberty 
motor  was  given  to  the  public.  It  was  a  false 
hope,  however,  and  it  was  many  months  before 
the  engine  was  perfected;  as  a  matter  of  actual 
fact  most  of  the  machines  used  at  the  front  were 
of  foreign  make.  (See  ALRONAUTICS.)  Con- 
gress made  strenuous  efforts  to  prosecute  the 
war  eflectively.  Sums  of  money  undreamed  of 
before  were  appropriated,  and  many  all-embrac- 
ing \var  measures,  such  as  the  Daylight  Saving 
Law,  Espionage  Act,  Food  Act,  Fuel  Act,  Se- 
lective Draft  Act,  etc.,  were  enacted.  The  peo- 
ple of  the  country  also  contributed  millions  of 
dollars  to  volunteer  organizations,  such  as  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  the  Young 
Women's  Christian  Association,  the  Salvation 
Army,  the  Red  Cross,  and  several  others.  (For 
an  account  of  their  war  services,  sec  the  articles 
on  these  organizations.)  Thousands  of  business- 
men gave  up  their  private  interests  and  worked 
for  the  government  for  a  nominal  wage. 
Enemy  Aliens.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  War, 


TJNITED  STATES  OF  AXEBICA        2343        UNITED  STATES  OF  AMEBICA 


there  were  approximately  5,000,000  enemy  aliens 
in  the  United  States.  An  official  proclamation 
was  issued,  forbidding  any  enemy  alien  from 
remaining  or  residing  "within  half  a  mile  of  .any 
governmental  fort,  factory,  reservation,  base  of 
supplies,  or  any  land  used  for  war  purposes/' 
without  a  permit.  Owing  to  the  activities  of 
pro-German  sympathizers,  President  Wilson  in 
November,  1017,  ordered  all  enemy  aliens  to 
register  and  gave  the  Attorney  General  power  to 
establish  forbidden  zones.  An  enemy  property 
custodian  was  appointed  by  President  Wilson, 
with  the  purpose  of  seizing  all  property  held 


selection  was  changed  (November,  1917).  All 
the  remaining  registrants  were  divided  into  five 
classes,  according  to  liability  for  military  serv- 
ice. Those  in  the  first  class  were  to  be  called 
first,  those  in  the  second  next,  and  so  on.  Dur- 
ing 1918  three  registration  days  were  set  aside 
on  which  the  various  classes  of  men  were  to 
register.  What  virtually  amounted  to  a  second 
selective  draft  act  was  approved  by  President 
Wilson  on  Aug  31,  1918  It  provided  for  the 
registration  of  all  males  between  the  ages  of 
18  and  45,  with  the  exception  of  those  who  had 
already  registered  or  who  were  in  the  military 


by  enemy   aliens  in  the  United   States  and   of      or    naval    service    of    the    United    States.     Ap- 

holding  it  in  trust  until  the  close  of  the  War.      ! — "  '~    *««™«™   —-•-----'          •«-*     *» 

The  total  cost  of  the  administration  of  the 
property  was  borne  by  the  businesses  themselves, 
which  were  taken  over  by  A.  Mitchell  Palmer, 
the  Alien  Enemy  Property  Custodian.  As  each 
enemy-owned  enterprise  was  seized,  an  effort 
was  made  to  convert  its  products  to  the  use  of 
the  government  in  the  War.  As  a  result,  Palmer 
said:  "when  the  Armistice  was  signed,  the  alien 
property  custodian  was  supplying  the  govern- 
ment \\li\\  magnetos  for  airplanes  and  auto- 
mobile motors,  with  cloth  to  make  uniforms  for 
the  soldiers  and  dyes  with  which  the  cloth  was 
dyed,  \\ith  medicines,  surgical  instruments  and 
dressings,  with  musical  instruments,  with  ball 
bearings,  telescopes,  optical  instruments,  with 
coconnut  charcoal  for  the  making  of  gas  masks, 
with  glycerine  for  the  making  of  high  explosives 
and  a  large  number  of  other  and  varied  prod- 
ucts In  some  instances  the  enemy-owned  cor- 
porations under  the  alipn  property  custodian's 
supervision  were  running  100  per  cent  of  their 
capacity  on  government  business."  More  than 
$700,000,000  of  enemy  property  was  taken  over 
by  the  custodian. 

The  Draft  Art.  In  the  President's  message  to 
Congress  on  Apr.  2,  1017.  he  submitted  the 
project  of  raising  a  national  army  by  conscrip- 
tion. There  was  tremendous  opposition  to  this, 
but  after  a  month's  debate  the  President's  idea 
prevailed,  and  on  May  18,  11)17,  the  selective 
conscription  net  \\as  passed  June  5  was  set 
aside  as  the  day  on  which  all  males  who  had 
reached  their  2ist  but  not  their  31st  birthday 
were  to  register  for  military  service;  9,659,382 
men  legistered.  This  included  aliens.  The  law 
authorized  the  President  to  appoint  a  local  ex- 
emption board  for  each  county  and  one  for 
each  30,000  population  in  cities  of  30,000  or 
moie.  The  exemption  boards  were  to  be  made 
up  of  civilians  only.  Those  specifically  exempted 
by  the  law  were  Federal  and  State  o'fficials  and 
members  of  religious  sects  who  had  conscientious 

scruples   against   war.     The   President   was   au-      stitutionality  of  the   Selective  Service  Act  was 
thori/ed  to  exempt  "persons  engaged  in   indus-      ««iioiil      Son    Archive  •    MP-WTAT    AfFAsimvxrirwT 
tries,  including  agriculture,  found  to  be  neces 
sary  to  the  maintenance  of  the  military  estab 
lishments  or  the  effective  operation  of  military 


proximately  13,000,000  registered  on  Sept.  12, 
1918.  Provost  Marshal  General  Crowder  an- 
nounced that  the  select  ives  had  been  classified 
into  five  groups.  A  summary  of  this  classifica- 
tion follows: 

Class  I:  (1)  single  man  without  dependent  relatives; 
(2)  married  mun  (or  widower)  with  children,  who 
habitually  fails  to  support  his  family;  (3)  raarned  man 
dependent  on  wife  for  support,  (4)  married  man  (or 
widower)  with  children,  not  usefully  engaged  ,  family 
supported  by  income  independent  of  his  labor;  (5) 
men  not  included  m  this  or  other  classes  ,  (6)  un- 
skilled laborers 

Class  II.  (1)  married  man  or  father  of  motherless 
children  uvefully  engaged,  but  family  has  sufficient  in- 
come apart  from  his  daily  labor  to  afford  reasonable 
adequate  support  during  hi*  absence;  (2)  married  man. 
no  children,  wife  can  support  herself  decently  and 
without  hardships,  (3)  skilled  farm  laborer  engaged 
in  necessary  industrial  enterprise;  (4)  skilled  in- 
dustrial laborer  engaged  in  necessary  agricultural 
enterprise 

Class  III:  (1)  man  with  foster  children  dependent 
on  daily  labor  for  support,  (2)  rnnn  A\  ith  aged,  in 
firm,  or  invalid  parents  or  grandparents  dependent 
on  labor  for  support,  (!J)  man  with  brothers  or  sisters 
incompetent  to  support  themselves,  dependent  on  daily 
labor  for  support,  (4)  county  or  municipal  officers, 
(5)  fireman  or  policeman,  (6)  necessarv  artificer  or 
v,  01  km  an  in  arsenals,  armories,  and  navy  yards;  (7) 
necessary  customhouse  clerk;  (8)  person  necessary  in 
transmission  of  mails;  (9)  necessnry  employee  in  ser- 
vice of  United  Stnte««,  (10)  highly  specialired  admin- 
istrative expert;  (11)  technical  or  mechanical  expert 
in  industrial  enterprise,  (12)  highly  specialized  agri- 
cultural expert  in  agricultural  bureau  of  State  or  na- 
tion; (13)  assistant  or  associate  manager  of  necessary 
industrial  enterprise;  (14)  assistant  or  associate  man- 
ager of  necessary  agricultural  enterprise. 

Class  IV:  (1)  married  man  with  wife  and  (or) 
children  (or  widower  with  children),  dependent  on 
daily  labor  for  support  and  no  other  reasonable 
adequate  support  available,  (2)  marine  in  sea  service 
of  merchants  or  citizens  in  the  United  States;  (3) 
head  of  necessary  industrial  enterprises;  (4)  head  of 
necessary  agricultural  enterprise. 

Class  V:  (1)  officer  of  State  or  the  United  States; 
(2)  regularly  or  duly  ordained  ministers;  (:»)  student 
of  divinity;  (4)  person  in  military  or  naval  service, 
(5)  alien;  (6)  alien  enemy;  (7)  person  morally  un- 
fit, (8)  person  permanently  physically  or  mentally  un- 
fit; (9)  licensed  pilot. 

In  a  decision  handed  down  by  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court  on  Jan.  8,  1918,  the  con- 


upheld      See   ARMIES;    MENTAL    MEASUREMENT. 
Financing  the  TVar.     The  United  States  gov- 
ernment determined   to  raise  the   money  neces- 
sary   for    the    conduct    of    the    war    by    three 


the  national   interest  during  the      methods:    (1)   loans,   (2)   revenue  under  "existing 


forces  or 

emergency."  The  cards  of  registrants  were  num- 
bered in  a  red-ink  serial  up  to  the  total  num- 
ber in  the  district.  Alphabetical  arrangements 
were  forbidden.  Then  the  numbers  were  drawn 


taxation,  (3)  new  taxation.  Five  loans  were 
floated  during  the  course  of  the  War.  The 
first  four  were  called  Liberty  Loans  and  tho 
fifth  the  Victory  Loan.  The  First  Liberty  Loan 


at  Washington  and  the  men  were  called  accord-  books   were   opened    May    14,    1917,    and    closed 

ing  to  the  drawing,  which  took  place  on  July  June    15.     Two    billion    dollars'    worth    of    3^ 

20.     The    men    were    medically    examined    and  per    cent   convertible    gold    bonds   were    offered, 

those  who  were  physically  fit  and  not  exempted  More  than   4,000,000   people  bought  bonds,   and 

were  sent  to  some  one  of  the   16  military  can-  the  offer  was  oversubscribed  by  more  than   60 

tonments  constructed   for   the   training  of  new  per  cent,  necessitating  a  pro  rata  arrangement 

recruits;  687,000  were  called  in  this  first  draft.  for    all    those    who    had    purchased    more    than 

After  this  draft  was  completed,  the  system  of  $10,000.     A   second  loan   of  $3,000,000,000  was 

44 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AXBXIOA 


*344 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMEBICA 


offered  Oct.  1,  1017,  bearing  4  per  cent  inter- 
est. Ten  million  persons  offered  $4,617,532,300. 
The  Treasury  accepted  half  of  the  excess  The 
Third  Liberty  Loan  was  offered  on  Apr.  0,  1918. 
It  called  for  $3,000,000,000  at  4%  per  cent. 
More  than  18,000,000  persons  offered  $4,176,- 
610,850.  The  Fourth  Liberty  Loan  called  for 
$0,000,000,000  at  4%  per  cent.  More  than  21,- 
000,000  subscribers  offered  $6,080,047,000.  The 
fifth  or  Victory  Loan  called  for  $4,500,000,000, 
and  the  rate  of  interest  was  fixed  at  4%  per 
cent.  More  than  12,000,000  people  subscribed 
$5,240,008,300.  For  the  tax  measures  passed  to 
help  finance  the  War,  see  TAXATION  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES  and  FINANCE  AND  BACKING. 

Missions  from  Abroad.  From  time  to  time 
throughout  the  War,  missions  from  foreign  na- 
tions visited  the  United  States  to  cement  the 
ties  of  friendship  and  to  make  plans  to  co- 
operate and  carry  on  the  War  more  efficiently. 
A  British  mission  headed  by  Arthur  James  Bal- 
four  (q.v.)  was  the  first  to  arrive  (April,  1017). 
It  was  closely  followed  by  a  French  mission 
headed  by  Ren6  Viviani  (q.v.)  They  were 
hailed  everywhere.  Subsequently  missions  from 
Italy,  Belgium,  Russia,  Rumania,  and  Japan 
arrived  and  were  cordially  received  throughout 
the  United  States. 

Relations  With  Austria-Hungary.  Although 
Austria-Hungary  severed  diplomatic  relations 
after  the  break  with  Germany,  the  United 
States  did  not  immediately  declare  war.  Partly 
as  an  aid  to  Italian  morale,  war  was  declared 
on  Dec.  7,  1017.  Among  the  reasons  given  by 
President  Wilson  were  the  sinking  of  American 
vessels  by  Austrian  submarines  and  the  un- 
neutral  actions  of  Dumba,  the  Austrian  ambas- 
sador. See  ArsTRiA-HuNGARY,  History. 

Peace  and  After.  On  Nov.  18,  1018,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  announced  that  he  would  attend 
the  Paris  Peace  Conference  in  person.  He 
named  as  peace  delegates  Robert  Lansing,  Sec- 
retary of  State;  Henry  W7hite,  a  Republican, 
formerly  ambassador  to  France,  Edward  M. 
House,  and  Gen.  Tasker  II.  Bliss  (q.v.)  The 
President  was  received  in  Paris  with  great  en- 
thusiasm, and  prior  to  the  meeting  of  the  peace 
conference  he  made  visits  to  Great  Britain  and 
Italy,  where  he  was  hailed  as  the  savior  of  the 
world.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  President 
Wilson  and  his  party  received  a  considerable 
political  setback  in  the  elections  held  in  the 
United  States  just  six  days  prior  to  the  sign- 
ing of  the  Armistice.  Despite  a  personal  appeal 
by  the  President  to  return  a  Democratic  major- 
ity, the  Republicans  carried  both  houses  of 
Congress  and  were  successful  in  a  majority  of 
the  State  elections.  The  President's  chief  con- 
cern at  the  peace  conference  was  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  covenant  of  the  League  of  Nat  ion  H, 
and  he  gave  his  utmost  efforts  to  this  object. 
After  the  first  draft  of  the  covenant  had  been 
prepared,  he  returned  to  the  United  States  on 
Feb.  24,  1010,  for  a  brief  visit.  There  had  al- 
ready developed  in  Congress,  especially  in  the. 
Senate,  a  pronounced  opposition  to  the  terms 
of  the  covenant.  This  opposition  was  chiefly 
centred  on  Article  X,  which  pledged  the  sig- 
natory powers  "to  preserve  as  against  external 
aggression  the  territory  of  all  the  States  in  the 
League."  President  Wilson  during  his  stay  in 
the  United  States  made  several  addresses  in 
which  he  defended  the  covenant.  He  then  re- 
turned to  Paris.  When  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
wu  signed  on  June  28,  1919,  the  President  at 


once  returned  to  the  United  States.  For  a 
complete  discussion  of  the  peace  conference  and 
the  various  treaties  which  followed  the  War, 
see  PEACE  CONFERENCE  ANB  TREATIES.  See  also 
LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS.  For  the  controversy  over 
what  Germany  should  pay,  see  REPARATIONS. 

Political  interest  in  the  United  States  centred 
in  the  deliberations  on  the  peace  treaty  in  the 
Senate.  The  many  problems  of  reconstruction, 
such  as  the  absorption  of  the  millions  of  soldiers 
and  sailors  and  laborers  who  were  engaged  in 
war  industries,  the  question  of  the  tariff  (q.v.), 
prohibition  (q.v.),  woman  suffrage  (q.v), 
finances,  and  the  readjustment  of  the  relation- 
ship between  the  various  branches  of  the  Fed- 
eral government,  were  all  allowed  to  slumber 
while  the  Democrats  and  Republicans  fought 
over  the  League  of  Nations  issue.  The  only 
bright  spot  in  the  controversy  was  the  passage 
of  one  real  piece  of  constructive  legislation,  the 
Esch-Cummins  Bill.  This  provided  for  the  re- 
turn of  the  railroads  to  private  operation  and 
management.  For  the  provisions  of  this  bill, 
see  RAILROADS.  The  Senate  Committee  on  For- 
eign Relations  having  considered  the  treaty,  it 
was  introduced  in  the  Senate  on  Sept.  28,  1018. 
There  had  been  added  38  amendments  and  4 
reservations.  The  first  of  these  gave  the  United 
States  the  right  to  withdraw  from  the  League 
of  Nations  after  due  notice  had  been  given. 
The  second  freed  the  United  States  from  any 
obligation  to  carry  out  Article  X,  noted  above. 
The  third  reservation  provided  that  the  United 
States  should  have  the  power  to  decide  what 
questions  came  within  domestic  jurisdiction.  In 
the  fourth  reservation  the  United  States  de- 
clined to  submit  for  arbitration  and  inquiry 
any  questions  dependent  on  or  relating  to  the 
Monroe  Doctrine.  The  President  had  previously, 
on  the  advice  of  ex-President  Taft  and  others, 
inserted  in  the  League  covenant  a  declaration 
that  the  Monroe  Doctrine  continued  to  be  in 
force.  Jn  the  face  of  the  outspoken  hostility  of 
the  Senate,  President  Wilson  determined  to  ap- 
peal directly  to  the  people  in  behalf  of  the 
League.  Consequently  he  started  on  a  nation- 
wide* hpcakmg  tour  on  September  3  On  Sep- 
tember 20  hi-  was  seized  by  an  apoplectic  stroke 
and  was  compelled  to  abandon  his  tour  and  to 
remain  in  seclusion  for  months  under  the  care 
of  physicians.  He  never  recovered  from  this 
breakdown. 

After  a  long  debate  in  the  Senate  in  which 
much  bitterness  developed  and  14  revised  amend- 
ments were  introduced,  the  treaty  was  defeated 
with  the  Lodge  leseivations  by  a  vote  of  55  to 
30  on  November  10.  The  treaty  was  reintro- 
duced  in  the  next  session  of  Congress  and  was 
again  decisively  defeated  by  a  vote  of  40  to  35. 
(Jn  Apr.  30,  1020,  Senator  Knox  introduced  in 
the  Senate  a  resolution  providing  for  a  declara- 
tion of  peace  with  Oermnny.  This  resolution 
was  adopted  by  both  Houses  but  was  vetoed  by 
the  President.  Although  there  was  an  evident 
and  ever-increasing  desire  to  end  the  deadlock 
over  the  treaty  with  some  form  of  compromise, 
both  sides  were  finally  compelled  to  leave  the 
question  to  a  "solemn  referendum"  of  the  people 
in  the  Presidential  election  of  1020.  In  the 
debate  in  the  Senate,  the  leaders  of  the  fight  for 
ratification  were  Senators  Swan  won  of  Virginia 
and  Hitchcock  of  Nebraska.  The  chief  oppo- 
nents of  the  ratification  were  Lodge  of  Massa- 
chusetts, Borah  of  Idaho,  and  Johnson  of  Cali- 
fornia. Robert  Lansing  (q.v.),  Secretary  of 


TOTTED  STATES  OF  AMERICA        1345        TOTTED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


State,  resigned  on  Feb.  13,  1920,  as  a  result  of 
severe  criticism  by  the  President  of  his  action 
in  summoning  the  cabinet  in  session  during  the 
illness  of  the  President.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Bainbridge  Colby  (Q.V.). 

Election  of  1920.  The  Republican  candi- 
dates for  the  nomination  prior  to  the  conven- 
tion were  Gen.  Leonard  Wood,  Governor  Lowden 
of  Illinois,  Senator  Hiram  Johnson  of  California, 
and  Herbert  Hoover.  The  leading  Democratic 
candidates  were  William  G.  McAdoo  and  Gov. 
James  M.  Cox  of  Ohio.  The  Republican  na- 
tional convention  met  in  Chicago  on  June  8. 
The  forces  of  General  Wood  and  Governor  Low- 
don  were  evenly  matched,  but  both  were  made 
unavailable  by  the  disclosures  of  huge  campaign 
funds  which  were  injudiciously  spent  in  some 
rases.  On  June  12,  Senator  Warren  G.  Hard- 
ing (q.v.)  was  nominated  for  the  presidency, 
and  Calvin  C.  Coolidge  (q.v.)  was  selected  as 
vice-presidential  candidate.  At  the  Democratic 
convention  which  met  at  San  Francisco  on  June 
28,  Governor  Cox  (qv.)  was  nominated  for 
president  and  Franklin  D.  Roosevelt  (q.v.)  as 
It m  running-mate.  The  campaign  which  fol- 
lowed was  exceedingly  aggressive,  especially  on 
the  side  of  Cox,  who, 'touring  the  country,  made 
speeches  in  defense  of  the  League  of  Nations  in 
practically  every  State.  Senator  Harding  re- 
mained at  home,  where  from  day  to  day  he  ad- 
dressed delegations.  The  Republicans  for  the 
most  part  ignoied  the  League  of  Nations  and  di- 
jcctcd  their  attacks  against  the  administration 
of  the  Piesident.  In  the  election  in  November, 
Harding  and  Coolidge  received  16,181,289  pop- 
ular votes,  against  9,141,7.">3  for  Cox  and  Roose- 
velt. The  electoral  vote  was  404  to  127.  The 
nineteenth  amendment,  providing  for  woman 
suffrage  (q.v.),  had  been  adopted  prior  to  the 
election,  and  the  women  for  trie  first  time  par- 
ticipated in  the  election  of  a  president.  This 
accounts  for  the  large  popular  vote  cast. 

Administration  of  Harding  and  Coolidge. 
President  Harding  was  inaugurated  on  Mar.  4, 
1021.  He  at  once  announced  the  members  of 
his  cabinet  as  follows:  Secretary  of  State, 
Cliarles  K.  Hughes  of  New  York;  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  Andrew  W.  Mellon  of  Pennsyl- 
vania; Secretary  of  War,  John  W  Weeks  of 
Massachusetts;  "Srcrctaiy  of  the  Navy,  Edwin 
C.  I)enl>y  of  Michigan,"  Secictary  of  the  In- 
terior, Albert  B.  Fall  of  New  Mexico;  Post- 
master General,  Will  H  Hays  of  Indiana;  Attor- 
ney General,  Harry  M.  Dougherty  of  Ohio;  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture,  Henry  C.  Wallace  of 
Iowa ;  Secretary  of  Commerce,  Herbert  Hoover 
of  California;  and  Secretary  of  Labor,  James  J. 
Davis  of  Pennsylvania.  On  March  23  the  Presi- 
dent issued  a  call  for  a  special  session  of  the 
new  67th  Congress,  for  May  11,  1021.  Congress 
at  once  took  up  the  consideration  of  measures 
looking  toward  economic  and  financial  recon- 
struction. An  immigration  bill,  which  limited 
the  immigrants  of  any  nationality  during  the 
fiscal  year  to  three  per  cent  of  the  number  of 
that  nationality  in  the  United  States  at  the 
Census  of  1910,  was  passed.  For  further  details 
and  later  changes  in  the  immigration  law,  see 
IMMIGRATION.  An  emergency  tariff  bill  was 
passed  and  approved  by  the  President  on  May 
27.  For  the  provisions  of  this  measure  and  the 
subsequent  Fordney-McCumber  Act,  see  TAKIFF 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  A  budget  law  was  also 
enacted.  See  FINANCE  AND  BANKING.  The  ap- 
propriations for  the  army  and  navy  were 


radically  cut  down,  and  by  the  terms  of  the 
Army  bill  the  army  was  limited  to  150,000.  See 
ABMIE8.  For  changes  m  the  tax  laws,  see 
TAXATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Peace  with  Germany.  The  Senate  passed  on 
April  30  a  measure  which,  previously  offered 
bv  Senator  Knox,  declared  the  war  between  the 
united  States  and  the  Central  Powers  at  an  end, 
and  repealed  the  declaration  of  war.  This  was 
followed  by  the  preparation  and  ratification  of 
a  peace  treaty  with  Germany.  By  the  terms  of 
this  treaty  the  United  States  is  not  bound  by 
any  of  the  provisions  of  the  Versailles  Treaty 
which  relate  to  the  League  of  Nations.  It  re- 
serves to  the  United  States  whatever  favorable 
concessions  are  made  by  Germany  to  the  Allied 
powers.  The  treaty  was  signed  by  Germany  and 
the  United  States  on  July  2,  1921,  and  ratifica- 
tions were  exchanged  in  November  of  the  same 
year. 

Washington  Conference.  The  details  of  the 
disarmament  agreement  and  the  settlement  of 
the  problems  of  the  Pacific  will  be  found  under 
the  title  WASHINGTON  CONFERENCE. 

Industrial  Unicst.  The  latter  half  of  1922 
and  part  of  1923  were  periods  of  industrial  un- 
rest. A  general  strike  of  the  coal  miners  in 
both  the  anthracite  and  bituminous  fields,  threat- 
ening for  months,  was  declared  in  the  bitumi- 
nous fields  on  Apr.  1,  1922,  at  the  expiration  of 
the  two-year  contracts  between  the  miners  and 
the  operators.  Woik  (eased  in  the  anthracite 
mines  a  few  months  later.  Serious  disorders 
were  prevalent  The  situation  was  the  subject 
of  remedial  legislation  in  Congress.  (See  COAL; 
STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS.)  No  less  serious  than 
the  coal  strike  was  a  general  strike  of  the  shop- 
men in  all  the  railroads  of  the  country  which 
was  declaied  on  July  1,  1923.  See  HAILROYDS; 
STRIKES  AND  LOCKOUTS. 

Foreign  Relations  During  the  period,  affairs 
in  Europe  seemed  to  go  from  bad  to  wor*e.  The 
foreign  policy  of  the  Harding  administration 
was  to  keep  aloof.  The  American  tioops  were 
gradually  withdrawn  from  Europe,  and  when 
France  and  Belgium  in  .Tanuaiy,  1923,  seized 
the  Ruhr  (q.v  ),  the  remaining  Amei  ican  troops 
weie  withdrawn  from  the  occupied  zone.  The 
question  of  the  debt  owed  by  foreign  countries 
to  the  United  States  was  vexatious.  There  was 
much  propaganda  for  the  canceling  of  these 
debts,  but  the  majority  opinion  seemed  to  favor 
their  collection.  Karly  in  1923,  a  British  finan- 
cial mission,  headed  \y  Stanley  Baldwin,  came 
to  the  United  States  and  successfully  negotiated 
for  the  payment  of  the  British  debt.  (See  FI- 
NANCE AND  BANKING.)  On  Feb.  24,  1023, 
President  Harding  sent  the  Senate  a  message 
asking  for  participation  by  the  United  Slates 
in  the  International  Court  of  .Justice  erected  at 
The  Hague  by  the  League  of  Nations.  President 
Harding  emphatically  stated,  however,  that  he 
intended  no  obligations  under  the  League  of  Na- 
tions covenant. 

Coolidgc  in  Office.  In  June,  1923,  President 
Harding  (q.v.)  started  on  a  trip  through  the 
West  and  Alaska.  At  Seattle  he  became  very 
ill  and  died  at  San  Francisco  on  August  2. 
Calvin  Coolidge  (q.v.)  was  sworn  into  office 
early  in  the  morning  of  the  next  day  and  im- 
mediately assumed  the  presidential  duties.  In 
his  first  message  to  Congress,  Coolidge  favored 
the  World  Court  but  opposed  the  League  of  Na- 
tions; he  favored  reduction  of  taxation  and  op- 
posed the  bonus.  The  League  of  Nations  issue 


UNITED  STATES  OF  A 


LZOA 


was  raised  again  in  November,  1923,  when 
Woodrow  Wilson  (q.v.)  in  a  radio  message  de- 
plored the  "shameful  fact"  of  the  United  States* 
withdrawal  from  all  "responsible  part  in  the 
administration  of  peace."  This  was  Wilson's 
last  public  address.  In  January,  1924,  he  be- 
came critically  ill  and  died  on  February  3. 

Investigations  and  Scandals.  Unfortunately 
for  him,  President  Coolidge  inherited  a  series 
of  scandals  which  involved  men  holding  promi- 
nent positions.  The  resignation  of  Albert  B 
Fall  (q.v.)  as  Secretary  of  the  Interior  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  investigation  of  the  leasing  of  the 
oil  fields  by  the  Navy  and  Interior  Depart- 
ments. President  Coolidge  was  advised  by  At- 
torney General  Daugberty  to  appoint  counsel 
from  both  parties  to  investigate  and  to  prose- 
cute any  one  guilty  of  irregularities  or  criminal 
action  in  connection  with  the  leases.  Conse- 
quently President  Coolidge,  in  a  statement  made 
on  Jan  27,  1024,  said:  "Counsel  will  be  in- 
structed to  prosecute  these  cases  in  the  court  so 
that  if  there  is  any  guilt  the  guilty  persons 
will  be  punished;  if  there  is  any  civil  liability 
it  will  be  enforced;  if  there  is  any  fraud  it  will 
be  revealed;  and  if  there  are  any  contracts  which 
are  illegal  they  will  be  canceled "  The  oil 
scandal  arose  from  the  turning-over  of  public 
oil  reserves  in  California  and  Wyoming  to  the 
E.  L.  Doheny  (q.v.)  and  H.  F.  Sinclair  (qv.) 
interests  by  Secretary  Fall.  This  had  been  pre- 
ceded by  a  transfer  of  the  control  of  the  oil 
fields  from  the  Navy  Department  to  the  In- 
terior Department.  On  investigation  it  was  dis- 
covered that  Fall  had  been  the  recipient  of  a 
$100,000  "loan"  from  Doheny.  His  testimony 
relative  to  this  "loan"  was  rambling  and  unsatis- 
factory. He  and  Sinclair  were  subsequently  in- 
dicted by  a  Federal  grand  jury.  The  name  of 
William  G.  McAdoo  was  drawn  into  the  con- 
troversy when  it  was  shown  that  his  law  firm 
received  a  large  retaining-fee  from  the  oil  in- 
terests shortly  after  he  resigned  from  the  office 
of  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  This  played  a 
prominent  part  in  his  failure  to  receive  the 
Democratic  nomination  in  1924.  Franklin  K. 
Lane  was  another  former  cabinet  official  em- 
ployed by  the  oil  interests.  Senator  Pomerene 
and  Mr.  Roberts  were  appointed  by  President 
Coolidge  as  special  counsel  to  investigate  and 
prosecute  the  oil  frauds.  Secretaries  Denby  and 
Daugherty  were  compelled  to  resign.  They 
were  succeeded  by  Curtis  D.  Wilbur  (q.v.)  and 
Harlan  Stone  (q.v.). 

Another  amazing  and  serious  scandal  arose 
in  connection  with  the  administration  of 
the  United  States  War  Veterans'  Bureau.  A 
Senatorial  investigation  committee  reported  that 
the  Bureau  should  be  completely  reorganized. 
It  had  failed  miserably  to  provide  for  disabled 
veterans,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  Bureau  had 
been  impaired  bv  corruption,  inefficiency,  extrav- 
agance, political  pressure,  etc.  The  former  di- 
rector, Col.  Charles  R.  Forbes,  and  James 
Thompson,  a  contractor,  were  indicted  by  a 
Federal  grand  jury  on  charges  of  bribery  and 
corruption  in  connection  with  the  award  of  con- 
tracts for  building  veteran  hospitals. 

Presidential  Conventions,  1924.  The  Re- 
publican convention  met  on  June  10,  1024,  at 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  The  "keynote"  address  was 
made  bv  Theodore  Burton  of  Ohio.  The  plat- 
form aaopted  on  June  12  was  preferred  to  a 
platform  submitted  by  Senator  La  Follette.  The 
platform  continued  the  policy  of  aloofness  in 


IT.  a.  anuTABY  ACADEMY 

foreign  affairs,  although  it  approved  the  World 
Court  idea.  It  also  provided  for  the  collection 
of  foreign  debts,  the  continuance  of  the  high 
protective  tariff,  and  other  planks  too  numerous 
to  mention.  The  question  of  the  Ku  Klux  Klan 
(q.v.)  was  completely  ignored.  The  nomina- 
tions were  easily  disposed  of.  Calvin  Coolidge 
was  nominated  on  the  first  ballot  for  the  presi- 
dency, and  den  Charles  G.  Dawes  (q.v.)  was 
nominated  on  the  third  ballot  for  the  vice  pres- 
idency. Governor  Lowden  (<i  v.)  of  Illinois  was 
nominated  on  the  second  ballot  but  refused  to 
run. 

The  Democratic  convention,  opening  in  New 
York  City  on  June  24,  lasted  until  July  10, 
1024.  It  was  the  longest  in  the  history  of  the 
country.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  inability 
of  the  delegates  to  reach  a  decision  on  the 
presidential  nominee  until  the  103d  ballot.  The 
two  most  prominent  candidates  were  William 
G.  McAdoo  (qv.)  and  Alfred  E.  Smith  (q.v.) 
Owing  to  the  exigencies  of  the  two-thirds  and 
unit  rules,  neither  was  able  to  obtain  the 
nomination,  although  each  was  able  to  check 
the  other  On  the  103d  ballot  John  W.  Davis 
(q.v.)  was  nominated.  Governor  Bryan  (q.v.) 
of  Nebraska  was  nominated  for  the  vice  presi- 
dency on  the  first  ballot.  Although  a  tremen- 
dous effort  was  made  to  incorporate  a  plank  de- 
nouncing the  Ku  Klux  Klan  (q.v.),  the  result 
was  a  colorless  plank,  so  indefinite  as  to  mean 
nothing  A  similar  plank  was  incorporated 
with  regard  to  the  League  of  Nations. 

A  third  party  appeared  in  the  field  when  Sen- 
ators La  Follette  (q.v.)  and  Wheeler  (qv.) 
were  nominated  by  a  convention  in  Cleveland  in 
July,  1024  This*  party  was  endorsed  by  the 
executive  council  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor 

7J?  esidential  Election.  Coolidge  and  Dawes  were 
elected,  November  4,  by  a  substantial  majority. 

UNITED  STATES  MILITARY  ACAD- 
EMY. A  government  institution  at  West 
Point,  N.  Y.,  for  the  practical  and  theoretical 
training  of  cadets  for  the  military  service  of 
the  United  States,  opened  in  1802.  Through 
an  act  of  Congress  in  May,  1916,  the  maximum 
number  of  cadets  permitted  to  be  enrolled  in 
the  academy  was  raised  to  1334  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  one  additional  cadet  from  each  congres- 
sional district,  additional  cadets  from  the 
United  States  at  laige,  and  from  the  ranks  of 
the  enlisted  men  in  the  regular  army  and  the 
national  guard  who  are  between  the  ages  of  19 
and  22,  and  have  served  not  less  than  one  year. 
Under  this  aet  the  enrollment  reached  its  highest 
mark,  1202,  in  1021,  and  stood  at  1225  in  1923- 
24,  as  compared  with  601  in  1914.  A  plan  was 
adopted  in  1916  admitting  applicants  on  cer- 
tificate from  accredited  schools  and  colleges  as 
well  as  by  examinations.  This  applied  to  mental 
qualifications  only.  During  the  War  the  en- 
tire schedule  was  shortened  to  furnish  officers 
for  the  service  more  quickly,  and  two  classes 
were  graduated  before  their  normal  time  in 
1918.  The  maximum  ajje  for  admission  to  the 
academy  was  extended  in  1920  from  22  to  24 
years  for  men  who  served  in  the  armed  forces 
of  the  United  States  during  the  War.  A  new 
cadet  hospital  was  practically  completed  in 
1923.  A  new  schedule  of  studies  went  into  ef- 
fect Jan.  1,  1924.  The  superintendents  and 
commandants  during  the  decade  were  as  follows: 
Col.  Clarence  P  Townsley,  1914-10;  Col.  John 
Biddle,  1916-17;  (  ol  Samuel  E.  Tillman,  1917- 


U.  S.  NAVAL  ACADEMY 


1347 


UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES 


18;    Brig. -Gen.    Douglas    MacArthur,    1919-22; 
Brig.-Gen.  Fred  W.  Sladen,  1922- 
UNITED   STATES    NAVAL   ACADEMY. 

A  school  for  the  training  of  naval  cadets 
at  Annapolis,  Md.,  founded  in  1845.  The 
United  States  Naval  Academy  during  the 
period  from  1014  to  1924  underwent  the  great- 
est change  in  its  history  The  student  body  was 
more  than  trebled  by  the  Act  of  Congress  of 
Feb.  15,  1010,  increasing  the  number  of  mid- 
shipmen from  two  to  three,  the  Act  of  Mar.  4, 
JO  17,  permitting  the  Secietary  of  the  Navy  to 
appoint  100  midshipmen  from  the  enlisted  force 
of  the  navy;  the  Act  of  Apr.  25,  1017,  increas- 
ing the  number  of  appointments  to  four,  and  the 
Act  of  July  11,  101!),  permitting  an  increase  in 
the  number  of  appointments  of  midshipmen  to 
five  for  each  senator  and  congressman.  An  act 
approved  Mar.  4,  1017,  authorized  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  at  his  discretion,  to  re- 
duce the  course  of  instruction  at  the  Naval 
Academy  from  four  to  three  years  (operative 
during  the  War),  which  permitted  midshipmen 
to  graduate  after  having  completed  a  three- 
year  course. 

During  the  period  of  the  War,  while  the  Naval 
Academy  was  working  at  its  full  operative 
strength,  a  large  number  of  ensigns  from  the 
enlisted  personnel  and  icserve  foice  were  given 
an  intensive  course,  and  of  this  number  more 
than  1200  were  given  certificates  of  graduation 
and  assumed  duties  as  oilicers  in  active  service. 
During  the  above  period  a  great  change  was 
made  in  tho  course  of  instruction.  Physical  re- 
quirements were  inci eased.  There  uas  also  in- 
tioduced  duiing  this  pciiod  the  method  of  ac- 
cepting certificates  from  colleges  and  high 
schools  for  admission  to  the  Naval  Academy  in 
lieu  of  mental  entrance  examinations.  The  scope 
of  tlie  course  was  greatly  extended  and  the  en- 
trance lequirenipnts  correspondingly  increased, 
until  they  were  perhaps  as  difficult  as  those  of 
any  college  in  the  country. 

The  Regiment  of  Midshipmen  in  1923-24 — 
nearly  2500 — was  the  largest  in  history.  Su- 
perintendent, Rear-Admiral  Henry  B  Wilson. 

UNITED  STATES  STEEL  CORPORA- 
TION. See  TiU'STS. 

UNIVERSALISTS.  Universalism  has  been 
defined  as  the  doctrine  or  belief  that  it  is  the 
purpose  of  God  to  save  every  member  of  the 
human  race  from  sin  Thus  it  is  claimed  that 
Universalism  is  as  old  as  Christianity,  but  the 
Universalist  denomination  is  of  modern  origin, 
and  is  confined  mostly  to  the  American  con- 
tinent. The  General  Convention  has  jurisdic- 
tion over  the  ecclesiastical  organizations  of  the 
church  The  membership  of  the  denomination 
increased  from  51,716  (estimated)  in  1913  to 
59,050  in  1923,  the  number  of  churches  decreased 
from  709  to  051,  and  the  number  of  ministers 
from  702  to  675.  The  number  of  pupils  in  the 
Sunday  schools  increased  from  30,000  to  38,- 
442.  The  commission  on  social  service  carried 
on  a  campaign  to  interest  ministers,  divinity 
students,  and  members  of  church  clubs  and  so- 
cieties in  its  work.  In  1919,  a  great  drive  was 
launched  to  reestablish  the  church  more  firmly 
and  raise  $1,000,000  to  carry  on  its  work.  With 
the  receipts  from  this  drive,  new  mission 
churches  were  established  in  the  South  and 
West,  new  buildings  were  built  in  Japan  for 
church,  school  and  residence  purposes,  and  a  bet- 
ter organization  and  more  perfect  supervision  of 
mission  work  was  made  possible.  The  General 


Sunday  School  Association,  the  religious  educa- 
tion department  of  the  church  organized  at  the 
beginning  of  the  period,  carried  on  a  notable 
work.  The  Women's  National  Missionary  As- 
sociation increased  its  home  and  foreign  mis- 
sionary work,  and  purchased  the  birthplace  of 
Clara  Barton,  a  loyal  Universalist,  for  use  as 
a  shrine  and  in  some  form  of  social  service 
work.  The  General  Convention  established  the 
department  of  social  welfare  on  a  permanent 
basis  with  a  full-time  director  who  aided  the 
churches  to  make  the  most  of  their  opportu- 
nities in  this  line  of  work.  A  movement  was 
under  way  in  1024  to  build  a  Universalist  Na- 
tional Memorial  Church  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
to  rebuild  the  destroyed  church  in  Tokyo,  Japan, 
and  at  the  same  time  erect  a  Christian  Lome 
for  students  in  that  city.  A  Mimsteis'  Pension 
Fund  was  also  established  which  was  eventually 
to  provide  for  the  needs  of  aged  ministers.  In 
addition,  the  regular  budget  of  the  Convention 
was  greatly  increased  to  provide  for  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  work  started  by  the  drive  funds. 
In  celebration  of  the  one  hundred  and  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  denomina- 
tion, the  Murray  Anniversary  Crusade  for  mem- 
bership was  carried  on  in  1020,  and  was  con- 
tinued thereafter  with  renewed  emphasis  and 
scope  under  the  name  of  the  Christ  Crusade 
The  Universalist  Comrades,  an  organization  for 
men,  was  established  in  1019  to  aid  the  larger 
projects  of  the  denomination. 

UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES.  A 
total  of  070  universities,  colleges  and  profes- 
sional schools  reported  to  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education  for  the  school  year  1919- 
20.  These  institutions  enrolled  521,754  stu- 
dents. Of  these,  38,308  men  and  20,011  women 
were  in  preparatory  departments;  212,405  men 
and  128,677  women  in  collegiate  depattmenls; 
9837  men  and  5775  women  in  graduate  depart- 
ments; 53,205  men  and  3836  women  in  profes- 
sional departments;  and  27,533  men  and  38,- 
326  women  were  registered  as  unclassified  or 
special  students.  The  public  institutions  en- 
rolled 134,007  men  and  61,869  women,  and  the 
private  institutions  200,219  men  and  125,659 
women. 

The  schools  of  theology  enrolled  7216  stu- 
dents; the  schools  of  law,  20,092  students;  the 
schools  of  medicine,  14,242  students;  the  schools 
of  dentistry,  8809  students;  the  schools  of 
pharmacy,  5026  students;  and  the  schools  of 
vetcrinaiy  medicine,  908  students.  There  weie 
94,838  students  who  attended  summer  schools, 
and  83,100  students  were  registered  for  exten- 
sion and  correspondence  courses 

The  figures  for  attendance  in  1919-20  were 
much  larger  than  those  for  1918.  The  increase 
for  total  numbers  of  students  was  39  per  cent. 
It  was  evident  that  the  increases  after  1920 
were  not  as  great.  Prof  Raymond^  Walters  of 
Swarthmore  College  collected  detailed  reports 
of  attendance  from  30  typical  universities  and 
general  reports  from  151  leading  universities 
and  colleges.  He  reported  in  School  and  Society 
for  Feb.  16,  1924,  that  "the  1923  advance  over 
1922  in  full-time  regular  students  in  134  of 
these  institutions  which  reported  both  last  year 
and  this,  was  3  per  cent;  the  increase  of  1922 
over  1921  in  123  institutions  had  been  2  per 
cent.  In  grand  total  enrollment  the  1923  gain 
over  1922  was  6  per  cent,  as  compared  with  14 
per  cent  for  1922  over  1921.  These  percentages 
are  markedly  smaller  than  the  percentages  of 


AND  OOLlBOES        1348       UNIVEBSITIES  AND  COLLEGES 


1919  to  1921  increases.  Nevertheless,  even  at 
the  diminished  rate,  the  numerical  gain  this 
year  at  some  of  the  larger  state  universities  ex- 
ceeds what  used  to  be  the  total  enrollment  of 
the  old-time  New  England  college  "  The  enroll- 
ments of  students  in  some  of  the  institutions 
reached  astonishing  numbers.  The  10  institu- 
tions having  the  largest  enrollments  of  full- 
time,  part-time  and  summer-session  students  for 
1922-23  were:  Columbia,  28,861  students; 
California,  23,139;  College  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  17,055;  Pennsylvania,  14,632;  New  York 
University,  14,385;  Minnesota,  12,322;  Chicago, 
12,191;  Michigan,  11,162;  Wisconsin,  11,088; 
and  Illinois,  10.557.  The  University  of  Cali- 
fornia also  reported  11,767  extension  students. 
If  these  are  added  to  the  number  in  residence 
the  institution  was  dealing  with  34,906  students. 

In  the  summer  schools  for  1923,  Columbia 
with  12,675  students  ranked  first.  The  Uni- 
versity of  California  was  second  with  10,258 
students.  The  next  schools  in  order  of  size 
were:  third,  Chicago,  6375;  fourth,  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  5457;  fifth,  Wisconsin, 
4710;  sixth,  Minnesota,  4540;  seventh,  Virginia, 
3129;  eighth,  Michigan,  3054;  ninth,  Colorado, 
2888;  tenth,  Texas,  2638. 

Itegrees.  In  1920,  the '  universities  and  col- 
leges conferred  23,272  baccalaureate  degrees  on 
men  and  15,280  on  women.  Graduate  degrees 
were  conferred  on  3457  men  and  139(5  women. 
Included  in  the  graduate  degrees  were  439 
Ph.D.  degrees  conferred  on  men  and  93  on 
women.  The  schools  of  theology  conferred  588 
degrees;  the  schools  of  law,  3273;  the  schools 
of  medicine,  2806;  schools  of  dentistry,  865; 
schools  of  pharmacy,  1023;  and  the  schools  of 
veterinary  medicine,  219.  A  total  of  989  hon- 
orary degrees  were  conferred. 

Property.  It  was  estimated  that  in  1920  the 
universities,  colleges  and  professional  schools 
owned  grounds  worth  $110,555,552;  buildings 
worth  $355,733.981;  dormitories  worth  $69,393,- 
142;  and  library  and  equipment  worth  $110,- 
847,727.  The  productive  funds  were  $556,350,- 
140. 

Receipts.  The  total  receipts  of  the  universi- 
ties, colleges  and  technological  schools  for  1919- 
20  were  $240,141,994,  of  which  $50,906,752  was 
for  increase  of  endowment.  About  26  per  cent 
of  the  income  was  derived  from  student  fees. 
The  per  cent  of  income  derived  from  student 
fees  had  not  changed  materially  since  1900, 
when  it  was  27.5  per  cent.  The  per  cent  of  in- 
come derived  from  productive  funds  in  1890 
was  282  per  cent;  in  1900,  it  was  17.3  per  cent; 
in  1910,  it  was  13.9  per  cent;  while  in  1920,  it 
was  only  10.9  per  cent.  States  and  cities  sup- 
plied about  22  per  cent  of  the  funds;  the  Fed- 
eral government  about  5  per  cent;  while  private 
benefactions  contributed  about  27  per  cent  of 
the  receipts  of  these  institutions.  The  income 
per  student  in  1900  was  $145;  in  1910,  $258 
and  in  1920,  $363.  The  amount  of  productive 
funds  per  student  had  not  increased  much  since 
1900,  when  it  was  $843.  In  1910,  it  was  $946 
and  in  1920,  $1066.  The  average  value  of  all 
property  per  student,  exclusive  of  productive 
funds,  was  $986  in  1900;  $1215  in  1910;  and 
$1239  in  1920.  The  value  of  the  properties  of 
these  institutions  barely  kept  pace  with  the  in- 
crease in  students. 

Gifts  and  Benefactions.  For  the  year 
1919-20,  a  total  of  88  universities,  colleges,  and 
professional  schools  reported  gifts  above  $100,- 


000,  making  an  aggregate  of  $54,734,197.  The 
total  amount  reported  by  all  of  the  institutions 
was  $67,417,156.  This  was  nearly  twice  the 
amount  reported  for  any  previous  year.  Since 
1871,  the  first  year  for  which  statistics  are 
available,  at  least  $900,000,000  had  been  given 
to  education.  In  the  latter  years  large  sums 
were  given  for  medical  education.  Columbia 
received  more  than  $12,000,000,  and  Johns  Hop- 
kins and  Vanderbilt  University  at  Nashville, 
Tenn ,  each  more  than  $8,000,000  for  medical 
education,  while  the  University  of  Rochester 
had  $9,000,000  available  for  the  establishment 
of  a  medical  school.  Several  other  institutions 
received  smaller  amounts  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  General  Education  Board,  the  Carnegie 
Corporation  and  the  Rockefeller  Foundation  ex- 
erted large  influence  on  medical  education  and 
each  was  generous  with  its  gifts. 

Academic  Freedom.  Various  cases  of  al- 
leged breach  of  academic  freedom  agitated  col- 
lego  administrators  and  faculties  during  this 
decade.  In  some  institutions  professors  were 
dismissed  because  of  utterances  or  acts  outside 
of  their  classrooms.  One  of  the  most  serious 
difficulties  occurred  in  Columbia  University 
when  Dr.  James  McKeen  Cattell  was  dismissed 
from  the  chair  of  psychology  which  he  had  hold 
for  a  period  of  26  years.  The  immediate  cause 
of  Dr.  Cattell's  dismissal  was  certain  letters 
that  he  had  written  to  members  of  Congress  urg- 
ing them  to  oppose  the  sending  of  conscripts  to 
Europe.  Following  Dr.  Cattell's  dismissal,  Pro- 
fessor Beard  resigned  as  an  expression  of  dis- 
approval of  the  attitude  of  the  trustees  He 
said:  "I  am  convinced  that  while  I  remain  in 
the  pay  of  the  trustees  of  Columbia  University 
I  cannot  do  effectively  my  humble  part  in  sus- 
taining public  opinion  iii  support  of  the  just 
war  on  the  German  Empire  or  take  a  posit  ion 
of  independence  in  the  days  of  reconstruction 
that  are  to  follow.  For  this  reason  I  herewith 
tender  my  resignation  as  professor  of  politics  " 
Professor  Cattell  carried  his  case  into  the  courts 
where  a  financial  settlement  was  eventually 
reached. 

Later  the  students  and  faculty  of  Clark  Uni- 
versity were  involved  in  a  controversy  which 
arose  because  of  President  At  wood's  refusal  to 
let  Mr.  Scott  Near  ing  lecture  before  a  voluntary 
group  of  students.  The  faculty  was  divided  in 
its  opinion  regarding  the  propriety  of  the  presi- 
dent's action.  The  student  body  also  took  sides 
and  for  a  time  the  matter  received  pronounced 
consideration  in  the  public  press,  where  opinion 
was  again  divided. 

The  enforced  resignation  of  Alexander  Meikle- 
john  as  president  of  Amherst  College,  and  the  is- 
sues which  led  to  this  action  on  the  part  of 
the  trustees,  attracted  widespread  interest  and 
were  regarded  by  the  press  as  significant  of  the 
educational,  financial  and  adminibtrative  prob- 
lems of  the  American  college.  President 
Meiklejohn  went  to  Amherst  in  1912  from 
Brown  University,  with  a  special  programme  to 
modernize  the  curriculum,  develop  courses  in 
history,  social  science  and  political  economy  and 
to  emphasize  the  unity  of  the  educational  proc- 
ess. It  was  generally  admitted  that  he  had 
raised  the  intellectual  standards  of  the  college 
to  a  high  plane  by  creating  an  eagerness  for 
learning  and  promoting  a  spirit  of  inquiry 
among  his  students.  That  the  issues  in  the 
controversy  were  those  of  conservatism  versus 
liberalism  were  emphatically  denied  by  the 


UNTVEBSITIES  AND  COLLEGES         1349       TTMTVEBSITIES  AND  COLLEGES 


trustees.  Two  factions  seem  to  have  brought 
strong  pressure  to  bear  upon  the  board  for  his 
dismissal:  the  faculty  and  alumni.  With  the 
students,  he  was  almost  wholly  successful. 
When  the  question  of  his  removal  was  mooted, 
a  committee  of  the  graduating  class  interviewed 
the  trustees  in  his  behalf  and  when  his  tenure 
was  ended,  thirteen  declined  to  receive  their  de- 
grees. The  trustees  seem  to  have  been  won  to 
the  merits  of  his  plan  of  education  and  to  have 
supported  it  for  a  time,  retreating  at  last  in 
the  face  of  opposition  and  expediency.  With 
his  faculty,  President  Meiklejohn  was  not  so 
successful,  it  being  said  that  two-thirds  of  its 
members  were  opposed  to  him.  The  majority  of 
younger  membeiH  were  bis  followers.  The 
causes  for  disunity  in  the  faculty  were  attrib- 
uted by  some  to  his  peculiar  temperament  and 
methods  of  administration  in  securing  curricu- 
lar  changes;  he  was  accused  of  misrepresenta- 
tion of  their  views  to  the  trustees  and  attacked 
for  an  alleged  radical  policy  of  retirement,  re- 
moval and  appointment.  The  president  had  the 
hearty  support  of  the  younger  alumni,  but  the 
older  and  more  influential  graduates  were 
against  him  and  for  various  reasons.  He  was 
accused  of  being  a  pacifist ,  he  was  held  respon- 
sible for  an  anti-religious  spiiit  among  the  stu- 
dents; he  was  regarded  as  advocating  Bolshevist 
pi  mciples;  and  to  his  denunciation  of  exag- 
gerated interest  in  intei collegiate  sports  and 
the  corrupting  influence's  of  professionalism 
were  traced  recent  failures  of  the  college's  ath- 
letic teams.  Other  influences  which  it  is 
thought  were  brought  to  bear  upon  the  trustees 
weie  the  mishandling  of  his  personal  finances 
and  maladministration  of  atfairs  of  the  college 
in  gcneial.  At  the  coinmenvement  meeting  the 
trustees  infoimcd  the  president  it  was  consid- 
ered inadvisable  foi  him  to  continue  as  adinin- 
istnitive  head  of  the  college  and  his  resigna- 
tion was  requested,  teirdered  and  accepted.  He 
was  oiTercd  a  professorship  of  logic  and  meta- 
physics but  declined 

Piesident  Lou  ell  in  one  of  his  reports  holds 
that  the  professor's  classioom  utterances  on  his 
o\vu  subjects  "ought  to  be  absolutely  free." 
The  instructor  should  also  be  fice  to  publish 
the  results  of  rescaich,  provided  the}'  are  in 
scholarly  form.  The  instructor  is  not,  however, 
at  liberty  to  consider  in  his  classioom  subjects 
that  do  not  relate  to  his  specialty.  President 
Lo\\ell  believes  that  it  is  unwise  for  an  institu- 
tion to  attempt  to  assume  responsibility  for  the 
actions  and  utterances  of  instructors  outside 
their  own  classrooms.  He  says,  "There  is  no 
middle  ground.  Either  the  university  assumes 
full  responsibility  for  peimitting  its  professors 
to  express  certain  opinions  in  public,  or  it  as- 
sumes no  responsibility  whatever,  and  leaves 
them  to  be  dealt  with  like  other  citi/ens  by  the 
public  authorities  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
land."  The  position  taken  by  President  I^owell 
was  probably  a  fair  statement  of  the  attitude 
held  in  most  institutions  in  the  year  1924. 

One  effect  of  the  difficulties  relating  to  the 
freedom  of  college  and  university  professors  was 
the  establishment  of  an  association  known  as  the 
American  Association  of  University  Professors. 
The  meeting  called  for  the  purpose  of  organizing 
this  association  was  held  in  New  York  City  in 
1915.  Over  250  were  in  attendance.  The  per- 
manent chairman,  Prof.  John  Dewey,  in  an  in- 
troductory address  set  forth  the  purposes  of  the 
proposed  association.  He  said:  "We  are  in  a 


period  of  intense  and  rapid  growth  of  higher 
education.  No  minister  of  public  education 
controls  the  growth;  there  is  no  common  educa- 
tional legislature  to  discuss  and  decide  its  prop- 
er course;  no  single  tribunal  to  which  moot 
questions  may  be  brought.  There  are  not  even 
long-established  traditions  to  guide  the  expansive 
growth.  Whatever  unity  is  found  is  due  to  the 
pressure  of  like  needs,  the  influence  of  institu- 
tional imitation  and  rivalry,  and  to  informal 
exchange  of  experience  and  ideas.  These  meth- 
ods have  accomplished  great  things.  Within  al- 
most a  single  generation  our  higher  education 
has  undergone  a  transformation  amounting  to 
a  revolution.  And  1  venture  to  say  that,  in 
spite  of  the  deficiencies  we  so  freely  deplore,  no 
country  has  at  any  time  accomplished  more  in 
the  same  number  of  years.  .  .  .  The  need  of  a 
voluntary  organization  is  the  greater  because  of 
certain  facts  in  the  history  of  the  American 
university.  The  rapid  growth  already  referred 
to  has  occurred  under  a  machinery  designed  for 
very  different  conditions.  We  are  doing  our 
educational  work  under  methods  of  control  de- 
veloped decades  ago,  before  anything  like  the 
existing  type  of  university  was  thought  of. 
Our  ofticial  methods  of  fixing  fundamental  edu- 
cational policy  as  well  as  of  recruiting,  appoint- 
ing, promoting,  and  dismissing  teachers,  are  an 
inheritance  from  bygone  conditions.  Their  lack 
of  adaptation  to  the  present  situation  is  due 
not  to  sinister  intent,  but  to  the  fact  that  they 
are  a  heritage  from  colonial  days  and  provincial 
habits.  The  wonder  is  not  that  there  is  so  much 
restlessness  and  friction,  but  that  thejre  is  not 
more.  A  system  inherently  absurd  in  the 
present  situation  has  been  made  workable  be- 
cause of  the  reasonableness  and  good  will  of  the 
governors  on  one  side  and,  even  more,  of  the 
governed  on  the  other.  Let  me  add  that  I  can 
think  of  nothing  so  well  calculated  to  lift  dis- 
cussions of  educational  defects  and  possibilities 
from  the  plane  of  emotion  to  that  of  intelligence 
as  the  existence  of  a  truly  representative  body 
of  professors."  Newspaper  reports  had  fre- 
quently asserted  that  the  purpose  of  the  asso- 
ciation was  to  safeguard  the  cause  of  academic 
freedom.  Professor  Dewey  maintained  that 
cases  of  infringement  upon  the  rights  of  in- 
structors were  "too  rare  to  demand  or  even  sug- 
gest the  formation  of  an  association.  Existing 
learned  societies  are  already  disposed  to  deal 
with  cases  of  infringement  as  they  may  come 
to  light  The  existence  of  publicly  recognized 
and  enforced  standards  would  tend  almost  auto- 
matically to  protect  the  freedom  of  the  individ- 
iial  and  to  secure  institutions  against  this 
abuse."  The  Association  held  annual  meetings 
and  its  committees  investigated  and  reported 
upon  difficulties  in  which  various  members  of 
the  Association  were  interested. 

Admission  Requirements.  The  great  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  students  seeking  admis- 
sion to  college  led  college  administrators  to 
consider  the  possibility  of  a  wiser  selection  of 
students.  There  was  some  experimentation  and 
a  large  amount  fof  discussion  in  reference  to 
determining  who  should  go  to  college.  One 
group  of  college  administrators  took  the  position 
that  in  view  of  the  limitations  that  are  necessary 
the  benefits  of  college  and  university  education 
should  be  given  to  those  who  possess  superior 
intellectual  capacities.  They  advocate  the 
elimination  from  college  of  the  mediocre.  Dart- 
mouth College,  for  example,  endeavored  to  make 


UNXVEBSITXE8  AND  COLLEGES        2350        UNIVERSITIES  AXTD  COLLEGES 


intellectual  capacity  indispensable.  In  addition 
to  this,  however,  candidates  for  admission  must 
show  positive  quality  and  character  with  range 
of  interest  and  must  demonstrate  their  ability 
in  school  activities.  The  occupations  of  the 
parents  and  the  location  of  their  homes  also 
formed  part  of  the  basis  for  selection.  There 
were  other  college  administrators  who  held  that 
the  mediocre  have  also  a  right  to  higher  educa- 
tion. They  emphasized  better  teaching  in  col- 
lege as  a  cure  for  many  of  the  difficulties  that 
had  arisen  in  connection  with  the  mediocre. 
Committees  representing  college  and  university 
administrators  financed  by  the  Commonwealth 
Fund  were  studying  different  aspects  of  college 
administration  with  a  view  to  ascertaining 
whether  there  should  be  changes  in  the  organ- 
ization of  instruction.  They  raised  the  question 
as  Ho  whether  four  years  of  academic  training, 
followed  by  several  years  of  professional  train- 
ing, were  actually  required  for  the  profession 
of  dentistry  and  some  of  the  other  professions. 
When  completed,  the  findings  of  this  committee 
were  expected  to  be  of  great  importance  in  set- 
tling many  of  the  problems  that  relate  to  ad- 
mission of  students. 

Some  form  of  intelligence  testing  was  in  use 
in  a  large  number  of  institutions.  Among  the 
membership  of  the  Association  of  American  Col- 
leges, 115  institutions,  or  42.2  per  cent  of  the 
total  membership,  reported  in  1924  that  tests 
were  being  used;  62  institutions,  or  25.G  per 
cent  of  the  total  membership,  reported  that 
they  were  not  used  and  had  not  been  used. 
Seven  institutions,  or  2.6  per  cent,  reported 
that  they  had  been  used  in  the  past  but  had 
been  discontinued.  Forty-eight  of  the  institu- 
tions used  the  tests  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
educational  advice;  28  for  the  purpose  of  giv- 
ing vocational  advice;  while  19  institutions 
used  them  in  connection  with  admission  to  col- 
lege. 

The  validity  of  mental  tests  in  so  far  as  they 
affect  the  selection  and  grading  of  students  in 
colleges  and  universities  had  not  received  suf- 
ficient attention  to  become  established.  Brown 
University  had  for  a  series  of  years  made  very 
careful  studies  of  mental  testing  in  its  student 
body.  Those  in  charge  of  the  work  were  among 
the  most  competent  psychologists  of  the  coun- 
try. Tests  were  carried  through  a  period  of 
four  years  beginning  with  the  class  in  its  fresh- 
man year  and  ending  with  them  as  seniors. 
The  late  Stephen  S.  Colvin,  who  conducted  the 
investigation,  presented  the  following  conclu- 
sions in  an  article  appearing  in  the  Educational 
Review: 

"1.  The  term  'general  intelligence*  still  awaits  final 
definition.  In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  we 
are  justified  in  assuming  that  it  designates  an  innate 
learning  capacity,  \yhich,  however,  can  be  developed 
only  through  learning.  This  means  that  it  in  the 
province  and  the  duty  of  the  schools  to  develop  that 
capacity  to  itu  highest  degree,  and  in  those  directions 
in  which  it  may  he  most  completely  and  helpfully 
realized.  To  recognize  the  limitations  and  the  lines 
of  direction  of  learning  ability  is  not  to  assume  an 
attitude  of  fatalism  in  regard  to  groups  of  individuals. 
Indeed  it  is  equally  fatalistic  to  act  on  the  assumption 
that  an  men  are  born  free  and  equal 

"2.  There  IB  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the  present 
intelligence  tests  do  indicate  to  a  fair  degree  native 
ability  to  learn.  When  employed  with  due  caution  they 
can  be  used  to  determine  grading,  promotion,  and 
elimination.  They  are  valuable  in  indicating  the  prob- 
able success  of  pupils  in  school  and  students  in  college. 
However,  they  alone  are  not  sufficient  to  guide  the 
teacher  and  administrator.  In  the  first  place,  the 
present  intelligence  tests  are  not  perfect  instruments 
for  measuring  innate  mentality.  They  frequently 


measure  much  more;  at  times  they  measure  much 
less.  Again,  school  success  is  determined  by  many 
factors  other  than  intelligence.  Not  only  do  charac- 
ter qualities,  temperamental  tendencies,  habits,  and 
ideals  of  work,  play  a  large  part  in  school  achieve- 
ment, but  good  teaching  hus  an  important  rOle  to  play 
as  -well,  while  \ou  cannot  make  a  silk  purse  out  of 
a  sow's  ear  it  has  been  found  possible  (so  a  recent 
rejK>rt  Ktutos)  to  make  a  very  good  substitute. 

"3.  Tho  testing  movement  is  open  at  present  to 
various  dangers.  It  is  in  a  critical  stage,  and  al- 
though I  am  confident  it  will  'muddle  through/  it  needs 
to  observe  duo  caution  and  employ  some  of  the  intel- 
ligence that  it  seeks  to  discover.  Its  friends  are  too 
frequently  overextravagant  in  their  claims  They  have 
taken  advanced  ground  too  rapidly  and  have  not  suffi 
ciently  cleared  up  the  pobitions  earlier  occupied.  Its 
foes,  or  rather  its  critics,  thus  find  vantage  points  for 
counterattacks.  They  see  its  exaggerations  and  lit* 
absurdities,  and  they  fail  to  take  account  of  its  funda- 
mental strength  and  the  impregnable  character  of  its 
ultimate  lines  of  defenxe.  The  impressive  renults 
already  secured  by  intelligence  testing,  hince  Binet 
with  the  insight  of  genius  first  gave  to  the  world  his 
scale  of  1005,  cannot  be  gainsaid.  They  are  facts, 
sometimes  wrongly  interpreted,  frequently  misunder- 
stood, and  still  lacking  final  and  complete  formulations, 
but  they  are  facts  that  cannot  be  ignored,  above  all 
they  are  facts  that  can  be  applied  and  do  work,  if  one 
has  the  insight  to  apply  them,  and  the  patience  to  use 
them  in  a  really  efficient  manner 

"4.  Before  intelligence  testing  can  establish  itself 
firmly  and  permanently  as  a  factor  in  our  scheme  of 
education,  various  things  must  be  accomplished.  In 
the  first  place,  intelligence  scales  must  be  perfected  and 
improved.  They  must  contain  elements  that  appeal  to 
other  abilities  than  those  conditioned  largely  by  verbal 
knowledge  and  fluency.  There  must  be  developed  tests 
that  measure  fundamental  thinking  ability  and  rational 
power.  Tests  must  be  given  to  the  same  individual 
not  once,  but  several  times,  and  they  must  have  a  still 
better  technique  of  scoring  and  administration  than  has 
yet  been  worked  out.  Further  and  more  searching  sta- 
tistical methods  must  be  adopted  and  applied.  In  addi- 
tion, tests  to  determine  qualities  of  character  and 
temperament  must  be  developed  Purposes  and  ideals 
must  be  discovered  and  measured  But  all  of  these 
tli in pn.  AM!]  m  themselves  be  of  little  avail  if  also  there 
is  not  an  emphasis  on  the  methods  and  aims  of  teach- 
ing, if  there  is  not  the  personal  touch  between  teacher 
and  pupil,  and  if  there  IB  not  insight,  sympathy,  and 
a  modicum  of  common  sense." 

American  University  Union  in  Europe. 
This  union,  maintained  by  50  American  uni- 
versities and  colleges,  acts  as  a  clearing  IIOUHC 
of  student  efforts  for  Europe  and  America.  A 
report  by  Prof.  Paul  Van  Dyke,  of  Princeton, 
director  of  the  Continental  Division,  guve  the 
following  summary  of  the  assistance  given  to 
students: 

"For  the  calendar  year  beginning  Mar.  15, 
1021,  the  total  reached  1348  students,  represent- 
ing 174  American  educational  institution  and 
40  States  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  These 
students  were  distributed  among  49  different 
French  institutions,  including  10  of  the  17  prov- 
incial universities  and  a  wide  range  of  other 
representative  institutions.  Equally  significant 
is  the  fact  that  the  service  of  the  Union  is  now 
fairly  evenly  divided  between  women  and  men 
students.  Of  the  total,  032  were  women  and 
716  men." 

American-Scandinavian  Foundation.  Thin 
foundation  established  traveling  fellowships  of 
the  value  of  at  least  one  thousand  dollars  to  be 
awarded  to  students,  men  and  women,  for  tech- 
nological research  and  humanistic  ntudy  in  the 
universities  of  Sweden,  Denmark  and  Norway. 

American  Field  Service  Fellowships  for 
French  Universities.  The  Society  for  Ameri- 
can Field  Service  Fellowships  for  French  Uni- 
versities offers  fellowships  in  French  univer- 
sities. These  fellowships  are  awarded  after 
open  competition  among  graduates  of  American 
colleges  and  "other  suitably  qualified  candi- 
dates." They  are  for  the  purpose  of  encour- 
aging advanced  study  and  research  in  French 


1341 


URUGUAY 


universities.  The  fellowships,  of  the  annual 
value  of  $1200,  are  granted  for  one  year  and 
are  renewable  for  a  second  year.  They  may  be 
awarded  in  any  one  of  a  considerable  number  of 
fields.  The  successful  candidates  are  required 
to  matriculate  in  a  French  university  for  the 
following  session.  Applicants  must  be  citizens 
of  the  United  States  between  20  and  30  years 
of  age  and  come  within  one  of  the  following 
classifications :  (1)  graduates  of  a  college  re- 
quiring four  years  of  study  for  a  degree,  based 
on  14  unitH  of  high-school  work;  (2)  graduates 
of  a  professional  school  requiring  three  years 
of  study  for  a  degree;  (3)  if  not  qualified  in 
either  of  these  ways,  must  be  24  years  of  age 
and  have  spent  five  years  in  an  industrial  es- 
tablishment requiring  technical  skill. 

UNRUH,  FBITZ  VON  ( ?-  ) .  A  German 
writer,  born  at  Oranien.  His  attitude  toward 
militarism  aroused  much  comment.  He  is  the 
author  of  the  plays  Offiziere  (1910);  Sturme 
(1014),  and  Prinz  Loins  Ferdinand  von  Preus- 
sen  (1914)  ;  a  volume  of  verse,  Yor  der  Entschei- 
dung  (1915);  and  a  story  founded  on  his  ex- 
periences at  the  front,  Opfergang  (1915),  trans- 
lated into  French  as  Vcrdnn.  He  also  wrote 
Kin  Geschlecht  (1910),  Wats  (1920),  and 
Jtosciigarlrn  f!923)t  plays  which  continue  his 
independent  line  of  thought. 

UNTERMEYER,  Lous  (1885-  ).  An 
Aineiican  poet  and  journalist  (see  VOL.  XXII). 
Tin1  fifth  edition  of  his  Challenge,  which  was 
first  published  in  1914,  appeared  in  1920. 
Among  his  other  productions  since  1914  were: 
— And  Of  her  Ports,  parodies  (1910);  These 
Times  (1010);  Translations  from  the  Poems 
of  Ueinrich  Heine  (1917);  Ineludmg  Horace, 
translations  and  parodies  (1919);  The  AVw? 
\durn  (1920);  //eaiens,  a  hook  of  Burlesques 
(l')2J).  Ho  edited:  Modern  British  Poetry 
( 1 920 )  ;  Modem  . !  merican  Poetry  ( 1921 )  ; 
Poems  of  Anna  \Vickham  (1921). 

UNTERMEYER,  SAMVEL  (1838-  ).  An 
American  lawyer  (see  VOL.  XXII).  In  1916 
and  for  several  years  following  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  United  States  section  of  the  Interna- 
tional High  Commission.  He  was  special  ad- 
\iser  to  the  government  on  the  interpretation 
of  income  tax  and  war  emergency  tax  laws  and 
JTI  1922  \\as  counsel  for  a  legislative  committee 
investigating  the  building  situation  in  New 
York  City. 

UPSON,  RALPH  HAZLETT  (1888-  ).  An 
aeronautical  engineer,  born  in  Xew  York  City, 
who  started  Jighter-than-air  machine  training 
for  the  United  States  Navy  in  1914.  He  de- 
nigm'd  the  first  improved  kite  balloon  in  1915 
and  developed  lighter-than-air  construction  at 
Goodyear,  principally  kite  balloons  and  navy 
airships  19J7.  He  started  the  Wingfoot  Lake 
Flying  School  in  1917  and  flew  the  first  navy 


TTBUGUAY.  The  smallest  of  the  South 
American  republics,  with  an  area  of  72,180 
square  miles  and  an  estimated  population  (Dec. 
31,  1923)  of  1,603,000.  This  was  a  gain  of  53.7 
per  cent  over  the  census  figure  of  1908,  with  an 
annual  increase  of  3  6  per  cent.  The  density 
increased  from  12.9  per  square  mile  in  1908  to 
20.7  in  1920.  Montevideo,  the  capital,  had 
418,000  inhabitants  in  1923  as  against  291,465 
in  1908.  Other  large  cities  were:  Paysandu, 
30,000;  Salto,  30,000;  Mercedes,  25,000.  For 
the  five  years  1910-20,  total  immigration  was 
870,400;  total  emigration,  817,319.  Immi- 
grants, chiefly  seasonal  agricultural  laborers, 
came  from  Spain,  Italy,  Bra/il,  England,  France, 
and  Germany.  In  1923,  1000  such  laborers  en- 
tered. Education  made  much  progress  in  the 
period  1914-24.  The  registration  during  the 
school  year  1922-23  was  118,102  in  the  1030 
primary  schools,  as  compared  with  91,740  in  the 
970  schools  of  1913.  Adult  schools  numbered 
05  in  1922  and  were  attended  by  Or>33  pupils. 
Vocational  training,  in  particular,  was  spiead- 
ing.  The  University  of  Montevideo  in  1922  had 
1015  students.  By  the  constitution  of  1919, 
state  and  church  were  separated. 

Industry  and  Trade.  Under  the  spur  of 
an  enlightened  government  policy  economic 
activity  showed  great  adxances  A  national  ag- 
ricultural college  was  formed,  immigration  uas 
officially  encouraged,  and  money  \\as  set  aside 
annually,  beginning  with  1913,*  to  furnish  free 
seed  to  farmers.  The  area  devoted  to  agricul- 
ture increased  from  1,901,315  acres  in  1908  to 
2,081,013  in  1922.  Production  of  wheat,  corn, 
oats,  and  linseed,  in  particular,  showed  an  in- 
crease. Still,  20  per  cent  of  the  total  imports 
continued  to  be  food  products,  and  cattle-raising 
remained  the  lending  pursuit,  animals  arid  ani- 
mal products  making  up  95  per  cent  of  the  coun- 
try's exports.  In  1910  there  were  7.802,442 
head  of  cattle,  554,871  horses,  11,472.852  sheep, 
10,003  mules,  12,218  goats,  and  303,949  pigs. 
The  packing  industry  was  rapidly  being  devel- 
oped, and  by  1922  upward  of  25  plants  were 
devoting  themselves  to  chilling,  malting,  and 
canning  meats.  In  1921  theie  were  altogether 
3704  industrial  establishments  with  30,872 
workmen.  The  state's  interest  in  industrial  af- 
fairs in  the  period  was  evidenced  by  the  pas- 
sage of  a  child  labor  law,  the  regulation  of 
hours  in  industry,  the  creation  of  a  national 
insurance  bank  (1912),  an  old-age  pension  law 
(1919),  etc.  The  Uruguayan  quairies  were  lie- 
coming  important,  and  granite,  marble,  and 
agate  were  being  produced  and  exported.  The 
foreign  trade  for  the  period  1912-23  showed  a 
consistent  advance  until  1920,  uhen  the  world- 
wide depression  affected  Uruguay  too.  Imports 
and  exports  for  typical  years  were  m  thousands 
of  gold  pesos,  l'  peso  "being  equal  to  $1.034. 


1913 
50,352 

1919 
43,202 

1920 
50,590 

1922 
43,036 

192.'} 
55,200 

(Estimated) 

Exports    

68,406 

147,251 

80,751 

77,458 

100  7H15 

coast  patrol  ship  from  Chicago  to  Akron  in  de- 
monstration flight  1917.  He  won  the  National 
Balloon  Kace  in  1919  and  in  1921.  During 
1918-19  he  was  a  member  of  the  Navy  design 
mission  in  Europe.  He  wrote  many  articles 
on  aeronautical  subjects. 

URANIUM.     See   RADIUM. 

URBAN  GOVERNMENT  AND  POPULA- 
TION. See  MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT. 


Principal  imports  in  1923,  in  oider  of  value, 
were  foodstuffs,  fuel,  haidwaie,  and  textiles; 
principal  exports,  meat  arid  cxtiacts,  wool,  hides, 
agricultural  produce,  and  live  animals.  Bv 
1923,  evidences  were  perceptible  of  n  consid- 
erable recovery  from  the  depression  of  1920-22, 
when  Uruguayan  cattle  were  a  drug  on  the  mar- 
ket. During  this  period  it  was  necessary  to 
curb  the  import  trade,  and  the  domestic  strain 


TOUOUAY 

was  marked.  The  year  1924  saw  a  favorable 
agricultural  outlook,  while  the  packing  plants 
were  once  more  working  to  capacity.  The  trade 
figures  indicate  the  change.  In  connection  with 
the  table  it  is  necessary  to  note  that  import 
figures  are  official  tariff  values  and  represented 
less  than  half  the  actual  values.  Figures  should 
therefore  be  multiplied  by  2.25.  From  1020  on, 
the  trade  balance  was  thus  adverse.  During  the 
decade,  the  United  States  advanced  to  the  fore- 
front as  the  most  important  country  in  Uru- 
guay's trade.  Proportions  in  value  by  countries 
of  origin  of  Uruguayan  imports  for  1021  were: 
Argentina,  13.6  per  cent;  Brazil,  13.8;  Great 
Britain,  17.8;  the  United  States,  26.5;  Ger- 
many, 7.1;  France,  4.7.  Proportions  in  value 
by  countries  of  destination  of  Uruguayan  ex- 
ports were:  Argentina,  4.3  per  cent;  Brazil,  3; 
Great  Britain,  25;  the  United  States,  27.3;  Ger- 
many, 16.7;  France,  0.0.  In  1023,  imports  from 
the  United  States  were  $15,077,188  and  ex- 
ports to  it  were  $21,811,424.  The  carrying 
trade  was  carried  on  almost  exclusively  in  Brit- 
ish bottoms,  and  the  British  net  tonnage  sur- 
passed the  combined  tonnage  of  American,  Ital- 
ian, French,  German,  Dutch,  and  Spanish  ships. 
By  1023,  two-thirds  of  the  American  shipments 
to  Uruguay  were  being  handled  in  American 
bottoms. 

Finance.  The  1922-23  budget  balanced  at 
30,654,254  pesos;  the  1023-24  called  for  ex- 
penditures of  more  than  43,000,000  pesos,  antici- 
pating a  deficit  of  5,000,000  pesos.  The  1014 
receipts  were  36.507,360  pesos;  expenditures, 
36,516,877.  Deficits  were  frequent  during  the 
period,  that  of  1021-22  being  7,000,000  pesos, 
and  as  much  in  1022-23.  On  Dec.  31,  1022,  the 
internal  debt  was  47,500,387  pesos  (15,620,423 
in  1013);  foreign  debt,  128,851.536  (118,487,- 
935  in  1013);  internal  debt,  2,243,000  (2,500,- 
500  in  1013)  ;  total,  178,603,023  pesos.  On  Nov. 
30,  1023,  the  debt  had  risen  to  187,145,068  pesos. 
Payments  on  foreign  debts,  suspended  during 
the  War,  were  resumed  in  1023.  Notes  in  cir- 
culation on  Oct.  31,  1023,  totaled  61,687,823 
pesos  with  a  gold  reserve  of  55,000,646  in  all 
banks.  The  notes  more  than  doubled  those  of 
eight  years  before,  but  the  gold  reserve  was 
almost  five  times  as  large.  Exchange  figures 
were:  par  value  of  gold  peso,  $1.04;  average 
rate  in  1022,  123  pesos  to  $100. 

Communications.  In  1023  there  were  1650 
miles  of  railway,  of  which  125  miles  were  state- 
owned;  the  remainder  was  financed  by  British 
capital.  There  were  some  700  miles  of  navigable 
waterways,  largely  on  the  Uruguay  and  Plate 
Rivers. 

History.  The  country's  prosperity  continued 
unhampered  by  internal  dissension  under  the 
administrations  of  Feliciano  Vieira  (1015-10) 
and  Baltasar  Brum  (1010-23).  The  sympathies 
of  the  people  were  with  the  Allies,  and  on  Oct. 
6,  1017,  following  the  lead  of  the  United  States 
and  Argentina,  Uruguay  broke  relations  with 
Germany.  The  most  important  internal  event 
of  the  decade  1014-24  was  the  installation  of 
the  new  federal  constitution  (Mar.  1,  1910). 
By  the  new  instrument,  the  executive  power  was 
divided  between  the  president,  popularly  chosen 
for  four  years,  who  controlled  the  departments 
of  the  interior,  foreign  affairs,  army,  and  navy, 
and  a  National  Administrative  Commission  of 
nine  popularly  elected  for  six  years,  which 
controlled  the  departments  of  finance,  education 
and  industry,  and  public  works.  Minority  rep- 


TTTAH 

resentation  was  assured,  based  on  plural  vot- 
ing. Congress  retained  the  legislative  power, 
elected  the  Supreme  Court,  passed  on  treaties, 
and  was  vested  with  the  right  of  interpreting 
the  constitution.  Cabinet  members  might  pre- 
sent bills  as  in  England.  Church  and  state  were 
separated,  and  woman  suffrage  was  provided 
for,  subject  to  acceptance  by  a  two-thirds  ma- 
jority of  each  house.  Local  autonomy  was 
granted  the  10  departments,  each  of  which  had 
its  local  government  board  and  representative 
assembly.  Under  Presidents  Brum  and  Jose* 
Serrato,  elected  in  1023,  progress  was  made  in 
education  and  public  works,  and  friendship  with 
the  United  States  was  cemented  by  an  increas- 
ing number  of  advanced  students  sent  to  Amer- 
ican colleges.  In  December,  1020,  United 
States  Secretary  of  State  Colby  visited  Uru- 
guay. 

UTAH.  Utah  is  the  tenth  State  in  si/e 
(84,900  square  miles)  and  the  fortieth  in  pop- 
ulation; capital,  Salt  Lake  City.  The  popu- 
lation increased  from  373,351  in  1010  to  440,- 
306  in  1020,  a  gain  of  20.4  per  cent.  The  white 
population  increased  from  366,583  to  441,001. 
The  Indian  population  decreased  from  3123  to 
2711;  Chinese,  from  1305  to  1137;  while  the 
Japanese  increased  from  2110  to  2056.  The 
number  of  negroes  rose  from  1144  to  1446.  The 
native  white  population  showed  an  increase 
from  303,100  to  385,446,  while  the  foreign-born 
white  decreased  from  63,303  to  56,455.  Both  ur- 
ban and  rural  populations  mounted:  The  former 
from  172,034  to  215,584;  the  latter  from  200,- 
417  to  233,812.  The  growth  of  the  principal 
cities  was  as  follows:  Salt  Lake  City  (qv.)f 
02.777  in  1010  to  118,110  in  1020,  Ogden,  25,- 
580  to  32,804;  Provo,  8025  to  10,303. 

Agriculture.  Agriculture  made  substantial 
progress  in  the  decade  1010-120  While  the 
population  increased  20  4  per  cent,  the  number 
of  farms  in  the  State  increased  18.4  per  cent 
(from  21,676  to  25,662)  ;  the  total  acreage  in 
farms  from  3,307,600  to  5,050,410,  or  48.6  per 
cent;  and  the  improved  land  in  farms  from  1,- 
368,211  acres  to  1.715,380,  or  2r>.4  per  cent. 
The  percentage  of  the  total  area  used  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  in  1010  was  6.5  per  cent,  and 
in  1020,  0.6  per  cent  The  percentage  of  farm 
land  improved,  in  1010,  was  40.3;  in  1020,  34. 
The  total  value  of  farm  property  showed  an  ap- 
parent inciease,  from  $150,705,201  to  $311,- 
274,728;  the  average  value  per  farm,  from  $6057 
to  $12,130,  or  74.4  per  cent.  In  interpreting 
these  values  and  all  comparative  values  in  the 
decade  1014-24,  the  inflation  of  the  currency  in 
the  latter  part  of  that  period  is  to  be  taken  into 
consideration.  The  index  number  of  prices  paid 
to  producers  of  farm  products  in  the  United 
States  was  104  in  1910  and  216  in  1020.  Of 
the  total  of  25,662  farms  in  1020,  22,570  were 
operated  by  owners,  206  by  managers,  and  2787 
by  tenants.  The  comparative  figures  for  1010 
were  10,762,  104,  and  1720.  White  farmers  in 
1020  numbered  25,248,  of  whom  21,276  were 
native,  3072  foreign  born.  There  were  414  col- 
ored farmers,  of  whom  200  were  Indians.  In 
1010  there  were  21,400  white  farmers:  15,048 
native;  5452  foreign  born.  Farms  free  from 
mortgage  in  1920  numbered  10,756,  compared 
with  15,131  in  1010.  Those  under  mortgage 
in  1020  were  0016,  compared  with  4402  in  1010, 
reflecting  the  adverse  conditions  after  the  war. 
The  number  of  dairy  cows  in  1920  was  80,801, 
compared  with  75,810  in  1910;  "beef  cows," 


UTAH 


1353 


UTAH 


228,953,  compared  with  185,174;  sheep,  1,601,- 
795,  compared  with  1,070,800.  The  area  under 
irrigation  in  1909  was  999,410  acres;  in  1919 
the  irrigated  acreage  was  1,371,651.  The  esti- 
mated production  of  the  principal  farm  crops 
in  1923  was  as  follows:  corn,  900,000  bushels; 
spring  wheat,  3,510,000  bushels;  winter  wheat, 
2,945,000  bushels;  oats,  3,638,000  bushels;  bar- 
ley, 710,000  bushels;  potatoes,  2,935,000  bushels; 
hay,  1,374,000  tons;  sugar  beets,  941,000  short 
tons.  Comparative  figures,  for  1913,  are:  corn, 
340,000  bushels;  wheat,  6,420,000;  oats,  4,140,- 
000;  barley,  1,155,000;  potatoes,  3,600,000;  and 
hay,  909,000  tons.  The  apple  crop  in  1909 
amounted  to  350,023  bushels;  in  1919,  to  759,- 
69G.  The  production  of  peaches  increased  from 
143,237  bushels  in  1909  to  883,950  bushels  in 


Mining.  Utah  produces  large  amounts  of 
minerals,  among  which  the  chief  are  coal,  silver, 
lead,  and  copper,  coal  being  the  most  important. 
The  progress  of  the  mining  industry  is  indicated 
by  t5te  table.  In  the  total  production  of  cop- 
per, Utah  ranks  fourth,  being  surpassed  only  by 
Arizona,  Montana  and  Michigan.  In  produc- 

PRODUCTION    OF    COAL,    COPPER.    LEAD,    AND 

SILVER  IN  UTAH 

Coal  Copper  Lead  Silver 

Year        Not  tons         Pounds  Pounds      Fine  Ounce* 

1914      :»,  103,  036     152,034,002   171,323,137   11,154,916 
VU5      IUOH.715     187,071,188    ........... 

19K,      :i,5<J7,428    240,275,222   201,490,075   13,253,037 
1917      4.125,230     246.674,153         .............. 

1!MH      5,l,'Jf),S'J5     227.109,030   167,008.224   13,455.597 
1Q20      6.005,199     116.9:11,238    140,838.113    13.106,976 
1921       4,078,784    «  30.891.403      89,187,269    ........          a   unified    whole. 

1022         .  97,193,850  ...  17,271,100 

«  Din  cased  production  duo  chiefly  to  business  de- 
prrshion. 

tion  of  silver  Utah  is  first  among  the  States. 
(Hy  the  terms  of  the  Pittman  Act  of  1018,  sil- 
ver wus  valued  at  $1  an  ounce.)  The  State 
also  pioduros  gold  to  the  value  of  about  $2,000,- 
000  a  >ear;  as  well  as  zinc,  clay  products,  iron 
ore,  and  uianium  and  \anadium  ores.  The 
total  value  of  the  mineral  products  in  1921  was 
$40,595,872,  compared  with  $76,530,657  in  1920; 
$(;i,l(ir,,.V2.1  in  1919;  $105,783,474  in  1918,  and 
$4,r>03(iJ98  in  1914. 

Manufactures.  Although  Utah  is  not  one 
of  the  chief  manufacturing  States,  it  has  in- 
dustries of  great  importance,  chiefly  related  to 
the  smelting  and  refining  of  metals.  There 
were,  in  1920,  three  cities  in  the  State  with 
more  than  10,000  inhahitants.  These  contained 
35.9  per  cent  of  the  total  population,  and  in 
1919  leported  33  8  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the 
State's  manufactured  products.  There  were  in 
the  State,  749  manufacturing  establishments 
in  1909;  1109  in  1914;  and  1160  in  1919.  Per- 
sons engaged  in  manufacture  numbered  14,133, 
17,12u',  and  23,107;  the  capital  invested 
amounted  to  $52,020,640,  $71,843,168,  and  $140,- 
785,034,  in  those  years  The  value  of  manu- 
factured products  amounted  to  $61,989,277  in 
1909;  to  $87,112,360  in  1914;  and  to  $156,933,- 
071  in  1919.  The  increase  in  value  of  products 
was  in  great  measure  due  to  the  change  in  in- 
dustrial conditions  brought  about  by  the  War, 
and  cnnnot  be  taken  as  an  index  of  the  increase 
in  manufactures  between  1914  and  1919;  but  the 
increase  in  number  of  persons  employed 
clearly  indicates  growth  in  the  State's  manu- 
facturing activities.  Lead  smelting  is  the  most 
important  industry  in  point  of  value  of  prod- 


uct, with  a  value,  in  1909,  of  $13,170,000;  in 
1914,  $21,752,000;  and  in  1919,  $27,518,000. 
The  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  is  second  in  this 
respect.  Statistics  previous  to  1919  are  not 
available;  hut  the  figure  for  that  year  was  $27,- 
518,000.  In  1919,  Utah  ranked  fourth  among 
the  States  in  value  of  product  for  this  industry. 
The  principal  manufacturing  cities  are  Salt 
Lake  City  and  Ogden.  There  were,  in  Salt 
Lake  City,  245  manufacturing  establishments 
in  1909,  with  a  product  valued  at  $13,351,000; 
366  in  1914,  with  $16,663,000;  and  415  in 
1919,  with  $33,357,000.  In  Ogden,  in  1909,  there 
were  68  establishments,  with  a  product  valued 
at  $3713;  110  in  1914,  with  $6,014,000;  and 
128  in  1919,  with  $18,150,000. 

Education.  The  educational  system  of  Utali 
has  always  been  among  the  best  and  most  effi- 
ciently administered  State  systems.  The  Legis- 
lature has  been  diligent  in  passing  necessary 
legislation,  and  during  the  period  1913-23  many 
steps  were  taken  toward  further  improvement. 
Among  the  important  measures  passed  was  one 
providing  for  the  appointment  of  a  person  to 
act  as  State  high-school  supervisor  and  also  as 
supervisor  of  vocational  education.  While  in 
other  States  it  is  common  for  the  director  of 
vocational  education  to  be  free  and  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the  direction  of  the  high-school  di- 
rector, it  is  believed  in  Utah  that  the  single 
appointment  should  have  a  tendency  to  cooidi- 
nate  the  vocational  with  the  regular  woik  of 
the  high  school,  making  all  phases  of  high- 
school  education  fit  as  perfectly  as  possible  into 
a  unified  whole.  The  Legislature  of  1921  made 
it  possible  for  the  State  Board  of  Education  to 
appoint  a  State  primary  supervisor,  which 
greatly  improved  the  work  of  the  teachers  and 
the  schools.  The  Legislature  of  1917  accepted 
the  provisions  of  the  Federal  Smith-Hughes  Law, 
designating  the  State  Board  of  Education  as 
the  State  board  for  vocational  education;  and 
under  this  law  agricultural,  trade,  and  industrial 
education,  home  economics,  and  teacher  training 
were  being  carried  on  with  excellent  results. 
The  compulsory  education  law  of  the  State  com- 
pels attendance  in  school  until  the  age  of  18, 
unless  the  high-school  course  has  been  completed. 
The  total  enrollment  in  the  six  lower  elemen- 
tary school  grades  in  1923  was  81,501:  in  the 
junior  high  schools,  29,128;  in  the  senior  high 
schools  8335 — a  total  enrollment  in  all  schools 
of  119,034.  The  average  daily  attendance  in 
1913  was  92,139.  The  total  disbursement  for 
educational  purposes  in  1921-22  was  $12,039,- 
749.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State 
decreased  from  3.1  in  1910  to  2.5  in  1920: 
among  the  native  white  population  from  0.7 
to  0.5  per  cent;  among  the  foreign-born,  from 
5.9  to  6.5;  among  the  Negro,  from  5.3  to  5. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FIXANCFS. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  Political  con- 
trol of  Utah  in  the  decade  1914-24  changed 
twice.  At  the  end  of  the  period  it  had  returned 
to  the  Republican  party,  except  for  a  Democrat 
who  had  been  elected  United  States  Senator  in 
1916  and  who  retained  his  seat  in  the  1922  elec- 
tions. In  the  elections  of  1914,  Senator  Smoot 
was  a  successful  candidate  for  reelection  on 
the  Republican  ticket,  and  one  Representative 
was  elected  by  the  same  party;  Democrats  and 
Progressives  together  elected  a  Representative 
from  the  first  Utah  district,  to  succeed  a  Repub- 
lican. In  1915  the  Federal  government  sent 
Gen.  Hugh  L.  Scott  to  Utah  to  adjust  a  situa- 


UTAH 


1354 


TTTXCA 


tion  which  threatened  to  start  an  uprising  of 
the  Fiute  Indians.  Conditions  peculiar  to  an 
"open  range"  country  were  brought  to  a  head 
by  the  alleged  murder  of  a  Mexican  by  an  In- 
dian and  an  attempt  to  arrest  the  Indian.  In 
1016  the  Democrats  swept  the  State;  they  elected 
practically  all  county  officers,  the  entire  State 
ticket,  headed  by  Simon  Bamberger  for  governor, 
the  two  Representatives  in  Congress,  and  Wil- 
liam H.  King  as  United  States  Senator.  Sen- 
ator King  succeeded  Senator  George  Sutherland, 
now  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States.  In  the  presidential  voting  of  this  year, 
President  Wilson  received  84,025  votes;  Charles 
E.  Hughes,  54,130.  State  elections  were  again 
held  in  1020.  The  Republicans  again  came  into 
power  and  elected  their  candidate  for  governor, 
Charles  R.  Mabey,  said  to  be  the  first  veteran  of 
the  War  to  hold  the  office  of  chief  executive  in 
any  State.  Senator  Smoot  was  reflected.  In 
the  presidential  election,  Warren  G.  Harding  re- 
ceived 81,555  votes;  James  M.  Cox,  56,639.  In 
1922  Senator  King,  Democrat,  was  reflected  to 
the  Senate,  although  the  State  generally  went 
Republican,  and  both  Republican  Congressmen 
were  reflected.  The  Republican  State  conven- 
tion held  in  May,  1924,  pledged  the  11  delegates 
of  the  State  to  the  national  convention  to  Presi- 
dent Coolidge. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of  the 
Legislature  in  the  decade  1014-24  are  noted  be- 
low. The  Legislature  of  1015  enacted  a  State- 
wide prohibition  law;  this,  however,  was  vetoed 
by  the  governor.  A  second  law  was  enacted, 
modeled  after  the  Webb-Kenyon  law  and  enforc- 
ing heavy  penalties  for  its  infraction.  In  1017 
the  Legislature  created  a  State  budget  system, 
passed  a  workmen's  compensation  act  and  a 
cold  storage  act,  created  a  public  utilities  com- 
mission, passed  a  corrupt  practices  act  and  an 
initiative  and  referendum  act,  and  amended  vari- 
ous laws  relating  to  the  State  government.  It 
also  passed  a  stringent  State-wide  prohibition 
law,  which  went  into  effect  in  August,  1017.  An 
amendment  providing  for  constitutional  pro- 
hibition was  proposed  by  the  Legislature  and 
was  voted  into  the  constitution  by  the  people  in 
the  State  election  of  1010.  The 'Legislature  of 
1010  passed  statutes  defining  and  punishing 


criminal  syndicalism  and  sabotage  and  created 
a  State  securities  commission.  In  1921  the 
Legislature  passed  a  long  series  of  bills  with 
the  common  purpose  of  remodeling  the  State 
government  and  increasing  its  efficiency.  In 
1923  laws  were  passed  allowing  suspension  of 
sentence  on  the  conviction  of  any  crime  or  of- 
fense in  which  suspension  appeared  to  the  court 
compatible  with  the  public  interest,  the  defend- 
ant in  such  a  case  to  be  put  on  probation.  A 
measure  was  also  passed  to  facilitate  coflpera- 
tive  marketing  of  agricultural  products,  and 
provisions  were  made  for  creating  associations 
for  this  purpose. 

UTAH,  UNIVERSITY  or.  A  coeducational 
State  institution  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah, 
founded  in  1850.  The  student  enrollment  in- 
creased from  044  in  1013-14  to  2500  (estimated) 
in  1923-24,  the  faculty  increased  from  80  to 
171  members  and  the  library  from  38,757  vol- 
umes to  71,107  bound  volumes  and  20,107 
pamphlets.  The  income  of  the  university  dur- 
ing the  same  period  was  increased  from  $2*50,000 
to  $563,500.  James  McGregor  of  Terre  Haute. 
Ind.,  gave  $50,000  in  1018  to  endow  the  Schools 
of  Mines  and  Engineering,  and  in  the  following 
year  a  building  for  the  Medical  School,  a  dining 
hall,  Stewart  Hall  and  an  observatory  were 
built.  John  A.  Widtsoe,  LL.D  .  succeeded  J.  T 
Kingsbury,  Ph.D.,  D.Rc.,  as  president  in  1010, 
and  was  'succeeded  in  turn  by  George  Thomas, 
Ph.D,  in  1021. 

UTICA.  A  city  of  New  York.  The  popula- 
tion increased  20  per  cent  from  74,410  in  1010 
to  04,150  in  1020  and  to  103,457  by  estimate  of 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for  1023.  With  the 
opening  of  the  New  York  State  Barge  Cannl, 
the  old  Erie  Canal  fell  into  disuse,  and  in  1021 
the  city  built  a  conduit  for  water  and  a  road- 
way over  the  site  of  the  canal,  thus  eliminating 
the  old  bridges  on  the  main  streets.  The  cost 
of  the  work  was  about  $150,000.  The  Marcy 
division  of  the  Utica  State  Hospital  for  the 
Insane  was  under  construction  in  1024,  of  which 
several  units  of  buildings  were  completed  It 
was  to  cost  the  State  more  than  $10,000,000  by 
the  time  it  \vns  finished.  The  park  system  of 
the  city  was  expanded  during  the  period,  at 
a  large  outlay. 


V 


VACUUM     TUBES.     See     RADIO 
TELEGRAPHY. 
VAIL,      THEOUOBE      NEWTON 
( 1845-1920) .     An  American  capi- 
talist   (Bee    VOL    XXII).     When 
the  telegraph  and  telephone  sys- 
tems were  taken  over  by  the  government  in  1918, 
the   Postmaster   General   appointed   him  as  ad- 
viser, and  when  private  operation  was  resumed 
in  1919,  he  was  made  chairman  of  the  board  of 
directors  of  the   American   Telephone  and  Tele- 
graph Company.     He  died  in  Baltimore  in  1920, 
leaving  an  estate  of  about  $2,000,000 

VALENTINER,  WILHKLM  K  (1880-  ). 
A  German  art  historian  (see  VOL.  XXII).  In 
Germany  at  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  he  en- 
listed in  the  army  and  took  part  in  the  entire 
struggle  On  the  entry  of  the  United  States 
into  the  War  he  resigned  his  position  as  curator 
of  decorative  art  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  New  York  City  Following  the  War  he  fre- 
quently visited  the  United  State**  and  became 
Kuropean  adviser  to  the  Detroit  Museum.  He 
wrote  catalogues  of  impoitant  American  collec- 
tions, such  as  the  Johnson  and  Widener  in 
Philadelphia  and  that  of  Henry  Goldman  in 
New  York  (1922).  HIH  most  important  recent 
work  is  Rembrandt  ran  Rijn:  Wiederfundene 
Gemalde  (Stuttgart,  1921). 

VALONA.     See  AIHANIA. 

VANDEBBILT,  CORNLLIUS,  III  (1873-  ). 
An  American  capitalist,  born  in  New  York  City, 
and  educated  at  Yale  University.  He  was  a 
director  in  many  important  financial  institu- 
tions in  New  York  and  elsewhere.  He  was  for 
many  years  connected  with  the  State  Militia 
of  New  York  and  in  1917  was  commissioned 
colonel  in  command  of  the  102d  United  States 
Engineers,  with  which  regiment  he  served 
in  France.  In  1918  he  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general  in  the  National  Army  and  later 
brigadier-general  in  the  Officers  Reserve  Corps. 

VANDEBBILT  UNIVERSITY.  A  coedu- 
cational institution  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  founded 
in  1873.  The  student  enrollment  increased  from 
1112  in  1914  to  1300  in  1923-24.  The  number 
of  members  in  the  faculty  was  likewise  increased 
during  the  decade  from  125  to  150,  and  the 
library  from  53,000  to  83,000  volumes.  A  mil- 
lion dollars  was  added  to  the  endowment  in 
1918,  of  which  $725,000  came  from  the  Vander- 
bilt  family  and  the  General  Education  Board. 
Tn  1919  the  General  Education  Board  gave  $4,- 
000,000  for  the  School  of  Medicine,  and  in  1921 
an  additional  appropriation  of  $1,500,000  was 
made  by  the  General  Education  Board  and  a 
like  amount  by  the  Carnegie  Corporation.  These 
gifts  were  for  the  purpose  of  building  a  new 
medical  plant  on  the  main  campus  of  the  uni- 
versity and  for  reorganizing  the  School  of  Medi- 
cine. Building  operations  under  this  arrange- 
ment were  begun  in  1923,  to  be  completed  in 
1925.  James  H.  Kirkland,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  suc- 
ceeded Henry  B.  Brown  as  chancellor  in  1916, 


VANDEBLIP,  FRANK  ARTHUR  (1864-  ). 
An  American  financier  and  writer  (see  VOL. 
XXIII).  During  the  War  he  was  chairman  of 
the  War  Savings  Committee.  In  1920  he  visited 
Japan  and  on  his  return  wrote  many  articles 
in  regard  to  Japanese-American  relations.  Al- 
so in  1920,  his  book,  What  Happened  to  Europe, 
appeared.  In  1924  he  organized  the  Citizens' 
Federal  Research  Bureau  to  investigate  graft 
in  government  circles  and  took  out  a  $1,000,000 
insurance  policy  on  his  life  in  its  favor. 

VAN  DOBEN,  CARL  (1885-  ).  An 
American  editor  and  author,  born  at  Hope,  111 , 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Illinois  and 
Columbia  University.  After  several  years  on 
the  faculty  of  the  University  of  Illinois,  he  was 
appointed  instructor  in  English  at  Columbia  in 
1911  and  became  assistant  professor  in  1914  and 
associate  in  English  in  1916.  From  that  year 
to  1919  he  was  headmaster  of  the  Brearley 
School  and  in  1919  became  literary  editor  of 
The  Nation.  Later  he  joined  the  staff  of  The 
Century  Magazine  Besides  editing  selections 
from  the  works  of  American  writers,  he  wrote 
The  Life  of  Thomas  Lore  Peacock  (Kill)  ,  The 
American  Novel  (1921);  and  Contemporary 
American  Novelists  (1922);  The  Roving  Critic 
fl923);  Many  Minds  (1924). 

VAN  DYKE,  HENRY  (1852-  .  ).  An 
American  author  and  diplomat  (see  VOL. 
XXIII).  He  resigned  his  post  as  United  States 
Minister  to  the  Netherlands  and  Luxemburg  in 
1917,  and  when  America  entered  the  War  he 
served  as  a  chaplain  in  the  Navy.  His  later 
books  include  Fighting  for  Peace  (1917);  The 
Red  Flower  (1917);  The  Valley  of  Vision 
(1919)  ;  Golden  Stars  (1919)  ;  and  Camp  Fires 
and  Guide  Posts  (1921)  ;  Companionable  Books 
(1922). 

VAN  DYKE,  JOHN  CHARLES  (1850-  ). 
An  American  art  historian  (see  VOL.  XXIII). 
After  1914  he  published  a  large  number  of  criti- 
cal handbooks  of  the  great  European  galleries, 
with  original  and  stimulating  comments  on  the 
paintings.  His  publications  include  also  Amer- 
ican Painting  and  Us  Tradition  (1919)  and 
Rembrandt  and  His  School  (1923).  In  the 
latter  he  endeavors  to  prove  that  only  about 
50  of  the  thousand  pictures  which  he  claims 
are  ascribed  to  Rembrandt  are  genuine;  the 
remainder,  according  to  his  theory,  are  by 
pupils  of  "Rembrandt.  For  example,  of  the  many 
Hembrandts  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York  Citv,  not  one  is  genuine,  Van  Dyke  be- 
lieves. This  book  made  a  great  sensation,  but 
its  conclusions  were  not  generally  accepted, 

VANE,  SUTTON  (?-  ).  An  English 
dramatist.  During  the  Wrar  he  served  in  Egypt, 
was  shell -shocked,  and  was  invalided  home  in 
1917.  After  producing  several  unsuccessful 
plays  he  wrote,  in  1923,  Outward  Bound.  For 
this  he  hired  a  small  playhouse,  painted  the 
scenery  himself,  and  engaged  a  fine  company  of 
actors  on  a  cooperative  basis,  with  his  wife 


1355 


VAN  GORDON 


1356 


VAQTTEZ 


in  the  principal  rdle.  The  initial  cost  was  only 
$600,  but  success  was  instant  and  complete. 
The  play  was  produced  both  in  London  and  New 
York  during  1924. 

VAN  GORDON,  CYRENA  (1893-  ).  An 
American  dramatic  mezzo-soprano,  born  at  Cam- 
den,  Ohio.  After  completing  her  studies  under 
Louise  Dotti  at  the  Cincinnati  College  of  Music, 
she  made  her  debut  with  the  Chicago  Opera 
Association  as  Aroneris  in  Aida  (Nov.  23,  1913) 
with  such  success  that  she  was  engaged  as  a 
regular  member.  She  then  became  one  of  the 
principal  stars  of  the  company.  A  splendid 
singer  and  superb  actress,  she  is  equally  con- 
vincing in  German,  French,  and  Italian  roles. 
Her  Wagnerian  repertoire  is  especially  varied, 
including  Venus,  Ortrud,  BrangUne,  Erda,  Floss- 
hilde,  Fricka,  and  Brtinnhilde  (Walkure).  In 
1912  she  married  Dr.  Shirley  B.  MunnB. 

VAN  HOOGSTBATEN,  WTLLEM  (1880-  ) . 
A  Dutch  conductor,  born  at  Utrecht.  For  six 
years  he  studied  the  violin  under  Eldering  at 
the  Cologne  Conservatory,  at  the  same  time  play- 
ing in  the  Giirzenicli  Orchestra  under  such  con- 
ductors as  Steinbach,  Nikisch,  and  Mahler. 
After  further  study  under  O.  Sevcik  at  Prague 
he  began  his  career  as  a  virtuoso,  making  tours 
of  Germany.  A  most  successful  dlbut  as  con- 
ductor, in  Hamburg,  was  followed  by  appear- 
ances as  guest  conductor  in  other  German  cities, 
in  Sweden,  and  in  Hollnnd  From  1014  to  1917 
he  was  conductor  of  the  Stadtisches  Orchester 
in  Crefeld,  where  he  also  formed  a  trio  with 
his  wife,  Elly  Ney  (q.v.),  whom  he  had  mar- 
ried in  1911,  and* Fritz  Rcisa  (Velio).  At  his 
American  debut  with  the  Philharmonic  Society 
(New  York,  Jan.  2,  1922),  in  an  all-Brahms 
programme,  he  made  a  deep  impression,  which 
was  even  heightened  at  his  second  concert  two 
weeks  later.  As  a  result  he  was  engaged  to  con- 
duct the  second  half  of  the  society's  summer 
concerts  at  the  Stadium  of  the  College  of  the 
City  of  New  York  in  1922,  when  his  brilliant 
performances  attracted  record  audiences.  The 
following  summer,  as  sole  conductor  of  the  series, 
he  repeated  his  triumphs.  In  the  fall  of  1923 
he  appeared  as  regular  conductor  of  the  winter 
series,  succeeding  Stransky,  and  alternating  with 
Menprelberg  (q  v  ). 

VAN  LOON,  HENDRIK  WILLEM  (1882-  ). 
An  American  author  and  lecturer,  born  at  Rot- 
terdam, Holland,  and  educated  at  Cornell,  Har- 
vard, and  Munich  Universities.  During  the 
revolution  in  Russia  in  1906  he  went  to 
Moscow,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Warsaw  as  war 
correspondent.  He  lectured  on  history  at  sev- 
eral universities  in  the  United  States  from 
1911  to  1914.  When  the  War  broke  out 
he  went  to  Belgium  and  reported  the  siege 
of  Antwerp  for  the  Associated  Press.  The 
Germans  expelled  him  from  Belgium  in  De- 
cember, 1914.  He  lectured  on  modern  Eu- 
ropean history  at  Cornell  during  1915  and  1916 
and  later  accepted  the  chair  of  history  at 
Antioch  College.  He  wrote:  The  Fall  of  the 
Dutch  Republic  (1913)  ;  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch 
Kingdom  (1915);  The  Golden  Rook  of  the 
Dutch  Navigators  (1910);  A  Nhort  History  of 
Discovery  (1918);  Ancient  Man  (1920);  The 
Story  of  Mankind  (1921);  The  Story  of  the 
Bible  (1923). 

VAN  PELT,  JOHN  VREDENBUBG  (1874-  ). 
An  American  architect,  born  at  New  Orleans. 
He  studied  art  and  technical  education  in  Paris 
and  from  1897  to  1900  was  assistant  professor 


of  architecture  at  Cornell  University.  After 
several  years  spent  in  travel  abroad  he  became 
professor  of  design  and  dean  of  the  College  of 
Architecture  in  1902,  but  resigned  two  years 
later.  After  1904  he  practiced  in  New  York. 
From  1904  to  1913,  he  was  associate  director 
of  the  Atelier  of  Columbia  University,  and  from 
1914  to  1917,  professor  of  architecture  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  received  many 
medals  for  the  excellence  of  his  designs  and 
plans  and  was  the  author  of  Essentials  of  Com- 
position as  Applied  to  Art  (1902). 

VAN'T  HOPE  ISOCHOBE.  See  CHEMISTBY, 
PHYSICAL. 

VAN  VECHTEN,  CARL  (1870-  ).  An 
American  author,  born  at  Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa, 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Chicago.  He 
became  assistant  musical  critic  of  the  New 
York  Times  in  1906  and  that  newspaper's  Paris 
correspondent  in  1908.  lie  edited  the  pro- 
gramme notes  of  the  Symphony  Society  of  New 
York  (1910-11)  and  was  dramatic  critic  for 
the  New  York  Press  (1913-14).  He  wrote: 
Musio  After  the  Great  War  (1915)  ;  Music  and 
Bad  Manners  (1916)  ;  Interpreters  and  Interj)rc- 
tations  (1917);  The  Merry-Qo-Round  (1918); 
The  Music  of  Spain  (1918);  In  the  (larret 
(1920);  A  Letter  by  Morgan  Lews  Fitch 
(1920);  Interpreters  (1920);  The  Tiger  in  the 
House  (1920);  Lord  of  the  Housetops  (1921); 
Peter  Whiffle,  His  Life  and  Works  (1922)  ;  The 
Blind  Bow-Boy  (1923);  The  Tattooed  Countess 
(1924). 

VAN  VLIET,  CORNELIUS  (1880-  ).  An 
American  'cellist,  born  at  Rotterdam  in  Holland 
At  the  age  of  six  he  received  his  first  instruc- 
tion on  the  piano  and  the  violin  from  his  father 
In  1895  he  began  to  study  the  'cello  with  O. 
Eberle  in  Rotterdam  and  later  continued  with 
J.  Mossel  in  Amsterdam.  In  1901  he  joined 
the  Concertgebouw  Orchestra  in  Amsterdam 
In  1903  he  was  solo  'cellUt  of  the  Leipzig  Phil- 
harmonic Orchestra,  in  1904  of  the  Prague  Phil- 
harmonic Orchestra,  and  in  1905  of  the  Helfling- 
fors  Symphony  Orchestra.  He  also  taught  in 
Helsingfors,  at  the  conservatory.  From  1905 
to  1908  he  was  solo  'cellist  of  the  Kaim  Orchestra 
in  Munich  and  in  1908-11,  of  the  Royal  Opera 
in  Vienna.  In  1911  he  came  to  America  on  a 
concert  tour.  From  1912  to  1919  he  was  solo 
'cellist  of  the  Minneapolis  Symphony  Orchestra 
and  a  member  of  the  Minneapolis  Trio  He  then 
moved  to  New  York,  where  in  1921  he  became 
solo  'cellist  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  jointly 
with  Leo  tSchulz.  In  1919  he  formed  with 
Scipione  Guidi  (violin)  and  Clarence  Adlcr 
(piano)  the  New  York  Trio. 

VAQUEZ,  HENRI  ( 18GO-  ).  One  of  the 
leading  physicians  of  France,  known  especially 
in  connection  with  diseases  of  the  heart,  circu- 
lation, and  blood.  Several  years  after  his  gradu- 
ation from  the  University  of  Paris  he  described 
a  new  disease  of  the  blood,  polycythemia,  known 
also  as  Vaquez's  disease.  One  of  his  earliest  pub- 
lications was  Hygiene  des  Maladies  du  Cwur. 
With  the  exception  of  his  Precis  de  Thtira- 
peutique  (1907),  all  his  major  works  have  been 
concerned  with  heart  disease:  Les  Ary thirties 
(1911);  Le  Coeur  et  I'Aorte,  on  radiology  of 
the  heart,  in  collaboration  with  Bordet  (1913)  ; 
Radiologie  des  Vaisseauoc  de  la  Base  du  Cceur, 
also  with  Bordet  (1920);  Maladies  du  Coeur 
(1921);  Appareil  Ciroulatoire,  in  collaboration 
(1922) .  His  work  on  radiology  of  the  heart  also 
appeared  in  English  translation.  Vaquez  is  edi- 


VARIATION 


Z357 


VENEZUELA 


tor  of  the  periodical  Archives  den  Maladies  fa 
Cceur. 

VABIATION.    See  HEREDITY. 

VASSAB  COLLEGE.  A  nonsectarian  insti- 
tution for  women  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  founded 
in  1801.  The  student  enrollment  in  1914  was 
1120  as  compared  with  1146  in  1923-24,  the 
faculty  numbered  121  at  the  beginning  of  the 
decade  and  154  at  the  end,  the  library  was  in- 
creased from  86,000  to  127,078  volumes,  and  the 
productive  funds  of  the  college  from  $1,655,257 
to  $5,143,081.  New  admission  requirements  were 
set  in  191!)  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  method 
of  admission  by  certificate  from  approved 
schools  and  colleges.  The  new  requirements  took 
the  form  of  comprehensive  examinations  in  four 
general  subjects  as  well  as  a  satisfactory  school 
iccord  of  the  candidate,  and  could  be  replaced 
at  will  by  the  old  examinations  in  individual 
subjects.  James  W.  Taylor  resigned  from  the 
presidency  in  1914,  and  was  succeeded  by  Henry 
Noble  McCracken,  Ph.D. 

VATICAN.     See  HOMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

VAUGHN,  SAMUEL  JESSE  (1877-  ).  An 
American  educator,  born  in  Elkton,  Mo.,  and 
educated  at  Drury  College,  Mo.,  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago.  He  was  director  of  indus- 
trial education  at  several  schools  in  Illinois 
until  1021,  when  he  was  chosen  president  of 
H:irdin  College.  In  1914  he  was  editor  of  the 
Industrial  Arts  Magazine.  During  the  War  he 
served  in  the  Sanitary  Corps.  He  is  the  author 
of  Printing  and  Bookbinding  for  Schools  (1912) 
and  Content  and  Methods  of  the  Industrial 
Arts  (1922).  He  lectured  much  on  educational, 
social  and  economic  problems. 

VEATCH,  ARTHUR  CLIFFORD  (1878-  ). 
An  American  geologist,  born  at  Evansville,  Ind., 
and  educated  at  Indiana,  Cornell,  and  Wisconsin 
Unhersities.  Meanwhile  he  taught  mathematics 
and  physical  geography  at  the  Rockport  (Ind.) 
High  School,  and  was  assistant  State  Geologist 
of  Louisiana  (1898-1900).  In  1902  he  became 
assistant  geologist  with  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  and  from  190G  to  1910  held  the 
rank  of  geologist,  after  which  he  was  chief 
geologist  of  the  General  Asphalt  Company  for 
a  year.  He  then  accepted  control  of  the  foreign 
petroleum  developments  of  S.  Pearson  and  Sons 
of  London.  During  1919  he  became  connected 
with  the  Sinclair  Consolidated  Oil  Corporation, 
in  charge  of  the  exploration  department.  He 
IH  a  member  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining 
and  Metallurgical  Engineers,  on  whose  petroleum 


the  Nature  of  Peace  and  the  Terms  of  Its  Per- 
petuation (1917);  The  Higher  Learning  in 
America  (1918);  The  Vested  Interests  (1919); 
The  Place  of  Science  in  Modern  Civilization  and 
Other  Papers  (1920);  The  Engineer  and  the 
Price  Kystem  ( 1921 ) . 

VENETIA  JULIA.  See  FIUME-ADBIATIC 
CONTROVERSY 

VENEZUELA.  A  republic  on  the  north 
coast  of  South  America  with  an  estimated  area 
of  393,976  square  miles.  The  census  of  Decem- 
ber, 1920,  gave  the  population  as  2,411.952,  an 
increase  of  only  88,425  or  3.8  per  cent  over  the 
official  census  of  1910.  Gains  from  immigra- 
tion were  negligible;  in  the  three  years  1919-22, 
for  instance,  the  arrivals  were  33,G<>7  and  the 
departures  33,914.  Populations  of  the  impor- 
tant towns  in  1920  were:  Caracas,  the  capital, 
92,212;  Maracaibo,  4(5,706;  Valencia,  29,406; 
Barquisimeto,  23,943;  San  Cristobal,  21,385. 
After  1913  great  administrative  activity  in  the 
field  of  education  was  evident;  in  1914  primary 
education  was  made  free  and  compulsory;  in 
1915  vocational  and  art  schools  were  provided 
for;  in  1916  schools  of  pharmacy  and  dentistry 
were  established.  At  Caracas,  the  Central  Uni- 
versity was  reopened  in  1922  after  a  lapse  of 
10  years. 

industry.  Agricultural,  pastoral,  and  wood- 
land products  •  remained  the  leading  factors  in 
the.  country's  economic  life.  Coffee  was  first  in 
importance,  with  some  500,000  acres  under  cul- 
tivation in  1922  on  25,000  plantations,  with  an 
average  annual  production  of  69,000,000  kilos 
valued  at  $30,000,000.  The  annual  production 
of  cocoa  was  about  20,000  metric  tons;  of  sugar 
about  60,000.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  goat  raising 
remained  important,  and  in  the  years  1915-22 
the  herds  and  flocks  showed  increases.  The  live 
stock  in  1922  was  estimated  at  2,800.000  steers, 
115,000  sheep,  2,150,000  goats,  168,000  horses, 
255,000  mules  and  asses,  and  500,000  pigs. 
Gold,  petroleum,  copper,  salt,  and  asphalt  were 
the  leading  mineral  resources.  From  leases, 
etc.,  the  government  derived  an  annual  revenue 
of  some  3,400,000  bolivars  in  royalties.  In  later 
years  petroleum  was  mined  in  increasing  quan- 
tities. The  oil  wells,  principally  in  the  Mara- 
caibo district,  were  worked  by  American  and 
British  interests  In  1919,  production  was  45,- 
000  metric  tons;  in  1920,  69,539;  in  1921,  218,- 
146;  in  1922,  285,673.  Something  of  Venezu- 
ela's progress  during  the  period  1914-24  may 
be  adduced  from  export  values  for  typical  years: 


Coffee     

Values  in  United 
1913 
$16  196,  GST 

States  Currency 
1919 
$29,225,714 

1920 
$12,698,246 

1921 
$12,373,552 

Cnrao 

4  854  734 

7,543  708 

0,731,685 

3,972,348 

Balata        .  . 

2  032  808 

1,255,305 

1,669,730 

9S8.504 

Hides 

]  439  179 

2,742,847 

1,478,880 

200.000 

Total   exports 

$29  483  789 

$49,922,959 

$32,934,322 

$25,777,057 

Total   imports    .    . 

18  030  103 

34,208,047 

58,330,309 

18,433,114 

committee  he  served  after  1919,  and  in  1921  he 
became  chairman  of  its  subcommittee  on  foreign 
oil  policy.  In  addition  to  numerous  articles 
and  reports  He  is  the  author  of  Quito  to  Bogota 
(1017). 

VEBLEN,  THORSTEIN  B.  (  ?-  )  An 
American  economist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  In 
1918  he  came  to  New  York  City  as  a  teacher  at 
the  New  School  for  Social  Research.  Among 
his  later  publications  are:  An  Inquiry  into 


Imports  from  the  United  States  in  1914  were 
valued  at  $6,082,000;  in  1923  they  were  worth 
$11,918,570.  Proportions  of  the  export  value 
by  countries  of  destination  for  1913  and  1921 
were:  the  United  States,  28  and  40  per  cent; 
Great  Britain,  7  and  10  per  cent;  Germany,  19 
and  4;  France,  34  and  10;  Spain,  5  and  11; 
the  Netherlands,  3  and  20.  Proportions  of  im- 
port value  by  countries  of  origin  for  1913  and 
1921  were:  the  United  States,  40  and  55  per 


VENIZELOS 

cent;  Great  Britain,  22  and  16;  Germany,  14  and 
4 ;  France,  5  and  8 ;  Spain,  4  and  8 ;  the  Nether- 
lands, 10  and  5;  Italy,  3  and  2. 

Finance.  Government  finances  in  the  period 
1914-24  steadily  improved,  revenues  showing 
surpluses  over  expenditures  for  all  the  years  ex- 
cept four.  In  1914  revenues  were  67,414,974 
bolivars;  expenditures,  72,278,987  The  1923-24 
budget  balanced  at  62,845,000  bolivars.  The 
condition  of  the  debt  also  became  more  favor- 
able. In  January,  1914,  the  internal  debt 
amounted  to  61,607,179  bolivars  In  December, 
1923,  it  had  been  reduced  to  41,603,245  bolivars. 
Similarly,  in  1914  the  foreign  debt  was  114,- 
853,071  bolivars;  in  1923,  67,122,880.  Amortiza- 
tions and  cancellations  effected  during  the  15 
years  between  January,  1909,  and  December, 

1923,  had  been    126,232,740   bolivars.     On   Apr. 
15,    1923,   the   Treasury   reserves   amounted   to 
48,000,000  bolivars.     In    1922   notes   in   circula- 
tion were  39,085,000  bolivars. 

Communications.  In  1922,  661  miles  of  rail- 
way were  in  operation,  a  gain  of  121  miles  over 
1914.  The  greatest  activity  was  manifested  in 
road  building.  In  1915  and  1916  plans  were 
made  for  the  construction  of  two  great  high- 
ways, the  Gran  Carretera  Oriental  (026  miles) 
and  the  Gran  Carretera  Occidental  (540  miles), 
and  the  work  was  immediately  begun.  In  1923 
extensions  of  these  roads  were  announced. 

Defense.  By  a  law  promulgated  in  1920, 
service  in  the  army  was  made  compulsory  for 
two  years  in  the  active  forces  and  up  to  the 
age  of  45  in  the  reserve. 

History.  After  1914,  internal  affairs  re- 
mained orderly.  The  chief  concerns  of  the  gov- 
ernment were  the  readjustments  necessary  to 
meet  war  conditions.  Venezuela  maintained 
her  neutrality  throughout  the  War  and  on  Mar. 
3,  1920,  joined  the  League  of  Nations.  Gen. 
Juan  Vicente  G6mez  continued  as  president, 
holding  the  office  uninterruptedly  since  1909, 
although  for  a  time  he  relinquished  the  post  to 
a  provisional  president  to  act  as  commander- 
in-chief.  In  1922  he  was  reflected  for  the  next 
seven  years'  term.  The  long-standing  Ixmndary 
dispute  with  Colombia  was,  as  a  result  of  a  con- 
vention signed  in  1916,  first  submitted  to  the 
Swiss  President  as  arbiter,  and  then  to  the 
Swiss  Federal  Council.  On  Mar.  24,  1922,  it 
was  announced  that  a  decision  had  been  reached, 
although  the  terms  were  not  made  public  by 

1924.  On  June  30,  1923,  the  first  vice  president 
of  the  republic,  Juan  C.  Gomez,  bi  other  of  the 
president,  was   murdered   in   the   palace   at   Ca- 
racas, as  a  protest  against  the  nepotism  prac- 
ticed   by    the    administration.     On     the    other 
hand,   in  justification  of  the  Gomez  regime,   it 
was    pointed    out    that    the    country    remained 
peaceful,  foreign   capital  in   the   oil   fields  was 
steadily  being  invested,  the  public  debt  was  re- 
duced,   and    the    bolivar    consistently    remained 
at  par     As  for  the  debt,  the  figures  indicated 
that  the  diplomatic  debt  of  1905,  which  amounted 
to    £5,229,700   originally,    had    been    reduced   to 
£2,794,380  by  1922 

VENIZELOS,  ELEUTHCRIOS  (1864-  ). 
A  Greek  statesman  (we  VOL.  XXIII).  In  1916 
he  established  a  so-called  Provisional  Govern- 
ment of  National  Defense  at  Saloniki  and 
gathered  a  volunteer  army  of  60,000  men.  His 
government  was  recognized  by  Kngland,  France, 
and  Russia,  and  when  Constantino  was  de- 
throned, Venizelos  returned  to  Athens,  took  con- 
trol of  Greece,  and  declared  war  against  Ger- 


many  and  her  allies  (1917).  He  represented 
Greece  at  the  Peace  Conference,  where  he 
achieved  brilliant  results  for  his  country,  but 
an  attempt  was  made  on  his  life.  In  the  fall 
elections  (1920)  he  was  overwhelmingly  de- 
feated; this  was  attributed  to  German  propa- 
ganda. He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1921. 
Urged  to  return  to  Greece,  he  demanded  the  ab- 
dication of  Constantino  as  a  condition.  Ho  fi- 
nally arrived  in  Athens  in  January,  1924.  He 
favored  a  plebiscite  on  the  question  of  a  mon- 
archy or  republic,  formed  a  cabinet,  and  was 
named  president  of  the  National  Assembly. 
Ill  health  compelled  him  to  decline  the  premier- 
ship of  the  new  republic,  but  it  had  his  hearty 
support. 

VENTILATION  OF  TUNNELS.  See  TUN- 
NELS. 

VEBBRUGGHEN,  HEXBI  (1874-  )  A 
British  conductor,  born  at  Brussels.  He  studied 
the  violin  under  Hubay  and  Ysaye  at  the  Con- 
servatoire there  (1887-92).  In  1893  he  became 
a  violinist  in  the  Scottish  Orchestra  at  Glasgow, 
played  a  season  in  the  Lamoureux  Orchestra  in 
Paris  (1894-5),  and  returned  to  his  former  post 
in  Glasgow.  During  the  summers  of  1895-97 
he  was  concertmaster  and  assistant  conductor  of 
Riviere's  Orchestra  in  Llandudno,  Wales,  and 
in  1898-1902,  conductor  of  the  summer  concerts 
at  Cohvyn.  In  1903  he  settled  in  Glasgow  as 
concertmabter  of  the  Scottish  Orchestra  and 
director  of  the  orchestral  and  chamber  music 
classes  at  the  Athenaeum;  in  1911  he  assumed 
also  the  conductors]] ip  of  the  Glasgow  Choral 
Union.  In  1903  he  founded,  with  J.  Cullen,  I) 
Nichols,  and  J.  Mes^cas,  his  own  string  quartet, 
which  soon  became  famous.  In  1915  he  mo\od 
to  Sydney,  Australia,  where  he  organised  the 
National  Conservatory  and  founded  the  State 
Orchestra,  with  which  he  gave  regular  series 
of  symphony  concerts  in  Sydney,  Melbourne, 
Brisbane,  and  Adelaide,  besides  making  an  an- 
nual tour  of  New  Zealand,  thus  totaling  about 
150  concerts  a  year.  In  1018  he  visited  the 
United  States,  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  American  methods  of  instruction.  He 
appeared  successfully  as  guest  conductor  of  some 
of  the  great  American  orchestras.  In  1921  he 
returned  to  conduct  several  concerts  of  the  Min- 
neapolis Symphony  Orchestra,  of  which  he  was 
appointed  regular  conductor  in  1922. 

VERDUN,  BATTLES  OF.  See  WAB  IN  EU- 
ROPE, Western  Front. 

VEBMONT.  Vermont  is  the  forty-second 
State  in  size  (9564  square  miles)  and  the  forty- 
fourth  in  population ;  capital,  Montpelier.  Ver- 
mont is  one  of  the  few  States  which  showed  a 
decrease  in  population  in  the  decade  1910-20, 
when  the  population  fell  from  355,930  to  352,- 
428,  a  loss  of  1  per  cent.  The  white  popula- 
tion decreased  from  354,208  to  351,817;  the 
negro,  from  1021  to  572.  The  number  of  native 
whites  rose  from  304,437  to  307.291;  forcigii- 
born  whites  decreased  from  49,861  to  44,526. 
The  urban  population  mounted  from  98,917  to 
109,976,  while  the  rural  population  fell  from 
257,039  to  242,452.  The  only  important  cities 
are  Burlington  and  Rutland.  The  former  in- 
creased from  20,468  in  1010  to  22,779  in  1920, 
and  the  latter  from  13,954  to  14,054. 

Agriculture.  In  common  with  the  othet 
New  England  States,  Vermont  showed  a  consid- 
erable falling-off  in  all  phases  of  agriculture  of 
the  decade  1910-20.  While  the  population  of 
the  State  decreased  1  per  cent  in  the  decade 


VEBMONT 


1359 


VEBMONT 


1010-20,  the  rural  population  decreased  from 
779  per  cent  in  1000,  72.2  per  cent  in  1910, 
to  68.8  per  cent  in  1920.  The  number  of  farms 
decreased  11.1  per  cent  (from  32,709  to  29,- 
075);  the  acreage  in  farms,  from  4,063,577  to 
4,235,811,  or  9.2  per  cent.  The  improved  land 
in  farms,  however,  increased  from  1,633,965  to 
1,691,595  acres,  or  3.5  per  cent.  The  percentage 
of  total  land  area  used  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses decreased  from  79.9  in  1910  to  72.5  in 
1920;  the  percentage  of  farm  land  improved 
increased  from  35  to  39.9  per  cent.  The  total 
value  of  farm  property  showed  an  apparent  in- 
crease, from  $145,399,728  to  $222,736,620  or  53.2 
per  cent ;  the  average  value  per  farm,  from  $4445 
to  $7661.  In  interpreting  these  values  and  in- 
deed all  comparative  values  in  the  decade  1914- 
24,  the  inflation  of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part 
of  that  period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers 
of  farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104 
in  1010  and  216  in  11)20.  Of  the  total  of  29,- 
075  farms  in  1920,  25,121  uere  operated  by 
owners,  568  by  manageis,  and  3386  by  tenants. 
The  corresponding  figures  for  11)10  were  28,065; 
636,  and  4008.  While  fanners  in  11)20  num- 
liered  29,047,  of  whom  25,280  were  native  and 
3767  foreign-born.  White  farmers  in  1010  num- 
bered 32,080:  28,068  native,  and  3721  foreign- 
boin.  Farms  free  from  mortgage  in  1020  num- 
bered 12,132;  those  under  mortgage,  12,225.  In 
1010  farms  free  from  mortgage  numbered  14,- 
851;  those  undei  mortgage,  13,140.  The  num- 
ber of  dairy  cows  in  1020  was  345,643,  as  com- 
pared with  265,483  in  1010,  and  reflecting  the 
increased  attention  given  to  dallying.  "Beef 
cows"  numbered  4242,  as  compared  with  27,- 
(>12;  sheep,  62,750,  as  compared  with  84,360. 
The  estimated  production  of  the  principal  farm 
crops  in  1023  was  as  follows:  corn,  3,157,000 
bushels;  spi  ing  wheat,  184,000;  oats,  3,101,000; 
barley,  310,000;  potatoes,  3,031,000:  hay,  1,331,- 
000  tons,  and  apples,  784,000  bushels.  Compar- 
ative figures  for  1013  are:  corn,  1.6(55,000  bush- 
els: oats,  3,081.000;  barley,  384,000;  potatoes, 
3,175,000;  and  hay,  1,280,000  tons. 

Mining.  Vermont  has  uo  metal  mining;  the 
only  mineral  products  of  importance  are  stone, 
slate,  lime,  and  talc.  In  the  production  of 
stone  in  1020,  it  ranked  third,  surpassed 
only  by  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  In  1014  the 
value  of  the  stone  produced  was  $6,635,477  ;  1016, 
$5,720.676,  1018,  $5,505,805;  1020,  $10,005,750; 
1021,  $7,322,843.  The  total  value  of  the  mineral 
products  of  the  State  in  1021  was  $10,650,213, 
compared  with  $15.008,804  in  1020;  $11,728,052 
in  1919;  $9,158,045  in  1018;  and  $8,665,867  in 
1914. 

Manufactures.  Although  Vermont  is  one  of 
the  smallest  States  in  population  and  area,  it 
has  considerable  industrial  importance.  There 
were  in  the  State  in  1920  three  cities  with  more 
than  10,000  inhabitants.  These  contained  13.5 
per  cent  of  the  total  population  and  in  1010  re- 
ported 20.6  per  cent  of  the  State's  manufactured 
products.  There  were  in  the  State,  in  1000, 
1958  manufacturing  establishments;  in  1914, 
1772;  and  in  1919,  1700.  Persons  engaged  in 
manufacture  numbered  38,580,  37,217,  and  38,- 
845;  and  the  capital  invested  amounted  to  $73,- 
470,107,  $79,846,775,  and  $134,314,391,  in  those 
years.  The  value  of  manufactured  products 
was  $68,309,824  in  1900;  $76,090,074  in  1014; 
and  $168,108,072  in  1010.  The  large  increase 
in  value  of  products  from  1014  to  1010  was 


largely  due  to  the  change  in  industrial  condi- 
tions brought  about  by  the  War  and  cannot 
properly  be  used  to  measure  the  growth  of  manu- 
factures during  the  period. 

Marble  and  stone  work  is  first  among  the  in- 
dustries in  value  of  product.  This  amounted  in 
1900  to  $12,305,000;  1014,  $12,605.000;  and 
1010,  $17,426,000  Woolen  and  \\orsted  goods 
rank  second  in  this  respect,  with  $4,407,000  in 
1000;  $4,635,000  in  1014;  and  $17,426,000  in 
1910.  The  manufacture  of  paper  and  wood  pulp, 
in  third  place,  amounted  in  1000  to  $3,002,000; 
1014,  $4,776,000;  and  1910,  $10,863,000.  But- 
ter, cheese,  and  condensed  milk  were  fourth  in 
value:  $8,112,000  in  1000;  $8,006,000  in  1914; 
and  $18,530,000  in  1010  The  most  important 
manufacturing  cities  are  Bar  re,  Burlington,  and 
Rutland. 

Education.  Educational  development  in  Ver- 
mont in  the  decade  1014-24  was  marked  by 
many  important  legislative  and  administrative 
measures.  Especial  attention  was  given  to  the 
training  of  teachers  High  school  training  or 
normal  courses,  established  throughout  the  State 
in  1012,  were  opened  to  high  school  seniors  or 
graduates,  and  have  graduated  nearly  2500  ele- 
mentary teachers.  The  Legislature  of  1021  en- 
acted a  new  law  under  which  the  State  Board  of 
Education  established  three  two-year  teacher- 
training  or  normal  courses,  at  the  University 
of  Vermont  and  Castlcton  and  Lyndon  Insti- 
tutes. A  director  of  teacher  training  was  em- 
ployed and  special  efforts  were  made  to  enroll 
a  large  number  of  prospective  teachers;  over 
420  students  were  entered  in  all  courses  in  that 
year,  as  compared  with  280  in  the  year  preced- 
ing. In  1022  the  standard  of  admission  for  all 
classes  was  raised  to  high  school  graduation. 
The  growth  in  number  of  trained  teachers  had 
been  very  encouraging.  The  Legislature  of  1023 
changed  the  law  relating  to  the  supervision  of 
schools  in  several  important  particulars.  The 
local  support  of  schools  increased  greatly  dur- 
ing the  decade.  Special  efforts  were  made  to 
improve  rural  school  conditions:  to  better  the 
quality  of  supervision,  training  of  teachers,  build- 
ings, and  the  health  and  physical  vigor  of  the 
children.  Vocational  work  was  carried  on  under 
the  provisions  of  the  Smith-Hughes  Act  after 
1017.  The  total  enrollment  in  the  public 
schools  in  1013  was  64,825;  in  1022  it  was  63,- 
430.  In  the  high  schools  in  the  latter  year 
there  were  enrolled  0748  pupils  and  the  total 
expenditure  for  schools  was  $4,014,747.  The 
percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State  decreased 
from  4.6  in  1010  to  3*.8  in  1020;  in  the  native 
white  population,  from  0.9  to  0  6  per  cent;  in 
the  foreign-born  white,  from  15.4  to  16.4;  in 
the  negro,  from  13.3  to  7.7. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  The  State,  al- 
ways steadily  Republican,  remained  in  the  polit- 
ical control  'of  that  party  in  the  decade  1914- 
24.  In  1014  elections  were  held  for  governor, 
United  States  Senator,  and  Representative  in 
Congress.  Senator  Dillingham  was  reclected, 
and  C.  W.  Gates,  Republican  candidate,  was 
elected  governor.  The  Republicans  also  elected 
a  majority  of  the  members  of  the  State  Legis- 
lature. During  this  year  a  commission  carried 
on  a  survey  of  the  educational  system.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  constitutional  amendment 
adopted  by  the  people,  the  State  courts  were  re- 
organized. In  1016  Horace  F.  Graham,  Repub- 
lican candidate  for  governor,  was  elected,  to- 


VERMONT 


1360 


VESSEL 


gether  with  the  entire  State  ticket.  At  this 
election  a  prohibition  amendment  was  defeated, 
while  an  amendment  providing  for  a  direct  pri- 
mary law  was  adopted  Carroll  S.  Page  was 
reflected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  By  the 
amended  State  constitution,  the  elections  for- 
merly held  in  September  were  held  in  November 
of  this  year  for  the  first  time.  In  the  presi- 
dential voting  of  this  year,  Charles  E  Hughes 
received  40,250  votes;  President  Wilson,  22,- 
708.  By  the  purchase  of  an  additional  tract  of 
200  acres  of  land  on  the  east  side  of  Mt.  Mans- 
field, the  Mansfield  State  Forest  was  increased, 
in  April,  1010,  to  a  total  area  of  5000  acres. 
In  15)18  a  Republican  candidate  for  governor, 
1*.  W.  Clement,  was  elected.  In  the  elections  of 
1020,  James  Hart  ness,  Republican  candidate  for 
governor,  was  elected,  and  Senator  Dillmgham 
was  reflected  to  the  Senate.  In  the  presidential 
voting  of  this  year,  Warren  G.  Harding  received 
08,212  votes;  *James  M  Cox,  20,01!)  Hedfield 
Proctor,  Republican  candidate,  was  elected  gov- 
ernor in  1922,  and  Frank  L.  Greene,  Republican, 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  Sen- 
ator Page  was  not  a  candidate  for  reelection. 
Governor  Proctor  was  inaugurated  on  Jan  4, 
1023.  In  his  inaugural  address  he  advocated 
the  abolition  of  the  State  Board  of  Control  and 
the  consolidation  of  the  various  departments. 
Senator  Dillingham  died  in  1023,  and  Porter 
H.  Dale,  Representative  in  Congress,  was  elected 
to  succeed  him  on  November  6  of  that  year. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of 
the  Legislature  in  the  decade  1014-24  are  noted 
below.  In  1015  the  State  Senate  passed  a  meas- 
ure extending  the  fianchise  to  women  in  towns 
and  city  elections  and  for  presidential  electors. 
This  was  defeated  in  the  House.  The  Legisla- 
ture voted  to  submit  to  the  people  a  prohibition 
law  at  the  election  of  1010.  This  law,  as  noted 
above,  was  defeated.  The  Legislature,  in  1917, 
repealed  the  prohibition  act  of  1015.  Amend- 
ments were  made  to  the  child  labor  laws,  and  an 
accounting  system  in  the  administration  of 
State  business  was  created.  Women  taxpayers 
over  21  years  of  age  were  permitted  to  vote  in 
towu  meetings  The  Legislature  of  1910  legal- 
ized absentee  voting  and  passed  several  acts  for 
the  relief  of  agriculture,  including  provision  for 
a  farm  census.  A  teachers'  retiring  system  was 
established,  and  the  laws  relating  to  corpora- 
tions, banks,  common  carriers,  and  insurance 
companies  were  amended.  A  measure  was 
passed  forbidding  the  display  of  the  red  flag  iii 
public  except  under  certain  conditions,  fn  1921 
provision  was  made  fur  planning  commissions 
in  cities,  towns,  and  villages.  A  direct  pri- 
mary law  was  amended;  presidential  primary 
laws  were  repealed;  provision  was  made  for  the 
regulation  of  workmen's  compensation  insur- 
ance, and  it  was  provided  that  no  person  should 
be  debarred  from  public  service  on  account  of 
sex.  A  measure  was  also  passed  proposing  to 
give  women  equal  suffrage  rights  with  men 

VERMONT,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A  coeduca- 
tional State  institution  at  Burlington,  Vt., 
founded  in  1791.  The  student  enrollment  in- 
creased rapidly  from  approximately  000  in  1914 
to  1157  in  the  year  1023-24,  with  554  in  the 
summer  session  of  1923,  the  faculty  rose  from 
100  to  152,  and  the  library  from  90,000  to  115,- 
000  volumes  The  income  was  correspondingly 
increased  during  the  period,  from  $210,000  to 
$477,155,  and  the  productive  funds  from  $943,- 
423  in  1916  to  $1,092,014  in  1923-24.  Guy 


Winfred  Bailey,  LL.D.,  succeeded  Guy  Potter 
Benton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  as  president  in  1919. 

VERSAILLES,  PEACE  OF.  See  PEACE  CON- 
FERENCE AND  TREATIES. 

VESSEL,  NAVAL.  The  general  effect  on 
naval  shipbuilding  of  the  Five-power  Pact  for 
the  Limitation  of  Armaments  was  shown  by  an 
increase  in  number  of  vessels  in  those  classes  of 
which  the  total  tonnage  was  unlimited,  while 
the  new  ships  were  nearly  all  of  the  maximum 
size  permitted.  Japan,  especially,  increased  the 
number  of  her  cruisers,  submarines,  and  destroy- 
ers, while  Japan,  France,  and  Great  Britain 
were  planning  to  build  light  cruisers  of  the 
maximum  size  ]>ermitted,  10,000  tons.  France 
and  Italy  weie  building  large  flotilla  leaders, 
and  both,  particularly  the  former,  were  adding 
to  their  destroyer  flotillas.  The  United  States 
Navy  Department  asked  Congress  for  additional 
cruisers  and  large  submarines.  In  the  follow- 
ing notes  the  types  of  naval  vessels  existing 
in  1924  are  briefly  described. 

Aircraft  Carriers.  These  were  designed  not 
only  to  transport  aircraft  and  aircraft  supplies 
but  to  furnish  a  long,  broad  deck,  clear  of  ob- 
structions, from  which  airplanes  and  seaplanes 
could  take  off  and  on  which  airplanes  and  HCR- 
planes  fitted  with  landing-gear  could  make  JL 
landing  Aircraft  tendera  of  less  than  10,000 
tons  were  not  classed  as  carriers  by  the  Five- 
power  Pact,  which  defined  carriers  as  vessels, 
not  capital  ships,  of  over  10,000  and  less  than 
27,000  tons,  the  maximum  si/e  allowed.  The 
landing  and  taking-nff  deck  is  a  light  dock  7 
to  30  feet  above  the  ordinary  upper  deck.  In 
some  late  designs  it  was  somewhat  bioader  than 
the  beam  of  the  vessel,  especially  at  bow  and 
stern,  and  was  absolutely  clear  of  all  obstruc- 
tion to  the  free  passage  of  planes  All  masts, 
derricks,  and  smoke  pipes  were  carried  up  at 
the  sides  of  the  vessels,  and  these  were  hinged  so 
that  they  might  be  folded  down  to  allow  air- 
plane wings  to  extend  lieyond  the  edge  of  the 
deck  when  the  weather  made  landing  diHicult 
The  design  of  aircraft  carriers  and  tenders  in 
1924  was  still  in  its  infancy,  and  improvements 
in  many  directions  were  anticipated. 

Armored  Cruiser.  This  is  a  type  of  war 
vessel  which  was  obsolete,  although  many  were 
in  existence  in  1014.  It  was  designed  to  meet 
and  destroy  the  protected  cruisers  of  the  enemy 
In  addition  to  light  armor  (3  to  8  inches)  it 
carried  heavier  guns  than  most  protected  cruis- 
ers and  had  at  least  equal  speed  The  battle 
cruiser  is  its  development  in  one  direction  and 
the  large  light  cruiser  in  another. 

Armored  Ship.  Any  ship  carrying  armor, 
but  especially  one  carrying  heavy  armor,  was 
known  as  an  armored  ship.  See  Hat  He  ship, 
Battle  Cruiser,  Armored  Cruiser,  Monitor,  etc. 

Battle  Cruiser.  The  battle  cruiser  differs 
from  a  battleship  only  in  having  a  much  higher 
speed  and  much  thinner  armor.  The  guns  of 
the  main  battery  are  of  the  same  calibre  and 
powef  but  may  be  fewer  in  number.  Great 
Britain  and  Japan  are  the  only  countries  pos- 
sessing battle  cruisers  at  present.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  terms  of  the  Five-power  Pact,  the 
United  States  scrapped  six  of  this  type  which 
were  under  construction,  and  Germany  lost  all 
of  hers  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. 
While  battle  cruisers  were  found  exceed- 
ingly useful  in  the  War,  it  is  doubtful  if  any 
will  be  built  for  many  years,  as  the  Five-power 
Naval  Pact  so  limited  the  number  of  capital 


NAVAL  VESSELS 


omoML  PHOTOGRAPHS.  BURCAU  or  AERONAUTIC*,  own 

UNITED    STATES    NAVY   AIRPLANE   CARRIERS   AND   AUXILIARY    VESSELS 

1.  United  States  Naval  Airship  Tender,  U.S  S.  "Patoka,"  lifted  a>  a  floating  bate  for  the  airship  "Shenandoah". 

2  £  «/tlon  to  ihop  f»clllt'««  '<  carries  a  mooring  matt. 

2.  U.S.S.     Langley, "  an  experimental  airplane  carrier,  showing  a  plane  about  to  land  on  the  flying  deck  of  the  ship 


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ships,  i.e.  battleships  and  battle  cruisers,  that 
very  little  tonnage  could  be  spared  for  the 
purpose. 

Battleship.  A  battleship  is  a  war  vessel 
possessing  the  greatest  offensive  and  the  greatest 
defensive  power,  especially  the  former,  which 
can  be  given  to  a  ship  without  rendering  in- 
adequate such  other  necessary  attributes  as 
speed,  habitability,  seaworthiness,  etc.  Exit- 
ing battleships  may  find  new  enemies  which  are 
too  strong  for  them.  Their  design  must  then 
bo  so  changed  as  to  enable  them  to  meet  and 
conquer  each  new  enemy  or  to  render  its  attack 
comparatively  innocuous.  The  "wooden  walls" 
of  the  early  nineteenth  century  put  on  armor  to 
defend  themselves  against  the  increasing  power 
of  the  gun  and  the  explosive  shell.  Later  types 
were  fitted  with  numerous  water-tight  compart- 
ments, underwater  armor,  and  the  "bulge"  or 
cellular  belt,  in  order  to  meet  the  growing  men- 
ace of  the  torpedo  and  the  submarine  mine;  and 
to  meet  the  torpedo  carrier,  surface,  air,  or 
submarine,  a  numerous  battery  of  guns  of  mod- 
erate calibre  was  mounted.  Further  protection 
was  derived  from  accompanying  vessels,  the  light 
cruiser  and  the  destroyer.  Battleships,  with 
other  surface  and  submarine  vessels,  are  now 
called  on  to  meet  bombing  attack  from  the  air; 
they  must  have  armored  upper  decks  and  strong 
butteries  of  anti-aircraft  guns  and  must  be  de- 
fended in  the  air  by  accompanying  aircraft  as 
they  are  defended  on  the  water  by  cruisers  and 
destroyers.  The  only  battleships  designed  and 
laid  down  since  the  danger  of  aircraft  bombing 
was  fully  gaged  were  the  British  ships,  Nelson 
and  Rodney.  They  are  of  35,000  tons,  the  great- 
est size  permitted  by  the  Five-power  Pact,  and 
their  design  will  be  studied  with  interest  by 
other  powers.  (See  NAVIES  OF  TIIL-  WORLD, 
(Jrcu1  itntain  )  A  ship  of  premier  force,  ca- 
pable of  taking  its  place  in  the  line  of  battle  in 
a  fleet  action,  is  known  as  a  capital  ship.  Ac- 
cording to  present  classification,  capital  ships 
are  either  battleships  or  battle  cruisers.  The 
Five-power  Naval  Pact  defined  a  capital  ship  as 
a  vessel,  not  an  aircraft  carrier,  with  a  displace- 
ment over  10,000  standard  tons,  or  carrying  a 
gun  of  a  calibre  in  excess  of  8  inches  No 
capital  ship  of  more  than  35,000  standard  tons 
may  be  constructed  by  one  of  the  signatory 
powers. 

Cruiser.  Cruisers  are  of  four  types:  battle 
cruisers,  armored  cruisers,  protected  cruisers, 
and  light  cruisers.  Armored  cruisers,  already 
described,  and  protected  cruisers  are  obsolete, 
the  latter  derived  its  name  from  an  armor 
deck  covering  the  machinery  and  other  vital 
parts;  it  was  flat  amidships  but  inclined  down- 
ward at  the  sides  at  an  angle  about  40°,  the 
lower  edge  reaching  the  side  at  5  to  8  feet  below 
water.  Light  cruisers  are  a  development  of  the 
protected  cruiser  type.  The  distinguishing  char- 
acteristic is  very  high  speed.  All  have  water- 
line  belts  of  thin  armor,  3  to  5  inches  thick, 
and  some  later  designs  have  part  or  all  of  the 
main  battery  guns  in  lightly  armored  turrets. 
Under  the  terms  of  the  Five-power  Pact,  light 
cruisers  cannot  have  a  displacement  in  excess  of 
10,000  tons  or  guns  of  a  greater  calibre  than 
8  inches.  Nearly  all  the  light  cruisers  designed 
since  the  Washington  Conference  are  of  10,000 
tons  and  carry  8-inch  guns.  Smaller  light 
cruisers  will  doubtless  be  built,  and  if  the  dis- 
placement is  less  than  7000  tons,  most  of  the 
guns  are  likely  to  be  of  a  calibre  below  8  inches. 


See  NAVIES  OF  THE  WOBLD,  France  and  Japan. 

Destroyer.  Vessels  of  this  type  were  origi- 
nally designed  to  drive  off  or  destroy  torpedo 
boats,  hence  the  name.  The  small  torpedo  boat 
is  now  obsolete,  but  the  destroyer  has  suc- 
ceeded to  its  functions  and  in  addition  has  be- 
come the  greatest  protector  of  large  vessels 
against  submarine  attack.  The  latest  types  of 
destroyers  are  from  1200  to  1500  tons  with  a 
maximum  speed  of  34  to  36  knots,  6  torpedo 
tubes,  4  guns  of  4-inch  to  5-inch  calibre,  and  1 
or  2  anti-aircraft  guns.  See  NAVIES  OF  TIIW 
WORLD,  France  and  Japan. 

Flotilla  Leader.  An  enlarged  destroyer  de- 
signed to  act  as  flagboat  for  the  commanding 
officer  of  a  destroyer  flotilla.  The  displacement 
is  from  1500  to  2500  tons.  The  maximum  sea 
speed  is  usually  slightly  greater  than  that  of 
the  destroyers  of  their  flotillas  and  the  battery 
about  50  per  cent  more  powerful.  See  NAVIES 
OF  THE  WORID,  France. 

Fuel  Ship.  Fuel  ships  were  formorlv  col- 
liers. They  are  now  oil-tankers.  In  addition 
to  fuel  oil  they  usually  carry  lubricating  oil, 
cotton  waste,  and  other  engineering  supplies 
which  are  bulky  and  much  used.  On  account  of 
its  long  distance  from  possible  enemies,  the 
United  States  has  more  naval  fuel  ships  than 
any  other  country. 

Hospital  Ship.  A  vessel  especially  fitted  for 
the  care  and  transportation  of  the  sick  and 
wounded  is  known  as  a  hospital  ship  During 
the  War  dozens  of  such  ships  were  needed,  and 
passenger  ships  were  refitted  and  adapted  to 
the  service. 

Mine-Layer.  Mine-layers  are  of  all  sizes  and 
kinds,  from  small  launches  to  vessels  of  5000 
tons  or  more.  I,arge  mine-layers  carry  their 
main  supply  on  the  lower  decks  or  in  the  holds. 
The  main  operating  deck  is  fitted  with  fore  and 
aft  tracks  or  trolleys  on  which  the  mines  are 
placed  when  hoisted  from  below  and  from  which 
they  are  dropped  after  being  carried  to  the 
stern.  Just  before  launching,  the  safety  device 
is  removed  or  set  for  service.  The  mine  is  still 
inoperative  and  will  not  explode  until  anchored 
in  place,  when  the  remaining  safety  fitting*  are 
automatically  released.  During  the  War  a  large 
number  of  mines  were  planted  by  mine-laying 
submarines  which  carried  them  in  inclined 
tubes  extending  from  the  deck  completely 
through  the  hull  and  bottom.  By  using  sub- 
marine mine-layers,  mines  could  be  planted 
where  the  use  of  a  surface  vessel  would  have 
been  impossible.  See  MINE,  SUBMARINE. 

Mine-Sweeper.  As  mines  are  usually 
anchored  so  as  to  be  held  12  feet  or  more  below 
the  surface,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  mine- 
sweepers should  draw  less  than  12  feet  of  water, 
3  or  4  feet  less  if  practicable.  The  great  Ger- 
man mine-laying  campaign,  begun  at  once  on 
the  declaration  of  war  and  continued  to  the 
Armistice,  found  the  British  without  mine- 
sweepers. Fortunately  the  steam  trawlers,  used 
so  extensively  in  the  British  fisheries,  were  very 
efficient  sweepers  when  they  were  fitted  with 
proper  appliances  and  their  officers  and  crews 
had  received  suitable  training.  They  contin- 
ued to  form  the  greater  part  of  the  mine-sweep- 
ing fleet;  at  the  end  of  the  War,  out  of  720 
sweepers  in  service,  412  were  trawlers,  110  were 
destroyers  or  vessels  built  as  mine-sweepers,  52 
were  small  paddle  steamers,  142  were  drifters, 
and  10  were  sweepers  of  the  "Dance"  type.  The 
danger  of  sweeping  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 


VESSEL 


1369 


VETEBINABY  MEDICINE 


214  sweepers  were  sunk  or  very  seriously  dam- 
aged. The  boats  (about  100  in  number)  which 
were  specially  built  for  sweeping  were  of  750 
to  800  tons  with  a  draft  of  7  feet  and  hud  about 
16  knots  speed;  one-third  were  paddle  steamers, 
and  the  others  had  twin  screws.  These  vessels, 
with  the  destroyers,  formed  the  fast  mine- 
sweepers. Sweeping  uas  effected  by  a  wire  cable, 
500  yards  long,  whose  ends  were  carried  by 
sweepers.  This  often  exploded  the  mine  or 
parted  its  mooring  rope;  if  neither  happened, 
Ixmibs  or  depth  charges  were  dropped  on  it. 
In  1915,  the  paravane  (q.v.)  appeared,  and  this 
was  followed  by  the  later  type  with  cable- 
cutting  jaws.  Mines  rising  to  the  surface  after 
the  cutting  of  their  cables  were  destroyed  by 
gunfire. 

Monitors.  The  monitors  built  during  the 
War  were  shallow-draft  armored  vessels  of  mod- 
erate speed,  used  chiefly  on  the  Belgian  coast. 
Most  or  them  had  a  single  turret  and  carried 
guns  of  6-  to  15-inch  calibre.  Although  styled 
monitors,  they  all  had  rather  high  freeboard; 
all  were  fitted  with  antitorpedo  "bulges"  on 
their  sides.  The  Italians  used  enormous  raft- 
line  structures  for  defense  of  their  army's  right 
flank.  Each  of  these  carried  a  turret  mounting 
heavy  guns. 

Patrol  Boats.  Probably  2000  of  these  were 
used  by  the  Allies  alone.  They  were  of  every 
conceivable  type  of  small  craft,  yachts,  motor 
boats,  old  torpedo  bouts,  small  destroyers,  and 
boats  built  for  the  service.  Of  the  latter  were 
the  P  boats  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Ford  boats 
built  in  the  United  States.  Both  types  were 
about  600  tons.  None  of  the  Ford  boats  was 
completed  in  time  for  active  service  abroad. 
The  fast  motor  boats  were  commonly  called 
submarine  chasers. 

Q  Ships.  These  were  decoy  ships.  Small 
and  old  merchant  steamers,  sailing  vessels,  gun- 
boats, etc.,  were  transformed  into  iuofFensive- 
looking  craft  apparently  employed  in  coastal 
traffic  or  trade  with  Norway.  All  sorts  of  ex- 
pedients were  used  to  entice  submarines  within 
easy  range,  one  of  which  was  for  part  of  the 
ship's  force  called  the  "panic  party"  to  abandon 
ship  ostentatiously  when  the  submarine  opened 
fire.  If  the  latter  approached  close  enough,  the 
guns  were  uncovered  and  fire  opened.  Many  U 
boats  were  sunk  by  Q  ships,  and  many  Q  ships 
were  sunk  by  their  adversaries. 

Repair  Ships.  These  are  vessels  fitted  as 
floating  workshops,  with  all  kinds  of  tools  and 
appliances  for  the  repair  of  vessels  which  are 
far  away  from  their  bases  As  the  naval  opeia- 
tions  of  the  War  were  mostly  confined  to  the 
small  North  Sea  area,  few  of  these  were  neces- 
sary. 

Submarines.  Vessels  of  the  submarine  type 
were  greatly  improved  during  the  War.  As  the 
Allied  naval  forces  were  enormously  more 
powerful  than  their  enemies  in  regard  to  sur- 
face vessels,  it  was  chiefly  by  means  of  sub- 
marines that  Germany  could  carry  on  offensive 
naval  war.  The  early  successes  against  war 
vessels  and  the  launching  of  the  campaigns 
against  merchant  shipping  gave  great  impetus 
to  German  submarine  building.  The  constant 
use  and  consequent  testing  of  boats  and  fittings 
naturally  led  to  the  elimination  of  defects  and 
the  steady  development  of  types  and  appliances. 
The  German  boats  were  of  six  classes:  the 
Deutsohland  type,  about  1000  tons;  cruiser  type, 
about  2700  tons;  ocean-going  type,  of  750  to 


1000  tons;  coast-defense  (UB)  type,  of  250  to 
500  tons;  mine-layer  (DC)  type,  of  several 
sizes;  and  harbor  (UR)  type.  Most  of  the 
boats  were  ocean-going,  although  the  UB  and 
VC  boats  were  numerous.  The  British  sub- 
marines were  of  six  or  seven  distinct  types;  the 
V  class  boats  of  460  tons  were  the  smallest 
built  during  the  War,  and  the  K  class  were  the 
largest.  The  boats  of  the  classes  E  (800  tons), 
H  (500  tons),  and  L  (1070  tons)  were  most 
•numerous;  the  three  boats  of  the  M  class  earned 
a  12-inch  gun  each.  The  XI,  largest  of  all  sub- 
marines, was  completed  in  1923.  It  is  an  ex- 
perimental boat  with  a  surface  displacement  of 
2730  tons  and  a  submerged  displacement  of 
.3300  tons.  See  NAVIES  OF  THE  WORLD,  (Jreat 
Britain. 

Submarine  Chaser.    See  Patrol  Boat,  above. 

Supply  Ships.  These  > easels  are  of  the  cargo 
type  and  are  fitted  as  refrigerator  ships, 
general  supply  ships,  and  ammunition  ships. 

Tenders.  These  are  vessels  designed  to  ac- 
company aircraft,  destroyers,  submarines,  etc., 
and  to  act  as  a  movable  base  of  supplies,  re- 
pairs, etc. 

Torpedo  Boat.  A  small,  fast  boat  designed 
to  use  torpedoes  in  the  attack  of  large  vessels. 
The  torpedo  boat  and  the  destroyer  are  small 
craft  of  the  same  general  type.  In  the  IHflO's, 
torpedo  boats  were  of  less  than  200  tons  and 
very  numerous.  In  1893,  the  British  navy 
built  the  llavock  and  Hornet  of  240  tons  to  de- 
fend vessels  against  torpedo  boats  by  attacking 
the  latter.  They  were  therefore  styled  toipedo- 
boat  destroyers  Besides  having  greater  dis- 
placement, they  carried  6-pounder  and  12- 
pounder  guns,  while  torpedo  boats  mostly  car- 
ried 3-pounders.  After  that  time  the  destroy- 
er gradually  grew  in  size  and  took  on  othei 
functions.  A  few  torpedo  boats  for  harbor  and 
smooth  water  service  were  built  in  recent  years, 
but  the  type  is  almost  obsolete.  Old  destroyers 
of  less  than  1000  tons  came  to  be  often  classed 
as  torpedo  boats. 

Transport.  A  vessel  fitted  for  the  transpor- 
tation of  troops,  animals,  or  supplies.  No  na- 
tion possessed  many  of  these;  therefore,  in 
times  of  war,  merchant  vessels  had  to  be  used 
and  altered  to  adapt  them  to  the  service  The 
American  (formerly  German)  passenger  steam- 
er Leviathan,  after  fitting  as  a  transport,  car- 
ried 10,000  officers  and  men  on  each  trip,  in  ad- 
dition to  her  own  complement. 

TJ  Boat.  A  name  applied  to  German  sub- 
marine boats  because  they  were  officially  de- 
signated by  a  number  preceded  by  the  letter  II, 
as  U125.  The  "U"  is  an  abbreviation  of  itnter- 
see  ('under  water').  See  Submarines,  above. 

VETERANS'  BUREAU.  See  ACJRKTL- 
TURAL  EDUCATION;  UNITED  STATES,  History. 

VETEBINABY  MEDICINE.  A  gradual 
rise  in  the  educational  standards  of  this  pro- 
fession resulted  in  the  requirement  of  four 
years'  high  school  education  or  its  equivalent 
for  the  class  entering  in  the  fall  of  1919  and 
thereafter  for  the  accrediting  of  a  veterinary 
college  and  the  eligibility  of  its  graduates  for 
United  States  government  service.  The  require- 
ments for  admission  to  Civil  Service  examina- 
tion for  the  government  service  were  raised  BO 
that  after  the  fall  of  1017  a  fourth  year  of 
study  at  a  veterinary  college,  with  an  increased 
number  of  hours,  was  required.  The  conditions 
attending  upon  the  War  brought  a  great  de- 
crease in  the  number  of  students  enrolled  at 


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VETEBUTABY  MEDICINE 


1365 


VETEBINABY  KBDICIH1B 


veterinary  colleges.  With  the  close  of  the  War 
the  attendance  increased  somewhat  but  later  de- 
clined, in  part  because  of  the  increased  educa- 
tional requirements.  These  conditions  resulted 
in  the  discontinuance  of  several  colleges,  and  by 
1923  there  were  but  15  accredited  colleges  in 
the  United  States,  with  a  total  student  enroll- 
ment 738.  Among-  those  which  gave  way  to 
State-supported  schools  were  some  of  the  oldest 
and  best  known  institutions. 

Foot-and-Mouth  Disease.  This  disease  of 
live  stock,  particularly  of  cattle  and  swine,  has, 
because  of  its  epizootic  nature,  continued  to  be 
one  of  those  most  dreaded  by  the  live-Block  in- 
terests. Three  countries,  Canada,  Australia, 
and  New  Zealand,  have  been  entirely  free  from 
it  for  many  years;  others,  including  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  and  Sweden,  have  been 
visited  by  it  from  time  to  time  and  have  ap- 
plied the  slaughter  stamping-out  policy,  as  the 
British  Dominions  mentioned  and  Norway  would 
if  they  were  to  be  invaded.  They  prohibit  the 
entry  of  live  stock  or  apply  drastic  quarantine 
laws  against  the  entry  of  diseased  animals. 
Other  countries  where  it  is  present  deal  with 
the  disease  by  isolating  infected  stocks,  regulat- 
ing live-stock  movement  within  their  boundaries, 
and  quarantining  the  animals  they  import;  or 
they  let  the  disease  take  its  course  without  in- 
terference. Denmark  and  Holland  periodically 
freed  themselves  from  the  disease,  but  became 
reinfected  from  neighboring  countries. 

Seven  outbreaks  have  taken  place  in  the 
United  States,  in  1870,  1880,  1884,  1902,  1008, 
1914,  and  1924.  That  of  1914  was  by  far  the 
most  serious,  extending  into  21  States  and  the 
District  of  Columbia,  and  necessitating  an  ex- 
penditure of  over  $5,500,000.  The  animals 
slaughtered  at  this  time  included  69,742  cattle, 
73,574  swine,  8742  sheep,  and  99  goats,  with  a 
total  appraised  value  of  $5,243,138.55.  The 
first  three  crises  were  caused  by  the  importa- 
tion of  infected  animals,  the  fourth  and  fifth  by 
the  importation  of  contaminated  cowpox  vaccine 
virus,  the  sixth  by  materials  contaminated 
through  contact  with  leather  or  leather  products 
imported  from  a  foreign  country  in  which  the 
disease  occurred,  and  the  last,  in  California,  was 
supposed  to  have  originated  in  the  feeding  of 
pigs  with  garbage  from  steamships  arriving  from 
foieign  ports  In  England,  where  the  disease 
has  appeared  from  time  to  time,  investigations 
indicate  that  the  infection  is  introduced  by 
birds  migrating  from  the  continent,  or  is  air 
borne  In  eradication  work  in  England  70,000 
cattle,  25,000  sheep,  and  34,000  hogs  were 
slaughtered  up  to  the  middle  of  1924  in  an  ef- 
fort to  eradicate  it. 

Bovine  Tuberculosis  Eradication.  In  his 
annual  report  for  191C,  the  United  States  Sec- 
retary of  Agriculture  called  attention  to  the 
wide  dissemination  of  tuberculosis  of  farm  ani- 
mals, pointing  out  that  it  may  be  transmitted 
to  man  and  is  the  source  of  annual  losses  in 
the  United  States  estimated  at  more  than  $25,- 
000,000.  He  outlined  undertakings  leading  to 
its  eradication,  and  asked  for  an  appropriation 
of  $75,000  to  inaugurate  the  work.  Congress 
responded  with  allotments  for  its  investigation 
and  eradication  amounting  to  $300,000,  of  which 
$132,018  was  expended.  Offices  were  at  once 
opened  at  several  points  in  the  country,  and  co- 
operative work  commenced  with  the  view  to 
eradicating  the  disease  from  purebred  herds 
and  the  establishment  of  accredited  herds.  In 


December,  1917,  rules  and  methods  were  adopted, 
the  plan  followed  being  to  test  cattle  with  tuber- 
culin, to  eliminate  any  reacting  animal,  usually 
by  slaughter,  to  repeat  the  test  at  prescribed 
intervals,  and  to  list  as  tuberculosis-free  ac- 
credited herds  all  which  successfully  pass  two 
annual  or  three  semi-annual  tests,  official  cer- 
tificates being  issued  to  the  owners  of  such 
herds.  In  1918  Congress  provided  for  the  pay- 
ment of  one-third  of  the  difference  between  the 
appraised  and  salvage  value  of  the  slaughtered 
animals,  no  payment  bv  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment to  be  more  than  $25  for  a  grade  animal 
or  more  than  $50  for  any  purebred  animal.  In- 
creased appropriations  for  the  work  were  made 
by  Congress  from  year  to  year  until  1922,  when 
the  annual  appropriation  had  reached  $2,877,- 
600,  a  large  proportion  of  which  was  for  pay- 
ment of  indemnities.  By  1922  the  cooperative 
eradication  work  had  been  extended  to  include 
all  the  48  States  and  the  Territoiies  of  Alaska 
and  Hawaii.  By  that  year  (1922)  the  wide- 
spread demonstration  of  the  possibility  of  free- 
ing individual  herds  from  the  disease  had  re- 
sulted in  an  increased  confidence  in  the  area 
clean-up  method,  23  States  having  joined  in  the 
movement,  and  more  than  150  counties  had  com- 
pleted or  were  in  the  process  of  testing  all  of 
their  cattle,  and  nearly  300  more  were  making 
arrangements  to  begin  the  work.  In  the  year 
1923,  50  entire  counties  eradicated  the  disease 
from  their  herds,  raising  the  total  to  81.  In 
that  year  there  were  28,520  herds,  containing 
615,156  cattle,  officially  accredited  as  free  from 
the  disease,  and  there  were  400,000  additional 
herds,  containing  some  4,500,000  cattle,  under 
supervision,  with  unfilled  applications  on  file 
for  testing  nearly  1,000,000  additional  cattle. 
Similar  eradication  work  was  taken  up  by  the 
Canadian  government  in  1919. 

Binderpest.  This  highly  contagious  and 
most  fatal  of  the  many  diseases  to  which  cattle 
are  susceptible,  and  which  has  followed  on  the 
heels  of  European  wars,  appeared  in  1920  and 
spread  through  Poland,  causing  a  great  loss.  It 
was  introduced  into  Belgium  in  July,  1920,  with 
Brahman  cattle  from  India,  and  spread  into 
several  provinces  in  Belgium  and  into  northern 
France  before  it  could  be  checked.  A  limited 
outbreak  which  occurred  at  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil, 
in  March,  1921,  the  first  upon  the  American 
continent,  was  eradicated  in  about  three  months. 

Texas  Fever  and  Tick  Eradication.  At 
the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  on  June  30,  1913,  the 
work  in  progress  since  1906  had  resulted  in 
the  clearing  and  release  from  quarantine  of 
some  193,000  square  miles  of  tick-infested  ter- 
ritory. In  the  period  following,  which  closed 
June  30,  1922,  some  330,000  square  miles  were 
cleared,  making  a  total  of  72  per  cent  of  the 
entire  infested  area  of  729,852  square  miles. 
The  amounts  appropriated  each  year  by  Congress 
for  this  work  were  increased  from  $325,000  in 
1913  to  $660,000  in  1923.  Of  the  975  counties 
in  15  States  quarantined  on  July  1,  1906,  695 
had  been  released  by  the  end  of  1923,  leaving 
280  counties  under  quarantine  at  that  time. 
Up  to  the  close  of  1923,  five  States  had  suc- 
ceeded in  eradicating  the  tick  and  were  out  of 
quarantine.  These  were  California,  Kentucky, 
Missouri,  South  Carolina,  and  Tennessee. 

Hog  Cholera.  This  affection  was  estimated 
by  the  Federal  Government  in  1923  to  cause  a 
mortality  of  4.05  per  cent,  a  large  reduction 
from  the  preceding  year,  and  to  be  responsible 


VETEBINABY  HEDICIKB 


1364 


VICTOBIA 


for  about  80  per  cent  of  all  hogs  lost  by  disease . 
In  that  year  2,564,837  hogs,  valued  at  $29,- 
303,032,  were  destroyed  by  it.  Control  work 
was  commenced  by  the  Federal  Department  of 
Agriculture  in  1913  under  an  appropriation  by 
Congress  of  $75,000,  which  was  increased  in 
amount  from  year  to  year  until  in  1919  the  sum 
of  $641,045  was  made  available  for  investiga- 
tion, demonstration,  education,  and  control 
work.  The  work  has  consisted  in  the  making 
of  surveys,  production  and  use  of  serum  on  hogs 
on  infected  and  exposed  farms,  sanitation  and 
quarantine  work,  and  organization  of  farmers 
to  cooperate  with  the  State  and  Federal  author- 
ities. Studies  of  a  disease  known  as  "hog  flu," 
which  has  appeared  and  caused  large  losses  in 
the  hog-raising  States,  have  shown  that  it  is  not 
related  in  any  way  to  hog  cholera. 

Dourine.  The  occurrence  of  this  disease  of 
the  horse,  due  to  Trypanosoma  cquiperdum,  ne- 
cessitated eradication  work  by  the  Federal  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  under  annual  appropri- 
ations by  Congress,  varying  from  $45,000  to 
$97,800.  The  work  was  pressed  with  great 
vigor  in  some  seven  States,  resulting  in  its  com- 
plete eradication  from  Iowa,  Nebraska,  North 
Dakota,  and  Montana. 

Infectious  Abortion.  The  importance  of 
this  insidious  disease  of  cattle,  horses,  swine, 
and  sheep  is  second  only  to  tuberculosis,  caus- 
ing as  it  does  the  loss  of  the  offspring,  a  decrease 
in  the  flow  of  milk,  and  possibly  permanent 
sterility.  In  the  cow  and  sow  the  disease  is 
caused  by  a  microorganism  known  as  bacillus 
(or  bacterium)  abortus,  which  was  first  de- 
scribed by  B.  Bang,  a  European  veterinarian. 
In  the  mare  it  is  caused  by  an  organism  de- 
scribed by  investigators  at  the  Kentucky  Ex- 
periment Station  as  bacillus  aborlivo-cquinua. 

Bacillary  White  Diarrhea  of  Chicks. 
This  disease  was  discovered  in  1909  to  be  due 
to  a  bacterium,  which  was  described  as  bacteri- 
um pullorum.  A  rapid  advance  in  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  pathology  and  in  control  of  the 
disease  followed,  and  accredited  white  diarrhea- 
free  breeding  flocks  were  established  in  several 
States  through  use  of  the  macroscopic  aggluti- 
nation test. 

Malta  Fever.  The  occurrence  of  this  affec- 
tion of  the  goat,  which  is  transmissible  to  man, 
was  first  reported  to  occur  in  the  United  States 
in  1911,  when  the  disease  was  discovered  to  be 
endemic  among  goats  in  southwest  Texas.  Dur- 
ing the  summer  of  1922  an  outbreak  took  place 
in  Phoenix,  Ariz.,  the  first  to  occur  in  a  city 
in  the  United  States,  in  which  more  than  30 
human  cases  were  positively  diagnosed. 

Babies.  A  serious  wave  of  rubies  infection 
among  wild  animals,  particularly  coyotes,  in  the 
northwestern  United  States,  which  caused  a 
large  loss  of  live  stock,  led  to  an  appropriation 
by  Congress  for  effective  control  work  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Epizootic  Lymphangitis.  This  disease  was 
introduced  into  France  with  horses  from  North 
Africa  during  the  War,  and  became  one  of  the 
most  important  diseases  with  which  the  army 
veterinarian  had  to  deal. 

Botulism  and  Forage  Poisoning.  Investi- 
gations have  shown  that  bacillus  botulinus  is 
probably  the  cause  of  much  of  the  loss  among 
horses  and  mules  resulting  from  forage  poison- 
ing and  also  is  a  cause  of  limber  neck  in 
chickens.  See  BOTULISM. 

Parasitology.     Equine  piroplasmosis  due  to 


piroplaama  equi  was  discovered  for  the  first 
time  on  the  American  continent  in  1913,  it  be- 
ing found  to  be  endemic  among  native  horses 
in  the  interior  of  Panama.  Cysticerous  outs, 
the  intermediate  stage  of  a  dog  tapeworm 
(tccnia  ovis),  was  shown  in  1913  to  be  the 
cause  of  tapeworm  cysts,  or  measles,  in  mutton, 
and  of  common  occurrence  in  sheep  in  the  west- 
ern United  States.  Tapeworm  cysts  in  beef  car- 
casses were  found  in  1914  to  DC  destroyed  by 
an  exposure  for  six  hours  to  a  temperature  of 
12  °  to  15  °  F.  Important  studies  of  Hanson's 
eye  worm  of  chickens  were  reported  from 
Hawaii.  Studies  of  trichinella  spiralia  have 
shown  that  the  larvtc  in  pork  die  after  an  ex- 
posure to  a  temperature  of  131°  F.  gradually 
attained,  and  this  is  held  to  be  the  thermal 
death  point.  Refrigeration  at  a  temperature 
of  5°  F.  for  a  period  of  20  days  was  found  in 

1915  to  destroy  it  in  pork.     Habroncma  musca 
was  discovered  in  1913  to  be  transmitted  by  the 
house    fly.     The    kidney    worm    was    found    to 
parasitize  nearly  50  per  cent  of  the  native  dogs 
on  the  Island  of  Luzon.     It  was  shown  in  1915 
that  larvae  of  the  ox  warble  enter  the  host  by 
penetrating     the     skin.     The     intermediate     or 
cysticercoid  stage  of  the  tapeworm  choanota'nia 
infundibuliformis    of    chickens    was    found    in 

1916  to  occur  in  the  common  house  fly.     It  was 
demonstrated  in  1918  that  ascaris  lumbricoides 
of  man   and  swine  has  a  direct  life  cycle,  and 
that    no    intermediate    host    is    required.     The 
embryos  hatch  out  in  the  alimentary  tract,  mi- 
grate to  the  lungs  and  other  organs,  and  cause 
pneumonia  of  pigs,  the  symptoms  of  which  are 
commonly    known    as    thumps.     Carbon     tetra- 
chloride   was    found   in    1921    to   be    highly   ef- 
ficacious   in    the    removal    of    hookworms    from 
dogs  and  foxes,  ascarids  from  dogs,  and  large 
strongyles  from  horses. 

Necrology.  Among  the  many  prominent 
veterinarians  who  passed  away  during  the  dec- 
ade 1914-24  were  Dr.  Daniel  'E.  Salmon,  1914; 
Dr.  A.  D.  Melvin,  1917;  Dr.  Alexander  F.  Liau- 
tard,  1918;  Dr.  James  Law,  1921;  Dr.  E.  W. 
Hoar,  1921;  and  Dr.  John  G.  Rutherford,  1923. 

Journals.  In  1915  the  American  T  etrnnart/ 
Review,  the  oldest  veterinary  journal  published 
in  America,  having  completed  its  47th  Volume, 
became  the  Journal  of  the  American  Veterinary 
Medical  Association  and  was  edited  by  the  Sec- 
retary of  that  Association.  In  1920  the  name 
of  the  American  Journal  of  Veterinary  Medicine 
was  changed  to  Veterinary  Medicine.  The 
"North  American  Veterinarian  and  the  Canadian 
Veterinary  Record,  a  quarterly  journal,  both 
commenced  publication  in  1920. 

VIBBATION.     See   PHYSICS, 

VICTOB  EMMANUEL  III.  See  ITALY, 
History. 

VICTOBIA.  A  state  of  the  Commonwealth 
of  Australia,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
continent.  Area,  87,884  square  miles;  popula- 
tion in  1911,  1,315,551;  in  1922,  1,570,040;  an- 
nual average  increase,  1.54  per  cent.  Mel- 
bourne, the  capital  and  largest  city,  including  its 
suburbs,  had  795,000  in  habitants 'in  11)21  (591.- 
830  in  1911).  In  1921  about  three-fifths  of  the 
total  population  was  urban.  Farming  contin- 
ued to  occupy  a  leading  place  in  the  state's  ac- 
tivities. Wheat,  hay,  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes 
were  the  most  important  crops.  Pastoral  pur- 
suits followed  next  in  importance.  The  wool 
output  in  1919-20  was  132,847,000  pounds;  in 
1920-21,  90,250,000,  as  compared  with  the  1913- 


VICTOBY  LOAN 


1365 


VILNA  DISTRICT 


14  output  of  100,833,000  pounds.  The  total 
mineral  production  in  1021  was  £1,490,935  as 
compared  with  £2,344,744  in  1913.  The  gold 
yield  steadily  dropped;  the  output  was  worth 
only  £443,938  in  1921  (£1,847,475  in  1913).  In 
1920-21,  140,743  employees  were  engaged  in 
manufacturing  (118,744  in  1913).  Values  for 
production  in  1920-21  were:  agricultural,  £25,- 
190,350;  pastoral  and  dairying,  £24,810,020; 
mining,  £1,007,045;  forest,  £1,954,750;  miscel- 
laneous, £5,159,990;  total,  £58,729,301;  manu- 
facturing value  added  £38,330,232.  Imports 
overseas  in  1913  were  valued  at  £24,387,073;  in 
1921-22,  £34,010,775.  Exports  for  the  same 
years  were  £17,838,305  and  £34,704,850.  Lead- 
ing exports  were  gold,  wool,  cereals,  and  moats. 
Jn  1921,  there  were  4332  miles  of  railway  open 
(,'{747  in  1914).  Government  accounts  showed: 
revenues  for  1912-13  and  for  1921-22,  £10,287,- 
285  and  £19,287,000;  expenditures  for  the  same 
years,  £10,258,081  and  £19,247,000.  Public  works 
continued  to  account  for  the  increased  public 
debt.  In  1912-13  the  debt  amounted  to  £02,776,- 
724;  in  1923  it  had  increased  to  ill4,oG8,597. 
Unlike  the  other  states,  Victoria  was  the  seat 
of  Australian  Conservatism,  her  large  agricul- 
tural population  making  for  a  desired  stability. 

VICTOBY  LOAN.  See  UNITED  STATES,  His- 
tory 

VIEBIG,  CLARA  (1800-  ).  A  popular 
German  novelist  (see  VOL.  XXTII).  She  is  the 
author  of  Mutter  und  Fraucn  (11)18),  Eine 
llandvoll  Erdc  (1920),  and  Tochtcr  dcr  Hekuba 
(1922) 

VIENNA.  A  province  of  the  Republic  of 
Austria.  Area,  107  square  miles;  population, 
census  of  1923,  1,803.783.  See  AUSTRIAN  RE- 
PI  i»  u\ 

VIEBNE,  LOUIS-VICTOR- JULES  ((1870-  ). 
A  French  organist  and  composer,  born  at  Poi- 
tiers, lie  studied  the  organ  under  Franck  and 
\\  idor  at  the  Paris  Coiibervntoire  and  gradu- 
ated in  1894  as  winner  of  the  first  prize.  In 
1000  he  became  organist  at  Notre  Dame  in  Paris 
and  professor  of  organ  at  the  Schola  Cantorum. 
Numerous  iccitals  in  Paris  and  tours  of  France, 
Swit/erlaml,  the  Netherlands,  England,  Spain, 
and  Portugal  established  his  reputation  as  one 
of  the  greatest  living  masters  of  the  organ.  He 
wiote  a  symphony  and  Sinte  Bourquiqnonnc 
for  orchestra;  Praxinoc,  PnnceRSC  d'Kgypte  for 
soli,  female  chorus,  and  orchestra;  Messc  Solcn- 
nclle  for  chorus  and  orchestra;  a  string  quartet, 
a  violin  sonata  and  a  'cello  sonata ;  four  organ 
symphonies  and  numerous  other  works  for  or- 
gan: sacred  music;  piano  numbers,  and  songs. 

VILLA,  FRANCISCO  (PANCHO)  (1868-11)23). 
A  Mexican  revolutionary  geneial,  bom  in  the 
state  of  Durango,  the  so'n  of  half-breed  parents 
of  the  peon  class.  He  grew  up  without  edu- 
cation and  became  a  -bold  and  skillful  leader  of 
bandits  and  cattle  thieves.  He  joined  the  revo- 
lutionists against  Diaz  in  1910  and  was  captured 
by  General  Huerta,  but  he  escaped  into  Texas. 
Returning  to  Mexico,  he  raised  a  force  of  some 
35,000  men  to  assist  General  Carranza  against 
Huerta.  After  the  defeat  of  Huerta,  Villa 
quarreled  with  Carran/a,  and  with  the  help 
of  Zapata  he  caused  Carranza  to  flee  from 
Mexico  City.  In  March,  1010,  raiding  Colum- 
bus, N.  M.,  he  killed  17  Americans  and 
wounded  Beven.  This  was  the  cause  of  the 
American  expedition,  under  General  Pershing, 
to  capture  Villa  "dead  or  alive."  Although 
overtaken  at  Guerrere  and  seriously  wounded, 


Villa  made  his  escape.  After  that  his  power  de- 
clined, and  on  his  promise  to  settle  down  as  a 
peaceful  citizen,  the  Federals  gave  him  $2,000,000 
for  himself  and  his  men,  a  small  farm  for  each 
man,  and  a  ranch  for  himself.  His  assassina- 
tion near  Parrel  in  Mexico  on  July  20,  1923, 
was  attributed  to  the  vengeance  of  a  family  some 
of  whose  members  he  had  killed. 

VILLAMOB,  IGNACIO  (1863-  ).  A 
Philipine  jurist,  born  at  Banguad,  P.  I.,  and 
educated  at  San  Juan  de  Letram  College  at 
Manila,  and  in  the  law  department  of  the 
University  of  Santo  Tomas.  From  1902  to 
1906  he  was  Judge  of  the  Sixth  Judicial  Dis- 
trict of  the  Philippine  Islands  and  was  Attor- 
ney General  from  1907  to  1913.  He  served  as 
Secretary  of  State  in  1913-14  and  from  that 
year  until  1918  was  president  of  the  University 
of  the  Philippines.  In  1920  he  was  appointed 
Associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
Philippine  Islands.  He  was  the  author  of  sev- 
eral books  on  law  administration  in  the  Philip- 
pines. 

VILNA  DISTRICT.  This  region,  the  north- 
ern zone  of  that  long  corridor  which  the  Poles 
claimed  as  their  rightful  eastern  boundary,  was 
the  scene  of  a  long  dispute  between  Poland  and 
Lithuania  which  was  not  settled  until  the  line 
finally  drawn  by  the  Council  of  Ambassadors 
on  Mar.  15,  1923,  gave  the  district  to  Poland, 
hying  ^between  Grodno  on  the  south  and  Dvmsk 
on  the 'north,  with  the  city  of  Vilna  at  its  centre, 
and  possessing  the  important  Warsaw-Vilna- 
Dvinsk  railway  section,  the  territory  has  an 
area  of  some  0000  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion put  at  1,300,000.  Of  this,  according  to  the 
Polish  estimates,  Poles  totaled  25  per  cent,  al- 
though the  prewar  census  had  put  the  figuie 
at  only  10  per  cent.  Besides  Lithuanians,  there 
were  also  to  be  found  here  \Yhite  Russians, 
Jews,  and  Germans,  and  the  racial  and  nation- 
alistic loyalties  of  this  diverse  population  made 
the  demai cation  of  a  just  line  piactically  im- 
possible. At  the  Peace  Conference  an  attempt 
was  made  to  cut  the  Gordiari  knot  with  the  so- 
called  Curzon  line  which  kept  almost  rigorous- 
ly to  the  confines  of  Congress  Poland  and  left 
the  Vilna  distiict  to  Lithuania  (accepted  by  the 
Supreme  Council,  December,  1919),  but  the  set- 
tlement was  deemed  inadequate  by  almost  all 
the  Allies,  including  France  and  the  United 
States,  and  was  never  observed  by  Poland.  The 
spectre  of  Bolshevism  largely  aided  the  Polish 
purposes.  Posing  as  the  champion  of  oppressed 
peoples  and  as  the  rampart  on  the  east  of  west- 
ern ideals,  although  completely  disregarding  the 
desires  of  the  peoples  involved  and  the  vaunted 
principles  of  self-determination,  Poland  pushed 
into  the  disputed  region  and  effectively  occupied 
it.  Not  only  was  the  hostility  of  the  Lithu- 
anians awakened,  for  they  regarded  the  town 
of  Vilna  as  the  centre  of  their  nationalistic  as- 
pirations; but  the  Russians  were  equally 
aroused.  Here  was  the  reason  for  the  perplex- 
ing events  of  1920.  Early  in  1920  Poles  massed 
against  the  Red  armies,  took  Dvinsk,  entered 
Vilna  on  April  20,  and  then  pushed  triumphant- 
ly across  \Yhite  Russia  and  captured  Kiev  on 
May  8.  This  was  the  high  water  mark  of  Polish 
success  and  was  followed  by  equally  notable  de- 
feats. With  the  Poles  in  full  retreat  by  July 
the  Supreme  Council  hastened  to  take  action. 
The  Spa  Conference  suggested  that  the  Poles 
retire  behind  the  Curzon  Line  and  broached 
the  question  of  a  general  conference.  But  noth- 


VILNA  DISTBICT 


1366 


VXB0XNXA 


ing  came  of  it,  and  the  Russian  advance  con- 
tinued Meanwhile  Lithuanians  had  reentered 
Vilna  and  on  July  12,  a  Russo-Lithuanian  treaty 
ceded  the  disputed  district  to  the  Lithuanian 
government.  By  the  end  of  July  the  Russians 
were  threatening  Warsaw;  in  another  two 
months  so  bewildering  were  the  reverses,  the 
Poles  had  turned  about,  routed  the  Russian 
armies,  and  passed  beyond  Grodno,  Brest- 
Litovsk,  Kovel,  and  Luck.  Vilna  was  again 
theirs  The  attempt  of  the  League  of  Nations 
Council  to  take  a  hand  in  the  dispute  proved 
a  failure,  for  while  on  October  7  a  League  com- 
mission fixed  a  neutral  zone  leading  to  the  city 
of  Vilna  and  along  a  line  running  about  forty 
miles  north  and  south  (the  Suwalki  agreement), 
two  days  later  General  Zeligowski,  at  the  head 
of  a  Polish  irregular  force,  entered  the  city  and 
claimed  it  for  Poland.  On  Oct  12,  1020,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Riga,  Russia  recognized  Polish  claims 
to  the  whole  disputed  zone  on  the  east  of  Poland, 
including  Vilna  and  stretching  so  far  south  as 
to  take  in  the  whole  of  East  Galicia.  The 
Poles  took  possession  of  Vilna  at  once  and  held 
a  plebiscite  in  the  city  in  January,  1022;  this, 
proving  favorable  to  Poland,  was  followed  by 
the  seating  of  the  Vilna  delegates  in  the  Polish 
parliament.  All  this,  of  course,  was  against 
the  bitter  but  futile  protests  of  Lithuania.  As 
late  as  February,  1023,  there  was  fighting  be- 
tween the  Lithuanian  and  Polish  troops  for  the 
possession  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  Su- 
walki zone  of  the  west,  lying  between  Grodno 
and  Vilna,  and  again  the  Poles  were  triumphant. 
Thus  the  Poles  had  met  with  success  in  almost 
all  their  purposes  in  the  east,  and  only  a  legal 
sanction  was  necessary  to  make  their  occupation 
final.  This  came  on  Mar.  15,  1923,  when  the 
eastern  boundary  fixed  by  the  Council  of  Am- 
bassadors was  made  to  follow  the  Treaty  of 
Riga  line  on  the  east  and  to  include  the  whole 
Vilna  district  on  the  northeast.  Lithuania  re- 
fused to  accept  the  ruling  and  every  indication 
pointed  to  the  continuance  of  a  Lithuanian  ir- 
redentism  in  the  district. 

Kresy.  By  this  name  the  Poles  designate 
the  portion  of  the  eastern  corridor  lying  between 
Vilna  and  East  Galicia  and  east  of  the  Curzon 
Line.  Claimed  by  both  Poland  and  Russia,  it, 
too,  was  finally  ceded  to  Poland  in  March,  1923. 
Made  up  of  part  of  White  Russia  and  the 
Ukraine,  with  an  area  of  some  43,000  square 
miles,  this  border  region  seated  a  population 
of  some  3,700,000,  01  whom  according  to  the 
Poles,  32  per  cent  were  Polish,  while  the  pre- 
war Russian  census  showed  a  Polish  population 
of  only  6  per  cent.  This  region  was  affected  by 
all  the  happenings  that  influenced  the  fortunes 
of  Vilna  It  lay  beyond  the  Curzon  line;  it 
was  won,  lent,  and  won  again  by  the  Poles  in 
their  operations  against  the  Red  armies  in  1920; 
it  was  yielded  up  to  Poland  by  Russia  as  the 
result  of  the  Riga  Treaty;  and  finally  in  March, 
1923,  it  was  included  in  the  Polish  state  by 
the  decision  of  the  Council  of  Ambassadors. 
With  their  customary  despatch  and  with  a 
complete  disregard  of  the  desires  of  the  large 
racial  minority  living  here,  Polish  officials  pro- 
ceeded to  nationali/e  the  annexed  territory 
The  Polish  language  was  substituted  for  the 
Russian;  Polish  peasants  were  colonized;  the 
administrative  centres,  in  order  to  break  the 
alien  influence,  were  moved  from  such  large  cities 
as  Grodno  to  cities  of  secondary  importance  like 
Bialystok  and  Novogrodek,  the  latter  without. 


even  a  railway  connection.  But  the  "Kresy" 
looked  to  Moscow  as  Vilna  did  to  Koyno,  and 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Soviet  Russia,  after 
October,  1920,  made  no  attempt  to  regain  these 
lost  provinces,  there  was  every  reason  for  be- 
lieving that  the  settlement  had  too  many  arti- 
ficial elements  in  it  to  be  lasting.  The  danger 
zones  in  the  Polish  system  included  almost  half 
its  1924  area,  i.e.  Vi'lna,  "Kresy,"  East  Galicia 
(q.v.),  and  Upper  Silesia  (qv.),  where  there 
were  large  irredentist  groups  in  whom  Germany 
and  Russia  could  not  help  being  interested ;  and 
that  such  an  arrangement  presaged  grave  conse- 
quences for  the  peace  of  Europe  only  an  opti- 
mist could  deny 

VINCENT,  EDGAR  First  Baron  D'Abernon. 
See  ABERNON,  EDGAR  VINCENT  D*. 

VINOGRADOFF,  SIR  PAUL  ( 18.14-11)25 ) . 
An  English  jurist  and  educator  (see  VOL. 
XXIII ) .  He  lectured  at  the  University  of  Cal- 
cutta in  1913-14  and  at  the  University  of  Ley- 
den  in  1921.  From  1914  to  1917  he  was  editor 
of  the  Russian  section  of  the  Social  and  Eco- 
nomic History  of  the  War  published  by  the 
Carnegie  Endowment  Fund  Other  later  books 
include  Outlines  of  Historical  Jurisprudence 
(vol.  i,  1920;  vol.  ii,  1922). 

VIRGINIA.  Virginia  is  the  thirty-third 
State  in  si/.e  (42,027  square  miles),  and  the 
twentieth  in  population;  capital,  Richmond 
The  population  inci  eased  from  2,061,612  in 
1910  to  2,309,187  in  1920,  a  gain  of  12  per 
cent.  The  white  population  increased  from  I,- 
389,809  to  1,617,909;  negro,  from  671,096  to 
690,017;  native  white,  from  1,363,181  to  1,587,- 
124;  and  foreign-born  white,  from  26,628  to  30,- 
785.  Both  urban  and  rural  populations  rose 
during  the  decade,  the  former  from  476,529  to 
673,984  and  the  latter  from  1,585,083  to  1,635,- 
203.  The  growth  of  the  principal  cities  was  as 
follows:  Richmond  (q.v.),  1!)10,  127,628;  1920, 
171,667;  Norfolk  (q.v.),  67,452  to  115,777; 
Portsmouth,  33,190  to  54,387;  Roanoke,  34,874 
to  50,842. 

Agriculture.  Although  Virginia  is  one  of 
the  minor  cotton-producing  States,  a  compara- 
tively large  area  is  devoted  to  its  cultivation, 
and  the  production  of  cotton  did  not  suffer  so 
much  during  the  decade  1914-24  from  the  rav- 
ages of  the  boll  weevil  and  other  destructive 
insects  as  in  the  States  farther  south  The 
weevil  did  not  reach  the  State  until  1922  and 
on  account  of  the  cold  of  the  winters  was  not  ex- 
pected to  be  a  serious  menace.  A  comparison 
of  the  acreage  and  production  for  several  years 
indicates  that  the  production  of  cotton  was,  with 
the  exception  of  one  or  two  years,  comparatively 
stable.  In  1913  the  acreage  was  47,000  and  the 
production  23,000  bales;  in  1915,  34,000  and 
16,000;  1918,  44,000  and  25,000;  1920,  42,- 
000  and  22,000;  1922,  63,000  and  25,000.  The 
estimated  production  for  1923  was  27,000  bales 

While  the  population  of  the  State  increased 
12  per  cent  in  the  decade  1910-20,  the  number 
of  farms  increased  only  1.2  per  cent  (from 
184,018  to  186,242).  The  total  acreage  in 
farms,  moreover,  decreased  from  19,495,636  to 
18,561,112,  or  4.8  per  cent;  and  the  improved 
land  in  farms  from  9,870,058  to  9,460,492  acres 
or  4.1  per  cent.  The  total  value  of  farm  prop- 
erty apparently  increased  91.4  per  cent  in  the 
decade,  from  $625,065,383  to  $1,196,555,772;  the 
average  value  per  farm,  from  $3397  to  $6425. 
In  interpreting  these  values  and  indeed  all  com- 
parative values  in  the  decade  1914-24,  the  in- 


VIRGINIA 


1367 


flat  ion  of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of  tho 
period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The 
index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of 
farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104  in 
1010  and  216  in  1920.  The  percentage  of  the 
total  area  in  farms  decreased  from  76.7  in  1910 
to  72  in  1920,  while  the  percentage  of  improved 
land  in  farms  decreased  from  38.3  to  30.7  per 
cent.  Of  the  UMO  total  of  180,242  farms,  136,- 
363  were  operated  by  owners,  2134  by  man- 
agers, and  47,745  by  tenants.  The  comparative 
figures  for  1910  were  133,604,  1625,  and  48,729. 
In  1920  there  were  138,450  white  and  47,786 
colored  farmers;  in  1910,  135,904  white  and 
48,114  colored.  Farms  free  from  mortgage  in 
1920  numbered  98,470;  those  under  mortgage, 
24,331.  In  1910  there  were  111,474  farms  free 
from  mortgage,  and  21,182  mortgaged.  The 
total  number  of  cattle  in  1920  was  909,795,  of 
which  609,305  were  dairy  cattle.  In  1910  cattle 
numbered  859,067,  and  dairy  cattle  356,284 
Sheep,  in  1920,  numbered  342,367,  compared  with 
804,873  in  1910;  hogs,  941,308,  compared  with 
797,635.  The  estimated  production  of  the  prin- 
cipal farm  products  in  1923  was  as  follows: 
corn,  52,095,000  bushels;  wheat,  11,145,000; 
oats,  3,370,000;  barley,  227,000;  potatoes,  12,- 
938.000;  sweet  potatoes,  5,236,000;  tobacco, 
123,363,000  pounds,  and  hay,  791,000  tons.  For 
cotton,  see  above.  Comparative  figures  for  1913 
are:  corn,  51,480,000  bushels;  wheat,  10,608,000; 
oatH,  4,192,000;  barley,  286,000;  potatoes,  9,- 
870,000;  hay,  952,000  tons;  and  tobacco,  154,- 
000,000  pounds. 

Mining.  The  chief  mineral  products  of  the 
State  are  coal,  clay  products,  cement,  and  stone. 
Of  these,  coal  is  by  far  the  most  important. 
The  progress  of  coal  mining  in  the  decade  is  in- 
dicated by  the  following  production  figures: 
1914,  7,959,535  net  tons;  1915,  8,122,596;  1916, 
9,707,474;  1917,  10,087,091;  1918,  10,289t,808; 
1920,  11,378,606;  1921,  7,492,378;  and  1922, 
10,491,174.  The  value  of  the  clay  products 
averaged  between  $2,000,000  and  $3.000,000  an- 
nually. The  State  also  produces  iron  ore,  sand 
and  gravel,  and  gypsum.  The  total  value  of 
mineral  products  in  1921  was  $32,810,842,  com- 
pared with  $80;161,247  in  1920;  $M,799,407  in 
1919;  $37,639,368  in  1918;  and  $16,400,347  in 
1914. 

Manufactures.  Virginia  showed  consider- 
able increase  in  manufacturing  after  1909.  In 
1920  there  were  11  cities  having  more  than 
10,000  inhabitants.  These  formed  23.8  per  cent 
of  the  total  population  and  in  1919  produced 
52.2  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  State  s  manu- 
factured products.  In  1909  there  were  in  the 
State  5685  manufacturing  establishments;  in 
1914,  5508;  and  in  1919,  5603.  Persons  engaged 
in  manufacture  numbered  120,797,  118,109,  and 
139,178;  and  the  capital  invested  amounted  to 
$210,392,388,  $261,501,288,  and  $463,644,498,  in 
those  years  The  value  of  the  manufactured 
product  amounted  to  $219,793,868  in  1909; 
$264,039,041  in  1914;  and  $643,511,621  in  1919. 
The  increase  in  value  of  products  in  1914-19 
was  largely  due  to  the  change  in  industrial  con- 
ditions brought  about  by  the  War  and  cannot 
properly  be  used  to  measure  the  growth  of  manu- 
factures during  the  period;  but  the  increase  in 
number  of  wage  earners  clearly  indicates  a  de- 
cided growth  in  the  manufacturing  activities  of 
the  State.  The  first  industry  in  point  of  value 
of  products  is  the  manufacture  of  tobacco.  Thin, 
in  1909,  amounted  in  value  to  $25,385,000;  in 


1914,  to  $30,096,000,  and  in  1919,  to  $78,350,000 
Lumber  and  timber  products  rank  second  in 
point  of  value,  with  $35,855,000  in  1909;  $32,- 
449,000  in  1914;  and  $56,394,000  in  1919.  The 
chief  manufacturing  city  was  Richmond.  In 
1909  there  were  here  380  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, with  a  product  valued  at  $47,358,- 
000;  in  1914,  466  with  $62,491,000;  and  in 
1919.  550  with  $156,724,000. 

Education.  rJhe  progress  of  education  in 
Virginia  was  marked  by  important  steps  in  the 
decade  1914-24.  The  Legislature,  especially  in 
the  latter  part  of  that  period,  passed  several  im- 
portant laws  which  greatly  assisted  the  admin- 
istration of  the  school  system.  The  Assembly 
of  1922  enacted  three  important  educational 
bills,  covering  compulsory  education,  the  county 
unit  system  of  school  administration,  and  the 
adoption  and  distribution  of  textbooks.  The 
compulsory  education  law  was  greatly  superior 
to  that  previously  in  force.  The  county  unit 
law  became  effective  in  September,  1922.  Negro 
education  is  a  problem  in  Virginia  as  in  other 
southern  States,  but  in  this  phase  of  education 
also  there  was  progress.  Twenty-three  county 
training  schools  were  being  maintained  for  ne- 
groes, and  from  the  Julius  Rosen wald  fund, 
nearly  160  public  schools  had  been  built  for 
colored  people.  Vocational  work  under  the 
Smith-Hughes  Law  was  established  in  1917-18, 
including  vocational  agriculture,  vocational  home 
economics,  and  trade  and  industrial  education 
In  1922-23,  53  of  the  100  counties  of  the  State 
were  provided  with  training  in  vocational  agri- 
culture The  work  in  trade  and  industrial  edu- 
cation, which  was  meeting  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, was  intended  to  serve  pupils  enrolled  in 
public  schools,  those  already  engaged  in  indus- 
try, who  could  give  a  part  of  their  time  to  in- 
dustrial class  work,  and  others.  Notable  prog- 
ress was  also  made  in  the  programme  of  health 
and  physical  education.  Approximately  75  per 
cent  of 'the  pupils  in  the  schools  received  physi- 
cal inspection  under  the  general  direction  of 
the  State  Board  of  Health  and  the  State  Board 
of  Education  in  1922-23.  The  total  school  en- 
rollment in  the  State  increased  from  474,210  in 
1915  to  562,998  in  l')23.  The  city  enrollment 
in  the  latter  year  was  118,638;  county,  440,360; 
total  in  white  "schools,  3!K),458;  and  total  in 
schools  for  negroes,  155,577.  The  total  disburse- 
ment for  school  purposes  in  1923  was  $23,634,- 
398.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State 
decreased  from  179  in  1910  to  135  in  1920- 
in  the  native  white  population,  from  9.4  to  7.1 
per  cent;  in  the  foreign-born  white,  from  9.3 
to  7.5;  and  in  the  negro,  from  37.1  to  29.3. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  The  Demo- 
cratic party  continued  in  the  control  of  the 
State  in  the  decade  1914-24.  State  elections  in 
Virginia  are  held  in  the  odd  years,  quadren- 
nially. Elections  were  held  in  1914  for  Repre- 
sentatives in  Congress.  The  Democrats  were 
successful  in  all  districts  except  one.  At  this 
election  a  measure  providing  for  State-wide  pro- 
hibition was  adopted  by  the  people.  In  1910 
elections  were  held  for  United  States  Senator, 
and  Senator  Claude  A.  Swan  son  was  reflected. 
In  the  presidential  voting  in  this  year,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  received  102,824  votes;  Charles  E. 
Hughes,  49,256.  On  Mar.  1,  1916,  the  prohibi- 
tion law  went  into  effect.  A  new  law  also  went 
into  effect  providing  for  the  removal  of  public 
officials  for  failure  to  enforce  any  statute.  In 


VIRGINIA 


1368 


1917  the  Democratic  candidate  for  governor, 
Westmoreland  Davis,  was  elected.  Senator  Mar- 
tin was  reelected  in  1918.  He  died  in  1920,  and 
Carter  Glass,  Secretarv  of  the  Treasury,  was 
appointed  to  fill  out  his  unexpired  term.  In 
the  presidential  voting  of  this  year,  J.  M  Cox 
received  141,670  vote*;  W  G.  Harding,  87,458. 
The  Democratic  candidate  for  governor,  E.  Lee 
Trinkle,  was  elected  in  1921,  and  in  1022  Senator 
Swanson  was  roMected.  At  this  election  the 
voters  defeated  a  proposal  for  a  constitutional 
convention.  In  1923  the  battlefield  of  Yorktown 
was  selected  by  the  Secretary  of  War  as  a  pro- 
posed national  park.  The  government  already 
owned  10  acres  on  this  site,  and  it  was  pro- 
posed to  purchase  1180  acres  more  Within  the 
limits  of  the  proposed  park  are  the  old  Amer- 
ican and  British  breastworks,  still  largely  in- 
tact. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  measures 
enacted  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted  below. 
The  House  of  Delegates,  on  Mar.  11,  1914,  re- 
jected the  woman  suffrage  amendment.  The 
Legislature  of  1918  passed  measures  regulating 
the  practice  of  women  at  law.  A  general  pro- 
hibition law  was  passed,  and  a  commission  was 
appointed  to  study  the  educational  system  of 
the  State.  Laws  regulating  the  labor  of  women 
and  children  were  amended,  and  an  elaborate 
measure  was  enacted  relating  to  safety  in  in- 
dustry. A  new  workmen's  compensation  law 
was  also  passed.  In  1919  the  Legislature  re- 
jected the  woman  suffrage  amendment.  At  this 
session  the  Legislature  passed  a  law  providing 
for  a  budget  In  1920  the  Legislature  estab- 
lished an  agricultural  experiment  station,  ap- 
pointed a  commission  to  study  the  condition  of  the 
blind,  regulated  the  fire  insurance  business,  and 
extended  the  powers  of  building  and  loan  associa- 
tions. In  1922  the  Legislature  amended  the  laws 
relating  to  labor  and  the  workmen's  compensation 
law  and  passed  a  motion  picture  censorship  bill. 
In  1923  a  special  session  of  the  Legislature  was 
held  This  passed  a  series  of  acts  relating  to 
highways  and  motor  vehicles  and  enacted  a 
measure  designed  to  prevent  the  operation  of 
"rings"  among  bidders  for  State  work.  During 
the  regular  session  of  1924,  the  Legislature 
passed  an  act  regulating  more  rigidly  the  opera- 
tions of  the  Virginia  Pilot  Association,  which,  up 
to  that  time,  hud  been  a  powerful  political 
factor  in  the  State  Numerous  drastic  pro- 
visions were  also  added  to  the  State  prohibition 
laws. 

VIRGINIA,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  An  institution 
at  Charlottesville,  Va.,  founded  in  1819.  The 
student  enrollment,  including  the  summer 
quarter,  for  the  scholastic  year  1913-14,  was 
2138,  as  compared  with  4559  in  1923-24.  The 
faculty  in  1914  comprised  51  professors,  22  in- 
structors, and  30  assistants,  a  total  of  103;  in 
1924,  91  professniR,  40  instiuctora,  and  77  assist- 
ants, a  total  of  20S.  During  this  decade  the  in- 
stitution received  from  Paul  (ioodloe  Mclntire 
$200,000  to  found  a  School  of  Commerce  and 
Business  Administration;  $150,000  to  found  a 
School  of  Art,  now  known  as  the  Mclntire  School 
of  Fine  Arts;  $70,000  for  an  amphitheatre  and 
outdoor  organ;  $50,000,  to  which  other  donors 
have  added  $115,000,  for  two  wings  to  the  hos- 
pital; and  from  John  B.  Cobb  $118,000  for  the 
Cobb  Chemical  Building  and  Laboratory,  besides 
$300,000  for  a  new  gymnasium  from  students, 
alumni,  and  others,  and  many  gifts  of  smaller 
sums  for  scholarships,  etc.  The  library  con- 


VIBGIN  ISLANDS 

President,  Bd- 


tained  123,000  volumes  in  1924. 
win  Anderson  Alderman. 

VIBGIN  ISLANDS.  An  American  depen- 
dency in  the  West  Indies,  consisting  chiefly  of 
the  islands  of  St.  Thomas,  St.  Croix,  and  St. 
John's  Total  area,  132  square  miles.  The 
United  States  took  possession  of  these  islands, 
following  their  purchase  from  Denmark  for  the 
sum  of  $25,000,000,  on  Mar.  31,  1917.  At  that 
time  the  population  was  approximately  27,000 
In  1920  the  population  showed  a  decrease  of 
some  1000.  Of  the  total  population,  80  per  cent 
were  negroes,  13  per  cent  of  mixed  race,  and 
7  per  cent  whites. 

Production.  Agriculture  was  formerly  the 
chief  industry  of  the  islands,  but  since  the  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  the  laboring-classes  showed  a 
tendency  to  concentrate  about  the  ports.  Some 
70,000  acres  were  devoted  to  agriculture  in  1917 
In  1920  there  were  430  farms,  102  worked  by 
white  farmers  and  270  by  negroes.  Sugar  cane 
is  the  chief  product.  In *  19 17,  about  9000  acres 
were  devoted  to  sugar  cane;  its  product  was 
valued  at  about  $440,000.  The  total  value  of 
farm  products  in  that  year  amounted  to  $3,706,- 
911.  Other  products  were  vegetables,  cotton, 
fruits,  and  nuts.  The  value  of  all  crops  in 
1917  was  $522,606. 

Commerce.  The  value  of  the  Virgin  Islands 
lies  in  their  geographic  location  and  their  ex- 
ceptional harbor  facilities  rather  than  in  their 
commercial  and  agricultural  interests.  The  chief 
exports  are  sugar,  hides,  skins,  and  cabinet 
woods.  Prior  to  the  enactment  of  the  United 
States  prohibition  amendment,  there  was  a  large 
export  of  mm,  and  the  cutting  off  of  tins  source 
of  revenue  had  a  very  serious  effect  on  the 
economic  condition  of  the  islands.  Exports  to 
the  United  States  in  1017  were  valued  at  $1,- 
259,607.  In  1922-23  thev  had  fallen  to  $743,- 
463  Imports  from  the  ^United  States  in  1017 
amounted  to  $1,416,342  and  in  1922-23  to  $1,- 
564,342. 

Education.  Education  was  compulsory  The 
total  enrollment  in  the  public  schools  of  the  is- 
lands was  3201  on  June  30,  1923.  Junior  high 
schools  were  established  and  night  schools  opened 
in  several  of  the  larger  towns.  Manual  train- 
ing schools  also  were  established. 

Transportation  and  Communication.  Reg- 
ular transportation  was  maintained  between  the 
islands  and  New  York  City.  Each  municipal- 
ity had  a  post  office,  cable  office,  and  telephone 
system.  The  naval  station  at  St.  Thomas  had 
a  powerful  radio  station.  There  was  also  a 
naval  station  in  the  inland  of  St.  Croix. 

History.  The  islands  were  administered  by 
the  United  States  Navy  Department,  the  gov- 
ernors for  the  period  being  Rear-Adml.  James 
H.  Oliver  (1917-19),  Rear-Adml.  Joseph  W 
Oman  (1919-21),  Capt.  Sumner  E.  W.  Kittelle 
(1921-23),  Capt.  H  IT.  Hough  (1923),  Capt. 
Philip  Williams  (1923-  ).  By  the  Organic 
Act  of  Mar.  3,  1917,  the  United  States  Congress 
vested  all  military,  civil,  and  judicial  powers 
in  a  governor  appointed  by  the  President  and 
continued  in  force  the  Danish  code  under  which 
the  islands  had  been  governed.  Citizenship  was 
held  by  males  over  25  possessing  an  annual  in- 
come of  1500  francs.  Criticism  was  frequent  in 
the  United  States  on  the  despotic  character  of 
the  American  administration.  It  was  charged 
that  Americans,  unlike  their  Danish  predeces- 
sors, refused  to  fraternize  with  the  negroes,  that 
free  speech  was  being  suppressed  and  local  lead- 


VISION 


1369 


VITAL  STATISTICS 


erg  proceeded  against  summarily,  and  that  the 
continuance  of  the  Danish  code  deprived  the 
great  majority  of  the  exercise  of  the  ballot.  On 
another  ground,  there  were  complaints  in  many 
quarters  that  the  American  officials  were  doing 
nothing  to  aid  the  economic  development  of  the 
islands. 

VISION.    See  PSYCHOLOGY,  EXPERIMENTAL. 

VISTULA  BIVEB.     See  DANZIO;   POLAND. 

VITAL  STATISTICS.  The  movement  of 
population  during  the  decade  1914-24  was  tem- 
porarily perturbed  by  the  years  of  war  and  pes- 
tilence, 1014-19.  After  this  period  the  birth  and 
death  rates  became  stabilized,  but  further  con- 
fusion resulted  from  the  formation  of  new 
states,  and  no  figures  are  available  for  Russia, 
the  Balkans,  Greece,  and  some  of  the  new  na- 
tional states  of  Europe.  Few  figures  can  be 
furnished  for  Asia,  Africa,  South  America,  or 
Latin  North  America. 

Deaths.  The  gross  death  rate  is  available 
for  the  regions  to  bo  enumerated,  but  the  figures 
possess  very  limited  value;  for  infant  mortality, 
as  well  as  deaths  by  ages  and  sex,  are  not  sepa- 
rately given,  and  there  are  no  means  for  deter- 
mining the  reasons  for  the  great  disparities  of 
mortality  in  different  countries.  Under  a  simi- 
lar civilization,  the  death  rate  of  Chile  is  nearly 
double  that  of  Argentina;  the  mortality  of 
Scotland  is  sensibly  higher  than  that  of  England 
and  Wales.  The  death  rate  is  notably  higher 
in  France  than  in  Germany  and  Great  Britain 
and  much  higher  in  Spain  than  in  Italy  Com- 
plete figures  for  any  of  the  more  recent  years 
cannot  be  supplied,  for  in  some  of  the  countries 
no  data  have  been  compiled  since  1920;  others 
cover  1921,  and  a  few  extend  to  1922.  In  most 
of  the  statistics  the  population  on  which  the 
death  rate  per  1000  is  computed  is  only  an  esti- 
mate. Hence  the  percentages  are  only  approxi- 
mations. The  lowest  figures  are  supplied  by 
New  Zealand,  with  a  death  rate  between  8  and 
9  per  1000  inhabitants,  and  Australia  with  9.1 ; 
at  the  other  extreme  stands  Chile  with  more  than 
34.  Other  very  low  figures  are  furnished  by  Hol- 
land and  Denmark,  with  11  each.  England  and 
Wales  show  slightly  below  13,  which  is  about 
the  rate  in  Belgium,  while  Switzerland  has  be- 
tween 13  and  14,  and  the  death  rate  for  the 
whole  of  Canada  was  13.74  for  the  year  1921. 
Germany  shows  a  mortality  of  15,  which  agrees 
with  that  of  Scotland  and  Finland.  The  figure 
for  Italy  is  16;  that  for  France,  slightly  below 
18.  Austria  and  Argentina  have  about  18. 

Death  rates  above  20  are  shown  by  Spain  with 
21  and  Japan  with  23.  Figures  available  for 
tropical  countries  are  not  numerous.  Dutch 
Guiana  gives  22,  while  Costa  Rica  has  about  20 
and  Ceylon  31.  Further  figures  could  be  sup- 
plied, but  as  already  stated,  the  lessons  of  these 
crude  statistics  are  not  obvious.  They  may  be 
contrasted  profitably,  however,  with  death  rates 
in  the  United  States  for  1922.  The  general 
mortality  of  the  registration  area  of  the 
United  States  for  that  year  was  11.8.  Ida- 
ho has  the  lowest  rate  (8.1)  and  is  there- 
fore comparable  with  New  Zealand,  while  the 
States  with  highest  death  rate  were  Maine  and 
Vermont,  with  14.7  each.  These  crude  figures 
do  not  represent  the  actual  mortality,  and  if 
the  deaths  are  adjusted  to  allow  for  sex,  age, 
etc.  it  would  be  found  that  Nebraska  with  9.1 
is  the  healthiest  State,  while  Colorado  with  13.5 
has  the  highest  death  rate. 

Age  and  Sex.    The  United  States  issues  two 


sets  of  mortality  figures,  one  termed  "crude" 
and  the  other  "adjusted"  by  reason  of  its  correc- 
tions for  age  and  sex  groups.  Separate  figures 
for  sex  and  age,  aside  from  infant  mortality, 
are  not  supplied.  In  other  countries  only  crude 
figures  appear  to  be  given,  with  the  occasional 
exception  of  infant  mortality. 

Infant  Mortality.  Figures  under  this  head 
are  difficult  to  obtain.  In  Great  Britain  it  was 
announced  in  1923  that  the  infant  mortality  had 
dropped  from  the  1903  figure  of  133  per  1000  to 
77  per  1000.  In  the  United  States  the  death 
rate  during  the  first  year  of  life  was  in  1924 
about  76  for  the  entire  registration  area;  it 
varies  from  127  in  South  Carolina  (1921)  to 
50  in  Oregon  cities  ( 1921 ) .  Even  this  low  figure 
has  been  surpassed  in  New  Zealand,  where  a 
minimum  of  45  deaths  per  1000  was  attained 
in  1919.  These  figures  ol  infant  mortality  vary, 
some  reports  including  and  others  excluding 
stillbirths,  but  in  general  the  figures  apply  only 
to  live  births.  The  superior  figures  in  certain 
countries  are  due  in  part  to  natural  conditions 
but  very  largely  to  intensive  child-welfare  cam- 
paigns. 

Births.  Figures  on  births  and  excess  of 
births  over  deaths  are  found  in  the  same  fre- 
quency as  death  reports.  A  few  of  these  follow. 
Argentina  in  1920  had  270,000  births,  an  excess 
of  nearly  130,000  over  the  deaths;  the  rate  was 
about  32  per  1000.  In  Australia  the  surplus 
of  births  over  deaths  in  1921  was  82,117;  the 
birth  rate,  about  33.  The  surplus  in  Austria 
was  21,000;  the  birth  rate,  about  21.  In  the 
whole  of  Canada  the  surplus  for  1921  was  about 
135,000;  the  rate,  between  29  and  30.  In  France 
in  the  same  year  the  excess  of  births  \\tia  117,- 
000,  and  the  birth  rate  agreed  with  that  of 
Austria.  By  contrast,  the  surplus  of  births  in 
Germany  for  the  same  year  was  nearly  700,000; 
the  rate  was  over  26.  In  Great  Britain  the 
surplus  in  England  and  Wales  for  1922  was 
294,000;  in  Scotland,  43,000;  and  in  Ireland 
(1921),  27,000.  The  birth  rate  for  England 
and  Wales  was  over  25;  that  of  Scotland,  23; 
and  that  of  Ireland,  over  24.  In  Italy  the  sur- 
plus was  over  461,000;  the  birth  rate,  about  28. 
The  surplus  and  birth  rate  signify  little  in  the 
absence  of  data  covering  infant  mortality,  which 
commonly  varies  directly  with  the  birth  rate. 
The  general  birth  rate  of  the  United  States  for 
1922  was  22.7,  which  represented  quite  a  falling 
off  from  the  preceding  year,  when  it  was  24.3. 
The  surplus  of  births  over  deaths  was  720,000. 
The  highest  birth  rate  was  in  Wyoming  cities 
with  344;  lowest,  in  rural  Washington  (17.3). 
Japan  has  a  high  birth  rate,  about  35,  hut  its  sur- 
plus was  not  correspondingly  large  in  compari- 
son with  Germany;  the  latter  had  almost  as 
large  an  excess,  with  a  much  lower  birth  rate 

Marriages.  This  subject  is  of  some  special 
interest  in  connection  with  the  decimation  of  the 
peoples  of  the  warring  countries.  In  France  the 
anticipated  increase  in  the  marriage  rate  reached 
its  high  mark  in  1920  with  623,869  and  fell  in 
the  next  year  to  456,221.  The  number  of  Ger- 
man marriages  in  1921  was  729,809;  figures  for 
the  years  immediately  preceding  are  not  avail- 
able. In  England  and  Wales  the  number  of 
marriages  for  1922  was  299,630.  In  1920  it  had 
been  379,568,  and  in  1919  the  figure  was  369,- 
007.  The  figures  of  the  Department  of  Com- 
merce of  the  United  States  do  not  appear  to 
take  cognizance  of  the  number  or  rate  of  mar- 
riages per  annum  but  bulletins  which  cover 


VITAMINE 


1370 


VOLUNTEERS  OF  AMERICA 


the  married  state  are  occasionally  released  and 
one  of  these  issued  in  1922  gave  the  status  of 
the  married  and  single  for  1020.  Of  36,000,663 
males  over  15  years  of  age,  21,840,266  were  mar- 
ried, and  1,758,308  were  widowers,  while  235,- 
285  were  divorced.  Of  35,177,515  females  over 
the  age  of  15,  21,318,933  were  married  at  the 
time;  3,917,625  were  widows,  and  273,304  were 
divorced.  The  number  of  single  males  over  15 
was  12,967,565;  single  females,  0,616,002.  The 
number  on  whom  information  could  not  be  ob- 
tained concerning  the  married  state  was  110,- 
240  males  and  50,751  females.  The  largest  pro- 
portion of  married  men  was  found  in  Mississippi 
and  Arkansas  and  the  smallest  in  Nevada,  per- 
centages varying  between  62  8  and  45.9. 

Birth  Control.  Docs  birth  contiol  tend  to 
lower  the  number  of  births  and  birth  rate? 
The  only  evidence  thus  far  is  supplied  by  Hol- 
land and  gives  a  negative  answer.  In  1021  the 
excess  of  births  over  deaths  was  112,544  and 
the  birth  rate  28,  which  is  high  for  a  state  with 
high  civilization;  in  some  years  this  rate  was 
even  higher.  In  1916  it  was  31.  See  BIRTH 
CONTROL 

VITAMINE,  OR  VITAMINES  Since  their 
discovery  in  1909,  the  vitamines  have  never  been 
isolated.  Because  of  their  occurrence  in  yeast, 
a  substance  long  reputed  to  have  medicinal  prop- 
erties, vitamines,  or  rather  yeast,  was  urged 
vigorously  by  yeast  manufactuiers  as  a  uni- 
versal panacea  This  manufactured  craze  ap- 
parently ran  its  course  and  subsided.  The  sub- 
ject of  vitamine  remained  of  absorbing  interest, 
and  many  monographs  have  appeared  on  the 
subject.  Originally,  as  discussed  under  FOOD 
AND  NUTRITION,  there  were  thiee  of  these  bodies, 
absence  of  any  one  of  which  from  the  diet  was 
known  to  entail  the  development  of  a  so-called 
deficiency  disease  If  the  water-soluble  or  B 
vitamine  is  lacking,  the  disease  beri-beri  devel- 
ops, and  if  the  fat-soluble  or  A  vitamiue  is  de- 
ficient, a  peculiar  affection  of  the  eyes  results. 
Both  these  affections  are  little  known  in  America 
and  Europe  If  on  the  other  hand  the  C  vita- 
mine  is  missing,  scurvy  develops;  in  civili/ed, 
temperate-7one  countries  it  is  prone  to  attack 
young  children.  It  is,  however,  easily  pre\ented 
and  cured  by  the  use  of  fresh  fruits,  fruit  juices, 
and  tomatoes.  It  was  learned  during  the  War 
that  famine  conditions  do  not  necessarily  lead 
to  the  development  of  these  deficiency  diseases, 
because  the  cheapest  and  commonest  foods  usu- 
ally contain  sufficient  \itamine;  the  only  real 
danger  lies  in  the  use  of  a  monotonous  diet, 
such  as  peeled  rice  or  preserved  foods.  Depriva- 
tion of  vitamine  in  the  growing  child  would  in 
theory  mean  death  or  stunting,  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  the  only  deficiency  disease  actually  arid 
constantly  encountered  is  infantile  scurvy  The 
original  number  of  vitamines  has  recently  been 
increased  by  a  fourth,  the  absence  of  which  from 
the  diet  may  perhaps,  in  conjunction  with  other 
factors,  be  a  cau«-e  of  rickets.  (See  RICKETS.) 
In  May,  1024,  Prof.  Walter  H.  Eddy  of  Columbia 
University  announced  the  isolation  in  pure 
state  of  Vitamine  D,  a  study  of  which  reveals  its 
identity  with  a  substance  known  as  Wildier's 
Bios,  a  sort  of  forerunner  of  the  vitamines,  which 
dropped  out  of  sight  after  their  discovery.  See 
also  DIET;  SCURVY;  SECRETIONS,  INTERNAL. 

VITTADINI,  FRANCO  (1884-  ).  An 
Italian  composer,  born  at  Pa  via.  Having  re- 
ceived his  first  musical  insti  uction  in  his  native 
city  and  in  Lodi,  he  entered  the  Conservatorio 


Giuseppe  Verdi  in  Milan,  where  his  teachers 
were  Andreoli  (piano),  Balli  (harmony),  and 
Ferroni  (composition).  He  became  more  wide- 
ly known  through  his  opera,  Anima  Allegro 
(Kome,  1021;  New  Yoik,  1923),  the  text  of 
which  Illica  had  originally  written  for  Puccini. 
Two  other  operas,  Marc  di  Tibcriadc  and  8iren- 
etta,  had  not  yet  been  produced  in  1024.  He 
also  wrote  a  considerable  amount  of  church 
music 

VIVIANI,  REN£  (1803-192.")).  A  French 
statesman  (sec  VOL.  XX11T).  He  was  prime 
minister  of  France  when  the  War  broke  out, 
and  resigned  in  October,  1915,  afters  aid  be- 
coming minister  of  justice  in  Briand's  cabinet 
and  later  holding  the  same  office  in  the  cabinet 
headed  by  Ribot  He  visited  the  United  States 
twice,  first  in  1917  as  the  head  of  the  French 
Commission  sent  for  the  pin  pose  of  influencing 
the  American  people  to  help  in  the  War,  and 
the  second  time  in  1921,  when  it  was  reported 
that  he  had  come  to  advise  the  United  States 
to  join  the  League  of  Nations,  but  he  stated 
that  it  was  merely  a  "courtesy  visit."  Jn 
1920  he  was  appointed  French  delegate  to  the 
League  of  Nations. 

VLADIVOSTOK.  See  SIBERIA  AND  FAR 
EASTERN  REPI*BLIC 

VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION.  See  EDUCA- 
TION IN  HIE  UNITED  STATES. 

VOCATIONAL  REHABILITATION.  See 
AGRICLLTLRAL  EDUCATION 

VOLK,  DOVGLAS  (1858-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can painter  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  lie  painted  sev- 
eral import.int  war  poitiaits,  including  those 
of  General  Pershing,  King  Albert,  and  Lloyd 
George,  in  the  National  Gallciy,  \\Hhhiiigtoii 
(1921).  In  1913-16  he  received 'the  Beck  Gold 
Medal  of  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  and  a  gold 
medal  from  the  National  Arts  Club,  New  York 
City.  His  powerful  poi trait  of  Lincoln  (11)23) 
was  acquired  by  the  Albright  Art  Gallery,  Buf- 
falo, N.  Y. 

VOLKELT,  JOHANNES  IMMANUEL  (1848- 
).  A  German  philosophical  writer  (see 
VOL.  XX11I).  He  published,  after  1014,  (Je- 
wisshcit  and  Wahrheit  (1018),  JMigion  itnd 
tichnlc  (1018);  and  Das  Aestltetitche  tit'iuisst- 
scin  (1020). 

VOLSTEAD,  ANDREW  J.  (18<iO-  ).  An 
American  public  official,  born  in  Goodhue  County, 
Minn  ,  and  educated  at  St.  Olaf  a  College  and 
Decorah  Institute  In  1884  he  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  and  practiced  law  at  Granite  Falls, 
Minn  He  was  for  14  years  county  attorney 
of  Yellow  Medicine  County.  In  1003  he  was 
elected  to  Congiess  and  was  successively  re- 
elected  until  1022,  when  he  was  defeated.  lie 
was  the  author  of  the  Volstead  Act  for  the 
enforcement  of  the  Federal  prohibition  amend- 
ment. See  PROHIBITION. 

VOLUNTEERS  OF  AMERICA.  A  Chris 
tian,  philanthropic,  benevolent  organization,  un- 
der the  presidency  of  Gen.  Ballington  Booth. 
It  was  incorporated  in  1806  While  its  gov- 
ernment is  modeled  on  the  United  States  Army, 
yet  its  rules  and  regulations  are  made  by  the 
Grand  Field  Council  composed  of  officers  of  and 
above  the  rank  of  major.  The  Volunteers  of 
America  is  established  in  more  than  100  of 
the  principal  centres  of  America.  Some  idea 
of  the  scope  and  polity  of  the  Volunteers  may 
be  gleaned  from  the  report  of  its  1020-24  work. 
Volunteer  philanthropic  homes  and  institutions 
provided  801,511  free  lodgings  and  1,361,619 


VOBABLBEBQ 


1371 


VOUOHT 


lodgings  paid  for  in  cash  and  by  work,  a  total 
of  2,163,130  lodgings.  During  this  term  1,105,- 
986  meals  were  paid  for  in  cash  and  by  employ- 
ment, and  2,416,848  were  given  free,  a  total  of 
3,622,834  meals.  Assistance  was  given  208,529 
persons  and  families  in  desperate  circumstances, 
apart  from  the  aid  just  mentioned.  Employ- 
ment was  found  for  nearly  90,000  persons,  many 
of  whom  were  practically  stranded;  380,610 
garments  and  pairs  of  shoes  were  provided 
for  the  very  poor  and  needy.  In  addition, 
196,553  families  were  assisted  in  connection 
with  the  Volunteer  missions.  The  Fresh  Air 
Camps  received  160,768  mothers  and  children, 
and  many  hundreds  of  children  remained  in 
these  health-giving  surroundings  for  two  or  three 
weeks  at  a  time.  There  was  a  marked  increase 
during  the  holiday  and  Christmas  seasons  in  the 
work  among  the  destitute;  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  special  dinners  and  provisions  were 
sent  into  the  homes  of  families  who  would 
otherwise  have  spent  cheerless  holiday  seasons. 

The  attendance  at  the  Volunteer  services 
reached  4,308,211;  at  outdoor  services  it  num- 
bered 9,797,562,  making  a  total  congregation  of 
14,105,773.  During  this  period  it  is  estimated 
that  over  10,000  prisoners  returning  to  free- 
dom from  the  State  prisons  were  helped  to  a 
new  chance  in  life  Over  100,000  men  within 
the  walls  of  State  prisons  have  become  members 
of  the  Volunteer  Prison  League  since  its  in- 
auguration by  Mrs  Ballington  Booth.  During 
the  Wai,  326  of  the  commanding  officers  of  the 
Volunteers,  together  with  their  associate  work- 
ers, were  sent  to  the  front.  These  volunteered 
in  different  rapacities,  some  with  the  Red  Cross, 
some  with  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion, some  as  chaplains,  and  others  for  work 
in  canteens.  A  number  of  the  most  efficient 
surgeons  from  the  Volunteer  Hospital  in  New 
York  saw  service  overseas,  and  so  did  many 
nurses.  In  the  United  States,  Volunteer  Serv- 
ice Clubs  were  organized,  providing  entertain- 
ment, reading-  and  writing-rooms,  sleeping  ac- 
commodations, baths,  etc.  The  Volunteer  Ga- 
zette is  the  official  organ,  and  national  head- 
quarters are  maintained  in  the  Volunteers'  own 
building  in  New  York  City. 

VORARLBERG.     A  province  of  the  Repub- 


lic of  Austria.  Its  area  was  1004.6  square  miles. 
Its  population  in  1910  was  145,408;  in  1923, 
139,968.  See  AUSTRIAN  REPUBLIC;  SWITZERLAND. 

VOBrONOFF,  SEBUE  (  ?-  ).  A  French 
surgeon  who  divides  with  Steinach  and  Lydston 
such  credit  as  lies  in  the  introduction  of  graft- 
ing of  the  sexual  glands  with  the  aim  of  re- 
juvenating the  senile  and  presenile  invalid.  He 
is  a  graduate  of  the  University  of  Paris  and 
visiting  surgeon  to  the  Russian  Hospital  in 
that  city.  He  also  is  director  of  experimental 
surgery  in  the  physiological  station  of  the  Col- 
lege de  France  and  of  the  biological  laboratory 
of  the  Ecole  des  Hautes  Etudes.  He  has  pub- 
lished four  works  on  gland  grafting:  Vivre; 
Etudes  des  Moyens  de  Relever  VEnergie  Vitale 
(1920),  translated  into  English  by  Mme.  Voron- 
off,  La  Glande  Genitale  Male,  in  collabora- 
tion with  Retterer  (1921);  Greffes  Testicu- 
laires  ( 1  J)23 ) ,  and  Quarante-trois  Greffes  du 
Singe  d  I'Homme  (1924).  See  SECRETIONS,  IN- 
TERNAL. 

VORSE,  MARY  HEATON  (MRS.  ROBERT  MINOR) 
( ?-  ) .  An  American  author  born  in 
New  York  City,  and  educated  abroad.  Her  most 
successful  book  was  The  Prcstons  (1918),  pic- 
turing American  family  life.  Her  other  works 
include:  The  Breaking  In  of  a  Yachtsman's 
Wife  (1908);  The  Very  Little  Person  (1911); 
The  Autobiography  of  an  Elderly  Woman 
(1911)  ;  The  Heart's  Country  (1913)  ;  I've  Come 
to  Stay  (1919);  Growing  Up  (1920);  and 
Men  and  Steel  (1921). 

VOTJQHT,  CHANCE  MILTON  (1888-  ). 
An  American  consulting  engineer,  born  in  New 
York  City,  and  educated  in  New  York  and  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  TTe  was  an  active 
pilot  (1911-17)  and  designed  and  constructed 
the  PLV  biplane,  Mayo  biplane.  Simplex  three- 
place  flying-boat,  Wright  model  V  military 
biplane,  Wrijrht-Hispano  flying-boat,  Vought 
VE1  standardized  military  training  biplane, 
VE8  single-seated  pursuit  plane,  VK10  short- 
hull  flying-boat  VE7KE,  Naxy  standard  ship's 
turret 'plane,  VE9  advanced  training  airplane, 
and  VE11  special  pursuit  single-seater  (1910- 
21 )  During  the  War  he  was  consulting  en- 
gineer of  the  Bureau  of  Aircraft  Production 
at  Washington. 


w 


W  ABASH  COLLEGE.     A  college 
for   young    men    at   Crawfords- 
ville,     Ind.,     founded     in     1832 
The     student     enrollment     in- 
creased   from    329    in    1914    to 
496   in    1923,   the  faculty   from 
1C  to  27  members  and  the  library  from  50,000 
to    61,000   volumes.     The    endowment    increased 
from   $725,000  to  $1,200,000,   and   in    1923   the 
income  of  the  college  was  $110,000.     President, 
(Jeorge  Lewes  Macintosh. 

WADE,  LEIGH  (1896-  )  An  American 
airman,  born  at  CaRSOpolis,  Mich  He  was  for 
a  time  with  the  Royal  Flying  Corps  at  Toronto, 
Canada.  In  1918-19  he  was  at  headquarter^ 
of  the  technical  section  of  the  Air  Service  in 
Paris  (France)  ;  later  he  was  tost  pilot  at  Me- 
Cook  Field.  In  1921  he  was  pilot  on  the  White 
Mountain  photographic  mission  and  in  1924 
one  of  the  pilots  of  the  Ameiican  round-the- 
world  flight.  His  plane  was  put  out  of  action 
on  the  flight  between  the  Orkney  Islands  and 
Iceland  after  completing  19,000  miles  of  the 
trip. 

WADSWORTH,  JAMES  WOICOTT.  JR 
(1877-  ).  An  American  legislator  (see  Voi 
XXIIT).  He  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate  from  New  York  State  in  1914  and  wa^ 
reflected  in  1920  for  the  term  ending  1927.  In 
the  Senate  he  was  chairman  of  the  Military 
Affairs  Committee  and  a  member  of  the  Commit- 
tees on  Foreign  Relations,  Library,  and  Elec- 
tions. 

WAGES.  Nominal  wages  have  increased 
markedly  in  all  countries  since  1914,  whether 
comparison  is  based  on  wage  rates  or  actual 
earnings  As  far  as  can  be  determined  from 
available  statistical  data,  the  relative  increase 
has  been  especially  gical  in  the  iu«»e  of  wages 
of  unskilled  workers  and  has  made  their  re- 
muneration in  most  countries  moie  nearly  like 
that  of  skilled  workers  than  before  the  War. 
Among  skilled  workers  there  has  lieen  consider- 
able variation  in  the  rate  and  amount  of  increase 
in  wages;  the  increase  was  at  first  most  notice- 
able in  the  wages  of  war  workers,  and  not  until 
later  in  the  wages  of  those  in  the  building  and 
other  trades  where  production  was  not  actively 
stimulated  until  the  postwar  period  In  the 
United  States  the  changes  shown  in  the  table 
in  the  union  scale  of  wages  and  hours  are  shown 


Rate  of 

Year 

Rate  of 
wages 

Pull  -time 
hours 

wages 
IHT  week. 

per  hour 

per  week 

full-time 

1913 

100 

100 

100 

1914 

102 

100 

102 

1915 

103 

99 

102 

1916 

107 

99 

106 

1917 

114 

98 

112 

1918 

133 

97 

130 

1919 

155 

95 

148 

1920 

199 

94 

189 

1921 

205 

94 

103 

19*2 

193 

94 

183 

3923    .   . 

21] 

94 

399 

iii  the  index  numbers  of  the  United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Labor  Statistics ;  these  indexes  are  based 
on  some  5000  quotations  of  the  union  scale  in 
operation  on  May  15  of  each  year,  in  12  groups 
of  trades  and  occupations  in  00  cities,  and  they 
are  weighted  according  to  the  number  of  work- 
ers in  the  trades. 

Within  this  same  period  the  average  earnings 
of  factory  workers  in  New  York  State  varied 
as  follows,  according  to  the  index  number  of  the 
New  York  State  Industrial  Commission;  the 
base  here  was  the  average  earnings  in  June, 
1914. 


Year              Average 

eainingg 

1914 

..     98 

1015 

.   .     101 

1916 

.  .                    114 

1917 

129 

1918 

.   .       100 

1919 

.  .      185 

1920 

222 

1921 

203 

1922 

197 

1923 

.   .            214 

Obviously,  an  index  number  showing  changes 
in  wage  rates  will  not  reveal  diflerences  in  total 
wages  fiom  overtime  work,  unemployment,  and 
underemployment,  and  corrections  for  such  dif- 
ferences have  to  be  made  before  the  index  num- 
ber can  be  used  to  show  changes  in  "real  wages." 
Such  corrections  are  not  neccssaiy  in  an  index 
number  based  on  earnings,  but  the  irregular  in- 
ci  eases  in  the  wages  of  different  types  of  em- 
ployees late  in  the  decade  1914-24  bring  quite 
diflerent  results  in  the  data  as  combined  in  an 
index  number  according  to  the  type  of  workers 
included,  a  large  proportion  of  unskilled  woik- 
eis  making  the  index  number  show  a  large  rela- 
tive increase  since  1914,  and  vice  versa.  If, 
houc\er,  comparison  is  made  between  these  and 
other  indexes  for  wage  changes  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  index  of  the  cost  of  living  (see 
COST  OF  LiviN(j),  it  is  found  that  for  most 
workers,  no  matter  what  type  of  wage  figures 
are  used,  the  cost  of  living  increased  more 
rapidly  than  wages  through  1920;  the  exception 
wns  unskilled  woikers  and  certain  war  workers 
whose  "real  wages"  as  well  as  actual  wages  be- 
gan to  increase  in  1917  and  1918.  After  1920 
the  cost  of  living  decreased  more  lapidly  than 
wages,  so  as  to  give  most  workers  increased 
purchasing  power  in  comparison  with  1914 
Similar  trends  are  shown  by  the  wage  statistics 
in  Great  Britain  and  also  in  other  countries 
where  there  is  sufficient  information  on  both 
wages  and  living  costs  to  warrant  attempting 
to  determine  changes  in  "real  -wages." 

An  interesting  computation  of  "real  wage" 
index  numbers  with  and  without  allowing  for 
unemployment  is  given  in  Bulletin  Wo.  2  of 
Series  N  of  the  International  Labor  Office 
(Geneva),  entitled  Methods  of  Statistics  of 
Wages  and  Hours  of  Labor  (December,  1923). 


1372 


WAGES 


1373 


WALKER 


The  figures  are  from  the  Australian  Common- 
wealth Bureau  of  Census  and  Statistics,  and 
the  general  method  is  that  in  use  in  Australia. 


the  cost  of  providing  the  items  listed  in  a  quan- 
tity budget  for  a  family  of  specified  size.  See 
articles  on  European  countries  for  discussions 


Full  time 

Percentage 

Weekly  wa  go  rates 

Cost  of 

Real  wage  index 

weekly 

of 

index  nu 

imbers 

living 

nu 

irnber 

Date 

wage  rate 

unemployed 

(Cole  from 

(Recalc. 

index 

(FuH-ftme) 

(Allowing  jor 

index 

colt.  I 

1911- 

number 

unemploy- 

and II) 

10°1 

ment) 

T 

II 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

1911.      .      . 

100 

47 

95.3 

100 

100 

100 

100 

1914 

10H  5 

11.0 

9(.  0 

101.4 

114.0 

95.1i 

88.9 

1917      .. 

125  a 

7.4 

llr»9 

121  C 

131.8 

950 

92.3 

1920  

175.2 

7  8 

101  5 

169  5 

178  5 

98  2 

95  0 

1921 

184.4 

9  5 

16(>9 

175  1 

1697 

108  7 

103.2 

Tli in  table  also  illustrates  the  danger  of  draw- 
ing wrong  conclusions  about  the  improvement 
in  the  wage  conditions  of  the  working  clashes, 
if  comparison  JH  made  only  with  reference  to 
the  rather  unsatisfactory  economic  conditions 
prevailing  in  1914.  Even  in  comparison  with 
earlier  periods,  however,  it  seems  to  be  indicated 
that  wages,  especially  at  the  minimum  levels, 
had  in  1024  a  higher  purchasing  power,  mak- 
ing possible  the  maintenance  of  a  somewhat 
higher  standard  of  living  That  many  wages 
were  still  below  the  amount  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  a  satisfactory  standard  of  liv- 
ing is  plainly  evident  from  a  comparison  of 
1924  wages  with  the  amounts  estimated  in  vari- 
ous quantity  budgets  an  essential  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  such  a  standaid. 

liecnuse  of  the  frequency  of  wage  changes  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  decade,  much  attention  was 
given  to  the  best  means  of  securing  fair  and 
equitable  adjustments  During  the  time  of 
rapidly  increasing  pi  ices,  wages  were  often  in- 
creased in  accoi  dance  with  changes  in  a  cost- 
of-living  index  number,  the  increase  occurring 
automatically  in  some  instances  with  any  change 
of  an  agreed  number  of  points  in  the  index 
number,  while  in  other  instances  each  change 
was  a  matter  of  special  agreement  between  em- 
ployer and  employee  Quantity  budgets  were 
also  used  frequently  as  the  basis  for  wage  deter- 
minations, and  emphasis  was  placed  on  the  im- 
portance of  considering  the  cost  of  maintaining 
a  specified  standard  of  living  under  specified 
conditions  rather  than  depending  entirely  on 
data  showing  the  increased  cost  of  maintaining 
a  standard  which  might  or  might  not  have  been 
adequate  at  an  earlier  period  Probably  the 
most  significant  and  permanent  changes  in  meth- 
ods of  wage  deteirmnation  followed  the  war- 
time emphasis  on  uniform  standards  for  wages 
for  similar  employment  throughout  large  areas, 
thus  breaking  down  earlier  standard*  which  cre- 
ated many  minor  variations  in  different  local- 
ities and  different  industries  not  justified  under 
existing  economic  conditions.  Another  impor- 
tant change  in  attitude  came  also  from  the  em- 
phasis on  "payment  for  results"  in  connection 
with  wage  determination,  engendered  by  the 
bonuses  and  other  special  systems  of  extra  re- 
muneration for  production  above  a  specified 
amount,  and  apparently  entering  into  discus- 
sions of  wages  to  an  increasing  extent.  A  new 
development  in  several  European  countries  was 
the  payment  of  a  "family  wage,*'  i  e.  special 
rates  to  married  men  and  sometimes  an  extra 
grant  for  each  child.  Such  a  system  was  also 
strongly  advocated  in  Australia  as  preferable 
to  a  rate  for  all  men  workers  which  assumes 
the  necessity  of  the  support  of  a  family,  as 
has  been  customary  in  wage  decisions  related  to 


of  wage  tendencies  abroad.  See  also  the  articles 
LABOR  ARBITRATION ;  LABOR  LEGISLATION;  RAIL- 
WAYS. 

WAGSTAFF,  BLANCHE  SHOEMAKER  (1888- 
).  An  American  author,  born  in  New 
York  City,  and  educated  at  the  Brearley 
School  and  Miss  Spence's  School  in  New  York. 
During  the  War  she  acted  as  chairman  of  the 
National  Woman's  Service  league  and  as- 
sisted in  the  War  Camp  Community  Service 
and  other  organizations.  Her  writings  in- 
clude Kong  of  Youth,  poems  (190(5),  Woven 
of  Dream*,  poems  (1007);  Atys  (1909),  Al- 
kestis,  a  Greek  drama  staged  at  the  Hudson 
Theatre  in  New  York  City  (1911);  Eris,  a 
diama  (1913);  Narcissus  (1917);  Book  of 
Love  (1917);  Leaves  in  the  Wind,  poems 
(1920) 

WAHABITES.  See  ARABIA;  PAN-ISLAM- 
ISM 

WAHL,  ADALBEBT  EMIL  AUGUST  (1871-  ). 
A  German  historian  (see  VOL,  XX11I).  In 
1914  he  published  Beitrage  zur  Oeschichte  der 
Kon/lilitszeit,  and  in  1920,  Vom  Bismarck  der 
tiiebziger  Jahre. 

WAIN  WEIGHT,  JONATHAN  MAYIIEW 
(1804-  ).  An  American  lawyer,  born  in 
New  York  City,  and  educated  at  Columbia  Uni- 
versity and  its  law  school.  In  1886  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  and  has  since  been  in  practice 
in  New  York  City  During  1902-08  he  was  a 
member  of  the  New  York  Assembly,  and  during 
1909-13,  of  the  New  York  Senate  In  1921  he 
was  appointed  by  President  Harding  Assistant 
Secretary  of  Wfcr,  a  post  which  he  resigned  in 
1923  when  he  was  elected  a  Congressman  from 
the  25th  New  York  District  During  the  War 
he  was  a  division  inspector  with  the  rank  of 
lieutenant -colonel  in  the  27th  Division  and 
served  throughout  the  entire  war  in  the  United 
States,  France,  and  Uelgmm,  and  was  not  mus- 
tered out  until  March,  1919.  The  United 
States  conferred  on  him  the  Distinguished 
Service  Medal  He  also  received  the  Legion  of 
Honor  from  France  and  the  Croix  de  Guerre 
with  palm  from  Belgium. 

WALES.    See  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

WALKER,  STUART  (  ?-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can playwright,  born  at  Augusta,  Ky.,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Cincinnati.  He  was 
play  reader,  actor,  and  stage  manager  for 
David  Belasco  (1909-14)  and  in  1914  became 
stage  director  for  Jessie  Bonstelle.  He  be- 
came an  independent  producer  in  1915  and 
directed  the  Repertory  Company  in  Indian- 
apolis from  1917  to  1921.  He  was  the  orig- 
inator of  the  Portmanteau  Theatre  and  wrote: 
Portmanteau  Plays  (The  Trimplet,  Neverthe- 
less, The  Medicine  Show,  Six  Who  Pass  While 
the  Lentils  Boil,  1917)  and  More  Portmanteau 


WALKER 


X374 


WANAJCAKER 


Plays  (The  Lady  of  the  Weeping  Willow  Tree, 
The  Very  Naked  Boy,  Jonathan  Makes  a  Wish, 
1019). 

WALKER,  WILLIAM  HULTZ  (1809-  ). 
An  American  chemist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  He 
was  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  National  Army 
during  the  War,  chief  of  the  Chemical  Service 
Section,  and  later  a  colonel  in  the  United  States 
Army  in  charge  of  the  Gas  Offense  Division.  In 
1919  he  was  awarded  the  Distinguished  Service 
Medal. 

WALLACE,  HENRY  CANTWELL  (1860-1925). 
An  American  public  official,  born  at  Rock  Is- 
land, 111 ,  and  educated  at  the  Iowa  State  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture.  He  engaged  in  farming  in 
Iowa  from  1887  to  1891,  taught  for  a  \\hile  in 
the  Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture,  and  was 
associated  editorially  with  The  Creamery  Ga- 
zette, Farm  and  Dairy  (1893-95),  and  Wallace's 
Farmer  (1895-  ).  During  the  War  he  was 
a  member  of  numerous  organizations  such  as 
the  National  War  Work  Council  of  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association.  In  1921  Presi- 
dent Harding  appointed  him  Secretary  of  Agri- 
culture. His  work  in  the  department  was  con- 
sidered highly  satisfactory. 

WALLA  CHIA.     Sec  RTMANIA. 

WALLIN,  J(OIIN)  E(DWARD)  WALLACE 
(1870-  ).  An  American  psychologist,  born 
in  Page  County,  Iowa,  and  educated  at  Yale 
University.  He  Iregan  teaching  psychology  at 
Clark  University  in  1901,  went  to  the  University 
of  Michigan  in  1902,  and  from  1903  to  1906  was 
demonstrator  in  experimental  psychology  at 
Princeton  University.  The  Mellon  Institute  en- 
gaged him  as  psychologist  on  smoke  investiga- 
tion (1912-13),  and  in  1921  he  was  made  di- 
rector of  the  bureau  of  special  education  at  Mi- 
ami University.  His  writings  include:  Re- 
searches on  the  Rhythm  of  Speech  (1902);  Op- 
tical Illusions  of  Reversible  Perspective  (1905) ; 
Experimental  Studies  of  Mental  Defectives 
(1912)  ;  The  Mental  Health  of  the  School  Child 
(1914);  Measurement  of  Mental  Traits  in 
Kormril  and  Epileptic  School  Children  (1923). 

WALFOLE,  HUGH  (SEYMOUR)  (1884-  ). 
An  English  novelist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  He 
served  \\ith  the  Russian  Red  Cross  during  1914- 
10.  His  later  publications  include:  The 
Golden  Scarecrow  (1915);  The  Dark  Forest 
(1910)  ;  Joseph  Conrad  (1910)  ;  The  Oreen  Mir- 
ror (1918);  The  Secret  City  (1919);  Jeremy 
(1919);  The  Captives  (1920);  The  Thirteen 
Travellers  .(1921),  The  Young  Enchanted 
(1922),  The  Cathedral  (1922);  Jeremy  and 
Hamlet  (1923),  and  many  stories  and  articles 
in  maga/iriPB. 

WALSH,  JAMES  JOSEPH  (1805-  ).  An 
American  physician  and  author  (see  VOL. 
XXIII).  Dr  Walsh  has  written  a  number  of 
books  since  the  War  on  his  favorite  subjects  of 
medical  history  and  biography,  psychotherapy, 
and  the  accomplishments  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
scientists.  These  comprise  Health  through  Will 
Power  (1919);  History  of  Medicine  in  "New 
York  (1919)  ,  Medurval  Medicine  (1920);  Reli- 
gion and  Health  (1920),  and  Cures:  the  Story 
of  Cure*  that  Fail  (1923) 

WALSH,  THOMAS  JOSEPH  (1873-  ).  An 
American  Roman  Catholic  bishop,  born  at 
Parker's  Landing,  Butler  Co.,  Pa.  He  studied 
at  the  College  and  Seminary  of  St.  Bonaventure 
and  in  Rome,  and  was  ordained  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  priesthood  in  1900.  He  served  as  as- 
sistant director  at  St.  Joseph's  Cathedral  in 


Buffalo  until  1900,  and  from  that  Tear  until 
1915  he  was  private  secretary  to  Bishops  Quig- 
ley  and  Co  It  on.  He  also  acted  as  chancellor  of 
the  diocese.  From  1915  to  1918  he  was  director 
of  St.  Joseph's  old  Cathedral  in  Buffalo.  He 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  in  1918. 

WALTEB,  BRUNO  (1870-  ).  A  German 
conductor,  born  in  Berlin.  He  was  trained  at 
Stern's  Conservatory,  where  his  teachers  were 
Ehrlich,  Bussler,  and  Radccke.  After  short  pe- 
riods as  conductor  in  Cologne,  Hamburg,  Bres- 
lau,  Presburg,  Riga,  and  Berlin  he  rose  rapidly 
to  a  position  of  preeminence  through  his  bril- 
liant work  at  the  Hofoper  in  Vienna  (1901-13). 
In  1914-22  he  was  Hofkapellmeister  and  Gen- 
eralmusikdirektor  in  Munich,  succeeding  Felix 
Mottl.  He  made  extensive  tours  as  a  guest  con- 
ductor and  in  1923  visited  the  United  States, 
where  his  appearances  with  the  New  York  Sym- 
phony Society  and  the  Boston,  Minneapolis,  and 
Detroit  Symphony  Orchestras  made  a  profound 
impression.  His  compositions  include  two  sym- 
phonies; Das  Siegesfest  for  soli,  chorus,  and 
orchestra;  a  piano  quintet;  a  piano  trio;  a 
string  quartet,  and  a  violin  sonata. 

WALTEB,  HEBBLBT  KUGENB  (1867-  ). 
An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Burke,  Vt.,  and 
educated  at  Bates  College,  Brown  and  Harvard 
Universities,  and  at  Freiburg  He  was  an  in- 
structor in  biology  in  the  Chicago  high  schools 
(1894-1904);  assistant  at  Harvard  (1904-06); 
assistant  professor  (1906-13)  and  associate  pro- 
fessor of  biology  (1913—  )  at  Brown  Univer- 
sity; and  instructor  in  field  zoology  (1900-17), 
and  assistant  director  (1917-  )  at  Cold 
Spring  Harbor.  He  published  The  Human 
Skeleton  (1918)  and  Genetics,  2d  ed  (1923). 

WALTON,  JOHN  CALLOW  AY  (  ?-  ).  A 
governor  of  Oklahoma.  He  was  elected  in 
November,  1922.  His  inauguration  on  Jan.  11, 
1923,  was  distinguished  by  an  immense  barbecue. 
He  immediately  began  a  bitter  fight  against  the 
Ku  Klux  Klan,  which  he  charged  with  State- 
wide floggings,  riots,  and  crimes.  On  his  sup- 
pression of  newspapers  opposed  to  him,  the 
editors  of  the  State  issued  an  appeal  to 
the  nation  They  accused  the  Governor  of 
usurpation  of  power  and  attempting  to  nul- 
lify the  State  constitution.  The  Legislature 
also  opposed  him,  and  in  order  to  carry 
his  measures  he  proclaimed  martial  law  and 
called  out  100,000  men  to  enforce  it.  The 
reign  of  martial  law  ended  October,  1923,  and 
on  Octoher  23,  the  Governor  was  suspended  by 
the  State  Senate  On  the  following  November 
20  he  was  removed  from  office  by  impeachment. 

WANAMAKER,  (  LEWIS  )  RODMAN 

( ?-  ) .  An  American  merchant,  son  of  John 
Wanamaker  He  graduated  from  Princeton  in 
1886  and  was  from  that  time  associated  in  busi- 
ness with  his  father  as  vice  president  of  the 
John  Wanamaker  stores  in  New  York  and 
Philadelphia.  He  was  also  a  director  and  of- 
ficial of  many  financial  institutions.  For  sev- 
eral years  he  was  consul  general  at  Philadel- 
phia for  Paraguay  and  other  South  American 
countries.  He  financed  three  expeditions  to  the 
West  to  study  Indian  life  and  presented  several 
art  collections  to  Princeton  University.  During 
the  War  he  served  as  chairman  of  the  Mayor's 
Committee  in  New  York  to  Welcome  Home- 
coming Troops  and  was  also  chairman  of  the 
Mayor's  Committee  on  Public  Welfare  and  of 
the  Committee  on  the  Reception  of  Distinguished 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


J375 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


Guests.  He  received  decorations  from  several 
foreign  countries.  Following  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1922,  he  became  head  of  the  Wana- 
maker  business. 

WAB,  DIPLOMACY  OF  TIIE.  War  has  been  de- 
fined as  the  last  resort  of  diplomacy;  it  is  also 
true  that  diplomacy  is  the  handmaid  of  warfare. 
Diploma  tit  manoeuvres,  that  is  to  say,  are  nec- 
essary to  support  armies  and  navies,  and  the 
inverted  maxim,  "In  time  of  war  prepare  for 
peace,"  is  truer  than  in  its  original  form  The 
magnitude  of  the  World  War,  its  long  duration, 
the  number  of  belligerents,  and  its  far-flung 
consequences  necessitated  diplomacy  on  a  scale 
almost  spectacular,  and  contrary  to  the  ex- 
periences after  previous  conflicts,  the  world  has 
hardly  had  to  wait  at  all  for  a  tolerably  ade- 
quate diplomatic  history  of  the  period  1914 
to  1918.  Even  during  the  War  itself,  parlia- 
ments held  secret  sessions  in  order  that  execu- 
tives might  quiet  the  alarms  of  the  legislative 
representatives  not  only  as  to  military  situa- 
tions, but  as  to  diplomatic  policies.  Following 
the  peace  settlement,  all  sorts  of  disclosures 
were  made,  in  official  collections  of  diplomatic 
documents  published  by  Foreign  Offices;  in  mem- 
oirs by  diplomats  and  generals  who  were  con- 
cerned about  their  own  reputations  and  wished 
to  increase  their  incomes  by  large  royalties; 
and  in  the  revelations  of  the  Russian  revolu- 
tionary governments  which  were  anxious  to  dis- 
credit the  secret  diplomacy  of  Europe  and  to 
strengthen  their  own  argument  that  modern 
parliamentary  institutions  are  bankrupt. 

Elaborate  efforts  were  made  during  the  War 
to  bring  neutrals  into  the  conflict.  Discussions 
were  carried  on  between  the  members  of  each 
group  of  powers  involved  as  to  their  war  aims 
and  peace  terms.  Territories  in  the  possession 
of  the  enemy  were  allocated  in  secret  treaties 
at  the  same  time  that  there  was  a  brave  show 
of  appealing  to  the  people  in  order  to  persuade 
them  to  accept  the  ideals  and  aims  which,  in 
public,  statesmen  professed  to  be  fighting  for. 
Negotiations  for  peace  were  conducted  while  the 
military  situation  was  stable,  and  neither 
group  of  powers  approached  exhaustion.  Some 
of  these  negotiations  have  been  adequately  dis- 
closed. Other  informal  conferences  and  whis- 
pered words  were  more  vital  to  the  world  than 
speeches.  In  some  such  cases  the  pertinent 
facts  have  only  been  meagrely  hinted.  But  it 
is  certain  that  in  the  future  the  question 
whether  peace  was  missed  and  whether  the  War 
could  have  been  ended  before  1018  will  be  de- 
bated as  violently  as  the  question  of  the 
responsibility  for  the  outbreak  of  hostilities 
in  August,  1914.  Some  declarations  of  war 
were  made  without  negotiation  but  were  never- 
theless slightly  delayed.  Austria  declared  war 
on  Serbia  July  28  but  remained  at  peace  with 
Russia  until  August  6.  France  and  Great 
Britain  declared  war  on  Austria  on  August  10 
and  12,  but  until  August  27  Austria  was  in 
peaceable  relations  with  Belgium  so  far  as  a 
formal  declaration  was  concerned.  Turkey, 
Japan,  and  Italy  at  first  remained  neutral. 
They  began  hostilities  later,  after  mature  de- 
liberation. At  first,  the  other  Balkan  states 
too  were  not  directly  affected.  Both  the  Cen- 
tral Powers  and  the  Entente  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  win  over  these  neutrals  or  at  least  to 
keep  them  from  joining  the  other  side. 

japan.  The  Anglo- Japanese  Alliance,  the 
terms  of  which  were  known,  seemed  to  make 

45 


Japanese  support  of  England  inevitable.  When 
hostilities  began,  the  British  Ambassador  to 
Japan  asked  Baron  Kato,  the  Japanese  Foreign 
Minister,  whether  Japan  would  aid  England 
The  Cabinet  Council  was  at  once  summoned,  and 
the  next  day  (Aug.  4,  1914)  the  Ambassador 
was  told  that  Japan  would  not  evade  her  re- 
sponsibilities Three  days  later  the  British 
Ambassador  told  Baron  Kato  that  the  situa- 
tion had  developed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  re- 
quire Japan's  immediate  entrance  The  same 
day  Premier  Okuma  called  a  meeting  of  the 
Genro,  "the  elder  statesmen,"  and  at  this  con- 
ference, it  was  said,  Japan's  policy  was  "defi- 
nitely formulated"  (Kawakami,  Japan  in  World 
Politics,  p.  250;  New  York,  1017).  But  on 
August  12  Marquis  Okuma  still  talked  of  Ja- 
pan's desire  for  peace  and  of  the  possibility  of 
its  being  gratified.  Japan  issued  an  ultimatum 
to  Germany  on  August  15,  demanding  the  re- 
cession of  Shantung,  the  dismantling  of  the 
Tsmg  Tau  forts,  and  the  departure  of  German 
warships  from  Chinese  waters.  A  favorable  an- 
swer to  this  ultimatum  might  have  served  to 
keep  Japan  out  of  the  War,  and  in  view  of  this 
possibility  the  phrase  "in  accordance  \\ith  her 
obligations  under  the  Anglo-Japanese  tieatv," 
which  was  used  in  the  ultimatum,  seems  rather 
misleading.  Germany  rejected  the  demands,  and 
war  was  declared.  But  Montenegro  was  brought 
in  automatically  by  the  attack  on  Serbia;  the 
Russian  threat  against  Austria  determined 
Germany's  position;  the  implication  of  Russia 
made  France's  course  inevitable,  so  binding 
were  the  European  alliances  considered.  On 
the  other  hand,  Great  Britain's  entanglement 
only  required  an  ultimatum  by  Japan  to  Ger- 
many, and  Japan  entered  the  War  three  weeks 
late.  The  delay  had  far-flung  consequences, 
such  as  "the  bombardment  of  Madras,  the  sink- 
ing of  a  new  Blue  Funnel  liner  with  £1,000,000 
worth  of  rubber  in  the  Arabian  Sea,  1he  an- 
nihilation of  Sir  Reginald  Oraddock's  squadron, 
with  its  gallant  crews,  and  the  Battle  of  the 
Falkland  Islands."  The  Japanese  Parliament 
was  summoned  in  special  session  Sept.  3-D, 
1914,  to  give  its  formal  authorization  for  the 
expenses  already  incurred  for  the  Tsing  Tau 
expedition  and  to  sign  a  blank  check  for  addi- 
tional outlays. 

Turkey.  The  next  power  to  come  in  was 
Turkey.  There  was  no  hope  that  the  Young 
Turks  would  support  the  Entente,  but  on  the 
other  hand,  there  seemed  a  chance  that  war 
could  be  avoided  with  a  power  which  had  al- 
ways considered  one  of  its  interests  to  be  the 
maintenance  of  the  Turkish  Empire.  England 
made  prom ises.  If  Turkey  would  remain  neutral, 
the  status  of  E#ypt  would  not  be  altered;  the 
Entente  would  protect  Turkish  independence; 
the  Capitulations  would  be  abolished;  and 
George  V  expressed  to  the  Sultan  his  personal 
regret  that  Great  Britain  had  commandeered 
(August  3)  two  battleships  which  were  being 
built  in  England  for  Turkey.  But  on  August 
1  a  treaty  had  been  signed  between  Germany  and 
Turkey.  The  latter  was  guaranteed  territorial 
integrity  against  Russia  Mobilization  pro- 
ceeded, and  on  October  28  Turkey  began  naval 
operations.  Three  days  later  Russia  declared 
war.  Great  Britain  annexed  Cyprus,  and  on 
December  17  she  proclaimed  a  protectorate  over 
Egypt  But  the  political  effects  of  Turkish 
hostilities  were  much  greater  than  these.  The 
full  participation  of  India  was  assured.  Mes- 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


1376 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


opotamia,  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Arabia  became 
side  shows  for  the  main  tent  on  the  European 
front.  In  respect  of  Entente  war  aims,  the 
entrance  of  Turkey  was  of  tremendous  impor- 
tance. Russia  saw  the  possibility  of  realizing 
her  ambitions.  As  early  as  November,  1914, 
she  was  informed  that  she  might  have  the 
Straits.  On  Mar.  4,  1015,  Sazonoff  demanded 
Constantinople,  the  western  coast  of  the  Bos- 
phorus,  the  Marmora,  and  the  Dardanelles; 
part  of  Thrace;  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  be- 
tween the  Bosporus  and  the  river  Sakaria;  and 
islands  in  the  Sea  of  Marmora.  France  and 
Great  Britain  agreed  in  general,  if  their  own 
claims  were  satisfied;  and  thus  there  began  a 
long  series  of  demands  and  counterdemands 
for  compensations  and  satisfactions,  which  were 
embodied  in  the  Secret  Treaties.  These  agree- 
ments were  of  a  piece  with  the  Realpolitik 
against  which  the  Entente  professed  to  be  fight- 
ing; the  secret  ambition?  were  quite  inconsist- 
ent with  the  war  aims  which  were  publicly  pro- 
fessed. They  were,  moreover,  ambitions  which 
had  extremely  bad  effects  in  the  Balkans.  In 
the  eyes  of  Greece,  Bulgaria,  and  Rumania, 
Turkey  might  really  stand  for  Balkan  inde- 
pendence. The  Entente  protection  of  "small  na- 
tions" apparently  was  applicable  only  to  Bel- 
gium. The  little  states  of  the  Balkans  were  to 
be  devoured  by  Russia. 

Italy.  The  resources  of  the  Entente  were 
greatly  increased  feix  months  later  when  Italy 
entered  the  War  She  had  declared  her  neu- 
trality on  Aug.  1,  1914,  on  the  ground  that 
intervention  was  not  demanded  by  the  terms 
of  the  Triple  Alliance.  Vienna,*  pressed  by 
Berlin,  had  consented  to  cede  the  Trentino  and 
the  west  bank  of  the  Tsonzo.  Concessions  had 
also  been  promised  in  Trieste  and  Albania. 
But  these  were  not  sufficient.  There  was  much 
Italian  sympathy  for  Belgium  and  Serbia. 
Sonnino  Haw  that  he  could  make  the  Central 
Powers  and  the  Entente  bid  against  each  other. 
Prince  von  Billow  was  called  from  retirement 
and  was  sent  to  the  scene  of  his  former  diplo- 
macy to  lend  his  efforts  to  keeping  Italy  neutral. 
Burian  succeeded  Berchtold  as  Austrian  Foreign 
Minister,  and  the  concessions  were  slightly  in- 
creased. But  Sonnino  feared  both  a  Teutonic 
and  Jugo-Slav  dominance  in  the  Adriatic;  one 
of  these  results  seemed  inevitable  whether  the 
Entente  lost  or  won,  and  if  the  War  ended  in 
a  draw,  the  veteran  Italian  statesmen  believed 
that  more  could  be  expected  from  the  Entente, 
whose  statesmen  were  continually  increasing 
their  demands.  France  and  Russia  considered 
the  Italian  claims  exorbitant.  The  latter 
particularly  objected  to  the  sacrifice  of  Serbian 
designs  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Adriatic. 
But  the  diplomacy  which  looked  to  the  reset- 
tlement of  Europe  was  so  universally  selfish  that 
the  Powers  could  hardly  object,  when  their  own 
interests  were  not  involved,  to  selfishness  in 
each  other.  The  situation  on  the  western  front, 
moreover,  operated  in  favor  of  Italy.  The  Al- 
lies were  repulsed  at  Neuve  Chapelle  and 
Ypres;  the  shortage  of  high  explosives  was  be- 
coming known.  Consequently  the  Entente  and 
Italy  on  Apr.  26,  1915,  signed  the  Treaty  of 
London.  It  promised  Italy,  in  addition  to  the 
Austrian  sacrifices,  the  southern  Tirol  to  the 
Brenner  Pass,  Gori/ia,  Trieste,  Istria,  and 
northern  Dalmatia. 

Rihot  is  said  to  have  remarked  after  a  con- 
ference with  the  Italian  representatives:  "We 


are  lucky  that  they  didn't  take  our  clothes  away 
from  us."  In  return  for  the  high  price  paid 
bv  the  Entente,  Italy  promised  to  begin  hos- 
tilities within  a  month  and  to  prosecute  them 
with  all  her  resources.  She  pledged  herself  also 
to  sign  the  Declaration  of  London  of  Sept.  5, 
1914,  by  which  the  Allies  promised  that  they 
would  not  make  peace  separately.**  Adhesion 
was  not  given  until  Nov.  30,  1915,  although  the 
Triple  Alliance  was  denounced  on  May  3  and 
war  was  declared  on  Austria  on  May  23. 
Italy  was  technically  at  peace  with  Germany 
until  Aug.  27,  1916.  The  terms  of  her  entrance, 
furthermore,  pledged  the  Allies  to  support  Italy 
in  preventing  the  Pope  from  acting  to  bring 
about  peace  or  to  settle  any  questions  arising 
from  the  war.  The  only  excuse  for  the  treaty 
was  "the  familiar  plea  of  necessity,"  according 
to  Professor  Gooch.  "Though  it  increased  the 
material  strength  of  the  Grand  Alliance,  it 
diminished  its  moral  authority;  and  Serbia 
learned  within  a  week  of  the  pact  which  had 
disposed  of  Jugo-Slav  territory  behind  her 
back."  "The  French  and  ourselves  were  fight- 
ing for  our  lives  on  the  western  front,"  Mr. 
Asquith  said  in  apology;  "and  the  treaty  rep- 
resented the  terms  on  which  Italy  was  prepared 
to  join  forces." 

Bulgaria.  Greece,  Bulgaria,  and  Rumania 
now  began  to  be  drawn  into  the  conflict.  Im- 
mediately after  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  Veni- 
zelos  promised  that  if  the  Entente  would  guar- 
antee Greece  against  a  Bulgarian  attack,  he 
would  assist  them  in  the  event  of  Turkey's  join- 
ing the  Central  Powers.  King  Constantine  on 
the  other  hand  announced  that  he  would  not 
attack  Germany's  allies  before  they  attacked 
him.  In  December,  1914,  the  Entente  offered 
South  Albania,  with  the  exception  of  Valona, 
and  in  January,  1915,  Smyrna,  in  return  for 
Greek  intervention.  Veni/elos  urged  that  an 
army  corps  be  sent  to  Gallipoli;  Constantine 
seemed  to  be  willing.  But  he  changed  his  mind 
on  the  advice  of  his  General  Staff,  another  ex- 
ample of  the  supremacy  of  military  authorities 
over  the  politicians;  and  Venizelos  resigned 

Meanwhile  the  Allies  had  been  negotiating 
unsuccessfully  for  Bulgaria.  Noel  Buxton,  an 
authority  on  the  Balkans,  told  Sir  Edward 
Grey  early  in  August,  1914,  that  armed  neu- 
trality might  be  secured  from  Bulgaria  by  a 
revision  of  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest  and  a  loan. 
Sa/onoff  urged  thai  Bulgaria  be  given  territory 
in  Macedonia,  for  her  position  was  important. 
The  Central  Powers  would  get  full  benefit  from 
the  Turkish  Alliance  only  if  they  were  joined 
by  Bulgaria.  On  the  other  hand  if  the  Entente 
succeeded  in  luring  Ferdinand,  communication 
with  Russia  from  the  Mediterranean  would  be 
secured,  and  Turkey  would  be  cut  off.  In  1015, 
when  Russia  suffered  severe  defeats  in  Poland 
and  Galieia  and  the  attack  on  the  Dardanelles 
proved  unsuccessful,  the  Entente  saw  that  they 
must  offer  Bulgaria  real  compensations.  On 
August  23,  under  pressure  from  the  Entente, 
the  Serbian  Skuptshina  consented  to  territorial 
"sacrifices  indispensable  for  the  preservation  of 
the  vital  interests  of  her  people";  but  it  was 
too  late.  Serbia,  indeed,  wished  to  attack  Bul- 
garia; but  this,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Entente, 
would  absolve  Greece  from  her  treaty  obliga- 
tion to  go  to  the  support  of  Serbia  if  the  latter 
were  attacked  by  Bulgaria.  Ferdinand  had  by 
now  decided  that  the  Central  Powers  would  win, 
and  he  wished  to  be  one  of  the  victors.  In 


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1377 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


September  a  military  convention  was  signed. 
Germany  and  Austria  promised  to  send  12  divi- 
sions against  Serbia.  Belgrade  was  entered  on 
October  0,  and  two  days  later  the  Bulgarians 
crossed  the  frontier.  Venizelos,  in  office  again, 
promptly  asked  Great  Britain  to  send  150,000 
men  and  proposed  that  Greece  fulfill  her  obliga- 
tions under  the  treaty  with  Serbia.  Even 
though  Great  Britain  offered  Cyprus  for  Greek 
intervention,  Constantine  determined  to  main- 
tain neutrality  and  dismissed  Venizelos.  Ser- 
bia regretted  that  she  had  not  been  permitted 
to  attack  two  months  before;  she  was  in  a 
desperate  position  and  without  the  support  of 
Greece.  Allied  diplomacy  in  the  Balkans  had 
certainly  failed;  Sir  Edward  Car  BOH  resigned 
from  the  British  cabinet  in  protest,  and  Sir 
Edward  Grey  may  have  been  correct  but  was 
hardly  reassuring  when  ho  said  in  a  speech  on 
October  14  that  diplomacy  could  succeed  only 
if  supported  by  striking  military  successes. 

Rumania.  A  year  later  Rumania,  the  fifth 
Balkan  state  to  forsake  neutrality,  added  her 
forces  to  those  of  the  Allies  after  two  years' 
flirtation.  Rumania  wan  bound  to  the  Central 
Powers  by  a  treaty  concluded  in  188,'J,  but  when 
the  Kaiser  and  the  Austnan  Kmpcior  promised 
to  assist  in  obtaining  Bessarabia  for  Rumania 
if  she  would  join,  King  Carol  discoveiod  that 
he  would  not  be  permitted  to  fulfill  his  pledges. 
In  September,  1914,  Rumania  signed  treaties 
with  Russia  and  Italy  and  promised  benevolent 
neutrality.  In  January,  11)15,  a  British  loan 
was  negotiated;  in  Febiuary  the  Italian  agree- 
ment was  renewed.  When  Italy  left  the  Triple 
Alliance  in  May,  101.5,  Rumania  announced  her 
territorial  demands,  but  they  were  too  high.  A 
3  ear  later  Brusiloff's  smashing  blew  on  Austria 
led  Germany  to  press  for  concessions  to  Ru- 
mania as  the  price  of  her  continued  neutrality, 
but  Burian  refused  to  yield.  Again  the  Western 
Front  forced  the  Allies  to  engage  in  the  Balkan 
auction.  On  August  18,  a  secret  treaty  gave 
Rumania  the  Banal,  Transylvania,  and  the 
Bukovina  to  the  Truth — one  of  the  most  in- 
defensible ethnical  arrangements  of  the  war. 
Rumania  declared  war  on  August  28,  but  the 
time  was  unfortunately  chosen.  Military  se- 
crets had  been  betrayed;  Rumania  disregarded 
Entente  advice  in  attacking  Transyhania  in- 
stead of  Bulgaria,  although  from  her  own  stand- 
point there  was  some  justification  for  this 
policy;  the  Entente  underestimated  the  forces 
that  Germany  could  spare ;  Russian  support  was 
meagre  and  ineffective.  Rumania  was  crushed. 

Tne  United  States.  Immediately  on  the 
outbreak  of  the  War,  the  use  of  sea  power  by 
Great  Britain  and  Germany  raised  controversies 
with  neutrals,  particularly  the  United  States. 
German  commerce  was  practically  driven  from 
the  seas,  and  the  United  States  began  to  dis- 
cuss questions  of  international  law  relating  to 
British  restrictions  on  American  commerce  with 
Germany,  and  the  ever-increasing  American 
trade  in  munitions,  practically  all  of  which 
went  to  the  Allies.  The  United  States'  pro- 
fessed willingness  to  sell  to  Germany  was  only 
a  gesture,  since  the  British  navy  determined 
the  identity  of  the  purchasers.  A  war  zone 
was  declared  by  Great  Britain  on  Oct.  13,  1914, 
when  an  Admiralty  announcement  said  that  His 
Majesty's  government  had  authorized  a  mine- 
laying  policy  in  certain  areas  and  that  it  would 
be  dangerous  for  ships  to  cross  these  limits. 
Three  weeks  later  notice  was  given  that  "the 


whole  of  the  North  Sea  must  be  considered  a 
military  area."  Ships  were  warned  that  they 
would  "be  exposed  to  the  gravest  danger  from 
mines  which  it  has  been  necessary  to  lay." 
Against  this  action  the  United  States  entered 
no  protest,  but  England's  command  of  the  seas 
enabled  her  to  afford  pilots  to  American  ships 
and  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  possibility  of 
disaster  so  far  as  the  mines  laid  by  her  were 
concerned.  The  German  "war  zone"  decree 
which  marked  the  beginning  of  the  controversy 
with  the  United  States  was  of  a  more  sinister 
character. 

Submarine  Warfare. — Late  in  1914  Admiral 
von  Tirpitz  said  that  the  submarine  would  be 
used  to  sink  merchant  vessels  in  British  waters, 
but  the  rules  of  international  law  enumerating 
the  exceptional  cases  in  which  prizes  might  be 
destroyed,  the  safety  of  passengers  and  crew  al- 
ways being  a  sine  qua  non,  were  so  definite,  and 
the  considerations  of  humanity  so  potent,  that 
such  a  method  of  warfare  seemed  highly  im- 
probable. On  Feb.  4,  1915,  Germany  issued  a 
proclamation  declaring  "the  waters  surrounding 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  including  the  whole 
English  Channel,"  to  be  a  "war  zone,1'  and 
threatening  the  destruction  of  "every  enemy 
merchant  ship  in  the  said  war  zone  .  .  .  with- 
out its  being  always  possible  to  avert  the  dan- 
ger" to  passengers  and  crews.  Neutral  ships 
were  also  given  a  warning.  This  proclamation 
was  justified  as  a  retaliatory  measure  for 
Great  Britain's  interferences  witn  German  trade. 
Later  (March,  1910)  the  ground  of  defense 
was  shifted,  and  it  was  claimed  that  the  use 
of  the  submarine  against  merchant  vessels  could 
not  be  illegal,  because,  the  weapon  being  a  new 
one,  there  were  no  rules  on  the  subject.  Against 
this  announcement  the  United  States,  with  other 
neutrals,  protested  vigorously.  There  was  sent 
to  Germany  the  celebrated  "strict  accounta- 
bility" note  of  Feb  10,  1915.  Then  followed 
a  discussion  of  points  of  international  law. 
Germany  threw  out  the  hint  that  if  the  Allies 
could  be  persuaded  to  adhere  to  the  Declaration 
of  London,  she  might  withdraw  her  submarine 
and  war  zone  order,  and  it  is  likely  that  at 
any  time  during  the  War  she  would  ha\e  been 
willing  to  make  this  concession  if  permitted  to 
import  foodstuffs  and  if  the  trade  in  munitjoiiH 
between  the  United  States  and  the  Allies  had 
ceased.  Accordingly  Secretary  of  State  Bryan 
sent  on  February  20  to  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many identical  communications,  asking  for 
mutual  concessions  so  that  an  international 
modus  operandi  might  be  achieved  which  would 
not  be  fraught  with  such  menaces  to  neutrals. 
No  agreement  proved  possible. 

The  Lusitania. — American  rights  were  first 
infringed  by  Germany  on  Mar.  28,  1915,  when 
the  British  steamer  Falala  was  sunk  by  a 
German  submarine,  and  an  American  citizen 
was  drowned.  On  May  1  the  American  vessel 
Gulftight  was  torpedoed  by  a  submarine,  and 
three  American  citizens  met  their  death.  Fi- 
nally, on  May  7,  the  Lusitania,  was  sunk  with- 
out warning,  and  more  than  100  American  citi- 
zens lost  their  lives.  Before  a  protest  could  be 
made,  two  communications  were  received  from 
Germany.  The  first  expressed  "deepest  sym- 
pathy at  the  loss  of  lives  on  board  the  Lusi- 
tania" but  maintained  that  the  responsibility 
rested  with  the  British  government,  which, 
through  its  plan  of  starving  the  civilian  popala- 
tion  of  Germany,  had  forced  Germany  to  resort 


WAR  DIPLOMACY 


1378 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


to  retaliatory  measures.  The  practice  of  arm- 
ing British  vessels  made  it  impossible  to  treat 
them  as  merchant  ships;  and  Germany  regretted 
that  Americans  felt  **more  inclined  to  trust  to 
English  promises  than  to  pay  attention  to 
warnings  from  the  German  side."  In  the  sec- 
ond communication  Germany  explained  that  in- 
structions had  been  issued  to  avoid  attacks  on 
neutral  ships,  and  that  in  the  event  of  an  un- 
fortunate accident  regret  would  be  expressed 
and  damages  afforded.  On  May  13  the  United 
States  sent  Germany  the  first  of  a  long  series 
of  notes.  The  legal  questions  were  argued;  the 
German  excuses  were  answered,  and  the  United 
States  promised  that  it  would  not  "omit  any 
word  or  act  necessary  to  the  performance  of  its 
sacred  duty  of  maintaining  the  rights  of  the 
United  States  and  its  citizens  and  of  safeguard- 
ing their  free  exercise  and  enjoyment."  Wheth- 
er the  Lusitania  was  armed,  the  principles  of 
humanity  involved,  and  the  justification  of  the 
submarine  warfare  as  a  reprisal  for  England's 
extensions  of  international  law  were  argued. 
Against  the  English  orders  in  council  to  ex- 
tend contraband  lists  and  to  intercept  shipments 
destined  for  neutrals  because  of  a  possible  ulti- 
mate German  destination,  the  United  States  was 
protesting  at  the  same  time  that  it  carried  on 
the  submarine  controversy  with  Germany.  As 
Ambassador  Page's  letters  and  Count  Bern- 
storff's  despatches  showed,  President  Wilson 
would  have  made  these  protests  stronger  if  the 
German  infractions  of  international  law,  caus- 
ing loss  of  life,  had  not  always  kept  American 
public  opinion  from  being  singly  concerned  with 
interferences  with  trade. 

While  the  Lusitania  case  was  being  argued, 
the  American  steamer  tfebraskan  was  torpedoed 
off  the  coast  of  Ireland;  several  Americans  on 
the  British  steamer  Armenian  lost  their  lives 
on  June  28;  two  Americans  were  killed  when 
the  Arabic,  bound  for  New  York  and  hence  car- 
rying no  contraband,  was  torpedoed  without 
warning  on  August  19.  Finally,  on  September 
1,  Ambassador  BcrnstorfT  gave  this  pledge: 
"Liners  will  not  be  sunk  by  our  submarines 
without  warning  and  without  safety  of  the  lives 
of  noncombatants,  provided  that  the  liners  do 
not  try  to  escape  or  offer  resistance." 

Trade  in  Munitions. — The  detente  resulting 
from  this  was  used  for  a  discussion  of  the  trade 
in  munitions,  which  had  grown  to  large  propor- 
tions. Germany's  record  in  the  past  as  an  ex- 
porter of  munitions  and  her  controversy  over 
submarines  made  it  inadvisable  for  her  to  pro- 
test; so  in  June  the  Austro-Hungarian  govern- 
ment sent  the  United  States  a  strong  note 
against  the  continued  trade  in  munitions.  Sec- 
retary Lansing  answered  on  August  12  with  an 
able  argument  covering  all  phases  of  the  ques- 
tion, but  by  this  time  the  American  attitude  was 
being  influenced  by  considerations  other  than 
international  law.  Impeccable  legality  was  sup- 
ported by  sympathy  with  the  Allies.  The  in- 
vasion of  Belgium,  the  Lusitania  and  other 
sinkings,  the  alleged  atrocities,  and  Germany's 
evasive  answers  to  Wilson's  submarine  notes, 
all  helped  to  determine  the  American  position. 

Austria-Hungary  now  entered  the  submarine 
controversy.  The  Italian  liner  Ancona,  bound 
from  Naples  to  New  York,  was  torpedoed  in  the 
Mediterranean  without  warning,  and  American 
lives  were  lost.  After  scweral  interchanges,  Ger- 
many's airy  accepted  the  principle  that  "hostile 
private  ships,  insofar  as  they  do  not  flee  or  offer 


resistance,  may  not  be  destroyed  without  the 
persons  on  board  having  been  placed  in  safety." 
But  satisfaction  with  the  theoretical  agreement 
was  short-lived.  Three  other  passenger  steam- 
ers were  sunk  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  Count 
Bernstorff,  on  Jan.  7,  1910,  came  to  the  fore 
with  renewed  pledges.  Ships  would  be  de- 
stroyed "only  alter  passengers  and  crew  have 
been  accorded  safety."  Now  the  controversy 
shifted  again,  this  time  to  the  question  of 
armed  merchantmen.  In  the  early  part  of 
1916,  Italian  and  British  ships  were  armed  on 
account  of  the  ruthless  submarine  warfare 
which  was  being  waged  in  the  Mediterranean. 
On  Jan.  18,  1916,  Secretary  Lansing  proposed 
that  the  practice  of  arming  vessels  be  abolished. 
His  object  was  to  have  such  vessels  considered 
as  auxiliary  craft,  to  keep  Americans  off  them, 
and  to  have  a  clearer  case  against  Germany  if 
submarines  sank  unarmed  vessels  and  caused 
loss  of  lives.  This  proposal  was  unanimously 
rejected  by  the  Entente  Allies,  who  insisted  that 
arming  ships  was  justified  by  international  law. 
Figures  announced  later  by  the  British  Ad- 
miralty showed  that  more  than  75  per  cent  of 
all  armed  vessels  escaped  destruction  by  sub- 
marines, while  of  the  unarmed  only  24  per  cent 
escaped  when  attacked.  Germany  took  advan- 
tage of  the  proposals  made  by  Lansing  and  an- 
nounced that  after  March  1  all  armed  merchant- 
men would  be  sunk  without  warning.  The  dip- 
lomatic position  of  the  United  States  had  been 
weakened,  and  discussion  of  the  matter  bc^an 
in  Congress,  where  a  resolution  was  introduced 
warning  Americans  to  keep  off  armed  merchant 
ships  of  belligerent  nationality.  The  Admin- 
istration interfered,  and  the  resolution  was 
tabled.  But  another  element  had  been  intro- 
duced into  the  submarine  controversy. 

Sinkings  continued  throughout  1916.  An 
outstanding  outrage  was  the  case  of  the  Chan- 
nel steamer  /?w«seap?  an  unarmed  passenger  boat, 
which  was  sunk  without  warning  on  March  24. 
After  six  weeks  of  talk,  Germany  declared  that 
the  submarine  commander  had  made  a  mistake; 
his  judgment  of  the  character  of  the  vessel  had 
been  too  hurried,  and  it  followed  therefore  that 
"the  assurance  given  to  the  American  govern- 
ment in  accordance  with  which  passenger  ves- 
sels were  not  to  be  attacked  without  warning 
has  not  been  adhered  to  in  the  present  case  " 
Sinkings  in  the  next  few  months  did  not 
specifically  involve  American  rights.  On  No- 
vember 6,  the  Arabia  was  torpedoed  in  the 
Mediterranean  without  warning;  all  the  450 
passengers  were  saved.  Six  Americans  had  been 
killed  on  October  30.  The  two  cases  were 
coupled  in  Wilson's  protests  to  Germany.  The 
British  admiralty  announced  that  from  May  5, 
the  date  of  Germany's  Sussex  pledge,  to  October 
28,  22  British  merchant  ships  had  been  tor- 
pedoed without  warning,  and  131  noncombatants 
had  lost  their  lives. 

In  spite  of  these  cases,  there  was  a  feeling 
that  Germany  was  standing  by  her  pledges,  bar- 
ring unfortunate  accidents  or  enthusiastic  com- 
manders' exceeding  their  instructions.  There 
was  a  public  discussion  of  the  possibility  of 
peace  (December,  1916),  but  on  Jan.  31,  1917, 
came  the  thunderbolt  of  Germany's  decree  of 
unrestricted  submarine  warfare.  The  "illegal 
measures"  of  Germany's  enemies  were  to  be  met 
by  "forcibly  preventing  after  Feb.  1,  1917,  in  a 
zone  around  Great  Britain,  France,  Italy,  and 
in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  all  navigation. 


WAE  DIPLOMACY 


1379 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


that  of  neutrals  included,  from  and  to  England, 
and  from  and  to  France,  etc.  All  ships  met 
within  that  zone  will  be  sunk/' 

"Overt  Acts." — President  Wilson  announced 
his  policy  on  February  3  in  an  address  to  the 
two  houses  of  Congress  in  joint  session.  He 
quoted  the  solemn  warning  of  his  Sussex  note, 
that  unless  Germany  immediately  abandoned 
her  use  of  submarines  contrary  to  international 


and  two  American  lives  were  lost.  On  March 
12  the  American  steamship  Algonquin  was  sunk, 
and  14  American  members  of  the  crew  had  to 
spend  26  hours  in  open  boats.  On  March  19 
the  sinking  of  three  American  ships  was  an- 
nounced. There  were  others  also.  These  sink- 
ings showed  that  armed  neutrality  was  inade- 
quate. On  March  21  the  President  summoned 
Congress  for  special  session  on  April  2,  "to  re- 
ceive a  communication  by  the  Executive  on" 


law  and  "the  universally  recognized  dictates  of      ceive    a    communication    by    the    Executive    on 
humanity,"  the  United  States  would  sever  dip-      grave  questions  of  national  policy  which  should 


lomatic  relations,  and  the  German  pledge  in 
reply,  that  vessels  would  not  be  sunk  in  the  war 
zone  "without  warning  and  without  saving  hu- 
man lives,  unless  these  ships  attempt  to  escape 
or  offer  resistance."  Ambassador  Bernstorff 
had  therefore  been  given  his  passports;  Ambas- 
sador Gerard  had  been  recalled.  Only  "actual 
overt  acts"  would  make  Wilson  believe  that  the 
German  government  would  go  through  with  its 
plan,  but  if  "American  ships  and  American 
lives  should  in  fact  be  sacrificed  by  their  naval 
commanders  in  heedless  contravention  of  the 
just  and  reasonable  understandings  of  interna- 
tional law  and  the  obvious  dictates  of  human- 
ity, I  shall  take  the  liberty  of  coming  again  be- 
fore the  Congress  to  auk  that  authority  be 
gjven  me  to  use  any  means  that  may  be  neces- 
sary for  the  protection  of  our  seamen  and  our 
people  in  the  prosecution  of  their  peaceful  and 
legitimate  errands  on  the  high  seas." 

Armed  Neutrality. — President  Wilson  did  not 
ha\r  to  wait  long  for  "overt  acts"  Two  Amer- 
mm  vessels  were  sunk,  and  an  attack  on  the 
Flench  steamer  Aihos  caused  the  death  of  an 
Ameiican  missionary.  More  serious  was  the 
virtual  embargo  on  the  mails  and  shipments  of 
\arious  sorts  to  Euiope  With  no  protective 
measures  decided  on  by  the  Wilson  administra- 
tion, American  vessels  were  learful  of  braving 
the  submarine  menace.  At  the  end  of  three 
weeks  it  seemed  clear  that  the  threat  of  Wil- 
son's address  to  Congress  in  breaking  off  dip- 
lomatic relations  would  have  no  effect,  and  so 
on  Febiuaiy  26  lie  again  addressed  Congress, 
tins  time  to  ask  for  the  authority  which  he 
deemed  necessary  to  safeguard  the  rights  of 
the  United  States.  He  desired  "armed  neu- 
trality, which  we  shall  know  how  to  maintain 
and  for  which  there  is  abundant  American  pre- 
cedent." He  was  not  "contemplating  war  or 
any  steps  that  need  lead  to  it."  He  asked  for 
authority  "to  supply  our  merchant  ships  with 
defensive  arms "  A  measure  was  immediately 
prepared  by  the  Foreign  Relations  Committee 
and  introduced  in  the  Senate  to  carry  out 
President  Wilson's  policy  of  armed  neutrality. 
The  resolution  passed  the  House  on  March  1  by 
an  overwhelming  vote,  but  the  rules  of  the  Sen- 
uto  which  failed  to  limit  debate  permitted  a 
"group  of  willful  men,"  in  the  Wilson  phrase,  to 
filibuster  and  prevent  action  before  the  time  set 
for  the  Congress  to  come  to  an  end  On  March 
9  Wilson  issued  a  proclamation  calling  Congress 
in  special  session  for  April  16;  the  reason  as- 
signed was  the  necessity  for  a  great  variety  of 
emergency  legislation,  but  preparations  for 
armed  neutrality  went  on  without  legislative 
authorization.  An  old  statute  was  relied  on, 
and  on  March  12  it  was  announced  that  the 
United  States  had  determined  "to  place  upon 
all  American  merchant  vessels  sailing  through 
the  barred  areas  an  armed  guard."  Mean- 
while Germany  continued  to  commit  "overt 
acts."  The  Laconia  was  sunk  on  February  25, 


be  immediately  taken  under  consideration"; 
steps  were  at  once  taken  to  mobilize  the  coun- 
try for  the  prosecution  of  a  war.  It  was  prac- 
tically a  foregone  conclusion  that  President 
Wilson  intended  to  ask  Congress  to  declare  the 
existence  of  a  state  of  war.  The  pretense  of 
armed  neutrality  was  anomalous  and  inadequate. 

Entry  into  the  War. — Four  days  after  the 
President's  address,  both  Houses  of  Congress 
passed  the  joint  resolution  formally  recogniz- 
ing the  state  of  war  which  had  been  forced  on 
the  United  States.  It  was  the  fifth  formal 
declaration  of  a  war  with  a  foreign  power.  "We 
have  no  selfish  ends  to  serve,"  said  Mr.  Wilson 
in  his  address.  "We  desire  no  conquest,  no 
dominion.  We  seek  no  indemnities  for  our- 
selves, no  material  compensation  for  the  sacri- 
fices we  shall  freely  make."  The  United  States, 
at  least,  was  not  brought  into  the  conflict  by 
secret  treaties. 

Other  Neutral  States.  In  his  message  to 
Congress  on  February  3,  President  Wilson  took 
it  for  granted  "that  all  other  neutral  govern- 
ments will  take  the  same  course"  of  breaking 
off  diplomatic  relations  This  was  not  the  case 
with  European  states,  but  the  Latin  American 
countries  did  follow  the  lead  of  the  United 
States.  Cuba  and  Panama  joined  the  United 
States  on  April  7  and  8.  Brazil  broke  off  dip- 
lomatic relations  on  April  11  and  declared  war 
on  October  26.  Intercourse  with  Germany  was 
also  severed  by  Bolivia  (April  13),  Guatemala 
(April  27),  Honduras  (May  17),  Nicaragua 
(May  10),  Haiti  (June  15),  Costa  Rica  (Sep- 
tember 23),  Peru  (October  6),  Uruguay  (Octo- 
ber 7),  and  Ecuador  (December  9).  The  Ar- 
gentine, Chile,  and  Venezuela  remained  more  or 
lebs  neutral.  Liberia  declared  war  on  August  7 
and  China  on  August  14.  Siam  entered  the 
conflict  on  July  22.  Others  which  came  in  in 
1018  were:  Costa  Rica  (May  23),  Guatemala 
(April  22),  Haiti  (Julv  15),  Honduras  (July 
10),  and  Nicaragua  (rfay  24). 

Greece  also  came  in,  but  because  of  Allied 
pressure  rather  than  on  account  of  the  sub- 
marine warfaie.  Venixelos  had  been  dismissed 
in  October,  1915,  and  from  then  until  May, 
1016,  Constantine,  strongly  pro-German  in  his 
sympathies,  tried  to  be  a  monarch  who  governed 
as  well  as  reigned.  He  desired  premiers  of  his 
way  of  thinking  and  called  to  the  office  Zaimis 
and  then  Skoloudis.  In  May,  with  the  consent 
of  Constantine,  the  Greek  commanders  allowed 
the  Bulgarian  troops  to  occupy  Fort  Rupel,  the 
key  to  the  Struma  Valley.  In  August,  Seres 
and  Kavalla  were  also  surrendered  to  the  Bul- 
garians and  the  Greek  troops  were  interned  in 
Germany.  Venizelos  intervened.  He  estab- 
lished at  Saloniki  a  provisional  government 
which  was  recognized  by  the  Allies,  and  he  de- 
clared war  on  Bulgaria.  The  authority  of  the 
King  was  repudiated  by  Crete,  Samoa,  and  other 
islands,  but  the  mainland  remained  under  his 
control.  Both  Italy  and  Russia  were  reluctant 


WAB  DIPLOMACY  1380 

to  have  the  Allies  intervene  drastically. 
Italy  feared  the  rivalry  of  a  Greece  made  strong 
under  Venizelos,  and  Russia,  on  dynastic 
grounds,  objected  to  the  deposition  of  Con- 
stantino. In  June,  1017,  after  the  Russian 
revolution,  the  Entente  at  last  intervened.  Con- 
stantine  was  removed  and  sent  to  Switzerland. 
Venizelos  returned  to  Athens,  and  on  June  30 
Greece  broke  off  diplomatic  relations  with  Ger- 
many and  Austria. 

The  Secret  Treaties.  In  order  to  get  Italy 
and  Rumania  into  the  War  and  to  arrange  for 
a  division  of  the  spoils  in  the  event  of  victory, 
the  Entente  entered  into  a  series  of  secret 
treaties  which  were  hardly  consistent  with  their 
publicly  professed  war  aims.  Some  of  these 
treaties  have  already  been  referred  to  in  dis- 
cussing the  negotiations  which  the  Allies  car- 
ried on  in  order  to  oppose  to  Germany  a  united 
diplomatic  front.  The  secret  agreements  were 
so  important,  during  the  War  and  particularly 
at  the  Peace  Conference,  that  they  should  be 
enumerated  here.  Most  of  them  saw  the  light 
after  the  Bolshevik  revolution.  In  publishing 
the  documents  which  were  found  in  the  Rus- 
sian Foreign  Office,  Trotsky  said  that  "secret 
diplomacy  is  a  necessary  weapon  in  the  hands 
of  a  propertied  minority,  \\hich  is  compelled  to 
deceive  the  majority  in  order  to  make  the  lat- 
ter obey  its  interests."  lie  declared  that  "the 
Russian  people,  'as  well  as  the  peoples  of  Eu- 
rope and  of  the  whole  woild,  must  know  the 
documentary  truth  about  those  ploU  which  were 
hatched  in  secret  by  financiers  and  indus- 
trialists, together  with  their  parliamentary  and 
diplomatic  agents." 

The  more  important  agreements  were  the  fol- 
lowing : 

(1)  Anglo-Frpnch  agreement  on  Togoland,  Sept.  13, 
1914,    and   Kauierun,    1916. 

(2)  The    Anglo  French  Russian    agreement    of    Mar. 
20,  1915,  regarding  Constantinople,  the  Straits,  Persia, 
and     oil.     Bntain     consented    to     the     annexation     by 
Russia  of  the  Straits  and  Constantinople  in  return  for 
a  similarly  benevolent  attitude  on  Russia's  part  toward 
the   political  aspirations  of   Britain   in  other   parts 

(3)  The    pledge    to    Italy    (the    Treaty    of    London, 
Apr     26,    1915)    regarding    th<-    territories    Hhe    should 
receive:     the    Trentmo,     the    Southern     Tirol,     Trieste, 
Gorizia  and  Gradisca,   Istna,   Dalmatia,   islands  off  the 
Dalmatian    coast,    northern    Dalmatia,    12    islands    off 
the   toast   of    Asia    Minor,    a   share   in    the   partition   of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  an  addition  to  her  colonial  territory   in 
Africa,  and  a  share  in  the  war  indemnity.     The  treaty 
contemplated  cutting  Austria-Hungary  off  from  the  *ea. 

(4)  The  Russo-Fremh  agreement  of  Apr.  2fi.   1916, 
regarding  the  partition   of  Asiatic   Turkey;    Britain  to 
obtain    southern    Mesopotamia,    with    Bagdad    and    two 
ports    in    Syria,    France    to    obtain    Svria,    the    Adana 
vilayet,     and    western     Kurdistan,     Russia    to     obtain 
Trebizond,     Ezerum,     Bitlis,     Van,     and    territory     in 
southern    Kurdistan 

(5)The  Sykes-Picot  (Anglo-French)  agreement  of 
May  9,  1916,  regarding  the  partition  of  Asiatic  Turkey. 

(6)  The  Rumanian  treatv    (Aug    18,   1916)    regard 
ing   the   partition   of   Austria-Hungary.     Rumania   was 
to   receive   Transylvania    up   to    the   river   Theiss,    the 
Bukovina  up  to  the  river  Truth,   and  the  Banat. 

(7)  The    Franco-Russian     agreement    of    February- 
March,     1917,     regarding    Alsace-Lorraine,     the     Saar 
Basin,  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  Russia's  east- 
ern   frontier.     France    recognized    "Russia's    complete 
liberty  in   establishing  her  western   frontiers." 

(8)  The  pledges   to   Japan,   February-March,    1017, 
regarding  German  possessions  in   the  Far  East.     This 
treaty     was     imperfectly     known     before     the     Peace 
Conference. 

(9)  The  8t    Jean   de  Maurienne   Agreement,   April, 
1917,    regarding    Italy's    prospective    share    in    Asiatic 
Turkey.     Italy  was  given  complete  possession  of  nearly 
the    entire    southern    half   of    Anatolia,    including    the 
cities  of  Adalia,   Konia,   and   Smyrna,   together  with  a 
"zone  of  influence"  northeait  of  Smyrna. 

It  is  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  reconcile 
these  secret  treaties  with  the  public  war  aims 
of  the  Entente  Allies.  Certainly  the  agreements 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 

were  inconsistent  with  the  promise  that  the 
Turkish  portions  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  should 
have  "a  secure  sovereignty,"  and  with  the  more 
general  pledge  of  "free,  open-minded,  and  ab- 
solutely impartial  adjustment  of  all  colonial 
claims,  based  on  a  strict  observance"  of  the 
principle  that  "the  interests  of  the  populations 
concerned  must  have  equal  weight  with  the 
equitable  claims  of  the  government  whose  title  is 
to  be  determined."  The  Russian  archives  were 
opened  just  about  the  time  that  Wilson  was  an- 
nouncing his  famous  Fourteen  Points.  Not  the 
least  curious  feature  of  the  preparedness  which 
was  being  attempted  for  the  Peace  Conference 
was  Wilson's  apparent  ignorance  of  both  the 
fact  and  the  contents  of  these  secret  agree- 
ments. They  were  published  in  England  in  the 
Manchester  Guardian  and  in  the  United  States 
in  the  A>«?  York  Evening  Post,  which  said  that 
if  there  was  "one  man  who  has  profited  by  the 
publication  of  the  secret  documents  given  out 
by  the  Russians"  it  was  Woodrow  Wilson.  Ray 
Stannaid  Baker's  volumes  on  Wilson  at  the 
Peace  Conference  make  it  clear  that  he  was  in- 
adequately informed,  and,  indeed,  Wilson  con- 
fessed as  much  in  his  conference  with  the  Sen- 
ate Committee  on  Foreign  Relations  when  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  was  under  discussion 
Had  he  known  in  advance  of  the  Conference  of 
the  existence  of  the  secret  agreements,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  there  would  have  been  some  caneela- 
tion  of  them.  Allied  dependence  in  the  summer 
of  1918  on  the  United  States  for  money  and  men 
was  so  great  that  selfish  territorial  aspirations 
would  have  been  sacrificed.  The  safety  of  the 
state  would  have  been  a  more  pressing  consid- 
eration than  territorial  aggrandizement  in  the 
event  of  a  victory  at  that  moment  quite  un- 
certain. 

Peace  Feelers.  The  historian  of  the  future 
will  have  to  deal  minutely  with  the  question 
whether  the  War  in  Europe  could  have  been 
brought  to  an  end  sooner  than  Nov.  11,  1918. 
He  will  have  to  consider  whether  the  statesmen, 
for  refusing  to  agree  to  an  earlier  settlement, 
must  not  suffer  greater  condemnation  than  the 
generals  who  at  particular  moments  were  found 
wanting.  The  verdict  to  be  rendered  will  be 
influenced  by  the  hypnotic  effect  which  a  sweep- 
ing \ictory  has  on  those  who  witness  it  and 
which  it  will  always  have  on  the  historians 
who  discuss  it.  Consequently,  it  is  natural  to 
expect  that  German  historians  will  be  chiefly 
interested  in  the  problem.  Indeed,  one  of  the 
first  acts  of  the  Reichstag  was  to  appoint  a 
commission  to  determine  whether  peace  was 
missed  at  the  time  of  President  Wilson's  pro- 
posals in  the  autumn  of  1916.  The  speeches  of 
statesmen  for  the  period  1916-18  and  the  pub- 
lished correspondence  cover  250  closely  printed 
pages  (G.  Lowes  Dickinson,  Documents  and 
Statements  Relating  to  Peace  Proposals  and 
War  Aims  f December,  1916-Novemler,  19J8], 
New  York,  1919),  and  this  collection  does  not 
include  revelations  which  have  since  been  made 
in  various  quarters.  These  secret  discussions 
were  by  all  odds  the  most  important.  The  his- 
torian will  surely  say  that  the  public  pro- 
nouncements, apart  from  Wilson's  speeches  and 
a  half  dozen  flashes  from  other  Allied  voices, 
were  hasty,  insincere,  artificial,  and  forced. 
Rarely  did  they  rise  to  the  dignity  and  eleva- 
tion which  would  have  been  worthy  of  the  great 
issues  involved,  and  which,  indeed,  were  due 
the  millions  risking  their  lives. 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


1381 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


Wilson's  Attempts.-— On  Aug.  5,  1914,  Presi- 
dent Wilson  made  his  first  attempt  at  media- 
tion. He  Rent  an  identical  message  to  Emperor 
William  of  Germany,  Emperor  Francis  Joseph 
of  Austria-Hungary,  Emperor  Nicholas  of  Rus- 
sia, King  George  of  Great  Britain,  and  Presi- 
dent Pomcare"  of  France.  He  said:  "As  of- 
iieial  head  of  one  of  the  powers  signatory  to 
The  Hague  Convention,  I  feel  it  to  be  my  priv- 
ilege and  my  duty,  under  Article  III  of  that 
Convention,  to  suy  to  you  in  a  spirit  uf  most 
earnest  friendship  that  I  should  welcome  an  op- 
portunity to  act  in  the  interest  of  European 
pence,  either  now  or  at  any  other  time  that 
in;ght  be  thought  more  suitable,  as  an  occa- 
sion to  serve  you  and  all  concerned  in  a  way 
that  would  afford  me  lasting  cause  for  gratitude 
und  happiness/'  The  belligerents  made  only 
formal  acknowledgment  of  this  offer.  After  the 
German  retreat  from  the  Marne,  President  Wil- 
son, on  unofficial  suggestions  by  Count  Bern- 
siorff,  had  Ambassador  Gerard  sound  out  the 
Goiman  Chancellor,  who  replied  that  since  the 
War  had  been  "forced"  on  Germany,  the  Presi- 
dent should  (list  appeal  to  the  Entente.  Col- 
onel House  went  abioad  for  the  President  dur- 
ing the  winter  1!)  14-15  and  on  his  return  re- 
ported that  the  moment  for  peace  hud  not  yet 
come.  On  June  '2,  1913,  in  discussing  the 
J,U8itaiii<r.  President  Wilson  told  Bernstorff  that 
if  Germany  would  give  up  the  use  of  subma- 
i  men,  he  could  persuade  the  English  cabinet  to 
agree  to  abandon  the  attempt  to  starve  Ger- 
many, and  he  "hoped  that  this  would  be  the 
beginning  of  peace  action  on  a  gieat  scale."  In 
January,  1010,  Colonel  House  again  went  to 
Europe.  Tie  found  the  chief  opposition  to 
peace  in  Paris  and  a  ceitain  willingness  in  Ber- 
lin and  London  Many  discussions  were  held 
between  Bernstoiff  and  Colonel  House,  in  New 
York  Cily,  in  order  to  avoid  the  publicity 
which  White  House  conferences  would  have  en- 
tailed. "House  told  me,"  Bernstorff  later  re- 
ported, "that  WiKon  no  longer  had  the  power 
to  oblige  England  to  obey  the  practices  of  in- 
lei  national  law  (this  was*  just  after  the  Rwtsex 
affair] ;  Amei  ican  trade  was  so  intimately  tied 
up  \\ith  the  Entente  that  Wilson  could  not 
possibly  distuih  these  trade  relations  without 
looking  a  terrific  storm.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  was  in  a  position  to  obtain  a  peace  without 
victory,  and  he  intended  to  do  so  as  soon  as  an 
opportunity  offered  itself.  But  seeing  that  such 
a  stop  would  now  be  universally  called  pro- 
German  in  America,  he  could  only  do  it  when 
public  opinion  about  relations  with  Germany 
had  somewhat  calmed  down.  He  proposed  a 
pause  and  hoped  without  fail  to  be  able  to  make 
a  beginning  of  peace  mediation  toward  the  end 
of  the  summer"  Rumania  entered  the  War; 
the  Entente  became  more  certain  of  victory; 
and  intervention  was  deferred. 

Meanwhile,  Bethinann-llollweg  had  been 
thinking  of  the  possibility  of  peace  discussions. 
PalSologue's  memoirs  record  evidences  of  ap- 
proaches, some  probably  unauthorized,  from  Ber- 
lin, Darmstadt,  and  Vienna.  Russia  also  had 
taken  soundings.  In  October,  1916,  the  Em- 
peror transmitted  through  Ambassador  Gerard 
a  memorandum  to  the  effect  that  he  was  will- 
ing to  entertain  a  peace  offer,  but  the  approach- 
ing presidential  election  caused  a  delay.  Bern- 
storff endeavored  to  delay  the  German  overture 
until  Wilson  could  act,  but  on  Dec.  12,  1910, 
a  few  days  after  the  fall  of  Bucharest,  Beth- 


mann-Hollweg  issued  a  note  which  said  that  the 
resistance  of  the  Central  Powers  could  not  be 
broken  but  that  animated  "by  the  desire  to 
stem  the  flow  of  blood  and  to  bring  the  horrors 
of  war  to  an  end,  the  four  allied  Powers  propose 
to  enter  even  now  into  peace  negotiations." 
On  December  18  President  Wilson  issued  his 
famous  appeal  for  peace.  He  was  "somewhat 
embarrassed  to  offer  it  at  this  particular  time, 
because  it  may  now  seem  to  have  been  prompted 
by  the  recent  overtures  of  the  Central  Powers. 
It  is  in  fact  in  no  way  associated  with  them  in 
its  origin."  To  the  popular  mind  this  was  dif- 
ficult to  believe,  but  it  was  true.  As  Bern- 
storff  later  told  the  Reichstag  investigating 
committee,  "the  peace  note  which  Wilson  des- 
patched on  December  18  had  been  composed  as 
far  back  as  the  middle  of  November  but  had 
been  thrust  by  Wilson  into  his  writing-table, 
because  another  wave  of  anti-German  feeling 
swept  through  the  country  on  account  of  the 
Belgian  deportations.  Colonel  House  told  me 
that  the  peace  offer  which  was  already  drawn 
up  by  the  middle  of  No\  ember  \\as  not  sent 
off  by  Wilson  because  he  could  not  be  respon- 
sible for  it  in  the  state  of  public  feeling."  On 
November  24  Bernstorff  had  telegraphed:  "Wil- 
son has  commissioned  Colonel  House  to  tell  me 
in  the  strictest  confidence  that  he  would  under- 
take an  etlort  for  peace  as  soon  as  possible,  pre- 
sumably between  now  and  the  New  Year.  But 
meanwhile  he  made  it  a  condition  that  we 
should  discuss  peace  as  little  as  possible,  and 
that  \\e  should  allow  no  new  submarine  contro- 
versies to  spring  up,  in  order  to  prevent  a  pre- 
mature refusal  by  our  enemies." 

Allied  Sentiment. — All  the  Allies  vigorously 
denounced  the  German  offer  as  an  attempt  to 
divide  them.  The  general  feeling  was  well  ex- 
pressed by  the  British  note:  "To  enter,  on  the 
invitation  of  Germany  proclaiming  herself  vic- 
torious, without  any  knowledge  of  the  proposals 
she  has  to  make,  into  a  conference,  is  to  put  our 
heads  into  a  noose."  On  December  25,  while 
waiting  for  the  Allied  reply  to  her  pioposal. 
Germany  made  an  answer  to  President  Wilson's 
appeal  for  a  definition  of  war  aims  and  peace 
terms.  The  note  said  nothing  at  all  about 
terms;  it  proposed  instead  "an  immediate 
meeting  of  delegates  of  the  belligerent  states  at 
some  neutral  place."  W7hen  the  German  reply 
was  received,  Bernstorff  "telegraphed  that 
Lansing  had  begged  him  at  any  rate  to  com- 
municate our  peace  terms  to  him  in  confidence." 
The  Allies,  however,  seized  the  opportunity 
which  President  Wilson's  appeal  offered  them 
They  had  not  as  yet  drawn  up  any  coherent 
programme.  They  had  divided  up  the  spoils  in 
the  secret  treatie's,  but  their  public  pronounce- 
ments had  been  general  and  not  particular. 
The  Allied  reply  pledged  wholehearted  support 
of  "a  League  of  Nations  to  ensure  peace  and 
justice  throughout  the  world"  and  then  went  on 
to  enumerate  the  essential  elements  of  a  satis- 
factory settlement:  the  restoration  of  Belgium, 
Serbia,  and  Montenegro,  with  compensation;  the 
evacuation  of  French,  Russian,  and  Rumanian 
territories,  with  reparation;  the  liberation  of 
Italians,  Slavs,  Rumanians,  and  Czecho-Slovaks 
from  foreign  control;  the  expulsion  of  Turkey 
from  Europe,  and  the  restitution  of  provinces 
previously  torn  from  the  Allies  by  force  and 
against  the  wishes  of  their  inhabitants. 

German  Conditions. — On  Jan.   11,  1917,  Ger- 
many and   Austria  sent   notes   to  the   neutral 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


1382 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


states  declaring  that  the  Entente  must  bear  the 
responsibility  for  continuing  the  bloodshed. 
Meanwhile  preparations  were  proceeding  in  Ger- 
many for  unrestricted  submarine  warfare;  Wil- 
son made  his  famous  "peace  without  victory" 
speech  to  the  American  Senate  (Jan.  22,  1917) 
and  pressed  Germany  for  a  statement  of  her  con- 
ditions. According  to  Bernstorff,  President  Wil- 
son was  quite  hopeful  of  the  successful  outcome 
of  the  negotiations.  The  German  Ambassador 
ipported  to  his  government  on  Jan.  27,  1017,  that 
"Wilson  was  convinced  that  he  would  be  able  to 
bring  about  both  peace  conferences"  and  that 
the  Entente  note  was  a  bluff.  The  Chancellor, 
in  a  frantic  effort  to  win  the  race  from  the 
military  leaders  who  were  insisting  on  sub- 
marines rather  than  peace  talk,  did  telegraph 
some  terms  on  January  29.  He  refused  to  al- 
low them  to  be  published,  "for  they  would  look 
like  weakness."  But  the  documents  printed  in 
the  report  of  the  Reichstag  committee  show  that 
the  military  leaders  were  not  modest  in  the 
demands  which  they  proposed  to  make  of  the 
Allies,  and  it  was  they,  rather  than  Bethmann- 
Ilollweg,  who  really  governed  Germany  The 
Chancellor,  before  he  could  even  talk  to  Baron 
Burian  about  Austria's  terms,  had  to  obtain  the 
consent  of  the  General  Field  Marshal  and  the 
Kmperor.  The  terms  discussed  included  the  an- 
nexation of  Courland  and  Lithuania;  the  reten- 
tion of  Briey  and  Longwy;  the  return  of  the 
colonies  \vith  the  exception  of  Kaiochow,  the 
Carolines,  and  tlie  Marianna  Islands,  and  in 
compensation  therefor  the  acquisition  of  the 
Congo  State  or  a  part  of  it;  the  indemnification 
of  (iermniis  living  abroad,  and  the  incorpora- 
tion of  Luxemburg  into  the  German  Empire. 
Jn  January  the  Kmperor  became  even  more  se- 
vere and  said  that  the  German  war  aims  must 
be  recast.  He  was  then  unwilling  to  allow 
King  Albert  to  return  to  Belgium  and  declared 
that  the  coast  of  Flanders  must  belong  to  Ger- 
many. But  it  was  too  late.  Germany  would 
have  to  fight  for  these  results  on  the  battlefield 
rather  than  in  the  conference  room  The  U-boat 
campaign  could  not  be  postponed;  21  boats  had 
left  for  their  stations  and  could  not  he  com- 
municated with.  The  submarine  was  to  bring 
the  United  States  into  the  War,  and  "force  with- 
out limit"  instead  of  "peace  without  victory" 
was  thereafter  to  be  Wilson's  hope. 

The  Year  1911. — Meanwhile  peace  discussions 
were  beginning  in  another  quarter,  and  they 
continued  through  1917.  The  time  was  not 
unfavorable,  and  the  public  manoeuvres  fur- 
n in! iod  a  not  inappropriate  screen  for  the  back- 
stairs pourparlers.  In  July  the  Reichstag 
passed  its  famous  "majority  resolution"  calling 
for  "a  peace  of  understanding  and  the  per- 
manent reconciliation  of  the  peoples."  Beth- 
man  n-IIollweg  had  resigned  in  favor  of  Mich- 
aelis,  who  in  turn  was  to  be  replaced  in  October 
by  Hertling  and  a  semiparliamentary  combina- 
tion which  accepted  the  Reichstag's  programme. 
August  found  the  Pope  publicly  appealing  for 
peace;  Count  Czernin  made  speeches  emphasiz- 
ing disarmament;  Russia  was  demanding  a  dis- 
cussion of  war  aims;  the  Socialists  in  the  bel- 
ligerent countries  were  attempting  meetings, 
and  even  a  Conservative  like  Lord  Lansdowne 
cried  out  to  stop  the  slaughter  and  save  Euro- 
pean civilization.  During  the  summer  of  1917 
the  morale  of  France  was  at  its  lowest  point, 
and  Caporetto,  Byng's  failure  at  Cambrai,  and 
the  Bolshevik  revolution  were  hardly  encourag- 


ing to  the  Allies.  President  Wilson  seemed  to 
be  willing  that,  while  no  compromise  could  be 
made  with  Prussia,  the  Allied  cause  should  be 
strengthened  by  a  diplomatic  offensive  which 
might  affect  the  peoples  of  the  Central  Powers; 
and  since  Austria-Hungary  was  obviously  war- 
weary,  he  and  Lloyd  George  thought  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  a  separate  peace.  Any  agreement 
with  Germany  at  this  time  would  have  meant 
Prussian  hegemony  in  the  East;  the  Allies 
needed  no  proofs  of  this,  even  before  Brest- 
Litovsk.  Hence  there  was  an  effective  veto  on 
an  "unclean"  peace,  and  a  military  offensive  on 
the  western  front,  however  horrible  and  uncer- 
tain, was  not  too  high  a  stake  to  risk  for  the 
defeat  of  Germany's  eastern  ambitions. 

The  Austrian  Attempts — This,  in  brief,  was 
the  situation  when  Austria  sued  for  peace.  Em- 
peror Karl,  on  coming  to  the  throne  in  Novem- 
ber, 1916,  had  expressed  his  desire  to  end  the 
conflict  and  had  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  he  had  had  no  share  in  its  beginning.  The 
emissary  now  employed  was  Prince  Sixtus  of 
Bourbon,  the  brother  of  Empress  Xita  In 
January  the  Prince  learned  from  his  mother  in 
Switzerland  that  the  Emperor  was  ready  for  a 
secret  armistice  with  Russia  and  that  he  was 
also  willing  for  the  restoration  of  Alsace-Lor- 
raine and  the  creation  of  a  Jugo-Slav  kingdom. 
In  March  the  Prince,  going  to  negotiate  with 
Poincare:,  took  with  him  an  autographed  letter 
from  the  Emperor.  The  dossier  of  the  Prince 
has  now  been  published,  and  it  is  a  document  of 
great  interest,  both  in  the  facts  which  it  dis- 
closes and  in  the  revelations  which  it  makes 
concerning  the  mental  attitudes  of  the  states- 
men who  during  the  War  had  peace  or  a  con- 
tinuance of  the  conflict  within  their  discretion. 
They  consulted  no  one.  It  appears  from  the 
dossier  that  Lloyd  George,  with  whom  the  Prince 
had  several  interviews,  was  sincerely  anxious 
to  deflect  Austria  but  was  hampered  by  obliga- 
tions toward  France,  Italy,  and  Russia.  Pres- 
ident Poincare',  on  the  other  hand,  was  almost 
willing  to  abandon  Italy.  "France's  interest," 
he  declared,  "is  not  only  to  maintain  Austria, 
but  to  aggrandize  her  at  the  expense  of  Ger- 
many." In  a  later  interview  he  was  almost 
willing  to  desert  Poland  and  Rumania;  too 
much  had  been  promised  the  smaller  allies. 
Ribot  appears  always  to  have  been  a  Ijitter- 
ender,  but  if  there  had  been  complete  willing- 
ness on  the  part  of  England  and  France,  Italy 
would  have  proved  a  stumblingblock.  Sonnino, 
in  Lloyd  George's  phrase,  was  "obstinate,  diffi- 
cult, and  troublesome."  Austria  did  not  pro- 
pose sufficient  territorial  concessions  to  satisfy 
Italy.  Austria's  position,  indeed,  was  hopeless. 
Defeat  would  mean  her  dissolution,  and  victory 
would  mean  complete  German  dominance.  Rus- 
sia and  the  United  States  were  only  imperfect- 
ly informed  of  these  transactions.  It  seems 
possible  that  if  the  decision  had  rested  with 
Poincare"  and  Lloyd  George,  Germany  in  the 
spring  of  1917  might  have  found  herself  sep- 
arated from  her  Allies.  Austria  and  France, 
from  time  to  time,  continued  their  discussions, 
through  meetings  between  Count  Revertera  and 
Count  Armand  in  Switzerland. 

The  Pope's  Efforts.— -Other  unpublished  con- 
versations are  alluded  to  in  the  Prince  Sixtus 
document.  Mention  is  made  of  one  between 
Bulgaria  and  England,  one  between  Austria  and 
Italy,  and  several  between  Austria  and  Russia. 
On  Aug.  14,  1917,  the  Pope  issued  a  peace  note, 


WAB  DIPLOMACY  Z3j 

to  which  President  Wilson  replied  that  the 
rulers  of  Germany  could  not  be  trusted.  At 
the  same  time  the  Vatican  was  making  private 
efforts;  it  did  secure  Germany's  consent  to  the 
restoration  of  Belgium,  but  the  German  gov- 
ernment took  the  position  that  conversations 
were  possible  only  if  the  conflict  ended  in  a 
draw. 

Germany, — Meanwhile,  also,  Germany  her- 
self was  "feeling  out"  France.  Proposals  were 
made  in  June  and  August  by  Baron  Lancken, 
the  political  director  of  the  German  government 
in  Brussels,  that  Briand,  who  was  in  Ribot's 
cabinet,  should  go  to  Switzerland  to  meet  Lanc- 
ken or  even  the  German  Chancellor  himself. 
The  territorial  suggestions  were  not  dissimilar 
to  those  in  the  Sixtua  negotiation.  Austrian 
territory,  Trieste  and  Treutino,  was  to  be  ceded 
to  Italy,  just  as  in  the  Sixtus  attempt  Austria 
was  free  with  Alsace-Lorraine.  Germany,  ac- 
cording to  Briand's  later  explanation  in  the 
Chamber,  was  willing  to  discusH  the  restoration 
and  even  compensation  of  Belgium  and  was 
willing  to  compromise  on  Alsace-Lorraine. 
Briand  asked  permission  to  meet  Lancken,  and 
in  this  he  was  supported  by  Belgium  and  Ru- 
mania; but  Hi  hot  refused.  Briand  then  asked 
that  the  Allies  be  consulted,  and  to  this  Ril>ot 
consented,  but  Briand  later  expressed  his  opin- 
ion that  the  proposals  were  presented  in  such 
a  way  that  their  rejection  was  probable.  Pres- 
ident Wilson  and  Kerensky  were  informed  only 
after  the  incident  had  been  concluded.  In  the 
following  month  there  was  a  new  French  Cab- 
inet ;  Pairileve*  became  Prime  Minister,  \\ith 
Ribot  as  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  There 
was  a  secret  session  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
at  which  Briand  levealcd  the  proposals  made 
Ijy  Germany  and  assailed  Ribot  for  his  rejec- 
tion of  them  without  further  investigation. 
Ribot  was  forced  to  resign.  Villalobar,  the 
Spanish  Minister  at  Brussels,  inquired  in  Lon- 
don us  to  the  British  attitude  toward  the  in- 
tegrity of  Germany,  indemnities,  and  economic 
boycotts.  A  conference  of  Allied  ministers 
agreed  that  this  was  another  attempt  to  separate 
them.  In  January,  1018,  the  Allies'  aims  were 
more  explicitly  defined  in  Wilson's  Fourteen 
Points  as  well  as  speeches  by  Lloyd  George. 
Discussions  behind  the  scenes  still  proceeded. 
General  Smuts  and  Count  MensdorfT  met  se- 
cretly in  Switzerland;  Armand  and  Reveitera 
met  again;  the  Bavarian  Torring-Jcttenback 
and  the  Belgian  Minister  at  Bern  saw  each 
other,  and  the  King  of  Denmark  asked  Ger- 
many for  her  terms. 

Final  Austrian  Attempt. — One  other  overture 
demands  special  mention,  since,  in  the  opinion 
of  R.  W.  Seton-Watson,  a  leading  authority  on 
eastern  European  politics,  it  alone  had  any  se- 
rious prospect  of  success.  In  February,  1018, 
the  late  Professor  Lammasch,  known  to  Ameri- 
cans for  his  service  on  The  Hague  Court  and 
his  connection  with  the  Carnegie  Endowment 
for  International  Peace,  made  a  direct  appeal 
to  Washington  in  the  name  of  Emperor  Karl. 
President  \Vilson  was  asked  to  make  a  pro- 
nouncement that  the  United  States  regarded 
Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  in  different 
lights,  and  that  Austria-Hungary  would  receive 
favorable  terms  if  she  granted  her  subject  na- 
tionalities autonomy.  The  speech  was  made  to 
Congress  on  Feb.  11,  1918.  "Count  Czernin," 
said  President  Wilson,  "seems  to  see  the  funda- 
mental elements  of  peace  with  clear  eyes  and 


|3  WAR  DIPLOMACY 

does  not  seek  to  obscure  them."  Lammasch 
then  introduced  an  autonomy  bill  in  the  Aus- 
trian Herrenhaus,  but  he  was  bitterly  attacked. 
Germany  got  wind  of  the  scheme  and  the  Aus- 
trian deflection  was  checked. 

Most  of  the  disclosures  made  up  to  1924  as  to 
these  peace  feelers  appeared  in  private  mem- 
oirs. One  motive  for  publication  has  been  to 
accuse  various  personalities  of  their  responsibilty 
for  continuing  the  struggle,  and  both  the  source 
and  the  tendcncious  character  of  the  documents 
invalidate  them  as  trustworthy  evidence  for  the 
judgment  of  Allied  statesmen.  It  would  seem 
as  if  the  time  had  come  for  the  complete  dis- 
closure of  every  mano?uvrc  and  gesture  for 
peace.  If  full  disclosures  are  much  longer 
withheld,  the  suspicion  may  develop  that  the 
Allied  governments  have  something  to  conceal. 
Jf,  on  the  other  hand,  the  bar  to  peace  was 
always  the  attitude  of  the  Gorman  government, 
then  publication  would  bo  to  the  advantage  of  the 
Allies.  In  either  ca^e,  it  is  a  striking  fact  that 
so  few  men  had  the  decision  of  peace  in  their 
hands,  subject  to  no  check  except  a  vague  and 
on  occasion  controllable  public  opinion.  The 
diplomats  of  the  Allied  democracies  were  no 
less  secret  and  autocratic  than  those  of  the 
Central  Powers. 

War  Aims.  Late  in  1917  and  early  in  101S 
the  increasing  war-weariness,  the  knowledge  of 
the  imperialistic  character  of  the  Allied  Se- 
cret Treaties,  and  the  failure  of  the  peace  moves 
to  hasten  the  end  of  the  War,  quickened  the  im- 
patience of  the  Allied  peoples.  This  attitude 
manifested  itself  in  the  statement  of  war  aims 
incorporated  in  the  British  Labor  Memorandum 
of  December,  1917.  Founded  on  Wilson's  precept 
that  "the  world  must  be  made  safe  for  democ- 
racy,'* and  taking  a  stand  categorically  against 
a  uar  for  concjuest,  the  Labor  statement  called 
for  the  establishment  of  a  League  of  Xations, 
restoration  of  Belgium,  self-determination  for 
Alsace-Lorraine  and  the  Italian  peoples  in  the 
Dual  Monarchy,  civil  and  political  lil>ertics  foi 
the  Jews,  the  reorganization  of  the  Balkans, 
and  recognition  of  the  national  claims  of  the 
Czecho-Slovaks  and  the  Jugo-Slavs.  This  was 
followed  by  the  speech  of  Lloyd  George  on  .7an. 
5,  1918,  which  accepted  the  Labor  position  in 
substance.  The  following  specific  items  are  in- 
teresting to  note.  The  Allies  were  not  fighting 
against  the  German  people  and  were  not  seek- 
ing to  destroy  or  disrupt  the  German  people 
or  Germany;  they  were  not  fighting  to  destroy 
Austria-Hungary  or  to  seize  Constantinople  and 
Thrace,  "which  arc  predominantly  Turkish  in 
race."  But  it  was  President  Wilson's  famous 
speech  of  .January  8,  before  Congress,  that  over- 
shadowed all  other  such  statements.  This  con- 
tained the  Fourteen  Points  that  served  as  the 
basis  for  the  German  Armistice.  These  points 
were: 

I.  Open  covenants  of  peaco,  openly  arrived  at;  after 
which    there    shall   be    no    private    international   under- 
standings   of    any    kind,    but    diplomacy    shall    proceed 
al\\a.\s  frankly   and   in   the   public  view. 

II.  Absolute   freedom   of    navigation   upon    the   seas, 
outbide  territorial  waters,    alike   in   peaco   and   in   war, 
except  aw  the  seas  may  be  closed   in   whole  or  in   part 
by    international    action   for   the   enforcement  of   inter- 
national   covenants. 

III.  The  removal,  so  far  as  possible,  of  all  economic 
barriers  and  the  establishment  of  an  equality  of  trade 
conditions  among  all  the  nations  consenting  to  the  peace 
and  associating  themselves  for  its  maintenance. 

IV  Adequate  guarantees  given  and  taken  that  na- 
tional armaments  will  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  point 
consistent  with  domestic  safety. 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


I3«4 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


V.  A    free,    open-minded,    and    absolutely    impartial 
adjustment  of  all  colonial  claims,  based  upon  a  strict 
observance   of   the    principle   that    in    determining    all 
such    questions    of    sovereignty    the    interests    of  the 
populations   concerned   must   have   equal   weight   with 
the  equitable  claims  of  the  government  whose  title  is  to 
be   determined. 

VI.  The    evacuation    of    all    Russian    territory,    and 
such  a  settlement  of  all  questions  affecting  Russia   as 
will  secure  the  best  and  freest  cooperation  of  the  other 
nations    of    the    world    in    obtaining    for    her    an    un- 
hampered and  unembarrassed  opportunity  for  the   in- 
dependent determination  of  her  own  political  develop- 
ment and  national  policy,  and  assure  ner  of  a  sincere 
welcome  into  the  society  of  free  nations  under  institu- 
tions of  her  own  choosing;  and,  more  than  a  welcome, 
assistance  also  of  every  Kind  that  she  may  need  and 
may  herself  desire.     The  treatment  accorded  Russia  by 
her  sister  nations  in  the  months  to  come  will  be  the 
acid  test  of  their  good  will,  of  their  comprehension  of 
her   needs    as   distinguished   from   their   own    interests, 
and  of  their  intelligent  and  unselfish  sympathy. 

VII.  Belgium,  the  whole  world  will   agree,   must  be 
evacuated   and   restored   without   any   attempt  to  limit 
the  sovereignty  which  she  enjoys  in  common  with  all 
other  free  nations.     No  other  single  act  will  serve  as 
this  will  serve  to  restore  confidence  among  the  nations 
in    the    laws    which     they    have    themselves    set    and 
determined   for  the  government  of  their  relations  with 
one    another.     Without    this    healing     act    the    \\hole 
structure  and  validity  of  international  law   is  forever 
impaired. 

VIII.  All  French  territory  should  be  freed  and  the 
invaded    portions    restored;    and    the    \vrong    done    to 
France   by    Prussia   in   1871    in   the   matter   of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,   which   has  unsettled   the  peace  of  the  world 
for  nearly   50  years,   should  bo  righted,   in  order  that 
peace  may  once  more  be  made  secure  in   the  interest 
of   all. 

IX.  A  readjustment  of  the  frontiers  of  Italy  should  bo 
effected   along   clearly   recognizable   linen  of  nationality 

X.  The    peoples    of    Austria-Hungary,     whose    place 
among   the    nations    wo    \\ish   to    see    safeguarded    and 
assured,    should   be   accorded   the   freest  opportunity  of 
autonomous  development 

XI.  Rumania,  Serbia,  and  Montenegro  should  be  evac- 
uated,   occupied    territories    restored,    Serbia    accorded 
free  and  secure  access  to  the  sea,   and  the  relations  of 
the  several  Balkan  states  to  one  another  determined  bv 
friendly   counsel    along  historically   established   lines  of 
allegiance  and  nationality;  and  international  guarantees 
of    the    political    and    economic    independence    and    ter- 
ritorial   integrity    of   the    several    Balkan    states   should 
be  entered  into. 

XII.  The   Turkish   portions   of   the  present    Ottoman 
Empire  should  be  assured  a  secure  sovereignty,  but  the 
other  nationalities  which  are  now  under  Turkish  rule 
should   be   assured   an    undoubted   security  of   life   and 
an    absolutely    unmolested    opportunity    of    autonomous 
development,  and  the  Dardanelles  should  be  permanently 
opened  as  a  free  passage  to  the  ships  and  commerce  of 
all    nations   under   international    guarantees 

XIII.  An  independent  Polish  state  should  be  erected 
which   should    include   the   territories   inhabited   by   in- 
disputably Polish  populations    which  should   be  assurer! 
a  free  and  secure  access  to  the  sea,  and  whose  political 
and    economic    independence    and    territorial    integrity 
should  be  guaranteed  by  international  covenant. 

XIV.  A     general     aswxiation     of     nations     must    bo 
formed,    under    specific    covenants,    for    the    purpose    of 
affording   mutual   guarantees   of   political    mdepr  ndencr 
and  territorial  integrity  to  great  and  small  states  alike 

On    Jan.    25,    1918,    Count   von    ITertling    for 
Germany   and   Count  Czernin   for   Austria-Hun 


July  4,  another  speech  added  to  the  theoretical 
character  of  the  Wilson  conception  of  a  Just 
peace.  Here,  President  Wilson  laid  down  "Four 
Ends"  which  "can  be  put  into  a  single  sentence. 
What  we  seek  is  the  reign  of  law,  based  upon 
the  consent  of  the  governed  and  sustained  by 
the  organized  opinion  of  mankind."  Finally,  on 
September  27,  there  came  these  "Five  Particu- 
lars'* to  round  out  finally  the  Wilsonian  prin- 
ciples : 

I.  The  impartial  justice  meted  out  must  involve  no 
deHcrimmation   between   those   to  whom  we   wished   to 
be   just   and   those   to   whom   we   did   not   wish   to   be 
just. 

II.  No    special    or    separate    interest    of    any    single 
nation  or  any  group  of  nations  can  be  made  the  basis 
of   any   part  of  the   settlement  which   is   not   consistent 
with  the  common  interest  of  nil. 

III.  There  can  be  no  leagues  or  alliances  or  special 
covenants  and   understandings  within   the  general  and 
common  family  of  the  League  of  Nations 

IV  And,   more   specifically,   there   can   be   no  special 
selfish   economic   combinations   withm   the   League,    and 
no    employment    of    any    form    of   economic    boycott    or 
exclusion,    except    as    the    power    of    economic    penalty, 
by   exclusion   from   the   markets   of   the   world,   may   be 
vested   in   the   League  of  Nations   itself   as  a  means  of 
discipline   and   control. 

V  All  internationnl  agreements  and  treaties  of  everv 
kind    must   be   made   known    in   their   entirety   to    the 
rest,  of  the  world. 

On  October  4  a  German  peace  note,  despatched 
to  President  Wilson,  accepted  the  Fourteen 
Points  as  the  basis  of  a  peace;  on  October  7,  an 
Austro-Hungarian  note  agreed  to  the  principles 
adumbrated  in  the  Fourteen  Points,  the  Four 
Principles,  and  the  Five  Particulars  The  rest 
of  the  world,  too,  looked  on  these  lofty  utteT- 
ances  as  the  only  possible  elements  of  the  crea- 
tion of  a  just  and  enduring  settlement. 

Russia.  The  intervention  of  the  United 
States  and  the  Russian  revolution  marked  the 
turning-point  of  the  War  In  a  way  the  two 
events  were  complementary,  but  on  "the  othei 
hand  they  also  served  to  neutralize  each  other 
Russian  participation  in  the  fight  against  "au- 
tocracy" had  always  been  an  anomaly  ;  the 
regime  of  the  Czar  was  the  most  autocratic  in 
Europe.  The  Russian  revolution,  with  the  en- 
suing war-weariness  and  a  separate  peace,  would 
have  robbed  the  Entente  of  victory  but  for  aid 
from  America.  The  revolution  occurred  three 
weeks  before  the  United  States  declared  war 
The  new  government  announced  that  its  object 
was  "to  establish  a  durable  peace  on  the  basis 
of  the  rights  of  nations  to  decide  their  own 
destinies."  There  was  a  turn  to  the  Left  in  the 
latter  part  of  May,  and  Kerensky,  who  came  to 
power,  appealed  to  the  Allies  for  a  restatement 
of  their  war  aims.  Little  moral  assistance  was 
given  him,  but  it  was  indispensable  if  Kerensky 


gary  disavowed  any  imperialistic  designs;  but  was  to  make  concessions  to  the  growing  power 
the  conduct  of  the  German  "Military  Head-  of  the  Soviets  and  at  the  same  time  remain 
quarters  at  Ihe  Brcat-Litovsk  negotiations  once  loyal  to  the  Entente.  The  Allied  leaders,  more- 
more  indicated  that  the  fair  promises  of  Ger-  over,  were  hostile  to  the  idea  of  a  labor  con- 
man  statesmen  were  to  be  lightly  regarded.  ference  at  Stockholm  to  discuss  the  possibilities 

of  peace;  Lloyd  George  was  willing,  but  his 
colleagues  disagreed.  Kerensky  wa^  able  to  spui 
his  southern  armies  to  one  offensive,  but  its 
strength  was  shortlived.  In  November  Keren - 
sky  was  overthrown  by  the  Bolsheviks.  Lenino 
became  president  of  the  Council  of  People's  Com- 
missars, and  bin  first  aim  was  to  make  peace 
An  armistice  with  Germany  was  signed  on  De- 
cember 3,  and  negotiations  began  at  Brest- 
Litovsk  on  December  22.  Germany  insisted  on 
retaining  her  conquests  of  Russian  territory , 
she  claimed  that  Lithuania,  Courland,  Poland 
and  Esihonia  desired  separation  from  Russia. 


On  February  11,  President  Wilson  set  forth,  in 
a  reply  to  the  above  speeches,  "Four  Princi- 
ples on  the  acceptance  of  which  a  discussion  of 
the  terms  of  peace  would  be  possible.  These 
were,  in  brief:  (1)  eacli  part  of  the  final  settle- 
ment to  be  based  on  the  essential  justice  of  that 
particular  case;  (2)  people  and  provinces  not  to 
be  bartered  from  one  sovereignty  to  another  as 
if  they  weie  chattels;  (3)  every  territorial 
settlement  to  be  made  in  the  interest  of  the 
populations  concerned ;  (4)  national  aspirations 
to  be  satisfied  to  the  utmost  without  introduc- 
tion or  perpetuation  of  elements  of  discord.  On 


WAB  DIPLOMACY 


1385 


WAB  CASUALTIES 


Trotsky,  who  was  Russian  foreign  minister,  de- 
nounced this  action  and  maintained  that  "self- 
determination"  should  be  allowed  the  populations 
affected.  On  March  3  the  peace  was  signed,  and 
it  was  ratified  a  fortnight  later  by  the  Congress 
of  Soviets.  By  the  agreement  Germany  promised 
not  to  send  troops  from  the  Eastern  to  the 
Western  Front,  but  she  ignored  this  pledge. 
An  offensive  on  the  West  was  her  chief  purpose 
in  securing  the  peace.  The  defection  of  Russia 
thus  made  possible  the  operations  which  began 
in  March,  1918.  It  also  contributed  to  a  re- 
definition of  the  war  aims  of  the  Entente,  an 
action  which  should  have  been  taken  while  Ker- 
ensky  was  in  power.  Peace  with  Rumania 
was  signed  on  May  7. 

Bulgaria  and  Turkey.  There  was  little  dis- 
cussion of  politics  or  diplomacy  during  the  sum- 
mer of  1017.  The  issue  of  the  War  was  being 
determined  by  Ludendorff's  great  offensive.  ( See 
WAR  IN  EUROPE,  Eaatcrn  Front  )  German  de- 
feat was  foreshadowed  by  Foch's  counteroffen- 
sive  which  began  on  July  18.  Two  months  later 
peace  began  to  be  discussed.  On  September  15 
Austria  issued  an  appeal  for  the  verbal  discus- 
sion of  peace.  President  Wilson  jephed  that 
his  terms  had  already  been  slated  in  the  Four- 
teen Points  and  that  a  confeience  \\as  impos- 
sible. Ten  days  later  Bulgaria  collapsed.  Be- 
fore the  month  was  out  the  TuikUh  army  in 
northern  Mesopotamia  sm  rendered ;  an  ai'mis- 
tiee  was  signed,  and  the  Straits  weie  opened  to 
the  Allies. 

The  Armistices.  Austria-IIunguiy,  mean- 
while, was  having  internal  troubles.  At  differ- 
ent times  during  the  HUmmei  of  1918,  Fiance, 
(ireat  Britain,  and  the  I'nited  States  recognized 
the  belligerency  01  independence  of  the  0/echo- 
Slovaks,  and  thereaftei  the  Sla\  deputies  in  the 
Austrian  Rcichsrat  openly  defied  the  government. 
In  the1  event  of  Allied  victoi},  the  Jugo-Slaviau, 
Italian,  and  Rumanian  pails  of  \ustiia-Ilungary 
weic,  by  treaties  and  engagements,  already  nego- 
tiated 'to  Serbia,  Italy,  and  Rumania  icspec- 
tively.  The  Bulgarian  bin  lender  was  the  be- 
ginning of  the  end  At  the  opening  of  the  Aus- 
tiian  Reichsrat  tlnee  days  later.  Piime  Minis- 
ter Mnssarek  delivered  a  pathetically  ludicrous 
add i ess  about  "setting''  the  Austrian  "house  in 
order"  and  "considering  and  soh  ing  the  prob- 
lem of  autonomy  for  the  different  nationalities  " 
Meie  autonomy  within  the  Dual  Monaiehy  was 
now  hopelessly  anachronous.  The  Monarchy 
was  doomed,  as  were  its  coequal  paits,  the  Em- 
pire and  the  Kingdom.  On  October  4,  Germany, 
Austria-Hungaiy,  and  Turkey  offered  to  nego- 
tiate peace  on  the  basis  of  President  Wilson's 
Fourteen  Points  and  subsequent  addresses.  On 
October  8  WTilson  asked  the  German  Chancellor 
whether  he  was  "speaking  merely  for  the  con- 
stituted authorities  of  the  Empire."  By  wholly 
ignoring  the  Austro-Hungarian  government  he 
clearly  indicated  that  he  regarded  that  govern- 
ment as  incompetent  to  speak  for  its  peoples. 
Thereupon  a  panicky  attempt  was  made  to 
create  a  coalition  cabinet  which  would  be  some- 
what representative  of  the  various  nationalities 
The  Czechs  and  other  nationalities  refused  to  be 
led  into  such  a  trap.  There  were  also  evidences 
that  Hungary  was  ready  to  scuttle  the  sinking 
Austrian  ship  in  the  hope  of  appearing  herself 
in  the  guise  of  a  submerged  and  oppressed  na- 
tionality. 

President  Wilson's  note  of  October  18  in  ef- 
fect demanded  as  a  condition  for  the  negotia- 


tion of  peace  the  independence  of  the  Czecho- 
slovaks and  Jugo-Slavs.  On  the  same  day,  the 
Czecho-Slovak  National  Council,  sitting  in  Paris, 
declared  the  independence  of  Czechoslovakia 
and  constituted  itself  the  provisional  government 
of  the  country.  The  German  members  of  the 
Austrian  Abgeordnetenhaus,  realizing  that  the 
end  was  at  hand  and  ignoring  both  the  Dual 
Monarchy  and  the  Austrian  Empire,  constituted 
themselves  a  provisional  national  assembly  to 
represent  the  German-Austrian  people  at  the 
peace  table.  Meanwhile  there  had  been  a  change 
of  government  in  Germany.  Prince  Max  of 
Baden  had  been  appointed  Chancellor  and  his 
cabinet  included  representatives  of  labor.  On 
October  8  Wilson  asked  three  questions:  Did 
Germany  accept  the  terms  of  the  Fourteen 
Points  and  subsequent  addresses?  Would  troops 
be  withdrawn  from  invaded  territory?  Did  the 
Chancellor  speak  merely  for  the  Imperial  au- 
thorities who  had  so  far  conducted  the  War? 
Further  interchanges  were  necessary  before  Ger- 
many answered  these  questions  to  Wilson's 
satisfaction,  and  on  October  23  he  transmitted 
the  correspondence  to  the  Allies.  Ludendorff 
resigned  on  October  27,  and  the  German  retreat 
became  almost  a  rout.  On  November  4  the 
Allies  announced  that  they  were  willing  to  make 
peace  on  the  basis  of  the  Fourteen  Points  and 
the  principles  enunciated  in  subsequent  ad- 
dresses of  Wilson.  They  reserved  complete  fiee- 
dom  of  action  in  respect  of  the  interpretation 
to  be  given  the  phrase  "freedom  of  the  seas,'* 
and  they  understood  by  the  "restoration"  of  the 
invaded  territories  "compensation  for  all  dam- 
age done  to  the  civilian  population  of  the  Allies 
and  their  property  by  the  aggression  of  Ger- 
many by  land,  by  sea,  and  from  the  air/'  A 
republic  was  proclaimed  in  Germany;  the 
Kaiser  abdicated  on  Noveml>er  9,  and  two  days 
later  the  Armistice  was  accepted.  Wilson's 
speeches  were  to  form  the  basis  of  the  peace 
terms  to  be  agreed  on  at  the  Paris  Conference, 
but  there,  they  were  to  give  way  frequently  to 
the  secret  treaties.  See  PEACE  CONFERENCE  AND 
TREATIES;  WAR  IN  EUROPE 

WAB  CASUALTIES.  The  loss  of  human 
life  was  greater  in  the  War  of  1014-18  than  in 
any  previous  conflict  recorded  by  history.  Al- 
most twice  as  many  men  were  killed  as  in  all 
the  wars  from  1790  to  1913  inclusive.  Among 
the  major  belligerents,  Germany  and  Russia 
suffered  the  greatest  loss  in  men  killed  and 
wounded,  but  in  proportion  to  population, 
France  paid  an  even  heavier  toll  than  Germany. 
That  the  Allies  collective!}  suffered  so  much 
more  heavily  than  the  Central  Powers  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  at  least  during  the  early  stages 
of  the  War,  the  Central  Power*  were  much  bet- 
ter equipped  with  machine  guns  and  artillery, 
whereas  Russia,  the  heaviest  Allied  loser,  sent 
her  men  into  battle  ill-equipped,  often  without 
artillery  support  and  sometimes  without  am- 
munition. The  table  on  page  1380  gives  the  best 
available  figures  for  military  casualties  In  a 
few  cases,  notably  for  Turkey  and  Russia,  only 
approximate  estimates  can  be  given.  The  fig- 
ures given  in  the  column  headed  "Wounded"  do 
not  indicate  the  number  of  different  individuals 
wounded,  since  many  individuals  were  wounded 
several  times  and  hence  were  repeatedly  listed 
as  casualties.  A  fairly  high  percentage,  how- 
ever, of  wound  casualties  resulted  in  permanent 
and  serious  injury.  In  the  case  of  France,  for 
example,  the  mutiUs  or  war-cripples  numbered 


WAB  FINANCING  1386  WAB  IN  ET7BOPE 

740,000.    If  France  be  taken   as  typical,  it  is  endanger  the  heterogeneous  Austrian  dominions, 

obvious  that  the  number  of  men  killed,  perma-  Consequently  the  work  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna 

nently  crippled,  or  permanently  injured  by  gas,  was  an  effort  to  establish  the  status  quo  ante 

must  be  well  over  12,000,000.  bellum.     As  a  result  of  its  endeavors,  there  were 


Country 
Russia         

Men 
mobilized 

12  000  000 

Killed  and 
died* 

1,700,000 

Wounded 
4  960  000 

Prisoners 
and 
missing 

2  500  000 

Total             i 
casualties        i 

9  150  000 

Casualties 
n  percent- 
age of  total 
mobilized 
76.  f? 

8  410,000 

1,357,800 

4  266  000 

537  000 

f>  160  800 

73.3 

8  904  4(>7 

908,371 

2  090  212 

191  652 

3  190  235 

35.8 

Italy    
United    States  b     
Japan     .      .        ...      . 

5,615,000 
4,355,000 
H()0  ()0() 

050,000 
«  126,000 
300 

947,000 
•  234,000 
907 

600,000 
4,500 
3 

2,197.000 
350,300 
1  210 

39.1 
8.0 
0  2 

750  000 

335,706 

120  000 

80  000 

535  706 

71  4 

Serbia    .      .  .    . 

707  .'J43 

45,000 

133  148 

152  958 

331  106 

46  8 

207  000 

13,716 

44  686 

34  (>59 

93  061 

34  9 

2ttO  000 

5  000 

21  000 

1  000 

27  000 

11  7 

Portugal    .  .        .          .... 

100,000 
50,000 

7,222 
3,000 

13,751 
10,000 

12,318 
7,000 

33,291 
20  000 

33  3 
40.0 

Total,    Allies     
Germany                     .  . 

42.188,810 
11  000  000 

5,152,115 
1  773  700 

12.831,004 
4  216  058 

4,121,090 
1  152  800 

22,089,709 
7  142  558 

52  3 
64  9 

Austria  Hungary     . 
Turkey     ... 
Bulgaria 

7.800,000 
2.H,P)0,000 
1  200,000 

1,200,000 
325,000 
87,500 

3,620,000 
400,000 
152.390 

2,200,000 
250.000 
27,029 

7,020,000 
975,000 
2(56,919 

90  0 
ri4  2 
22.2 

Total,  Centinl  Poucrs 

22,850,000 

3,386,200 

8.388,448 

n,6J9,R29 

1^,404,477 

074 

Grand    total    

65,018,810 

8,538,315 

21,219,452 

7,750,919 

37,494,186 

57.6 

0  Includes   deaths   from   nil   causes,    in   army. 
*  Include*   marines  serving  v  ith   army. 
'Includes    14500    "died    of    rounds." 


WAB  FINANCING,  AMLRICAN.  See  FI- 
NANCE AND  BANKING,  War  Banking  and  Finance. 

WAK  IN  EUROPE.  On  June  28,  1!»U,  the 
Austrian  heir  apparent,  Archduke  Francis  Fer- 
dinand (see  VOL.  IX),  and  his  wife  were  assas- 
sinated at  Sarajevo,  the  capital  of  Bosnia  This 
set  in  motion  a  train  of  e\ents  which  culminated 
in  the  terrible  catastrophe  of  the  War.  It  is 
clear,  however,  that  this  crime  was  not  the 
real  cause  of  the  tremendous  struggle  which 
many  of  the  statesmen  and  diplomats  of  Europe 
had  anticipated  and  which  all  had  feared  for 
many  years  The  underlying  causes  of  this  tre- 
mendous struggle  reach  far  back  into  the  past 
and  cannot  be  reduced  to  any  simple  tormula. 
8bme  knowledge  of  the  important  political  and 
economic  forces  shaping  the  history  of  Europe 
during  the  past  century  is  necessary.  Among 
the  many  and  complex  influences  suggested  as 
causes  of  the  War,  three  forces  appear  to  have 
contributed  most  directly  to  the  critical  situa- 
tion of  Europe  in  1914  These  were  (1)  the 
clashing  of  national  interests  and  ideals,  (2)  the 
maintenance  of  a  system  of  military  alliances, 
and  (3)  the  economic  rivalry  among  the  na- 
tions of  Europe. 

National  Antagonisms.  Viewed  broadly, 
the  political  history  of  Europe  in  the  nineteenth 
century  divides  into  two  movements  inheiitod 
from  the  French  Resolution  and  Napoleonic  era: 
(1)  the  growth  of  democracy,  and  (2)  the 
realization  of  national  libcity.  When  the  diplo- 
mats of  the  great  powers  met  at  the  Congress 
nf  \ujna,  1S14-1S]">,  t»>  readjust  the*  map  of 
Europe,  many  expressed  the  hope  that  the  Con- 
gress would  be  guided  in  its"  work  by  these 
two  principles  Unfortunately  they  were  ig- 
nored whenever  it  was  necessary  to  do  so  in 
order  to  natisfy  the  dynastic  and  personal  in- 
fluences which  dominated  the  Congress  In  the 
first  place  these  principles  were  anathema  to  the 
reactionaries,  and  in  the  second  place  Metter- 
nich,  the  ultracon«ervativc  Austrian  Chancellor 
who  dominated  the  Congress,  realized  that  en- 
couragement of  the  national  principle  would 


many  violations  of  the  principle  of  nationality 
Revolutionary  periods,  following  one  another 
during  the  nineteenth  century,  endeavored  to 
undo  the  work  of  the  Congress.  Some  of  these 
were  successful.  For  example,  Belgium  was 
separated  from  Holland,  and  Venetia  and  other 
Italian-speaking  sections  were  taken  away  from 
Austria  and  joined  to  the  newly-created  Italian 
kingdom.  At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, however,  several  situations  remained  which 
clearly  violated  the  principle  of  national  sov- 
ereignty. Alsace  and  Lorraine,  although  not 
an  inheritance  of  the  French  Revolution,  clearly 
represented  a  violation  of  the  above-mentioned 
principle.  The  newly-created  German  Empiie 
annexed  these  provinces  for  reasons  partly  eco- 
nomic and  partly  political.  French  aggression 
following  the  battle  of  Jena,  and  the  rich  coal 
and  iron  mines  in  the  region,  were  the  funda- 
mental reasons  for  annexation  The  French 
people  were  constantly  aware  of  the  challenge  to 
regain  these  lost  provinces,  and  Bismarck  used 
the  French  attitude  as  justification  of  his  pro- 
gramme of  huge  military  armaments  in  Ger- 
many. 

Nowhere  else  in  Europe  was  the  problem  of 
nationality  BO  acute  during  the  nineteenth  and 
early  twentieth  centuries  as  in  Austria-Hungary. 
The  very  existence  of  the  Austro-IIungaiian 
monarchy  was  a  constant  challenge  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  nationality.  Logically  carried  out,  this 
principle  would  mean  the  disappearance  of 
Austria-Hungary  and  the  distribution  of  its 
territories  among  the  surrounding  nations, 
or  the  creation  of  new  ones.  The  appreciation 
of  this  fact  made  the  Austrian  authorities  ap- 
prehensive of  all  nationalist  movements  and 
especially  of  that  of  the  southern  Slavs,  in 
Serbia,  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  etc.  As  will  be 
seen,  it  was  the  outgrowth  of  one  of  these  move- 
ments that  led  to  the  outbreak  of  the  War. 
The  Balkan  states  presented  a  peculiarly  vexing 
problem  in  the  realization  of  the  principle  of 
nationality.  The  intricate  mixture  of  racial 
groups  in  this  region  made  it  an  almost  hopeless 


WAB  IK  ETJBOPE 


1387 


WAB  IN  EUBOPB 


task  to  arrange  geographical  boundaries  to  cor- 
respond with  national  lines.  The  problem  was 
complicated,  moreover,  by  the  clashing  of  the 
interests  of  the  great  European  powers, 
especially  Austria  and  Russia,  in  this  terri- 
tory. The  condition  of  chronic  disorder  and 
strife  in  this  region  during  the  nineteenth 
century  was  a  source  of  almost  constant 
concern  to  the  diplomats  of  the  great  Euro- 
pean states.  While  the  triumph  of  the 
idenl  of  nationality  did  much  to  advance  Euro- 
pean civilization,  it  was  not  an  unmixed  bless- 
ing. Too  often  national  patriotism  became  a 
fetish.  Love  of  one's  country  meant  a  lack  of 
appreciation  or  a  contempt  for  the  people  of 
other  countries,  a  feeling  that  the  Kultur  of 
one's  country  was  not  only  different  from  but 
distinctly  superior  to  that  of  any  other  country. 
From  this  it  naturally  followed  that  it  was  a 
laudable  ambition  to  wish  to  impose  one's 
superior  civilization  on  an  inferior  people 
From  tins  developed  the  inevitable  antagonism  of 
national  interests  which  dominated  European 
politics  during  the  nineteenth  century.  In  its 
extreme  form  this  national  spirit  found  ex- 
pression in  movements  to  unite  various  related 
ethnic  and  racial  groups  into  one  political  group 
Such  movements  were  moie  or  less  prominent  in 
Germany,  Russia,  and  the  Balkan  states,  under 
the  names  of  Pan-Germanism,  Pan-Slavism,  Pan- 
Serbiamsm,  etc.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  of 
these  movements  had  passed  beyond  the  state 
of  vaijue,  aspirations  held  by  a  comparatively 
small  group  of  people.  As  contributing  causes 
of  the  War,  the  Pan-Slavic  and  Pan-Serbian 
movements  were  of  some  importance.  The 
growth  of  such  propaganda  \\as  a  source  of 
concern  to  Austria-Hungary,  -with  its  large 
Slavic  population.  In  Germany,  although  the 
movement  \\as  limited  to  a  comparatively  small 
group,  it  was  A  cry  active.  Prominent  his- 
torians, scientists,  and  philosophers  expounded 
its  views,  while  numerous  societies  were  formed 
to  advance  German  ideas  of  culture  and  civili- 
zation throughout  the  civilized  woild. 

Military  Alliances.  One  of  the  chief  icsults 
of  the  prevalent  spirit  of  intense  nationalism 
v»as  the  feeling  that  it  was  necessary  to  defend 
it  with  huge  armaments.  Everywhere  the  doc- 
trine of  military  preparedness  *  was  ad\ocated, 
and  it  bore  fruit  in  the  tiemendous  standing 
armies  and  huge  na\ies  of  the  diffoicnt  Euro- 
pean countries.  It  led  also  to  the  grouping  of 
the  great  European  powers  into  two  hostile 
military  alliances.  The  rise  of  Germany  and 
Italy  between  1800  and  1870  seriously  disturbed 
the  old  European  Concert  formed  at  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna.  Bismarck  was  the  guiding 
spirit  in  the  formation  of  the  first  alliance. 
In  order  to  isolate  France  he  strove  to  unite 
Austria,  Russia,  and  Germany.  Russia  soon 
withdrew  because  of  inability  to  get  along  with 
Austria.  Bismarck  then  bound  Germany  and 
Austria  closer  together,  and  in  1882  Italy 'joined 
the  agreement,  there-bj*  forming  the  Triple  Al- 
liance. This  was  an  unnatural  alliance  for 
Italy,  inasmuch  as  her  interests  and  Austria's 
were  almost  diametrically  opposed  both  in  Italia 
Triedenta  and  in  the  Balkans.  France  had 
checkmated  Italy  in  Tunis,  however,  and  this, 
with  her  support  of  the  temporal  power  of  the 
Pope,  during  the  period  of  the  Italian  struggle 
for  unity,  led  Italy  to  make  this  unnatural 
and,  as  later  events  proved,  impossible  alliance. 
It  was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  other  powers 


of  Europe  would  view  this  Triple  Alliance  with- 
out  concern.  France  and  Russia  formed  a  Dual 
Alliance  (1895),  and  finally  Great  Britain, 
aroused  by  the  threatening  naval  policy  of 
Germany,  abandoned  her  policy  of  "splendid 
isolation"  and  joined  with  France  and  Russia 
to  form  a  second  diplomatic  group  known  as 
the  Triple  Entente.  Largely  through  the  efforts 
of  Sir  Edward  Grey,  misunderstandings 
among  theee  three  were  cleared  up  and  a 
"diplomatic  group"  established.  The  precise 
nature  of  this  understanding  was  indefinite;  no 
treaty  agreement  specified  its  scope.  The  forma- 
tion of  these  two  rival  groups  created  a  situa- 
tion in  Europe  where  every  disturbance  of  the 
political  or  military  status  quo  brought  on  a 
crisis.  After  1905,  "Europe  passed  through  sev- 
eral such  discs,  each  one  increasing  the  tension 
among  the  great  powers  and  making  the  main- 
tenance of  peace  more  difficult. 

The  first  crisis  came  in  190r>,  o\cr  the  situa- 
tion in  Morocco.  France  in  her  negotiations 
with  England  had  been  granted  a  fiee  hand  in 
Morocco,  and  was  engaged  at  this  time  in  pene- 
trating the  country  economically  and  politically. 
Germany  considered  this  an  opportune  moment 
to  assei't  herself  and  get  a  "place  in  the  sun." 
She  had  definitely  abandoned  the  Bismaick  pol- 
icy of  indifference  to  colonial  expansion  and  had 
detei  mined  to  acquire  colonies  either  in  un- 
claimed territory  or  by  taking  those  already  un- 
der the  HO\ereignty  of  another  power.  On  -Mar 
21,  1005,  the  German  Emperor,  while  on  a  voy- 
age to  Constantinople,  disembarked  at  Tangier 
and  encouraged  the  Sultan  to  reject  the  scheme 
of  icfornis  proposed  by  France.  He  a  No  suc- 
ceeded in  forcing  France  to  submit  the  whole 
Moroccan  question  to  a  conference  of  the  powers 
held  at  Algeciras  in  January,  1000.  France  won 
a  distinct  diplomatic  victory  when  England 
strongly  supported  her  and  Italy  lefuscd  to  sup- 
port her  ally.  One  phase  of  Germany's  policy  of 
colonial  and  commercial  expansion  contemplated 
the  extension  of  Teutonic  commercial  and  politi- 
cal interests  in  the  Balkans  and  Turkey.  In 
this  Di(inq  nach  Ostcn,  Germany,  in  conjunction 
with  Austiia,  hoped  to  create  a  great  economic 
if  not  political  sphere  of  influence,  extending 
through  the  Balkans  to  Constantinople  and 
thence  'through  Turkey  in  Asia  to  the  Persian 
Gulf.  German  engineers  and  German  capitalists 
began  to  develop  Turkish  resources.  German 
military  officials  trained  the  Turkish  foices. 
In  July,  1008,  a  revolution  led  by  the  Young 
Turks  broke  out  in  Constantinople.  Taking  ad- 
vantage of  this  situation,  Bulgaria  annexed 
eastern  llumclia  and  declared  her  complete  in- 
dependence of  Turkey.  Austria  annexed  Bos- 
nia and  Herzegovina.  Although  Italy  and  Ser- 
bia were  aroused  by  this  action,  Germany  stood 
by  her  ally,  and  Russia  was  too  weakened  by 
the  Russo-Japanese  "War  to  do  more  than  pro- 
test feebly.  The  Teutonic  allies  had  scored  a 
distinct  diplomatic  success  and  another  Euro- 
pean crisis  was  passed.  In  1911,  a  second 
Moroccan  crisis  brought  war  dangerously  near. 
This  was  the  so-called  Agadir  incident.  It  re- 
sulted in  a  compromise  by  which  Germany  rec- 
ognized France's  predominant  interest  in  Moroc- 
co in  return  for  100,000  square  miles  of  terri- 
tory in  the  French  Congo.  The  same  year  wit- 
nessed the  Turco-Italian  War,  during  which 
Germany  was  compelled  to  stand  by  and  permit 
her  protege",  Turkey,  to  be  despoiled  by  her  ally, 
Italy. 


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1388 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


The  Turco-Italian  War  was  followed  by  a 
widespread  upheaval  in  the  Balkans.  The 
Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Montenegrins,  and  Serbs, 
strongly  resenting  the  attempt  of  the  Young 
Turks  to  Ottomanize  them,  patched  up  their 
differences  and  organized  the  Balkan  League. 
Despite  the  desire  of  the  large  powers  to  main- 
tain the  status  quo  in  the  Balkans,  the  League 
declared  war  on  Turkey  in  October,  1912,  and 
defeated  her.  A  second  Balkan  war  followed  a 
dispute  over  the  division  of  the  spoils.  Serbia, 
Greece,  and  Montenegro  combined  against  Bul- 
garia and  Rumania,  and  Turkey  sided  with 
them.  The  intervention  of  the  'great  powers 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  an  autonomous 
Albania  under  the  kingship  of  Prince  William 
of  Wied.  Germany  and  Austria  were  keenly  dis- 
appointed as  a  result  of  the  Balkan  wars  Tur- 
key had  been  practically  driven  from  Europe, 
and  the  strengthening  of  the  Balkan  states  and 
Russian  influence  in  the  peninsula  checked  the 
plans  of  Austria  to  reach  the  J^gean  Sea  at 
Saloniki.  Germany's  answer  to  her  virtual  de- 
feat in  the  Balkans  was  the  introduction  of  the 
Army  Bill  of  1013,  which  added  136,000  men  and 
officers  to  the  peace  footing  of  the  army.  France 
replied  by  increasing  her  military  service  from 
two  to  three  years  Russia,  Austiia-Ilungan. 
and  even  the  smaller  nations  of  Europe  caught 
the  contagious  army  fever  and  either  increased 
the  peace  footing  of  their  armies  or  spent  huge 
sums  in  further  militan  preparations.  Ger- 
many constructed  strategic  railways  leading  up 
to  the  Belgian  frontier,  and  Russia  projected 
construction  of  railways  that  would  facilitate 
mobilization  against  *  Germany.  A  veritable 
panic  was  created  in  the  spring  of  1014  by  the 
charges  and  countercharges  appearing  in  the 
press  of  the  various  interested  countries. 

Economic  Causes.  At  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  there  occurred  in  Europe  a 
complete  transformation  of  industrial  conditions, 
known  as  the  industrial  revolution.  England  was 
the  first  country  to  feel  the  effects  of  this  change. 
In  time,  the  industrial  revolution  reached  other 
countries:  France  in  the  period  after  1830,  the 
United  States  in  the  period  after  the  Civil  War, 
and  Germany  after  1880.  The  great  industrial 
interests  in  these  countries  began  to  compete 
with  those  of  England  for  the  control^  of  the 
markets  of  the  world.  England  had  'the  ad- 
vantage of  having  vast  colonial  possessions 
which  might  serve  both  as  a  market  for  her 
manufactured  products  and  as  a  field  for  the 
investment  of  surplus  capital  in  the  development 
of  their  natural  resources.  France  and  the 
United  States,  to  a  lesser  degree,  also  enjoyed 
this  advantage.  Germany,  on  the  other  hand, 
because  of  her  later  appearance  as  a  world 
power,  was  practically  without  colonial  posses- 
sions of  any  potential  power  She  felt  that  her 
industrial  development  was  beiri«»  hampered 
through  no  fault  of  her  own  but  simply  be- 
cause the  best  parts  of  the  world  had  been  ap- 
propriated by  others.  Despite  this  unfavorable 
position  in  colonial  affairs,  Germany  prospered 
commercially  and  industrially  to  a  marvelous 
degree.  By  German  apologists  for  the  War, 
Great  Britain  is  bitterly  accused  of  envying 
German  prosperity  and  of  welcoming  the  War 
as  an  opportunity  to  crush  German  "industrial 
and  commercial  activity.  On  the  other  hand, 
Germany  is  accused  of  waging  war  for  economic 
aggrandizement  Two  factors  worked  together 
to  weld  the  many  petty  Herman  states  into  a 


united  nation.  One  was  the  army  and  the  other 
the  industrial  capitalists.  After  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War,  these  two  groups  demanded  a 
protective  tariff.  The  army  class,  composed  al- 
most entirely  of  landholding  aristocrats,  de- 
manded a  high  tariff  on  farm  products  and 
a  protective  tariff  on  manufactured  articles. 
Both  groups  desired  to  stifle  competition  in  the 
home  market.  The  tariff  adopted  in  1879  had 
far-reaching  results.  It  led  to  distrust  on  the 
part  of  Russia  and  Germany  for  each  other 
In  1904,  a  10-year  reciprocity  agreement  was 
signed,  whereby  each  country  made  certain  re- 
ductions in  its  tariff  duties.  The  Russians  felt 
that  the  Germans  had  got  the  best  of  the  bar- 
gain. In  1914,  as  the  date  approached  for  the 
renewal  or  modification  of  the  treaty,  fear  was 
expressed  in  the  German  press  lest  Russia's 
improved  army  would  enable  her  to  demand  more 
favorable  terms  In  this  fashion  the  desire  of 
each  nation  to  tax  foreign  imports  and  at  the 
same  time  to  obtain  free  admission  of  its  own 
products  into  foreign  countries  stimulated  mili- 
tarism and  provoked  war-like  sentiments  among 
the  powers.  The  United  Kingdom  adhered  to  its 
free  trade  policy  and  with  few  exceptions  ad- 
mitted the  products  of  all  lands  on  equal  foot- 
ing The  British  self -governing  colonies,  how- 
over,  had  adopted  protection. 

\\hethcr  because  of  the  protective  tariff  wall 
or  because  of  other  causes,  the  business  interests 
of  the  Empire  prospered  mightily,  Bt\  11)12, 
British  foreign  commerce  excelled  the  Geiiimn 
by  about  $1,300,000,000;  but  German  commerce 
had  trebled  itself  since  1883,  while  British  com- 
merce had  not  quite  doubled.  The  German  gov- 
ernment derived  rich  revenues  from  the  cus- 
toms duties  on  an  expanding  commerce,  ami 
viewed  with  satisfaction  the  prodigious  increase 
in  wealth  and  population  (population  increased 
from  41,000,000  to  06,000,000  between  1871  and 
1912)  which  furnished  men  and  money  for  an 
ever-growing  army.  The  landowning  and  indus- 
trial classes  considered  the  army  a  protection 
and  insurance  for  their  interests.  In  one  re- 
npect,  however,  the  German  business  community 
was  dissatisfied.  The  German  merchant  marine, 
although  it  had  rapidly  expanded,  was  still  four 
times  outweighed  by  British  shipping.  Great 
Britain's  superiority  was  ascribed  to  her  earlier 
economic  development,  to  the  fact  that  Germany 
had  very  little  Atlantic  seacoast  and  to  the 
superiority  of  the  British  navy.  Germany, 
therefore,*  set  herself  to  overcome  these  handi- 
caps. Undoubtedly  many  German  businessmen 
desired  the  overthrow  of  the  British  naval 
power  and  the  acquisition  of  an  Atlantic  sea- 
port such  as  Ostend  in  Belgium.  Desires  just 
as  strong  were  urging  Russia  on  to  Constanti- 
nople and  the  southern  Baltic,  Serbia  on  to  the 
Adriatic,  and  Austria-Hungary  on  to  Saloniki. 

In  the  carving  out  of  a  colonial  empire,  the 
interests  of  the  industrial  and  commercial  classes 
also  clashed.  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  certain  groups  of  businessmen 
awoke  to  the  opportunities  which  the  vast  un- 
civilized areas  of  Africa  and  Oceania  offered 
for  the  sale  of  cheap  cotton  goods,  cheap  liquors, 
and  other  manufactures,  for  the  highly  remu- 
nerative investment  of  money  in  the  construction 
of  railways,  the  development  of  mines  and  the 
traffic  in  rubber,  ivory  and  oil.  King  Leopold 
of  Belgium,  one  of  the  first  to  realize  the  oppor- 
tunity, acquired  control  of  the  Congo  region  in 
the  heart  of  Africa.  France  carved  out  a 


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1389 


WAB  IN  ETTBOPE 


taighty  colonial  empire,  and  Great  Britain  added 
to  hers.  Germany,  a  belated  arrival  in  the 
field,  was  permitted,  even  encouraged  by  the 
British  government,  to  acquire  territories  in 
Africa;  but  when  Germany  challenged  the 
French  in  Morocco  and  appeared  envious  of  the 
British  and  French  possessions,  the  prospect  of 
a  war  for  world  empire  began  to  fill  Europe 
with  uneasy  forebodings.  Concessions  as  well  as 
colonies  were  contended  for  by  German,  French 
and  British  capitalists.  For  example,  when,  in 
1914,  Bulgaria,  in  return  for  a  loan,  arranged 
to  concede  to  German  capitalists  valuable  rail- 
way and  mining  privileges  in  Bulgaria,  a  rival 
bid  was  unsuccessfully  made  by  the  French. 
The  financing  of  the  Bagdad  railroad  occasioned 
considerable  rivalry  among  France,  Germany  and 
Great  Britain  until  an  agreement  was  reached 
Each  nation  raised  an  envious  outcry  when  a 
competing  nation  secured  for  itself  some  new 
economic  plum.  In  1014,  German  interests 
maintained  that  they  were  being  outstripped  by 
the  other  powers;  that  the  English  were  greedily 
helping  themsehes  to  the  oil  product  of  Persia 
and  striving  to  Heoure  the  oil  fields  of  Latin 
America;  that  the  French  capitalists  were  se- 
curing new  railway  contracts  in  China,  in  Rus- 
sia, and  in  Greece. 

Of  all  economic  interests  inimical  to  peace, 
the  most  dangerous  was  the  arms-manufacturing 
business.  In  Germany,  the  Krupps  were  ac- 
cused of  stirring  up  hostility  between  France 
and  Germany  in  order  to  obtain  larger  orders 
for  arms  Every  army  bill,  every  dreadnought 
mount  profits  for  the  armament  firms.  The 
Balkan  \\ars  were  fought  with  weapons  forged 
in  Germany  and  France.  English  firms — Arm- 
strong and  Vickerh  and  YYitworth — were  en- 
gaged to  build  an  ordnance  factory  in  Kussia 
and  to  construct  battleships  lor  Spain,  for  Bra- 
zil, for  Turkey.  For  the  armament  manufac- 
turers of  all  nations,  the  War  was  a  golden 
oppoi  t  unity. 

Finally  a  word  may  l>e  added  regarding  the 
banking 'interests  and  the  War.  The  panic  and 
consternation  in  financial  circles  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  War  have  been  cited  aH  conclusive  proof 
that  capital  did  not  want  the  War.  While 
there  is  doubtless  much  truth  in  this  reason- 
ing, the  fact  must  not  be  overlooked  that  in 
panics  large  fortunes  are  won  an  well  as  lost. 
The  huge  war  loans,  moreover,  offered  unexam- 
pled opportunities  for  financial  speculation. 

OUTBREAK   OF  THE   WAR   AND   NEUTRAL   NATIONS 

The  assassination  of  the  Archduke  Francis 
Ferdinand  on  June  28,  1014,  was  followed,  on 
.luly  23,  by  the  presentation  of  a  note  to  Serbia 
by  Count  Berchtold,  the  Austro-Hungarian  For- 
eign Minister.  The  note  began  by  recalling  the 
declaration  made  by  Serbia  on  Mar.  31,  1009, 
wherein  Serbia  recognized  the  fait  accompli  re- 
garding Bosnia  and  agreed  to  renounce  any  at- 
titude of  protest  or  opposition  to  the  annexa- 
tion of  Bosnia  to  Austria.  The  Austrian  note 
then  went  on  to  complain  that  Serbia  had  not 
lived  up  to  this  undertaking,  and  had  made  it 
necessary  for  Austria  to  take  action  to  pro- 
tect herself  against  the  Pan-Serbian  propaganda. 
Austria  insisted  that  Serbia  should  make  an 
official  and  public  condemnation  of  this  propa- 
ganda and  express  regret  at  its  consequences 
The  note  then  submitted  10  specific  demands  and 
required  an  answer  from  Serbia  within  48  hours 
of  the  presentation  of  the  note.  These  demands 


required  that  Serbia  should  suppress  every  pub- 
lication that  excited  hatred  of  the  Dual  Mon- 
archy; that  the  Serbian  government  dissolve 
certain  societies  accused  of  fomenting  the  propa- 
ganda hostile  to  Austria;  that  teachers  guilty 
of  instigating  hatred  of  Austria  be  dismissed  and 
that  objectionable  matter  in  the  textbooks  be 
eliminated;  that  Serbia  dismiss  from  her  army 
and  governmental  employ  all  officers  and  offi- 
cials found  taking  part  in  the  propaganda;  that 
Serbia  accept  the  collaboration  of  agents  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  government  in  suppression  of 
the  subversive  movement  against  Austria;  that 
Austro-Hungarian  representatives  be  allowed 
to  take  part  in  the  investigation  of  persons 
in  Serbia  accused  of  complicity  in  the  murder 
of  the  Archduke;  that  Serbia  take  action  against 
two  specified  officials  who  were  accused  of  com- 
plicity in  the  crime  at  Sarajevo;  that  Serbia 
take  effective  measures  to  stop  the  smuggling 
of  arms  and  ammunition  across  her  bor- 
der; and,  finally,  that  Serbia  give  explanation 
of  the  expressions  of  hostility  toward  Austria- 
Hungary  on  the  part  of  certain  high  Serbian 
officials. 

The  publication  of  this  note  immediately 
aroused  great  apprehension  in  the  chancellories 
of  the  European  powers.  It  was  clear  that 
Europe  was  confronted  by  another  serious 
crisis.  The  first  move  of  Sir  Edward  Grey,  the 
British  Foreign  Minister,  was  to  urge  on  Aus- 
tria-Hungary the  necessity  of  extending  the  time 
limit  of  the  ultimatum.  M.  Sazonov,  the  Rus- 
sian Foreign  Minister,  strongly  supported  him 
in  this.  Austria  flatly  refused 'any  extension  of 
time  and  they  then  turned  their  efforts  toward 
the  persuasion  of  Serbia  to  accept,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  demands  made  by  Austria. 

The  Serbian  Reply.  The*  Serbian  reply  was 
handed  to  the  Austrian  minister  on  July  25, 
only  two  minutes  before  the  expiration  of  the 
time  limit.  Most  of  the  Austrian  demands  were 
granted  with  slight  verbal  changes.  There  were 
two  points,  however,  with  which  Serbia  did  not 
comply:  (1)  To  the  demand  that  Serbia  ac- 
cept the  collaboration  of  agents  of  the  Austrian 
government  in  the  suppression  of  the  subversive 
movement  directed  against  the  territorial  in- 
tegrity of  the  Dual  Monarchy.  Serbia  replied 
that  she  did  not  understand  exactly  the  meaning 
of  the  demand  but  that  she  was  ready  to  accept 
such  collaboration  as  should  conform  to  the 
principles  of  international  law  and  criminal 
procedure.  (The  Austrian  rejoinder  stated  that 
it  was  not  a  question  of  international  law  but  of 
the  exercise  of  police  powers  which  could  be  set- 
tled by  agreement  between  the  parties  con- 
cerned.) (2)  The  demand  made  by  Austria 
that  Austrian  officials  be  permitted  to  take  part 
in  the  investigation  relating  to  the  judicial  pro- 
ceeding in  Serbia  against  persons  involved  in 
the  Serajevo  crime,  the  Serbian  government 
would  not  concede,  on  the  ground  that  such  ac- 
tion would  violate  the  Serbian  constitution. 
(The  Austrian  rejoinder  accused  the  Serbian 
government  of  deliberately  misrepresenting  the 
Austrian  demand,  which  contemplated  simply  a 
participation  in  the  preliminary  investigation 
to  the  judicial  proceedings.)  Finally,  the 
Serbian  government  agreed,  in  case  the  Aus- 
trian government  should  find  the  reply  un- 
satisfactory, to  submit  the  disputed  questions 
to  The  Hague  tribunal  or  the  Great  Powers  for 
decision.  Austria  considered  Serbia's  reply  en- 
tirely unsatisfactory.  This  meant  war  unless 


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1390 


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some  unforeseen  action  of  the  Great  Powers 
checked  it. 

The  Russian  Ambassador  to  Vienna  stated  on 
July  24  that  "any  action  taken  by  Austria  to 
humiliate  Serbia  could  not  leave  Russia  indif- 
ferent" Russia  felt  that  the  crushing  of  Ser- 
bia would  reduce  her  to  a  vassal  state  of  Aus- 
tria, and  that  this  would  imperil  the  balance 
of  power  in  the  Balkans.  In  view  of  this  situa- 
tion the  Russian  Foreign  Minister  stated  that 
Russia  would  mobilize  against  Austria  on  the 
day  that  the  Austrian  army  crossed  the  Serbian 
frontier.  This  determined  attitude  rendered 
futile  any  efforts  the  other  powers  might  make 
to  localize  the  struggle.  Germany's  position  was 
fairly  well  defined  by  repeated  statements  that 
it  was  Austria's  affair  but,  if  any  other  power 
interfered,  her  interests  were  vitally  affected. 
On  July  26,  Sir  Edward  Grey  suggested  a  con- 
ference of  the  representatives  of  the  four  powers, 
England,  France,  Germany  and  Italy,  for  the 
purpose  of  discovering  an  issue  which  would  pre- 
vent complications  between  Austria  and  Russia. 
To  this  suggestion  France  and  Italy  agreed; 
Germany,  however,  declined  to  fall  in  witli  this 
plan.  The  German  Foreign  Minister  stated  that 
"a  conference  such  as  Sir  Edward  Grey  suggested 
would  amount  to  a  court  of  arbitration  and 
could  not,  in  his  opinion,  be  called  together  ex- 
cept at  the  request  of  Austria  and  Russia,"  and 
furthermore,  that  he  did  not  think  it  (the 
conference)  would  be  effective,  because1  such  a 
conference  would,  in  his  opinion,  have  had  the 
appearance  of  an  Areopagus  consisting  of  two 
powers  of  each  proup  sitting  in  judgment  upon 
the  two  remaining  powcis. 

Direct  negotiations  between  Russia  and  Aus- 
tria were  unsuccessful,  Austria  refusing  to  con- 
sider a  modification  of  her  ultimatum  to  Ser- 
bia. Further  efforts  on  the  part  of  England  to 
have  Germany  propose  some  formula  which 
would  be  acceptable  proved  unavailing,  and  on 
July  28,  1914,  Austria  declared  war  on  Serbia. 
This  action  on  the  part  of  Austria  appears 
explicable  on  one  of  two  grounds.  Either  she 
was  convinced  that  Russia  was  bluffing  and 
would  back  down,  as  she  did  in  1908,  or  else 
Austria  was  prepared,  deliberately,  to  precipi- 
tate a  European  war. 

Germany  and  Russia.  Russia  had  continu- 
ously maintained  that  the  fate  of  Serbia  was 
of  great  concern  to  herself,  and  as  a  result  of  the 
Serbian  note  she  declared  partial  mobilization 
against  Austria.  These  military  preparations 
caused  frantic  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  various 
governments  to  prevent  a  general  European  con- 
flagration. On  July  29,  Sir  Edward  Grey  urged 
that  "the  German  government  should  suggest 
any  method  by  which  the  influence  of  the  four 
powers  could  be  used  to  prevent  war  between 
Austria  and  Russia."  Italy  and  France  agreed. 
Germany  agreed  to  the  extent  of  urging  Aus- 
tria to  renew  her  negotiations  with  Russia. 
At  the  same  time,  Russia  was  to  prepare  a 
formula  that  would  lie  satisfactory  to  herself. 
This  was  done,  but  it  was  entirely  unsatisfactory 
to  Austria  and  Germany.  Sir  Edward  Grey 
brought  additional  pressure  to  bear  upon  Ger- 
many. Germany,  on  her  part,  brought  pressure 
to  bear  on  Austria  to  agree  to  discuss  with  Rus- 
sia, the  terms  of  the  Austrian  ultimatum,  and 
at  the  last  moment,  on  July  31,  Austria 
agreed  to  do  so.  This  slender  hope  of  avoid- 
ing a  world-wide  catastrophe  was  nullified  by 
the  demand  made  by  Germany  that  Russia 


should  cease  her  military1  preparations  and 
demobolize  her  army.  Russia  made  no  reply  to 
this  ultimatum  and  at  5  P.M.  on  August  1,  the 
Russian  government  was  notified  that  Germany 
considered  a  state  of  war  existed  between  the 
two  countries. 

Germany  and  France.  At  the  same  time 
that  Germany  presented  the  ultimatum  to  Rus- 
sia, a  communication  was  sent  to  France  in- 
forming her  of  Germany's  action  and  asking 
what  attitude  France  would  take  in  the  event 
of  war  between  Germany  and  Russia.  An  an- 
swer was  demanded  within  18  hours.  To  this 
demand  the  French  Premier  replied  on  August 
1  that  "France  would  take  such  action  as  her 
interests  might  require"  Despite  this  unsatis- 
factory answer  the  German  Ambassador  did 
not  leave  Paris  until  August  3.  In  the  mean- 
time, charges  and  countercharges  were  made 
by  the  French  and  German  authorities  that 
warlike  moves  had  been  made  on  the  frontier. 

Great  Britain  and  Germany.  From  the 
first  it  was  evident  that  the  question  of  Eng- 
land's attitude  in  the  face  of  the  great  Euro- 
pean crisis  was  of  the  most  vital  importance. 
Russia  and  France  continually  urged  upon  her 
the  necessity  of  coming  out  definitely  and  stating 
that  she  would  firmly  support  her  allies.  Sir 
Edward  Grey  refused  to  do  this,  arguing  that 
he  could  accomplish  more  aa  a  mediator.  Ger- 
many fully  appreciated  the  importance  of  keep- 
ing Great  Britain  neutral  if  possible  The  Gor- 
man Chancellor  requested  that  Sir  Edward 
Grey  formulate  conditions  on  which  Great  Brit- 
ain would  remain  neutral.  This  was  declined 
with  the  statement,  "We  must  keep  our  hands 
free."  The  British  government,  therefore,  up  to 
the  very  last  day  of  European  peace,  refused 
either  to  bind  herself  to  come  to  the  aid  of 
France  and  Russia  or  to  remain  neutral.  Great 
Britain's  complete  entrance  into  the  war  came 
about  as  a  result  of  the  violation  of  Belgian 
neutrality,  although  partial  intervention  was 
brought  about  when,  on  August  2,  Sir  Edward 
Grey  informed  the  French  government  that  the 
British  fleet  would  protect  the  northern  coast 
of  France  from  any  attack  by  the  German 
fleet.  On  July  31,  Grey  telegraphed  the  Brit- 
ish ambassadors  at  Paris  and  Berlin  to  request 
the  French  and  German  governments  to  state 
whether  they  were  prepared  to  respect  the  neu- 
trality of  Belgium  so  long  as  no  other  power 
violated  it.  France  replied  affirmatively  but 
Germany  evaded  a  direct  answer  On  August 
2,  the  German  Minister  presented  to  the  Ger- 
man Foreign  Minister  an  ultimatum  which  stated 
that  Germany  had  "reliable  information  .  .  . 
of  the  intention  of  France  to  inarch  through 
Belgian  territory,"  that  it  was  "an  imperative- 
duty  for  the  preservation  of  Germany  to  forestall 
this  attack."  Germany  agreed  to  evacuate  Bel- 
gian territory  as  soon  as  the  war  was  over 
and  to  indemnify  Belgium  for  all  damages  if 
she  would  maintain  an  attitude  of  "friendly 
neutrality."  In  case  of  refusal,  Germany  stated, 
Belgium  would  be  considered  as  an  enemy  and 
the  question  would  be  left  "to  a  decision  of 
arms."  Belgium  refused  and  called  upon  the 
signatories  of  the  Treaty  of  1839  to  carry  out 
the  guarantee  of  Belgian  neutrality.  In  re- 
sponse to  this  request,  Sir  Edward  Grey,  on 
Aug.  4,  1914,  sent  an  ultimatum  to  Germany 
demanding  a  satisfactory  reply  to  the  request 
that  Belgian  neutrality  be  respected  and  re- 
quiring an  answer  by  midnight  of  the  same  day. 


WAB  IK  EUROPE 


1391 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


Upon  Germany's  refusal  to  give  such  a  guaran- 
tee, Great  Britain  declared  war  on  Germany. 
Despite  Germany's  efforts  to  justify  the  invasion 
of  Belgium  on  other  grounds,  to  the  impartial 
observer  it  would  appear  that  Germany's  justi- 
fication must  rest  entirely  on  the  ground  of 
military  necessity.  In  passing,  it  might  be 
stated  that  notes  taken  by  the  German  Ambassa- 
dor to  London  during  this  critical  period.  Prince 
Lichnowsky,  were  published  early  in  11)18  and 
caused  a  sensation  in  the  press  of  the  belliger- 
ent powers  by  their  revelation  of  the  friendly 
attitude  of  England  and  her  desire  to  maintain 
peace  in  the  period  just  preceding  the  War. 

Italy's  Position.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
War,  Italy  found  herself  in  a  most  trying  posi- 
tion. To  Germany  and  Austria  she  was  bound 
by  the  defensive  treaty  of  the  Triple  Alliance. 
Her  position  as  a  memljer  of  this  alliance  had, 
from  the  beginning,  been  unnatural,  largely  be- 
cause of  her  aspirations  in  Trieste,  the  Tren- 
tmo  and  the  Balkans.  In  practically  all  the 
crises  of  the  twentieth  century,  Italy  stood  aloof 
from  her  allies.  When  war  broke  out  in  1914, 
Italy  declared  that  she  would  remain  neutral. 
During  the  next  10  months  a  struggle  went  on 
throughout  the  entire  country  between  the  neu- 
tralists and  the  interventionists.  Despite  ef- 
foits  on  the  part  of  Germany  and  Austria  to 
satisfy  Italy's  demands  on  the  Adriatic,  Italy 
declared  war  against  her  former  allies  on  May 
24,  lUlo.  See  ITALY,  History. 

Japan's  Position.  Japan's  entrance  into  the 
\\  ar  was  due  to  her  treaty  of  alliance  with 
Great  Britain.  This  treaty  (1902)  largely  came 
about  as  the  result  of  the  loss  of  the  fruits  of 
Hie  Chinese-Japanese  \\ar  at  the  hands  of  Ger- 
many, France  and  Russia.  Actuated  by  motives 
of  revenge  for  this  humiliation  as  well  as  by 
a  determination  to  carry  out  her  obligations 
to  Great  Britain,  Japan  declared  war  on  Ger- 
many on  Aug.  23,  1914.  See  JAPAN,  History. 

Turkey.  Geinianic  influence  hud  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  prior  to  the  outbreak  of  the  War 
been  predominant  in  Turkey.  It  was  natural, 
therefore,  that  Turkish  sympathies  should  be 
with  the  Teutonic  allies.  Turkey  hesitated,  at 
first,  to  make  common  cause  with  Germany, 
because  of  her  exposed  position  and  the  fact 
that  the  two  Balkan  wars  had  left  her  ex- 
hausted, but  events  soon  forced  her  to  show  her 
hand,  and  when,  on  October  29,  the  Brcslau,  a 
German  warship  which  had  taken  refuge  in 
Turkish  waters,  bombarded  the  Russian  Black 
Sea  port  of  Theodosia,  Russia  broke  oft"  diplo- 
matic relations.  This  action  was  followed  by 
France  and  England's  declaring  war  on  Tin  key 
on  Nov.  5,  1914.  See  TURKKY,  History. 

Balkan  States.  Serbia  and  Montenegro  were 
involved  in  the  \Var  from  the  first,  the  latter 
coming  to  the  aid  of  the  former  within  two 
weeks  after  Austria's  declaration  of  war.  The 
Triple  Alliance  and  the  Triple  Entente  were 
keenly  desirous  of  obtaining  the  aid  of  Bul- 
garia, Greece  and  Rumania.  In  October,  1915, 
Bulgaria  threw  in  her  lot  with  the  Teutonic 
Allies,  frankly  stating  that  the  proposals  made 
by  them  were  more  alluring  than  others  and 
expressing  the  belief  that  they  were  going  to 
win  the  war.  (See  BULGARIA,  History  )  In 
Greece,  conflicting  influences  and  interests  com- 
plicated the  situation.  The  King  (Constan- 
tine)  was  pro-German,  while  the  Premier,  Veni- 
zelos,  was  pro-Ally.  The  King  was  strong 
enough,  in  the  beginning,  to  thwart  the  attempts 


of  the  Entente  to  have  Greece  enter  the  War  on 
the  Allied  side  In  June,  1917,  he  was  compelled 
to  abdicate  and  turn  the  government  over  to 
his  second  son,  Alexander.  Shortly  after  this 
(July  2)  the  Greek  government  declared  war 
against  Bulgaria  and  Germany.  For  the  rapid- 
ly changing  vicissitudes  of  the  Greek  govern- 
ment during  this  period  see  GREECE,  History. 
In  Rumania  the  situation  was  very  similar  to 
that  in  Bulgaria.  The  reigning  house  was  pro- 
German  while  the  majority  of  the  people  were 
pro-French  and  Italian.  The  Premier,  Bra- 
tianu,  advocated  a  policy  of  waiting,  with  the 
intention  of  entering  the  war  at  the  proper 
time,  when  the  greatest  reward  could  be  obtained 
by  the  least  fighting.  This  policy  was  contin- 
ued until  Apr.  28,  1916,  when  the  Rumanian 
Minister  at  Vienna  presented  a  note  to  the 
Austro-IIungarian  Foreign  Minister  which  said 
that  Rumania  considered  herself  at  war  with 
Austria-Hungary  since  9  o'clock  the  previous 
evening.  See  RUMANIA,  History. 

Portugal.  Portugal  was  bound  by  a  treaty 
of  alliance  with  Great  Britain,  and,  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  War,  said  she  was  willing  to 
live  up  to  her  obligations  whenever  Great  Brit- 
ain saw  fit.  In  February,  1916,  she  seized  some 
German  vessels  in  her  harbors,  and  on  Mar.  8, 
1916,  Germany  declared  war  on  her,  giving  this 
seizure  as  the  cause.  See  PORTUGAL,  History. 

The  United  States.  As  the  largest  and  most 
important  of  the  neutral  powers  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  War,  the  United  States  was  sure  to  be 
vitally  affected.  As  the  champion  of  smaller 
neutral  nations  and  as  the  source  of  vast  quan- 
tities of  war  supplies,  it  was  only  natural  that 
the  attempt  to  maintain  strict  neutrality  was 
a  trying  one.  The  problem  was  made  more 
difficult  by  the  attitude  of  groups  of  persons 
in  this  country  whose  sympathies  were  with 
one  or  the  other  of  the  belligerents  in  Europe. 
From  time  to  time,  the  American  government 
was  involved  in  important  discussions  with  the 
European  powers.  The  more  important  of  these 
were,  Blockade  and  Neutral  Trade,  Interference 
with  Mail,  the  Sinking  of  the  Lusitama,  the 
Mexico  Note,  and  Submarine  Warfare  and  the 
War  Zone.  Chiefly  as  a  result  of  the  con- 
troversy with  Germany  over  this  last  subject, 
the  United  States  declared  war  against  her  on 
Apr.  6,  1917.  Shortly  after  the  United  States 
declared  war,  the  following  states  either  severed 
diplomatic  relations  with  Germany  or  declared 
war  on  her:  Cuba,  Panama,  Costa  Rica,  Guate- 
mala, Nicaragua,  Honduras,  Haiti,  Brazil,  Li- 
beria, Siam  and  China  (qq.v.).  For  the  re- 
lations to  the  war  of  countries  not  mentioned 
in  this  section,  see  section  History,  and  the 
articles  treating  those  countries.  For  con- 
venience, the  following  dates  for  tlie  declara- 
tions of  war  are  given: 

CENTRAL    POWERS 

Austria    against    Serbia — July   28,    1914. 
Austria    against    Russia — Aug.    6.    1914. 
Austria    against    Montenegro — Aug     9,    1914. 
Austria    against    Japan — Aug.    27,    1914. 
Austria   against   Belgium — Aug.  28,   1914. 
Bulgaria    against    Serbia — Oct     14,     1915. 
Germany   against    Russia — Aug.   1,    1914. 
Germany  against  France — Aug.  3,  1914. 
Germany  against  Belgium — Aug    4,   1914. 
Germany   against    Portugal — Mar    9,    1916. 
Germany  against   Rumania — Sept    14,    1916. 
Turkey   against   the  Allies — Nov.   23,    1914. 
Turkey  against   Rumania — Aug.   29,   1916. 

ENTENTE     ALLIES 

Brazil  against  Germany — Oct.  26,   1917. 

China  against  Austria  and  Germany — Aug.  14,  1017* 


WAB  IK  EUBOPE 


1392 


WAB  IN  EUBOPE 


Costs  Rica  against  Germany — May  24,    1918. 
Cuba  against  Germany — Apr.   7,    1917. 
France  against   Germany — Aug    3,   1914 
France  ugambt  Austria — Aug    13,    1914. 
France  against   Turkey — Nov     5,    1914. 
France   ugainst   Bulgaria— Oct.    16,    1915. 
Groat  Britain   against    Germany — Aug     4,   1014 
Great  Britain  against  Austria — Aug.   13,   191 1. 
Great    Britain    against    Turkey — Nov     5,    1914 
Great  Britain  against  Bulgaria — Oct.  15,   1914. 
Greece   (provisional  goveimneut)   again*!  Germ, my  and 

Bulgaria — Nov    28,    191(5 
Greece  (Alexander's  government)   against  Germany  and 

Bulgaria — July  2,    1917 

Guatemala   against   Germany — Apr    23.    1918 
Haiti  against  Germany — July   15,    1918 
Honduras    against    Germany — Juh     39,    1918. 
Italy    against    Austria — May    24,    1915 
Italy    against    Turkey — Aug.    21,     J91'5. 
Italy    against   Bulgaria — Oct.    19,    1915. 
Italy   against   Germany — Aug     28,    1916. 
Japan  against  Germany — Aug.  23,   1914 
Liberia   against   Germany — Aug.    4.    1917 
Montenegro   against   Germany — Aug    9,    1914. 
Nicaragua  agamst  Germany — May  7,  1918. 
Panama    against    Germanj — Apr.    7,    1917 
Panama   against    Austria — Dec.    10.    1917 
Portugal  against  Germany — Nov.  23,   1914. 

(Passed    resolutions     authorizing    military     interven- 
tion as  treaty   ally  of  Great  Britain  ) 
Portugal   against    Germany — May    19,    1915 

(Military    aid    granted  ) 
Rumania  against  Austria — Auir    27.    1916 

(Allies   of   Austria    also   considered    it    a    declaration 

against  them  ) 

Russia   against  Turkey — Nov    3,    1914 
Russia  against  Bulgaria — Oct.   19,   1915. 
San   Marino   against    Austria — May   L'4     191  "i 
Serbia   against    Germany — A  up     «     1914 
Serbia  against  Turke> — Dec.   2,   1914. 
Serbia   aJtamat   Bulgaria — Oct     19,    191 1 
Siam    against   Germany    and    Austria — Tuh    22,    1917 
The    Hedjaz    (Arabia)    against    Central    Powers — June 

9,    1916. 

United  States  against  Germany — Apr    6.   1917 
United    States    against    Austria — Dec     7,    1917. 

New  Evidence  Concerning  the  Outbreak 
of  the  War.  During  10-24,  a  controversy  nrose 
concerning  new  evidence  which  had  come  to 
light  since  1919,  regarding  the  outbreak  of  the 
War.  Usually  two  or  three  generations  elapse 
after  the  close  of  a  war  before  all  the  material 
concerning  it  comes  to  light.  In  this  war,  how- 
ever, the  overthrow  of  the  governments  of  Rus- 
sia, Germany,  and  Austria-Hungary,  and  the 
seizure  of  documents  from  the  archives  of  Bel- 
gium by  the  invading  Germans,  paxe  many  im- 
portant documents  to  a  waiting  world  long  be- 
fore they  would  have  appeared  in  the  course  of 
normal  events.  Added  to  these  have  been  nu- 
merous memoirs  and  autobiographies  which  are, 
of  course,  of  relative  value  only,  but  yet  shed 
dome  light  on  the  diplomatic  exchanges  just 
preceding  the  world  conflagration.  The  new 
governments  which  succeeded  in  the  three  above- 
mentioned  countries  were  anti-militarist  to  a 
large  degree,  and  unhesitantly  published  any 
material  that  would  tend  to  further  their  aims. 
When  the  arclmes  of  France,  Great  Britain, 
Italy,  and  the  United  States  are  made  public, 
a  true  history  of  the  month  or  so  preceding  the 
War  may  lie  written. 

Various  interpretations  have  been  placed 
upon  the  newly-published  documents,  although 
every  one  agrees  practically  that  they  do  not 
alter  the  fundamental  underlying  causes  of  the 
War,  but  do,  according  to  one  school,  led  by 
Prof.  Harry  Elmer  Barnes  of  Smith  College, 
virtually  change  all  previous  notions  concerning 
the  placing  of  the  blame  for  the  outbreak  of 
the  War;  in  fact,  they  deny  the  truth  of  the 
statement,  incorporated  in  the  Versailles 
Treaty,  which  fixes  the  responsibility  for  the 
War  on  Germany  and  her  allies.  Professor 
Barnes  goes  so  far  as  to  assess  the  blame  for 
the  outbreak  of  the  War  in  a  graduated  manner 


upon  the  following  countries:  Austria,  Russia, 
France,  Germany,  and  England.  Belgium  was 
completely  exonerated,  Italy  was  only  slightly 
responsible,  and  it  was  claimed  that  the  United 
States  was  duped  into  entering  a  war  concern- 
ing which  she  knew  little,  if  anything.  Need- 
less to  say  many  eminent  authorities  disagreed 
with  the  conclusion  of  this  school. 

MILITARY   OPERATION  8 

General  Considerations.  The  War  that 
broke  out  in  July,  1914,  involved  three  con- 
tinents and  the  seven  seas.  Beginning  with  the 
declaration  of  war  on  Serbia  by  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire,  in  a  few  days  it  spread  to 
involve  Germany,  France  and  Russia.  With 
the  announced  invasion  of  Belgium  by  the  Ger- 
man armies,  Belgium  and  Great  Britain  took 
up  arms.  Military  operations  began  on  throe 
European  fronts — the  Western  or  Franco-Bel- 
gian, the  Eastern  or  Russian,  and  the  Southern 
or  Serbian.  Turkey  next  entered  the  War  to- 
ward the  close  of  1914.  In  May,  1915,  Italy 
joined  the  Allies  and  a  new  front  of  operations 
opened  on  the  Austro-Italian  frontier.  In  No- 
UMiiber  of  that  year  Bulgaria  joined  the  Central 
Powers,  the  Serbians  were  driven  from  their 
country  and  a  new  front  of  operations  was  es- 
tablished on  the  Greek  fiontier  north  of  Salon- 
iki.  In  August,  1916,  Rumania  joined  the  Al- 
lies and  a  new  front  was  established  on  the 
Rumano-Hungarian-Bulgarian  frontier.  The  con- 
quest of  the  German  colonies  in  China,  South 
Africa,  and  the  islands  of  the  sea  began  soon 
after  the  outbreak  of  War.  In  1910,  Portugal 
joined  the  Allies  and  sent  a  corps  to  the  West- 
ern front.  In  1917,  Greece  and  the  United 
States  joined  the  Allies;  the  troops  of  the  for- 
mer being  employed  on  the  Salonikan  front  and 
those  of  the  latter  mainly  on  the  Western  front 

In  this  War,  every  known  resource  of  mechan- 
ical ingenuity  was  drawn  upon ;  old  and  for- 
gotten methods  of  warfare  were  brought  into 
play  side  by  side  with  the  most  powerful  modern 
artillery,  while  aeronautics  and  poisonous  gasew 
for  the  first  time  had  occasion  to  show  thoir 
worth  The  edifice  of  international  law  so 
painfully  built  up  after  centuries  of  struggle 
was  toppled  over  as  a  thing  of  no  account. 
Again  it  was  demonstrated  that,  in  a  long  war, 
the  side  with  appreciatively  greater  resources 
in  men  and  materials  of  war  will  win  if  the 
people,  their  governments  and  military  comman- 
ders have  sufficient  courage  to  endure 'temporary 
defeats  and  discouragements. 

In  the  space  available,  nothing  but  a  state- 
ment of  the  principal  facts  can  be  attempted, 
but  the  nature  of  the  struggle  on  the  Western 
front  calls  for  a  word  of  two.  When  both  forces 
simultaneously  reached  the  Channel  after  the 
battle  of  the"  Marne,  there  began  a  siege  over 
the  whole  front  that  gave  the  struggle  in  this 
theatre  a  character  unique  in  military  history. 
At  certain  places  in  the  "line,"  32  or  more 
parallel  lines  of  German  trenches  were  con- 
structed. Similar  defenses  existed  on  the  Al- 
lied side.  Frontal  attacks  been  me  a  necessity 
since  flanks  there  were  none,  and  yet  these  at- 
tacks for  years  proved  failures  because  the  ex- 
periences gained  under  the  new  conditions  had 
not  as  yet  led  to  such  disposition  of  resources 
as  would  carry  them  to  a  decision.  The  most 
desperate  efforts  were  made  first  by  one  side 
and  then  by  the  other  to  raise  the  siege,  so  to 
apeak,  by  a  concentration  at  some  selected 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


1393 


WAB  IN  EUBOPE 


point  and  tlius  break  through  to  open  warfaie 
and  end  a  situation  that  only  a  few  years  before 
would  have  seemed  intolerable.  It  was  not  un- 
til the  summer  of  1018,  after  the  Germans  had 
made  their  last  and  greatest  attempt  and  the 
Allies  had  been  reinforced  by  the  American 
troops,  that  a  break-through  was  effected  and 
the  War  brought  to  a  close.  On  some  of  the 


plans  for  a  decision  in  the  west  could  be  secured 
before  Russia  could  appear  in  force  in  the  east, 
the  Germans  declared  war.  It  was  not  many 
days  after  the  beginning  of  operations  that  the 
Germans  realized  that  operations  were  not  go- 
ing as  anticipated,  in  spite  of  their  first  vic- 
tories, and  that  their  flanking  operations  on 
both  flanks  had  failed.  Their  western  armies 


called  old  fashioned  warfare  were  more  or  less 
produced  but  in  general  there  was  a  marked 
tendency  to  approximate  to  the  conditions  on 
the  Western  front. 

A  marked   feature  of  this  War  was   the  so- 
called  mobilization  of  industries.     So  great  was 


other  fronts,  the  phenomena  of  what  might  be      were  weakened,   ( 1 )   by  the  necessity  of  detach 
«-ii~i  ~i,i  *„„!.: — A  *-.~  ....  i.«...      jng  troops  to   watch   the  Belgian  army,  which 

had  wisely  avoided  risks  in  the  open  field  and 
letired  to  the  fortress  of  Antwerp,  ready  to  at- 
tack the  German  communications;  (2)  by  the 
necessity  of  detaching  troops  to  invest  a  num- 
ber of  French  fortifications  which  with  their 

the  draft  made  on  the  industrial  resources  of      garrisons  were  left  in  their  rear;   and    (3)    by 
^ -L_._.  .._.._!.._.,   ,i-A  .,._  _x ,_    _,i  lhe  llocC8sjty  of  Heil(iing  troops  from  the  West 

front  to  East  Prussia  where  the  Russians  had 
invaded  that  province  sooner  than  had  been  ex- 
pected. The  German  plan  was  completely  shat- 
tered by  the  unexpected  battle  of  the  Marne. 
From  then  to  the  close  of  the  year,  the  Germans 
made  a  number  of  attempts  to  outflank  the 
French  line,  but  without  success;  and  at  the 
close  of  the  year,  the  two  armies  lay  behind 
intrenched  lines  extending  from  the  Channel  to 
Switzerland  and  open  warfare  was  no  longer 


the  countries  involved  that  the  struggle,  other 
conditions  being  equal,  may  be  said  to  have 
resolved  itself  into  a  competition,  each  side 
striving  to  outstrip  the  other  in  supplies  and 
munitions. 

General  Strategy.  In  a  description  of  a 
war  in  which  many  fronts  are  involved,  it  is 
necessary  to  treat  the  operations  on  each  fiont 
separately ;  but  as  these  were  parts  of  a  general 
whole  and  as  all  \\cre  more  or  less  related,  it 
seems  best  to  preface  these  descriptions  by  a 


n\  ^IIIB        UVOt"        \,\J       JJItTHlCV;        tUVDV        U\.Dl  1  J  JIllVfllB        **J         «*  »  •  «  «  v»v  •  »i*jiv«.       wiivt.       wj'i  11         t»uiil*iv>         »»<ACT        *iv»        *vyi»j^v,l 

short  description   of   the   operations  as   related      possible  for  either  side  until  the  opposing  line 


to  each  other  in  time  and  in  strategy. 

Plans  for  a  possible  war  between  the  Triple 
and  Double  Alliance*  wore  prepared  long  before 
the  War  by  the  coordinating  stuffs  of  the  ar- 
mies. These  plans  were  revised  from  year  to 
year  to  conform  to  new  conditions.  On  both 
sides  the  plans  contemplated  offensive  cam- 
paigns. That  of  the  Triple  Alliance  provided 
for  an  invasion  of  Fiance  in  which  about  nine- 
tenths  of  the  Geinian  forces  were  to  be  em- 
ployed, assisted  by  corps  of  the  Italian  army 


was  penetrated  on  a  very  wide  front. 

The  Franco-Russian  plan  proposed  a  simul- 
taneous advance  of  the  entire  French  army  in 
the  west  and  the  Russian  in  the  east  to  compel 
the  Germans  to  divide  their  army  into  fractions 
each  of  which  would  be  smaller  than  the  Allied 
army  opposing  it.  Long  before  the  War,  it  had 
been  noticed  that  the  Germans  were  building 
detraining  stations  along  the  Belgian  frontier. 
This  indicated  a  German  movement  through 
Belgium,  though  it  might  be  only  a  ruse  After 


not  required  for  the  defense  of  the  Fianco-Ttal-       the  formation  of  the  Triple  Entente,  in  view  of 


ian  frontier.  A  small  fraction  of  the  German 
aimy  with  the  entile  Aiistro-Hungarian  army 
was  to  be  employed  on  the  Russian  frontiri. 
In  order  to  au>id  the  delay  that  would  be  oc- 
casioned by  a  frontal  attack  on  the  French 
fiontier  foi tresses  that  foi mod  two  strong  bar- 
riers, Verdun-Toul  and  Epinal-Belfort,  it  was 
proposed  to  make  the  main  thrust  to  the  north 
through  Belgium  and  Luxemburg  and  force  the 
French  to  fi<jht  in  the  open  country  which  forms 
the  basins  of  the  Oise,  Marne  and  Seine  river* 
and  their  tributaries.  It  was  assumed  that  the 
French,  at  the  beginning  of  opeiations,  would 


a  possible  German  movement  through  Belgium 
which  would  probably  cause  Great  Britain  to 
declare  war,  the  coordinating  staff*  of  France, 
Belgium  and  Great  Britain  made  plans  to  meet 
this  situation.  Ho\\e\er,  the  French  military 
authorities  could  not  count  on  the  German  in- 
vasion of  Belgium,  since  it  was  possible  that, 
the  Germans  would  advance  dnectly  o\er  the 
Franco-German  frontier.  Their  plan  was, 
therefore,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  to  move 
their  troops  to  the  Franco-Oi  man  frontier  but 
also  to  provide  an  alternative  to  meet  the 
changed  conditions  caused  hv  the  German  in- 


imade   Lorraine  from  Kpinal   and  Totil,   a  line      vasion   of   Belgium.     The   shifting  of   troops   to 


along  that  frontier  was  therefore  selected  to 
be  organized  for  defense  and  a  part  of  the  Ger- 
man force  in  the  west  was  assigned  to  its  de- 
fense. It  was  thought  that  this  French  force 
would  soon  be  withdrawn  to  meet  the  attack 
from  the  north  The  invasion  of  Belgium 


meet  the  invasion  of  Belgium  would  necessarily 
delay  the  French  offensive  but  it  would  be  com- 
pensated for  by  its  rein  foi  cement  by  the  Belgian 
and  British  armies.  There  was  much  discus- 
sion in  France  of  this  German  invasion  of  Bel- 
gium, and  opinion  was  divided  as  to  whether 


J.11/III  111V  JIW11JI  J    11C  UllUniVSll  VJl  -Utl^lUHl  ^il**n,        i*»»vi        ivj,...«~..          .»»»»..        »..,.,-,,.        ,,.j         T.^,          .,  .._  ..u.,  .. 

would  probably  cause  Belgium  and  Great  Brit-      the  Germans   would    advance  through   southern 

.  .*..  *  ...V  — ~      .        .  1-.      »        •  1  .       •    1  •  ±1     __        £ A    .  .*•*••.« 


ain  to  declare  war,  but  the  Belgian  army  was 
not  a  strong  one  and  Great  Britain  had  only 
a  small  force  that  could  be  used  in  the  first 
operations.  It  was  hoped  that  in  France  such 
a  decisive  victory  would  be  won  as  would  com- 
pel France  to  sue  for  peace,  in  which  case  it 
was  thought  that  the  war  would  end.  Should 
Russia  continue  the  war,  practically  the  whole 
German  army  would  be  available  on  that  front. 
In  August,  1014,  however,  it  was  known  that 
Italy  would  not  take  part  in  the  operations 
and  Austria  was  already  engaged  in  a  war  with 
Serbia,  and  could  not  at  once  employ  her  whole 
army  against  Russia.  Confident  "that  their 


Belgium  only,  avoiding  the  fortresses  of  Lic"ge 
and  Xainur,  or  advance  across  the  Meuse  also 
on  either  side  of  Lie"ge  and  attack  the  two  for- 
tresses. The  French  plans  contemplated  only 
an  advance  through  southern  Belgium  and 
trusted  that  the  two  fortresses  would  hold  out 
long  enough  to  permit  the  French  and  British 
to  go  to  the  assistance  of  the  Belgian  army. 
In  any  case,  the  Belgian  army  was  to  avoid  the 
risk  of  capture  in  the  open  'field  and  take  ref- 
uge in  the  fortress  of  Antwerp. 

The  Germans  announced  their  intention  of 
moving  through  Belgium  immediately  after  de- 
claring war  on  France  and  two  days' later  were 


WAB  IK  ETJ&OPB 


2394 


WAE  IN  ETJBOPE 


at  war  also  with  Great  Britain  and  Belgium. 
The  French  troops,  therefore,  were  deployed 
along  the  frontier,  according  to  the  second  plan. 
As  soon  as  the  troops  were  in  position  the 
French  offensive  began  along  the  entire  front 
but  was  shattered  on  the  entire  line  except  in 
upper  Alsace,  which  was  an  unimportant  front. 
The  Belgian  army  took  refuge  in  Antwerp  and 
the  British  and  French  began  a  retreat  from 
Belgium  across  the  frontier  in  order  to  permit 
troops  to  be  withdrawn  from  the  French  right, 
which  was  strong,  to  the  left,  which  was  weak, 
in  order  to  resume  the  offensive.  This  favor- 
able opportunity  for  resuming  the  offensive 
along  the  entire  front  did  not  occur  until  the 
armies  were  south  of  the  Ma  me  with  the  flanks 
resting  on  the  fortresses  of  Verdun  and  Paris, 
when  the  battle  of  the  Marne  took  place  and  the 
German  armies  were  compelled  to  retreat.  At 
first  it  was  believed  that  the  German  armies 
would  retire  to  the  frontier  but  in  a  few  days 
it  was  found  that  they  had  taken  a  strong  po- 
sition on  the  Aisne,  which  was  extended  east- 
ward to  the  Me  use  nortli  of  Verdun  and  could 
not  be  dislodged  Then  began  the  flanking  op- 
erations that  closed  when  the  western  flanks 
rested  on  the  Channel.  On  the  Eastern  front 
just  as  the  German  armies  were  marching  into 
Belgium,  the  great  Russian  offensive  began  and 
two  strong  armies  advanced  into  East  Prussia 
and  four  into  Austria  The  small  German  force 
could  not  resist  the  advance  and  advised  Ger- 
man Headquarters  that  it  might  be  necessary 
to  withdraw  from  East  Prussia.  However,  un- 
der a  new  commander,  in  the  battle  of  Tannen- 
berg  one  of  the  Russian  armies  was  decisively 
defeated  with  great  loss  and  with  the  assistance 
of  the  corps  sent  from  the  west,  the  other  was 
driven  back  across  the  frontier.  In  the  Aus- 
trian province  of  Galicia  the  four  Russian  ar- 
mies advanced  slowly  and  steadily,  overcoming 
all  resistance;  their  crushing  operations  were 
likened  by  the  press  to  those  of  a  steam  roller. 
Their  cavalry  was  already  threading  its  way 
through  the  passes  of  the  Carpathians  into  Hun- 
gary when  German  Headquarters  sent  from  the 
.intrenched  fronts  in  the  west  troops  to  assist 
the  Austrians.  The  Russians  had  to  cease  their 
advance  against  the  Austrians  to  meet  the  Ger- 
man advance  in  centre  Poland.  Here  the  lines 
swayed  back  and  forth  between  the  frontier  and 
the  Vistula  River  to  the  close  of  the  year,  when, 
as  in  the  west,  both  armies  were  intrenched  for 
the  winter.  On  the  Southern  front  the  Aus- 
trians undertook  two  punitive  expeditions  into 
Serbia,  both  of  which  ended  disastrously  for 
the  Austrians.  The  Serbians  made  no  attempt 
to  cross  the  frontier  and  thus  operations  on  this 
front  died  out. 

The  first  year  had  brought  no  decision.  Both 
sides  had  experienced  severe  losses  and  had 
used  up  most  of  their  reserve  supplies  of  mu- 
nitions; at  its  close  the  munitions  problem  as- 
sumed great  importance  It  was  a  particularly 
serious  one  to  Great  Britain,  who  was  faced  by 
the  necessity  of  raising  and  maintaining  an 
army  equal  to  that  of  France.  The  advantages 
of  the  interior  position  occupied  by  the  Central 
Powers  became  apparent  as  soon  as  the  lines 
were  intrenched.  Under  cover  of  the  intrench- 
ments,  reserves  could  be  shifted  rapidly  from 
the  Western  to  the  Eastern  frontier  due  to  the 
fine  railway  system  of  Germany. 

At  the  beginning  of  1015,  the  Allies  still  had 
hopes  that  success  could  be  secured  through  the 


great  Russian  armies  and  operations  on  the 
Western  front  were  confined  mostly  to  attacks 
here  and  there  to  prevent  the  Germans  from 
sending  troops  from  the  west  to  the  east.  Only 
once  did  they  make  an  attack  with  the  hope  of 
breaking  through  on  a  wide  front.  On  the 
Eastern  front  the  Germans  found  the  situation 
far  from  satisfactory  as  the  Austrian  armies 
were  greatly  demoralized.  To  restore  con- 
fidence, it  was  necessary  to  dislodge  the  Rus- 
sians from  their  threatening  position  so  that 
if  necessary  some  of  the  troops  could  be  re- 
turned to  the  Western  front.  In  May,  there- 
fore, began  the  great  drive  in  the  east  The 
Russian  line  was  broken  in  the  south  and  the 
Russian  armies  in  Austrian  Galicia  were  in 
full  retreat.  To  check  this  disaster  and  draw 
troops  from  this  front,  the  Allied  Powers  pur- 
suaded  Italy,  who  had  been  listening  to  the 
diplomats  of  both  sides,  to  declare  war  against 
the  Central  Powers.  War  was  declared  on  May 
23  and  the  Italian  armies  were  deployed  on  the 
Austro-Italian  frontier.  The  Italian  declara- 
tion of  war  did  not  have  as  great  an  effect  as 
the  Allies  hoped  Although  the  Austrians  were 
compelled  to  detach  troops  to  go  to  the  new 
front,  that  front  was  already  well  intrenched 
and  the  drive  against  the  Russians  had  gained 
such  a  momentum  that  it  still  went  on.  The 
Russians  were  driven  back  across  the  frontier 
and  lost  all  their  frontier  fortresses  on  the 
Niemen,  Narcw,  Vistula,  and  Bug  Rivers. 
When  the  drive  ceased  about  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember, near  the  Baltic  the  Russians  were  be- 
hind the  Duna  River  between  Riga  and  Puna- 
burg.  From  Dunaburg  the  line  ran  straight 
south  to  the  Dniester  River.  As  soon  aa  the 
armies  ceased  active  operations,  the  line  was 
intrenched.  The  Russians  had  experienced  tre- 
mendous losses  in  men  and  munitions  of  war; 
the  former  could  be  readily  replaced  but  not 
the  latter  because  of  the  isolated  position  of 
Russia.  The  Russian  army  could  a^ain  resume 
the  offensive  under  favorable  conditions  but  all 
hope  that  it  would  be  the  decisive  factor  in  the 
War  on  the  side  of  the  Allies  had  to  be  aban- 
doned. On  the  Italian  front  nothing  worthy  of 
note  occurred  during  the  year. 

War  lietween  Turkey  and  the  Allied  powers 
was  declared  in  November,  1014,  and  soon  de- 
veloped on  four  fronts.  In  Armenia,  the  Rus- 
sian Caucasian  army  invaded  Turkey  in  Novem- 
ber to  capture  Erzerum.  In  December,  it  was 
defeated  between  Er/erum  and  the  frontier  and 
retired  pursued  by  the  Turkish  eastern  army. 
The  Turks  in  turn  were  defeated  in  January 
and  operations  on  this  front  ceased,  as  neither 
the  Russians  nor  the  Turks  could  spare  forces 
from  other  fronts  to  reinforce  these  armies 
In  Mesopotamia,  in  November,  1014,  the  British 
Indian  government  landed  a  force  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Tigris  River  primarily  to  protect 
the  oil  fields  in  southwestern  Persia.  This 
force  was  gradually  increased  and  slowly  made 
its  way  up  the  Tigris  River,  meeting  with 
slight  resistance.  In  the  latter  part  of  Sep- 
tember, it  captured  and  occupied  Kut.  Bagdad 
was  now  only  100  miles  distant  and  the  tempta- 
tion to  effect  its  capture  proved  too  much  for 
the  commanding  officers  of  the  Tigris  Expe- 
ditionary Force.  With  a  little  more  than  a 
division,  the  attempt  was  made  in  November, 
but  before  the  force  reached  Bagdad  it  was 
attacked  by  a  superior  Turkish  force  and  in  a 
few  days  found  itself  back  in  Kut  invested  by 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


1395 


WAB  IN  ETJItOPE 


the  Turks.  In  the  west  in  January,  1915,  the 
Turks  assembled  a  small  army  in  southern  Pal- 
estine for  the  purpose  of  crossing  the  Sinai 
Desert  and  the  Suez  Canal,  possibly  in  the  hope 
of  raising  an  insurrection  in  Egypt  That  it 
ever  got  across  the  desert  is  a  marvel  in  itself 
and  would  have  been  impossible  except  for  the 
favorable  condition  of  the  desert  wells.  A  few 
boatloads  of  troops  actually  got  across  the 
canal  The  army  was  unable  to  maintain  itself 
along  the  canal  and  retired  leaving  detachments 
to  guard  the  scattered  wells. 

The  most  important  operations  in  Turkey  in 
1015  were  those  connected  with  the  ill-fated 
(Jallipoli  Expedition.  The  opening  of  the  Turk- 
ish straits  to  secure  communication  with  Russia 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Turkish  Black  Sea 
fleet  must  have  appeared  as  important  strategic 
objectives  as  soon  as  Turkey  entered  the  War. 
Whether  this  could  be  best  effected  by  an  attack 
of  the  defenses  of  the  Dardanelles  directly  or 
obtained  as  a  result  of  operations  from  a  point 
on  the  Turkish  coast  farther  south  was  not  so 
clear  There  were  also  some  who  argued  that 
a  decision  on  the  Western  front  was  impossible 
for  some  time,  as  it  would  take  time  to  solve  the 
munitions  problem  and  in  the  meantime  it 
would  be  better  to  attack  the  Turkish  armies 
and  compel  Turkey  to  make  peace.  Owing  to 
the  requests  of  both  British  and  French  com- 
manders on  the  Western  front  for  more  troops, 
it  was  difficult  to  find  troops  for  any  new  ex- 
pedition In  K<rypt,  however,  were  the  Aus- 
tralian and  New  Zealand  troops  being  trained 
for  war,  a  division  of  Territorials  from  England 
and  soiiio  troops  from  India.  After  the  defeat 
of  the  Turkish  desert  expedition,  these  became 
available  but  as  they  were  untried  troops  it  was 
desirable  to  have  at  Jeast  one  division  of  reg- 
ulars. This  was  slated  for  France  but,  after 
the  first  great  offensive  of  the  British  failed  at 
Nruve  Chapelle,  it  was  decided  to  send  the  di- 
vision to  Turkey.  The  Dardanelles  operations 
began  witli  a  naval  attack  to  force  the  entrance, 
which  failed.  It  was  followed  some  time  after 
by  the  landing  of  British  and  French  forces 
(April  24)  to  capture  the  Gallipoli  Peninsula. 
In  the  meantime  the  Turks  had  been  warned 
and  met  both  the  landing  of  troops  and  the  sub- 
sequent operations  to  capture  the  peninsula 
with  such  obstinate  resistance  that  in  Novem- 
ber it  was  decided  to  abandon  the  project  and 
withdraw  the  troops.  Most  of  the  British 
troops  returned  to  Egypt  and  were  later  sent  to 
other  fronts  The  Allies  had  hoped  that  the 
Creek  army  would  assist  in  the  Gallipoli  op- 
erations, but  in  this  they  were  disappointed. 

As  soon  as  Turkey  entered  the  War,  Bulgaria 
occupied  a  very  strategic  position;  it  became 
even  more  important  when  the  Allies  landed  at 
Gallipoli.  If  she  joined  the  Allies  and  threat- 
ened Constantinople  it  would  cause  the  Turks 
to  reinforce  that  front  and  weaken  their  resist- 
ance at  Gallipoli.  It  would  cut  Turkey  from 
all  communication  with  her  two  allies  and 
might  cause  her  prompt  surrender.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  she  joined  the  Central  Powers  it 
would  enable  them  to  open  direct  communica- 
tion through  Serbia  and  Bulgaria  with  Turkey 
and  give  them  the  advantage  of  interior  lines 
to  all  fronts.  The  diplomats  of  lx>th  sides 
therefore  began  a  contest  to  win  Bulgaria  but 
in  this  contest  the  Allies  were  handicapped  by 
the  enmity  between  the  Bulgarians  and  Ser- 
bians as  a  result  of  the  Balkan  War  and  by  the 


successful  campaign  of  the  Central  Powers  in 
Russia.  Bulgaria  probably  entered  into  a  se- 
cret agreement  to  join  the  Central  Powers  in 
September,  1015,  as  the  Germans  and  Austnans 
both  withdrew  troops  from  other  fronts  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  that  month  each  concentrated 
an  army  on  the  Serbian  frontier.  The  two 
armies  invaded  Serbia  early  in  October  and  were 
soon  joined  by  the  Bulgarians.  It  was  all  the 
Serbian  commander  could  do  to  save  his  armies, 
which  he  did  by  crossing  the  mountains  in  win- 
ter and  reaching  the  Adriatic  with  sorely  de- 
pleted ranks.  On  the  island  of  Corfu  the 
Serbian  army  wrfs  reorganized. 

To  protect  the  Serbian  retreat,  which  it  was 
hoped  could  be  effected  in  the  direction  of  Sa- 
loniki,  both  British  and  French  landed  forces  at 
that  point  where  they  began  the  construction 
of  a  great  intrenched  camp.  The  armies  of  the 
Central  Powers  did  not  cross  the  Greek  frontier 
and  shortly  thereafter  most  of  the  German  and 
Austrian  divisions  were  withdrawn  from  Bul- 
garia. The  international  railway  through  Ser- 
bia to  Constantinople  was  put  in  operation. 

The  operations  of  1915  had  increased  the 
number  of  fronts  and  the  number  of  countries 
engaged  in  the  War  but  had  brought  no  im- 
portant decision  on  any  front.  During  1915, 
the  British  force  on  the  Western  front  was 
greatly  increased  and  was  able  to  relieve  the 
French  on  a  much  wider  front.  At  the  close  of 
the  year  the  British  had  three  armies  on  this 
front,  each  composed  of  three  corps,  each 
stronger  than  a  French  corps.  This  permitted 
the  French  to  withdraw  some  of  their  armies 
and  place  them  in  reserve. 

The  Allied  plan  for  the  Western,  Eastern  and 
Italian  fronts  for  1916  was  to  remain  on  the 
defensive  until  the  Russian  army  could  be  re- 
organized and  then  assume  the  offensive  simulta- 
neously on  all  fronts.  Rumania  had  until  now 
remained  neutral  but  in  this  year  promised  to 
declare  war  on  Austria  and  invade  Hungary  as 
soon  as  her  armies  were  ready.  Before  she 
acted,  however,  the  Allies  were  to  begin  an  of- 
fensive from  Salon iki  and  thus  keep  the  Bulga- 
rian forces  on  that  front.  In  this  offensive  the 
Allies  again  counted  on  securing  the  assistance 
of  the  Greek  army.  In  Turkey  the  Russians 
promised  to  renew  the  invasion  of  Armenia  and 
thus  assist  the  British  in  their  operations  to 
rescue  the  British  force  invested  in  Kut.  Some 
of  these  plans  had  to  be  modified,  as  the  Central 
Powers  took  the  initiative  this  year. 

The  Germans  planned  to  remain  on  the  defen- 
sive dn  the  Eastern  front  and  a^ain  assume  the 
offensive  in  the  west.  Their  drive  this  time  was 
against  the  fortress  of  Verdun  whose  capture 
would  have  an  important  effect  on  the  morale 
of  the  French  nation.  The  Austrians  were  re- 
quested to  remain  on  the  defensive  on  both  the 
Russian  and  the  Italian  fronts,  but  they  would 
not  consent  to  this  and  planned  an  offensive 
campaign  against  the  Italians  from  the  Trent 
region.  In  Turkey  the  principal  operation 
planned  was  the  capture  of  the  British  force 
in  Kut.  On  other  fronts  the  Turks  were  to  re- 
main on  the  defensive. 

The  Verdun  offensive,  which  developed  into 
a  great  offensive  on  both  sides  of  the  Meuse  and 
from  first  to  last  employed  a  very  large  fraction 
of  both  the  German  and  French  forces  in  the 
west,  failed  in  its  purpose  although  the  Ger- 
mans almost  reached  the  town.  It  lasted  from 
the  middle  of  February  until  the  middle  of  July. 


WAB  IN  EUBOFS 


2396 


WAB  IN  EUBOPB 


While  it  was  in  progress,  a  fourth  British  army 
took  its  position  in  line  to  enable  French  troops 
to  go  to  Verdun.  In  May  the  Austrian  offensive 
in  Italy  took  place  and  the  Austrians  advanced 
fiom  the  Trentino  and  almost  reached  their  ob- 
jective, which  was  the  Italian  plain  in  the  rear 
of  the  Italian  armies  on  the  Isonzo.  Knowing 
that  to  raise  this  attacking  force  the  Austrians 
must  have  withdrawn  troops  from  the  Russian 
front,  the  Allies  requested  Russia  to  attack  the 
Austrians  on  their  front.  The  Russians  at- 
tacked on  a  broad  front  and  the  Austrian  line 
immediately  gave  way,  and  the  Russian  ad- 
vanced about  40  miles  on  a  front  80  miles.  To 
check  the  Russian  advance,  German  and  even 
Turkish  troops  were  sent  to  the  Austrian  front 
and  the  Austrians  were  obliged  to  send  back 
troops  from  the  Trentino. 

It  was  while  the  Russians  were  btill  advanc- 
ing that  the  British  and  French  made  their 
great  offensive  in  the  west — the  Sonime  drive — 
to  relieve  the  pressure  on  Verdun,  assist  the 
Russians  and  Italians,  and  also  prepare  for  the 
entrance  of  Rumania  into  the  War  by  keeping 
the  German  forces  employed.  This  great  of- 
fensive began  July  1  and  lasted  into  November. 
Jt  enabled  the  French  to  make  countei attacks 
in  the  Verdun  sector  in  October  and  December 
and  recover  a  part  of  the  territory  captured  by 
the  Germans  in  the  first  half  of  the  year.  The 
Russian  offensive  enabled  the  Italians  to  ad- 
A'ance  along  the  Isonzo  and  capture  the  town 
of  Goritza  in  August. 

In  the  intrenched  camp  of  Saloniki,  then? 
were  assembled  the  reorganized  Serbian  anm, 
a  number  of  British  and  French  divisions  and 
a  Russian  division.  This  force  was  placed  un- 
der a  French  commander,  Serrail,  and  about 
August  1  he  began  the  offensive  which  was  to 
precede  the  declaration  of  war  by  Rumania. 
Again  the  Allies  requested  the  assistance  of  the 
Greek  government,  which  was  refused;  and 
lest  the  Greek  army  should  prove  a  menace  in 
their  rear,  the  Allies  forced  the  Greek  govern- 
ment to  demobilize  its  army.  The  fact  that 
the  Allied  armies  at  Saloniki  were  in  Greek 
territory  and  Greece  was  still  neutral  made  a 
complicated  situation.  The  offensive  began 
August  1  and  continued  until  November.  The 
Rumanians  expected  the  advance  to  be  into 
Bulgaria  but  in  this  direction  the  Allies  made 
no  headway.  They  did,  however,  penetrate 
Serbia  and  recapture  Monastir. 

Rumania  declared  war  August  27;  at  this 
time  the  Western  front  was  ablaze  with  the 
Soimne  drive  in  the  north  and  the  Italian  of- 
fensive in  the  south  and  the  Central  Powers 
could  withdraw  no  troops  from  those  fronts. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  operations  on  the  Rus- 
sian front  had  subsided  and  the  Saloniki  drive 
had  made  no  appreciable  effect  on  that  front. 
The  Central  Powers,  therefore,  were  able  to  as- 
semble two  armies  under  German  commanders 
1o  meet  the  new  offensive;  one  formed  of  Ger- 
man, Bulgarian  and  Turkish  troops  was  assem- 
bled in  Bulgaria  and  another  of  German  and 
Austrian  troops  in  Hungary.  At  first  the  Ru- 
manians swept  over  the  mountains  into  Tran- 
sylvania but  they  had  to  be  recalled  when  the 
hostile  army  penetrated  Rumania  south  of  the 
Danube  River  from  Bulgaria.  The  other  hos- 
tile anny  then  penetrated  the  mountains  and 
reached  the  Rumanian  plain  from  the  north  and 
the  two  armies  united  in  front  of  the  Ruma- 
nian capital,  Bucharest.  The  Central  Powers 


were  able  to  drive  the  Rumanians  out  of  south* 
ern  Rumania  but  aided  by  Russian  troops  the 
Rumanians  were  able  to  hold  eastern  Rumania. 
Operations  in  Rumania  ceased  at  the  end  of  the 
year. 

In  Armenia  the  Russian  armies  crossed  the 
frontier  and  in  succession  captured  Erzerum, 
Trebizond  and  Erzingan ;  a  further  advance  into 
a  mountainous  country  without  railways  proved 
impossible  and  the  advance  stopped  about  the 
middle  of  the  year.  At  this  time  the  Turks 
were  busily  engaged  farther  south  with  the 
British  forces  on  the  Tigris.  After  the  fall  of 
Kut  in  the  last  of  April,  active  operations  on 
the  Tigris  ceased  until  the  closo  of  the  year, 
which  enabled  the  Tiuks  to  turn  their  attention 
to  the  Russians,  whom  they  compelled  to  evacu- 
ate a  part  of  the  territory  in  their  possession 
The  Biitish  government  was  dissatisfied  with 
the  conduct  of  affairs  on  the  Tigris  by  the  In- 
dian government  and  they  were  transferred  to 
the  Imperial  General  Staff.  Troops  were  sent 
to  this  section  from  Eg\pt  and  efforts  weie 
made  to  rescue  the  Biitish  troopn  in  Kut.  All 
attempts  made  during  the  first  part  of  19 10 
failed  and  on  April  29  the  gairiwn  surrendered 
British  prestige  could  not  allow  the  situation 
to  end  in  this  manner.  BO  during  the  remainder 
of  the  year  prepaiations  wore  made  for  an  ad- 
\ancc  on  Bagdad  as  soon  as  \\intoi  came  and 
the  weather  wan  favorable  On  the  desert 
front,  the  British  troops  occupied  posts  on  the 
east  Iwink  of  the  Suez  Canal  and  began  the 
eonsti  notion  of  a  railway  along  the  coast  in 
preparation  for  an  invasion  of  Palestine.  The 
Turks  made  several  futile  attempts  tit  interfere 
with  railway  construction  but  the  work  went 
steadily  on  and  at  the  close  of  the  year  wa« 
within  !.">  miles  of  El  Arish,  the  Turkish  fron- 
tier post. 

In  1910,  in  spite  of  elaborate  preparations 
and  combinations  there  had  been  no  decision  on 
any  fiont  The  Allies  hud  boon  reinforced  by 
Rumania  and  Pnitugnl  but  onh  one  corps  of 
the  latter  country  was  sent  to  the  Western 
front,  whoie  it  was  attached  to  a  British  army. 
For  the  Allies  the  situation  in  the  east  was  very 
unsatisfactory  and  French  officers  \\ere  sent  to 
leorganizo  the  Rumanian  army  In  June,  1910. 
Lord  Kitchener  started  for  Russia  to  study 
the  situation  there  but  was  lost  at  sea.  Of 
the  Central  Powers,  Turkey  had  about  reached 
the  end  of  her  resources  and  Austria  was  rapid- 
ly approaching  the  same  state.  In  all  the  Cen- 
tral states  theie  was  a  fooling  of  depression  duo 
to  the  length  of  the  War  and  to  the  realization 
of  the  superiority  of  the  Allies  in  men,  wealth 
and  resources.  The  blockade  was  daily  becom- 
ing more  oppressive.  No  longer  confident  of 
winning  on  land,  Gorman  Headquarters  decided 
to  win  at  sea  by  an  unrestricted  war  by  its 
U-boats  on  all  vessels,  hostile  and  neutral  bring- 
ing supplies  to  Allied  ports.  On  land  the  op- 
erations were  to  be  defensive  primarily. 

In  19 1C,  the  British  army  reached  its  max- 
imum strength  and  now  the  Allies  were  su- 
perior both  in  artillery  and  aircraft.  The  con- 
dition of  the  Turkish  'and  Austrian  armies  was 
known  and  the  Allies  confidently  expected  to 
end  the  war  in  1917  although  it  was  known  that 
no  great  effort  could  be  expected  from  Russia 
or  Rumania.  On  all  other  fronts  a  vigorous 
offensive  was  planned.  To  forestall  the  Ger- 
mans and  take  advantage  of  the  wedge  driven 
in  the  German  line  by  the  Somrne  drive,  an  at- 


WAB  IN  EUBOPB 


1397 


WAB  IN  EUBOPE 


tack  was  to  begin  early  in  the  year.  This 
salient  was  to  be  the  centre  of  attack,  which 
was  to  be  extended  far  north  by  the  British  and 
to  the  east  as  far  as  Reims  by  the  French.  It 
was  confidently  believed  a  break-through  would 
result.  As  in  1916,  the  Germans  secured  the 
initiative,  not,  however,  by  an  attack  but  by 
a  retreat.  About  the  middle  of  March,  on  the 
entire  front  from  the  vicinity  of  Arras  to  that 
of  Soissons,  they  fell  back  to  a  new  line  selected 
and  intrenched  that  winter,  which  at  one  point 
was  25  miles  behind  their  original  line.  As 
they  retreated  they  destroyed  everything  of 
military  value  to  the  Allies  and  blocked  all  the 
roads.  This  retreat  strengthened  the  German 
position  by  shortening  the  line  to  be  held.  As 
it  would  take  some  time  for  the  Allied  armies 
on  the  front  that  had  been  evacuated  to  make 
preparations  for  a  new  attack,  it  was  derided 
to  make  a  British  attack  to  the  north  and  a 
French  attack  to  the  east.  The  British  attack 
met  with  considerable  success  but  was  not  a 
break-through;  the  French  attack  was  repulsed. 
The  French  commander  hnd  been  so  confident  of 
success  and  had  promised  so  much  that  his  re- 
pulse had  a  serious  effect  on  the  morale  of  the 
French  army.  The  morale  was  lestnied  by  two 
successful  attacks  under  a  new  commandei  in 
August  and  September  on  small  fionts.  Dur- 
ing the  remaindei  of  the  year,  the  British  en- 
gaged in  two  other  offenshcs,  one  east  of  Vpres 
and  the  other  at  Cambrai,  in  which  ground  was 
gained  but  no  decision  was  secured 

In  Hussia,  conditions  both  in  the  government 
and  the  army  \\ere  becoming  more  chaotic 
The  Oar  abdicated  and  the  Kerensky  govern 
ment  came  into  powei  Of  the  armies,  only 
the  southern  group  remained  a  fairly  disciplined 
army  and  with  these  the  Russians  assumed  the 
offensive  in  July;  at  first  successful,  undei 
counterattacks  they  quickly  crumbled  and  for 
the  first  time  in  the  War  retired  behind  the 
border  on  that  front  In  the  north  the  Ger- 
mans captured  Higa.  When  the  Kerensky  gov- 
ernment fell  in  December  an  armistice  \\as  de- 
clared on  that  front. 

The  Italians  fought  with  great  \igor  and 
with  considerable  success  until  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, when,  due  to  hea\y  losses,  offensive  op- 
erations closed  From  the  point  of  view  of  the 
Central  Powers  the  situation  seemed  so  desper- 
ate that  a  German  army  was  sent  to  this  front. 
\Yith  this  army  as  the  spear  point  a  counter- 
offensive  was  begun  in  October,  the  Italian  line 
was  pierced  and  the  Italians  were  compelled  to 
retreat  until  they  reached  the  Pi^e  River  far 
in  the  rear.  Here  they  were  reinforced  by 
French  and  British  troops  and  the  retreat  was 
stopped. 

Practically  nothing  was  done  on  the  Saloniki 
front  during  the  year.  In  June,  the  Allies  com- 
pelled the  King  of  Greece  to  leave  the  country; 
the  government  was  reorganized  and  in  July 
declared  war  on  the  Central  Powers.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  year  was  spent  in  reorganizing 
the  Greek  Army  and  bringing  it  to  the  Salon  - 
ikan  front. 

Practically  nothing  was  accomplished  on  the 
Rumanian  front  and  when  in  December  the  Rus- 
sians agreed  to  an  armistice  with  the  Central 
Powers  the  Rumanian  government  was  obliged 
to  do  the  same. 

The  greatest  Allied  successes  of  the  year  were 
gained  by  the  British  in  Turkey.  The  campaign 
in  Mesopotamia  tegan  in  December,  1016,  and 


in  the  latter  part  of  February  the  Turkg  were 
manoeuvred  out  of  Kut  with  its  strong  defenses 
and  retired  on  Bagdad.  The  British  followed 
and  entered  Bagdad,  March  11.  The  British 
now  consolidated  their  hold  by  occupying  the 
country  for  a  considerable  distance  around  Bag- 
dad. On  the  desert  front,  the  British  reached 
Rafa  with  their  railroad  and  troops  early  in 
1017.  Their  objective  now  was  the  Turkish 
frontier  position  of  Gaza,  upon  which  they 
made  two  unsuccessful  attacks  in  March  and 
April.  The  advance  was  then  postponed  until 
the  end  of  October.  The  Turks  were  now  man- 
oeuvred out  of  this  position  and  retreated 
rapidly  northward  followed  by  the  British. 
Jaffa  was  evacuated  by  the  Turks  on  Novem- 
I>er  15  and  Jerusalem  on  December  9  In  Tur- 
key, resistance  was  practically  broken  and  the 
end  was  in  sight. 

Although  there  had  been  no  decisive  events 
on  any  front  save  that  of  Turkey,  the  War  was 
nearer  its  end  than  any  one  anticipated — the 
U-boat  warfare  failed  to  secure  decisive  results, 
but  had  caused  the  I'nited  States  to  declare 
war.  The  entrance  of  the  United  States  in 
the  War  produced  immediately  a  tremen- 
dous eliect  on  all  the  countries  engaged  in  it. 
With  the  enormous  resources  of  this  country  in 
men  and  materials  added  to  their  own,  the  Al- 
lies were  sure  to  win  Tlie  only  question  in 
doubt  was  when  the  Ameiicans  would  be  ready. 

For  the  year  1018,  the  Allies  proposed  to 
lemain  on  the  defensive  on  the  Western  front 
until  the  Americans  were  read\  to  take  the 
field  in  sufficient  foice.  On  the  Italian  front  it 
\\as  necessaiy  to  remain  on  the  defensive  until 
the  Italian  Army  was  leorganized  On  the 
Salonikan  front  and  in  Palestine  the  offensive 
was  to  be  resumed  as  soon  as  practicable. 

The  Central  Powers  could  not  remain  on  the 
defensive.  Failing  to  win  the  wai  by  I" -boat 
operations,  they  were  obliged  to  again  try  it  on 
land.  Little  could  be  expected  of  the  Bulga- 
lians  or  Turks,  who  weie  necessarily  on  the  de- 
fensixe.  but  as  the  Russians  ami  Rumanians 
Avere  no  longer  at  war  the  troops  on  these  fronts 
could  be  greatly  reduced  and  thus  a  striking 
force  could  lie  assembled  by  the  Gcimans  and 
Austrians  on  the  Western  and  Italian  fionts. 

The  Germans  had  been  preparing  for  this  last 
offensive  during  the  winter  as  they  wished  to 
launch  it  as  eaily  in  the  j ear  as  possible.  They 
attacked  on  the  Western  front  and  in  succes- 
sion three  great  wedges  were  diiven  in  the 
Allied  lines,  but  the  lines  were  not  actually 
broken.  All  attempts  to  connect  or  extend  the 
areas  gained  in  these  attacks  failed.  The  suc- 
cessive attacks  lasted  from  the  middle  of  March 
to  the  middle  of  July.  Then  began  the  Allied 
counterattacks  and  by  the  middle  of  September 
the  Germans  were  piaetically  back  in  their 
original  lines  with  greatly  shattered  forces. 
The  final  campaign  began  towards  the  end  of 
the  month  and  ended  with  the  Armistice,  No- 
vember 11. 

The  Austrians  made  their  great  attack  on  the 
Piave  May  15-22  and  met  with  a  repulse.  Aft- 
er this  they  were  completely  discouraged  and 
when  the  Italians  made  a  counterattack  on  Oc- 
tober 24  they  offered  little  resistance,  as  they 
realized  that  the  War  was  practically  over; 
Bulgaria  had  surrendered  and  the  German  ar- 
mies were  in  retreat. 

The  advance  from  Saloniki  began  September 
14  and  here  too  the  Bulgarians  offered  little 


WAB  IN  EUBOPB 


1398 


WAB  IK  ETJBOPB 


resistance  as  they  realized  that  with  the  Ger- 
mans in  retreat  the  War  was  practically  lost* 
On  September  30,  war  was  over  on  this  front. 

In  Turkey,  the  British  Palestine  army  was 
not  able  to  undertake  offensive  operations  until 
the  latter  part  of  September  because  during 
the  first  months  of  the  year  it  was  necessary  to 
develop  the  railways  and  secure  supplies.  Then 
in  April,  to  meet  the  German  attacks  in  the 
west,  a  large  number  of  troops  were  withdrawn 
from  this  front  and  sent  to  reinforce  the  Brit- 
ish armies  in  France;  they  were  replaced  by 
Indian  troops  from  Mesopotamia  and  other 
points.  The  advance  was  begun  in  the  latter 
part  of  September  and  in  a  few  days  the  Turk- 
ish armies  in  front  were  either  captured  or 
dispersed.  The  Turkish  armistice  was  signed 
Octolier  30. 

For  technical  discussions  of  the  conduct  of 
the  War,  see  the  following  articles:  ARTIL- 
LERY; ORDNANCE;  TRENCH  WARFARE  MATFRIAL; 
SMALL  ARMS  AND  MACHINE  GUNS;  EXPLOSIVES; 
STRATEGY  AND  TACTICS;  ARMIES  AND  ARMY 
ORGANIZATION;  CHEMICAL  WARFARE.  See  also 
the  articles  AFRICA;  ARABIA;  PERSIA;  etc.,  for 
accounts  of  special  phases  of  the  War. 

THE   WESTERN   FRONT 

Mobilization  and  Concentration.  For 
operations  on  the  Western  front,  Germany 
mobilized  35  active  and  reserve  army  corps, 
4  cavalry  corps  and  25  Landwehr  brigades  for 
field  service  besides  a  number  of  divisions  as- 
signed to  the  defense  of  her  western  fortresses. 
The  field  troops  were  organized  into  seven  ar- 
mies, all  of  whom  were  to  be  on  her  western 
frontier  on  August  16  ready  for  active  opera- 
tions. 


active  corps  were  organized  into  five  armies: 


I   Army  —  von    Kluck      

Army    I 
corps 
7 
6 

^andwehr 
brigades 

a 

2 

Ill  Army  —  von  Hausen    . 
IV    Array  —  Crown    Prince   Wurtcm- 

4 
5 

1 
1 

V  Army  —  Crown  Prince  Germany 
VI    Army  —  Crown     Prince    Bavaria 
VII    Army  —  von    Heermgen 

5 
5 
3 

5 
6 

7 

During  the  preliminary  operations,  the  four 
cavalry  corps  were  under  Herman  Headquarters 
but  later  were  assigned  to  the  armies:  1st  to 
II  army,  2d  to  I  army,  3d  to  VI  army  and  4th 
to  V  army. 

The  I  and  II  armies  were  to  invade  Belgium 
and  cross  the  Meuse  River  between  the  Holland 
frontier  and  Namur.  The  III,  IV  and  V  armies 
were  to  cross  southern  Belgium  and  Luxemburg 
and  reach  the  Meuse  River  between  Namur  and 
Verdun.  The  VI  and  VII  armies  were  to  occu- 
py an  intrenched  position  along  the  French  fron- 
tier south  of  Metx  to  meet  any  French  advance 
into  Lorraine.  To  the  II  army  was  assigned 
the  task  of  capturing  the  fortress  of  Lie"ge  and 
to  the  II  and  III  armies  that  of  Namur.  To 
the  I  army  was  assigned  the  task  of  dealing 
with  the  Belgian  army  and  outflanking  the 
French  and  Brit  inn  armies. 

Belgium  mobilised  her  six  divisions  and  sent 
one  to  defend  Li<*»gp  and  another  to  defend  Na- 
mur. From  the  others  she  formed  a  small  field 
army. 

France  mobilized  her  21  active  corps,  a  colo- 
nial corps,  25  reserve  divisions,  10  cavalry  di- 
visions, and  several  Territorial  divisions.  The 


Army 

Cavalry 

corps 

divisions 

I  Army—  Dubail   

5 

2 

II   Army  —  CftHtelnau.    

6 

2 

Ill  Army  —  Ruffey    

4 

1 

IV  Army  —  Longle  de  Gary 

5 

1 

V  Army  —  Lanrozac       

3 

1 

Three  cavalry  divisions  were  formed  into  a  sep- 
arate corps — Sordet — subject  to  the  orders  of 
the  French  cominaiider-in-chief,  Joflre.  Some 
of  the  reserve  divisions  were  assigned  to  the 
armies  and  the  others  to  the  frontier  fortresses 
and  to  the  defense  of  Paris. 

The  I  army  covered  the  frontier  from  Belfort 
to  the  north  of  Epinal;  four  of  its  corps  were 
on  the  left  ready  to  invade  Lorraine  with  the 

II  army.     The  11  army  had  four  corps  in  front 
of   Nancy   and   one   in    reserve.     The   III    army 
was  in  front  of  Verdun  ready  to  advance  into 
Lorraine  north   of  Met/.     Between  the  II  and 

III  armies  was  a  so-called  VI  army — Manoury 
— consisting  of   three  or  four  reserve  divisions 
designed  to  invest  the  fortress  of  Metz.     The  V 
army  was  on  the  Meuse  River  between  Mgzierca 
and  Verdun,  guarding  the  flank  of  the  III  and 
ready  to   support   it.     The    IV    army   formed   a 
general  reserve  behind  Verdun  ready  to  support 
either  the  II  or  III  army.     The  position  of  the 
armies  was  based  on  the  possible  concentration 
of    the   Gorman    armies   on    the    Franco-German 
frontier.     Should  the  Germans  violate  the  neu- 
trality  of    Belgium    the    plan    provided    for   the 
movement   of   the   V   army  northward    into   the 
angle   between    the   Sainbre   and   Meuse    Rivers; 
the  IV  army  was  then  to  replace  the  V  army 
on  the  Mouse  between  Mo>ieres  and  Verdun. 

Battles  of  the  Frontier.  It  was  JoiTie's 
plan  to  assume  the  offensive  as  soon  as  his  ar- 
mies were  in  position.  The  I  and  II  armies 
were  ready  on  August  l.r>,  and  having  organized 
a  VII  army — Pan — from  the  corps  and  reserve 
divisions  around  Belfort,  he  ordered  the  VII, 
I  and  II  armies  to  advance.  The  VII  army 
met  with  slight  resistance  and  advanced  until 
recalled  by  the  defeat  of  the  I  and  II.  These 
two  armies  advanced  and  on  August  20  encoiin- 
teied  an  equal  force  of  the  VI  and  VII  German 
armies  occupying  a  strong  position  near  the 
frontier.  The  French  attack  being  repulsed  the 
French  armies  retired  slowly  and  took  an  equal- 
ly strong  position  on  the  Meurthe  and  Mortagoe 
Rivers  guarding  the  Charmcs  gap  between  Nan- 
cy and  the  Vosges  Mountains.  The  Germans 
were  unable  to  break  the  line  and  each  army 
was  practically  engaged  in  holding  the  other 
until  the  battle  of  the  Marne  was  over.  The 
Germans  then  retired  to  an  intrenched  line  near 
the  frontier  in  order  to  release  some  of  the 
corps.  The  battle  was  known  as  that  of  Lor- 
raine or  Charmes. 

As  soon  as  the  IV  French  array  was  in  po- 
sition and  had  received  further  reinforcements, 
the  III  and  IV  armies  were  directed  to  cross  tho 
frontier  into  Luxemburg  and  southern  Belgium 
and  break  up  the  German  troops  moving 
through  that  area.  In  the  forest  of  Ardennes 
they  encountered  an  equal  force  of  the  IV  and 
V  German  armies,  August  22,  and  here,  top, 
the  French  were  compelled  to  withdraw.  This 
battle  was  known  as  that  of  Ardennes. 

The  V  French  army  moved  up  in  the  angle  of 
the  Meuse  and  Sambre  Rivers  arid  posted  one 


A  2*  B  V  C  <* 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


1399 


WAB  IN  BTTBOFE 


corps  along  the  Meuse  and  the  other  two  along 
the  Sambre.  In  this  section  the  French  cavalry 
corps  had  endeavored  to  ascertain  the  German 
forces  east  of  the  Meuse  but  wan  unable  to 
penetrate  the  cavalry  screen  formed  of  the  1st 
and  4th  German  cavalry  corps.  The  V  army 
was  reinforced  by  this  cavalry  corps,  a  corps 
from  the  II  army,  two  divisions  from  Algiers 
and  three  reserve  divisions.  As  soon  as  it  re- 
ceived its  reinforcements  and  the  British  army 
arrived  on  its  left,  it  was  to  cross  the  Sambre 
River  and  attack  the  Germans  there. 

The  British  mobilized  their  so-called  Expe- 
ditionary Force  consisting  of  six  divisions  and 
a  division  of  cavalry.  Four  of  these  divisions, 
the  1st  and  2d  army  corps,  with  the  cavalry 
were  at  once  sent  to  France  and  detrained  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  fortress  of  Maubeuge. 

On  this  front  the  Germans  secured  the  ini- 
tiative arid  made  the  attack.  Early  in  August 
troops  of  the  II  German  army  attempted  to 
capture  Lie"ge  by  sui  prise.  They  did  succeed 
in  taking  the  town  with  its  bridges  but  were 
obliged  to  reduce  the  surrounding  forts  with 
heavy  artillery  Tlie  last  fort  fell  on  the  day 
the  armies  were  ready  to  advance.  On  the  17th, 
the  I  and  II  armies  moved  out  and  on  the  20th 
were  on  the  line  Brusscls-Namur;  the  III  army 
started  for  the  Mcuse  south  of  Namur.  One 
corps  each  of  the  11  and  III  armies  was  as- 
signed the  task  of  investing  tins  fortress  while 
it  was  being  reduced  by  artillery.  The  I  and 
II  armies  were  preceded  by  the  2d  cavalry  corps 
while  the  1st  covered  the  advance  of  the  III 
army.  When  the  111  readied  the  Meuse  the  1st 
cavalry  corps  was  to  move  around  Namur  and 
join  the  II  army  The  Belgian  army  offered 
no  resistance  to  the  advance  but  retired  to 
Antwerp. 

Before  the  V  French  army  had  received  its 
reinforcements  it  \\5\s  attacked  by  the  II  Ger- 
man army  on  August  22,  and  lost  the  line  of 
the  Sambre  Ri\er,  on  the  following  day  it  was 
again  attacked  by  the  IT  and  its  rear  threatened 
by  the  111  which  succeeded  in  forcing  the  Meuse 
in  its  rear  Theie  was  nought  to  do  but  re- 
treat, which  began  on  the  24th.  This  battle  is 
known  as  Chiirlcioi. 

While  the  1 1  German  army  was  advancing  to 
the  Sambre,  the  I  army  with  its  cavalry  divi- 
sion was  seeking  the  British  army  whose  po- 
sition was  unknown  \\hile  moving  in  a  south-, 
westerly  direction  from  Brussels,  British  forces 
were  discovered  in  the  vicinity  of  Mons  on  Au- 
gust 22  but  it  was  thought  they  were  only  out- 
posts. As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the*  Brit- 
ish army  had  come  in  position  that  day  between 
the  Scheldt  and  Sambre  Riven*  along  the  Conde1- 
Mons  canal.  On  the  23d,  therefore,  two  of  the 
German  corps  unexpectedly  ran  on  the  British 
main  position  and  the  battle  of  Mons  began 
about  noon.  The  British  resisted  stubbornly 
but  were  obliged  to  yield  the  canal  near  Mona 
and  fall  back  to  another  position.  That  eve- 
ning a  third  German  corps  appeared  in  their 
front. 

Not  wishing  to  be  outflanked,  that  night  the 
British  commander,  French,  ordered  his  army 
to  retire  next  day  to  a  line  running  west  from 
Maubeuge.  On  the  24th  the  Germans  hoped 
for  a  decisive  victory  but  the  British  success- 
fully withdrew  their  army. 

Joffre'a  Second  -Plan.  On  the  night  of  Aug- 
ust 24,  Joffre  realized  that  he  had  met  defeat 
in  the  battles  on  the  frontier  and  that  he  must 


retreat  in  order  to  save  his  armies  of  the  left 
and  centre.  The  British  army  was  in  danger 
of  being  outflanked  and  a  dangerous  gap  was 
being  opened  between  the  V  and  IV  armies  due 
to  the  withdrawal  of  the  V  from  the  Meuse. 

To  renew  the  offensive  a  new  army  was 
needed  on  his  left  and  this  he  proposed  to  form 
on  the  Somme  River  between  Amiens  and  Pe1- 
ronne  from  troops  drawn  from  the  east.  It 
was  to  be  under  the  command  of  Manoury,  who 
was  to  bring  two  of  his  divisions  with  him; 
the  other  troops  were  to  be  taken  from  the  VII 
and  III  armies.  The  immediate  problem  was 
to  delay  the  advance  of  the  1  German  army 
until  this  new  VI  army  could  be  formed.  West 
of  the  British  he  had  formed  the  VIII  army — 
D'Amade — of  four  Territorial  divisions  of  little 
value  and  to  this  army  he  now  sent  two  reserve 
divisions  from  Paris.  The  British  V,  IV,  and 
III  armies  were  directed  to  fall  back  slowly  to 
the  line  P6ronne-Verdun.  The  1st  cavalry 
corps  was  detached  from  the  V  army  and  ordered 
to  cover  the  left  flank  of  the  British  army. 

On  the  25th,  the  British  continued  their  re- 
treat but  due  to  the  topographical  features  of 
the  country  the  two  corps  were  compelled  to 
follow  divergent  lines  and  that  night  were 
widely  separated.  As  the  French  cavalry  had 
not  yet  reached  his  left,  the  British  commander 
ordered  both  corps  to  continue  the  retreat  the 
next  day.  The  1st  corps — Haig — did  so  but  the 
commander  of  the  2d  corps — Smith  Dorrien — 
decided  to  rest  his  corps  as  his  rear  guard 
reached  camp  late  at  night.  He  now  had  three 
divisions,  as  a  fifth  division  of  the  Expedition- 
ary Force  joined  him  that  day.  As  the  I  Ger- 
man army  was  pursuing  rapidly  there  resulted 
the  battle  of  Le  Gateau.  The  British  held  their 
own  for  some  time  but  as  the  German  force  was 
constantly  increasing  the  British  were  ordered 
to  retreat  in  the  afternoon.  To  break  off  the 
engagement  was  a  difficult  operation  attended 
with  considerable  loss  and  the  British  retreated 
in  great  confusion,  but  the  Germans  did  not 
pursue  as  they  too  were  worn  out  and  their 
cavalry  corps  was  held  in  check  by  the  French 
cavalry  corps  that  gadned  the  flank  of  the  Brit- 
ish that  afternoon.  The  British  army  next  day 
continued  its  retreat  until  it  crossed  the  Oise 
between  La  Fere  and  Noyon,  where  it  was  re- 
organized. 

At  this  time  German  Headquarters  at  Co- 
blenz  made  certain  decisions  that  had  a  dis- 
astrous effect  on  the  German  operations  on  the 
\Yestern  front.  Influenced  probably  by  the  op- 
timistic reports  of  its  army  commanders  in  the 
west,  it  decided  to  send  two  corps  from  the 
west  to  East  Prussia.  As  the  two  corps  en- 
gaged in  the  investment  of  Namur,  which  was 
occupied  on  August  25,  had  not  yet  rejoined 
their  armies,  they  were  ordered  to  withdraw 
and  entrain.  A  corps  from  the  V  army  was 
also  ordered  back  to  Metz  to  be  ready.  As  two 
corps  had  been  left  by  the  I  army  to  observe  the 
Belgians,  the  original  invading  force  of  27  corps 
was  reduced  to  22.  Of  these  22,  on  August  27 
the  II  army  had  to  detach  one  and  one-half 
corps  to  besiege  Maubeuge,  where  the  French 
had  left  a  garrison  of  some  35,000  troops  and 
the  III  army  had  to  leave  a  division  to  invest 
Givct.  Of  these  besieging  troops  only  a  half 
division  rejoined  before  the  battle  of  the  Marne. 
A  second  decision  was  to  give  the  commander 
of  the  I  German  army,  who  had  been  under  the 
orders  of  the  commander  of  the  II  army,  an 


WAS.  IN  EUBOPE 


1400 


WAE  IK  EUBOPE 


independent  command.  On  the  morning  after 
the  battle  of  Le  Gateau,  therefore,  the  I  army 
broke  away  from  the  II  army  and  started  in  the 
direction  of  Peronne.  By  this  move  it  pre- 
vented Joflfre  from  forming  his  new  VI  army 
011  the  Sommc  but  it  prevented  the  I  army  from 
participating  in  force  in  a  battle  a  few  days 
later. 

When  the  I  army  moved  off  it  left  the  II  ar- 
my, now  reduced  to  seven  divisions  and  the  1st 
cavalry  corps,  to  continue  the  pursuit  of  the 
V  French  and  British  armies  although  the  V 
French  army  alone  had  12  divisions.  The  re- 
treat of  the  British  army  had  been  contrary  to 
Joffre's  plan  and  he  now  decided  to  make  a 
counterattack  with  the  V  army  to  gain  time 
and  allow  the  British  to  recover.  On  the  27th, 
the  V  French  army  crossed  the  Oise  and  was 
ordered  to  halt  and  prepare  for  battle.  The 
battle  of  St.  Quentin-Gnise  was  fought  on  the 
21)th  and  morning  of  the  30th.  Although  a 
drawn  battle,  the  German  II  army  barely  es- 
ca|>ed  defeat  and  suffered  severe  'losses.  *  The 
German  commander  was  obliged  to  call  a  di- 
vision from  his  investing  force  at  Maubeuge 
and  for  assistance  from  the  nearest  corps  of 
the  I  army. 

Meeting  with  no  great  resistance  in  his  inarch 
to  the  Soniine,  von  Kluck  l>egan  to  doubt  the 
wisdom  of  his  movement  when  on  August  28 
he  received  a  new  order  from  Headquarters. 
Joffre's  retreat  had  deceived  the  German  Head- 
quarters and  it  was  belipved  that  the  French 
left  and  centre  had  met  with  decisive  defeat  and 
were  retreating  on  Paris  The  II  army  was 
therefore  directed  to  move  on  Paris  and  the  1 
toward  the  Seine  west  of  Paris.  Von  Kluck, 
therefore,  continued  for  two  days  more  in  that 
direction,  meeting  detachments  of  the  new 
French  army  which  avoided  serious  engage- 
ments but  retired  lu'fore  him  On  the  29th  lie 
learned  of  the  battle  of  St  Quen  tin-Guise  and 
on  the  30th  was  infoimed  that  the  French  had 
retired  and  to  gain  decisive  results  it  \\ULR 
desirable  that  the  T  army  should  act  on  theii 
flank  as  the  11  needed  a  day's  rest.  Von  Kluck 
now  started  to  move  in  a  southeasterly  direction 
and  informed  German  Headquarters,  which  gave 
its  approval.  He  crossed  the  Oise  and  found 
the  British  still  north  of  the  Marne.  He  made 
preparations  to  attack  them  but  they  escaped 
across  the  river.  Next  he  found  that  the  V 
French  army  was  just  reaching  the  Marne  and 
he  attempted  to  interfere  with  its  crossing 

At  this  time  he  bad  no  intention  of  crossing 
the  Marne  but  on  the  night  of  September  2  he 
received  a  message  fiom  German  Headquarters 
to  the  following  effect: 

Desire  of  Supreme  Command  to  force  French  in  a 
southeaster! \  direction  awny  from  Paris.  I  army  will 
follow  II  armj  en  echelon  and  will  protect  the  flank 

As  he  was  now  at  leant  a  day's  march  in  ad- 
vance of  the  II  armv  which  was  at  least  a  day's 
march  in  rear  of  the  V  French  army,  his  army 
was  the  only  one  that  could  act  on  the  flank  of 
the  French  but  if  he  did  so  act  he  must  disobej 
the  order  to  follow  the  II  army  and  also  risk 
exposing  the  flank  of  the  armies  to  an  attack 
from  Paris.  On  the  following  morning  he 
learned  that  one  of  his  corps  had  crossed  the 
Marne  at  ChAteau-Thierry  and  was  engaged  in 
battle.  He  had  now  to  decide  whether  to  with- 
draw the  corps  or  go  to  its  assistance.  His 
flying  corps  reported  the  British  retreating 
south  of  the  Marne  and  no  evidence  of  activity 


on  the  Paris  front,  so  he  decided  to  support 
his  corps  and  crossed  the  Marne  with  four  of 
his  five  corps  and  two  of  his  three  cavalry  di- 
visions. 

•ToffrJs  Third  Plan.  After  the  battle  of  St 
Quen  tin  -Guise,  Joffre  was  satisfied  that  his  ar- 
mies must  retire  still  farther  south  before  the 
offensive  could  be  resumed.  The  limit  was  to 
be  the  Seine  for  the  British  and  V  French  army 
and  for  the  TV  and  III  the  Aube  and  Ornain 
with  the  flank  resting  on  the  fortified  ridge  east 
of  the  Meuse. 

In  retreating  the  IV  French  army  had  offered 
such  resistance  that  the  IV  German  army  was 
compelled  to  call  to  its  assistance  the  III  Ger- 
man army,  which  prevented  that  army  from  as- 
sisting the  II  in  the  battle  of  St.  Quentin-Guise. 
On  the  appearance  of  the  111  German  army 
Joffre  detached  the  left  wing  of  the  IV  army 
and  placed  it  under  the  command  of  Foch  as  the 
Foch  Detachment;  it  later  became  the  IX  army 
In  its  retreat  the  front  of  the  III  army  was 
shortened,  which  enabled  Joffre  to  order  one 
of  its  corps  to  Paris  and  a  division  to  Foch 
Joffre  also  withdrew  some  of  the  cavalry  di- 
visions with  the  I  and  II  armies  and  foimod 
the  2d  cavalry  corps — dc  Mitry — between  the 
V  and  British  armies.  The  V  army  retreated 
to  the  Seine  at  Nogent,  Foch  toward  the  Aube, 
and  the  IV  to  the  Ornain  and  the  III  between 
the  Ornain  and  the  Mouse- 
On  the  morning  of  September  5,  von  Kluok, 
who  was  still  north  of  the  Marne,  received  the 
following  message  from  Headquarters- 

I  and  II  armies  will  remain  opposite  the  east  front 
of  Paris,  tho  I  arm\  between  the  Oise  and  Marne 
the  II  between  the  Marne  and  Seine. 

At  that  time  four  of  his  corps  were  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Manic  and  would  reach  the 
Grand  Morin  between  Coulommicrs  and  Ester- 
na\  that  night  In  thoir  fiont  were  the  1st 
and  2d  Gorman  cavalry  corps.  The  British  and 
V  French  armies  were  apparently  ret i eating 
along  their  front  As  theie  seemed  to  be  no 
reason  to  break  up  the  plans  for  the  day,  he 
decided  to  let  the  movements  go  on  but  to  issue 
ordciH  for  the  withdrawal  of  his  army  to  the 
north  side  of  the  Marne  the  next  day  In  the 
evening  a  staff  officer  from  Headquarters  came 
to  sec  him  and  explained  the  general  situation 
The  III,  IV,  and  V  German  aiinios  wore  making 
slow  progress  southward  and  the  I  and  II  ar- 
mies were  to  i emain  stationary  until  those  ar- 
mies advanced  far  enough  to  threaten  the  rear 
of  the  F  and  11  French  armies,  cause  them  to 
retreat  and  thus  permit  the  VI  and  VII  Gorman 
prmieft  to  advance.  That  night  neither  von 
Kluck,  who  had  crossed  the  Marne  that  day,  nor 
the  German  Headquarters  had  the  slightest 
suspicion  of  a  French  counterattack,  although 
it  had  already  begun  north  of  the  Marne. 

When  the  French  armies  began  their  retreat 
to  the  Marne,  Gallium  was  made  military  gov- 
ernor of  Paris  and  the  VI  army  was  finally  or- 
ganized east  of  Paris.  Gallie^ni  kept  himself 
informed  of  the  movement  of  the  I  German  army 
and  communicated  his  knowledge  to  Joffre  at 
his  headquarters  at  Bar-sur-Aube,  where  the 
movements  of  the  armies  were  carefully  plotted. 
At  0  P.M.  on  the  4th  of  September  it  was  known 
that  von  Kluck  had  crossed  the  Marne  and 
reached  the  Petit  Morin  with  three  of  his  corps 
and  that  only  one  with  a  cavalry  division  was 
left  in  front  of  Paris.  If  he  continued  the  ad- 
vance on  the  morrow  he  would  reach  the  Grand 


WAR  IN  EUROPE 


1401 


WAR  IS  EUROPE 


Mori n  and  hia  front  would  be  stretched  to  near- 
ly 50  miles.  At  last  a  favorable  opportun- 
ity for  a  counterstroke  had  arrived.  On  the 
night  of  the  4th  and  morning  of  the  5th  all  the 
armies  received  their  orders.  They  were  briefly 
that  the  VI  and  British  armies  on  either  side 
of  the  Seine  were  to  attack  von  Kluck's  army 
from  the  west  while  the  V  army  attacked  it 
from  the  south.  The  IX  army  was  to  hold  the 
II  German  army  in  check  and  protect  the  flank 
of  the  V  army  The  IV  and  III  armies  were 
to  attack  the  IV  and  V  German  armies,  the  III 
striking  their  flank.  September  5  was  to  be 
spent  in  preparation  and  the  attack  was  to 
be  on  the  morning  of  the  Oth.  With  his 
orders  Joffre  issued  a  stirring  appeal  to  his 
troops : 

"At  the  moment  the  battle  begins  upon  which  the 
safety  of  the  country  dependR  each  one  must  make  up 
his  mind  no  longer  to  gaze  to  the  rear  Every  effort 
must  be  centred  on  attacking  the  enemy  and  forcing 
him  back  An  organization  that  finds  itbelf  unable  to 
ad\ame  must  hold  the  captured  ground  coat  what  it 
mav  and  allow  itself  to  be  annihilated  rather  than 
retreat.  Under  the  circumstances  no  weakness  can  be 
toierated." 

The  orders  were  received  with  delight  by  of- 
ficers and  men  who  were  tired  of  retreating  be- 
fore an  enemy  they  felt  they  could  face. 

Battle  of  the  Marne.  Although  not  con- 
templated, the  battle  of  the  Marne  really  began 
on  the  afternoon  of  September  5,  when  the  VI 
French  army  was  moving  into  position  and  two 
of  its  reserve  divisions  unexpectedly  encountered 
the  corps  that  von  Kluck  had  left  in  front  of 
Paris.  The  reserves  were  repulsed  but,  the  Ger- 
man cavalry  discovering  other  troops  advanc- 
ing, the  German  corps  retired  during  the  night 
and  took  up  a  more  favorable  position  some 
miles  in  the  rear.  Von  Kluck  was  informed  of 
this  during  the  night  but  still  did  not  anticipate 
a  battle;  however,  he  warned  the  nearest  corps 
to  go  to  the  threatened  front  as  soon  as  possible 
The  battle  of  the  Marne  thus  begun  was  fought 
continuously  until  the  afternoon  of  the  9th, 
when  the  I,  II  and  III  German  armies  began 
their  retreat.  In  front  of  the  IV  and  V  Ger- 
man armies  it  lasted  some  days  longer.  On  the 
Paris  front,  in  the  battle  of  the  Ourcq,  between 
the  VI  French  and  1  German  armies,  the  lines 
swayed  back  and  forward  as  new  troops  were 
thrown  into  the  line  on  one  side  or  the  other. 
It  was  not  until  the  9th  that  von  Kluck  was 
able  to  bring  up  his  last  corps  which  had  been 
fighting  daily  south  of  the  Marne  from  the 
3d  to  the  6th  with  the  V  French  army  and  then 
had  to  march  50  miles  to  reach  its  place  in  line. 
It  was  in  this  battle  that  Galli^ni  used  the 
Paris  taxis  to  take  newly  arrived  troops  to  a 
threatened  position  in  the  line. 

The  II  German  army  found  in  its  front  the 
IX  French  army  and  on  the  right  the  V  army. 
It  called  to  its  assistance  a  part  of  the  III  army 
and  succeeded  in  forcing  back  the  right  wing 
of  the  IX  army  but  its  own  right  wing  was 
forced  back  by  the  advance  of  the  left  of  the  V 
army.  On  the  first  day  of  the  battle  there  was 
nothing  in  front  of  the  British  army  except  the 
2d  German  cavalry  corps;  on  the  second  day 
there  was  nothing  in  front  of  the  left  of  the  V 
French  army  and  the  2d  French  cavalry  corps 
but  the  1st  German  cavalry  corps.  On  the 
afternoon  of  the  8th,  the  advance  of  the  V  army 
forced  the  commander  of  the  II  German  army 
to  withdraw  his  rigflt  wing  in  order  to  rest  his 
flank  on  the  Marne.  On  the  morning  of  the 


9th,  the  British  were  seen  advancing  to  the 
Marne  between  the  two  German  armies  and  the 
commander  of  the  II  German  army  decided  that 
the  time  had  come  to  retreat  in  order  to  close 
the  gap.  This  opinion  he  imparted  to  the  staff 
officer  from  Headquarters  who  had  remained 
with  the  armies.  The  II  and  III  armies  were 
authorized  by  the  latter  to  begin  the  retreat  that 
afternoon  and  he  personally  delivered  the  order 
to  retreat  to  the  chief  of  staff  of  the  I  army. 
Von  Kluck  was  loath  to  retreat  as  he  had  just 
started  an  attack  which  was  progi  casing  satis- 
factorily but  he  could  not  continue  if  the  1 1 
was  retreating  so  he  gave  orders  for  the  with- 
drawal. No  decision  was  reached  in  the  fight 
between  the  IV  and  V  German  armies  and  the 
III  and  IV  French  but  the  former  \\ere  com- 
pelled to  fall  back  when  the  II  and  III  re- 
crossed  the  Marne. 

The  battle  of  the  Marne  must  be  regarded  ay 
a  significant  defeat  for  the  German  armies  as 
it  completely  shattered  the  plan  on  which  the 
War  was  based.  Flushed  with  success,  having 
the  initiative,  opposed  by  troops  supposedly  dis- 
pirited by  defeat  after  defeat  during  a  long 
and  exhausting  retreat,  the  Germans  found  this 
check  as  unexpected  as  the  French  found  it 
welcome.  On  the  French  side  moral  forces  were 
developed,  the  intensity  of  which  continued  un- 
diminished.  The  Germans,  although  not  dis- 
abled, were  compelled  to  meet  an  entirely  un- 
foreseen situation. 

Battle  of  the  Aisne.  After  the  retreat  from 
the  Marne,  the  German  armies  ultimately 
halted  and  intrenched  on  a  line  which  began 
south  of  Noyon  on  the  Oiae,  followed  the  ridge 
north  of  the  Aisne  to  the  Reiins-Laon  road 
where  it  crossed  the  Argonne  Forest  and  reached 
the  Meuse  north  of  Verdun  On  Sept.  10,  1914, 
Joffre  issued  an  order  for  a  coordinated  pur- 
suit of  the  retreating  Germans.  He  believed 
that  they  planned  to  retire  to  the  Meuse,  but 
when  the  Aisne  was  reached  every  indication 
pointed  to  a  halt  on  that  river.  *The  French 
and  British  crossed  the  Aisne  west  and  east  of 
Soissons  respectively,  but  \veie  unable  to  break 
the  German  line,  which  had  been  reinforced  by 
a  corps  from  Belgium  and  the  besieging  corps 
from  Maubeuge  which  fell  September  7. 

First  Battle  of  the  Somme.  When  it  be- 
came clear  that  the  Germans  could  not  be  suc- 
cessfully dislodged  from  the  Aisne,  Joffre 
planned  to  outflank  the  Germans  from  the  left 
hank  of  the  Oisc  and  force  them  to  retreat 
from  the  Aisne.  The  greatest  part  of  de  Cas- 
telnau's  II  army  was  sent  to  the  north  of  Paris 
to  assist  the  left  wing  in  carrying  out  this  ob- 
jective. The  Germans,  on  theii  side,  were  de- 
termined to  do  the  very  thing  the  French  were 
planning  to  do.  They  gathered  reserve  forces 
and,  about  September  20,  a  aeries  of  battles 
began  around  Lassigny  and  Roye,  which  were 
extended  northward  west  of  Peronne  and  ended 
with  the  left  of  Castelnau's  army  at  Albert  on 
the  Ancre  River.  These  battles  lasted  about  10 
days,  then  the  lines  were  stabilized.  Bapaume, 
Noyon,  Lassigny,  Peronne  and  Chaulnes  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  the  Germans  but  Cas- 
telnau  succeeded  in  turning  the  continuation  of 
the  Aisne  line  northward  instead  of  west  along 
the  Somme  and  therefore  accomplished  his  ob- 
ject to  some  extent.  The  withdrawal  of  Cas- 
telnau's II  army  from  Lorraine  permitted  the 
Germans  to  advance  across  the  Moselle  and 
capture  the  St.  Mihiel  salient,  which  they  heir* 


WA&  IN  EUROPE 

until  they  were  dislodged  by  the  Americans  in 
1918. 

Battle  of  Arras.  Castelnau's  failure  to  out- 
flank the  Germans  determined  Joffre  to  make 
one  more  effort.  This  time  he  planned  an  ad- 
vance through  the  valley  of  the  Scarpe  on  either 
side  of  Arras  in  the  direction  of  Douai.  A 
new  X  army  under  General  Maud'huy  was  or- 
gani/ed  for  this  purpose.  General  Foch  was 
given  the  command  of  the  group  of  French 
armies  between  the  Oise  and  the  English  Chan- 
nel. In  the  first  week  of  October,  Maud'huy's 
army  advanced  from  Amiens  and  reached  Ar- 
ras, but  found  the  Germans  in  front  of  it.  He 
was  unable  to  advance  past  this  city.  The 
French  line  was  extended  northward  to  the 
west  of  Lens,  to  the  Lys  River  northwest  of 
Lille.  The  Germans  also  extended  their  lines 
northward  and  occupied  Lens  and  Lille.  The 
lines  became  stabilized  here  and  the  second  at- 
tempt to  outflank  the  Germans  failed. 

British  Operations  South  of  the  Lys  River. 
In  the  latter  part  of  September  and  early 
October,  the  British  army  was  carefully  re- 
moved from  the  vicinity  of  Soissons  and  railed 
up  to  the  neighborhood  of  the  English  Channel 
where  it  would  be  closer  to  its  base  of  supplies. 
After  receiving  reinforcements,  including  an  In- 
dian corps,  the  British,  on  Oct.  13,  1914,  be- 
gan to  advance  south  of  the  Lys  River.  The 
advance  stopped  at  Auber  ridge  about  midway 
between  Itethune  and  Lille  Another  British 
corps  advanced  north  of  the  Lys  River  and  drove 
the  German  cavalry  across  the  river.  The  Brit- 
ish advanced  as  far  as  Armentieres.  The 
right  was  unable  to  advance  on  Lille  and  the 
left  was  unable  to  cross  the  Lys.  Although 
severe  fighting  occurred  in  this  region  until  the 
close  of  active  operations  for  the  year  the  lines 
were  virtually  stabilized  by  the  20th  of  October. 

Battle  of  Flanders.  The  failure  of  the  Al- 
lies to  outflank  the  Germans  was  followed  by  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Germans  to  again 
outflank  the  Allies,  and  to  secure  if  possible  the 
Channel  ports  of  Dunkirk  and  Calais.  As  a 
preliminary  operation,  it  was  decided  to  cap- 
ture Antwerp.  The  siege  began  September  28; 
at  first  the  Allies  decided  to  attempt  to  hold  it 
and  British  naval  brigades  were  sent  to  reinforce 
the  garrison;  it  was  to  be  further  reinforced  by 
other  British  and  French  troops.  In  a  few  days, 
however,  it  became  evident  that  it  could  not 
be  held  and  preparations  were  made  to  with- 
draw the  Belgian  army  to  the  west.  The  for- 
tress fell  on  October  10  but  the  Belgian  army 
retired  in  safety,  its  retreat  being  covered  by 
a  British  division  sent  to  Ghent  from  England. 
After  the  fall  of  Antwerp,  German  reserves  were 
rushed  to  the  Belgian  front  and  established 
themselves  on  the  Ostend-Courtrai  line.  The 
battle  of  Flanders  was  fought  over  such  a  long 
front  that  it  really  consisted  of  several  de- 
tached battles  rather  than  one  large  one.  These 
several  battles  have  been  called  the  battle  of 
the  Yser,  Dixmude,  North  of  Ypres  and  South 
of  Ypres. 

The  Battle  of  the  Ytter  was  largely  fought  by 
the  Belgians.  It  started  on  the  18th  of  Octo- 
ber when  the  3d  German  reserve  corps  ad- 
vanced to  cross  the  river.  The  Belgians  were 
strongly  intrenched  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
river  and  their  front  was  flanked  by  British 
monitors.  The  Germans  did  not  reach  the  river 
until  the  20th.  On  the  night  of  the  21st,  the 
Germans  succeeded  in  bridging  the  river  and  by 


WAK  IN  EUROPE 

the  25th  had  two  divisions  across  the  river 
The  Belgians  retired  two  miles  to  a  railroad 
embankment  where  they  were  reinforced  by  a 
French  division.  On  the  30th  the  Germans  cap- 
tured Ramscappelle  on  the  railroad  but  weie 
soon  forced  to  withdraw  when  the  Belgian* 
flooded  the  terrain  between  the  railroad  and  the 
river. 

Dixmude  was  attacked  by  the  Germans  on  the 
20th  of  October  but  the  attack  was  repulsed. 
On  November  10,  after  a  fierce  bombardment 
of  artillery  and  trench  mortars  the  Gentians 
finally  captured  the  town.  Its  capture  was  ot 
little  importance1,  lio\\e\er,  since  the  battle  of 
Flanders  was  practically  over. 

A'orf/t  of  Yprcs,  on  October  19,  the  German* 
fought  their  way  across  the  Thouiout-Roulers 
road  cheeked  by  French  cavalry  until  the  main 
line  held  by  *  French  infantry  was  reached. 
Heavy  fighting  ensued  up  to  November  10  but 
the  Germans  were  unable  to  make  any  appre- 
ciable gain 

South  of  Ypres,  the  Germans  advanced  steadily 
but  slowly  until  the  24th,  when  they  weie 
checked  by  the  British.  The  attack  was  re- 
newed on  October  30  and  November  1.  These 
were  critical  days  for  the  British  army.  It 
was  attacked  in  force  between  the  Menin  load 
and  the  Lys  River.  The  Messines  and  Wyt- 
schaete  ridge  was  the  objective  of  the  German 
attacks.  Messines  was  taken  on  October  31  and 
Wytschaete  on  November  1.  The  Germans  felt 
that  they  had  broken  through  the  Allied  lint's. 
Strong  "French  reinfoimncnts  were  hastily 
brought  up,  however,  and  the  final  Gernun  at- 
tack on  Noveml>er  10  and  11  \\as  repulsed  all 
along  the  line  with  the  exception  of  Dixmude, 
which  fell  into  German  hand*  Minor  opera- 
tions continued  until  November  20,  when  the 
lines  were  consolidated  for  the  winter.  The  bat- 
tle of  Flanders  was  now  over  and  \\as  the  third 
serious  check  for  the  Germans  on  the  Western 
front  in  1014,  the  other  two  being  the  battle -i 
of  Lorraine  and  the  Marne. 

Beginning  of  Trench  Warfare.  The  con 
elusion  of  the  battles  of  Flanders,  Nov.  1 1 , 
1914,  marks  the  beginning  of  what  \ve  may  call 
the  long  siege  of  the  armies  over  the  whole 
line  from  the.  sea  to  the  Swiss  frontier.  It 
was  a  time  of  ceaseless  watching,  of  hardship 
and  trial,  of  continuous  fighting  with  neither 
side  able  to  advance  at  the  expense  of  the  other. 
Local  advantages  gained  first  by  one  and  then 
by  the  other  adversary  in  no  way  affected  the 
issue  and  indeed,  as  measured  by  the  ground 
gained,  would  not  be  represented  on  an  ordinary 
map.  A  word  is  perhaps  not  out  of  place  in 
respect  to  the  nature  of  the  contest  that  now 
became  the  rule  over  the  entire  Western  front. 
Trench  warfare  took  the  place  of  what  now 
may  be  called  old-fashioned  operations  in  the 
open.  Mining  and  countermining  became  the 
rule:  the  lines  in  reality  were  areas  of  parrallel 
trenches  protected  by  networks  of  barbed  wire 
so  thickly  interlaid  and  interwoven  that  only 
long  sustained  artillery  fire  could  break  them 
down  in  clearing  the  way  for  assault.  The 
troops  lived  in  and  under  the  ground  so  that 
shrapnel,  the  ideal  man-killing  projectile  against 
troops  in  the  open,  proved  nearly  useless  and 
was  replaced  by  the  high -explosive  shell,  able  to 
pierce  overhead  shelter  and  overwhelm  the  oc- 
cupants. Operations  degenerated  into  a  strug- 
gle of  wear  and  tear,  attrition.  So  close  did  the 
ines  draw  to  each  other  that  antiquated  methods 


WAB  IN  EUBOPK 

and  weapons  sprang  into  new  life;  hand 
grenades,  knives,  and  even  clubs,  for  close  work. 
Trench  mortars  came  into  existence.  Asphyxi- 
ating gases,  in  violation  of  The  Hague  Conven- 
tion, were  used.  Artillery  took  a  position  of 
first  importance,  as  was  but  natural  in  a  state 
of  siege  warfare.  The  reason  of  this  state  of 
affairs  is  to  be  found,  in  part  at  least,  in  the 
air  service,  which  made  surprise  well-nigh  im- 
possible and  allowed  time  for  the  threatened 
side  to  make  ample  preparations  to  resist  any 
impending  movement,  nnd  which  also  increased 
the  efficiency  of  artillery  by  enabling  batteries 
to  correct  their  fire,  and  by  discovering  and 
assigning  targets  invisible  from  the  batteries 
themselves. 

Operation  of  1915.  The  year  of  1915  on 
tho  Western  front  was  spent  by  the  Allies  in 
testing  the  German  line  at  various  points, 
in  an  endeavor  to  break  through  and  pre- 
vent German  troops  from  being  withdrawn 
from  the  Western  front  to  reinforce  the 
armies  operating  against  Russia.  The  Germans 
remained  on  the  defensive,  making  but  a  single 
attack. 

The  British  attacked  by  two  corps  at  Neuve 
Cliapelle  with  a  view  of  reaching  the  town  of 
Lille.  This  attack  was  made  in  the  month  of 
Maich  but  resulted  only  in  taking  the  German 
adxance  line  with  heavy  loss  to  the  attacking 
troops.  This  was  followed  in  April  by  the  Ger- 
man attack  on  Yprcs,  where  clouds  of  chlorine 
^as  wc'io  first  employed.  It  was  only  a  par- 
tial success  aw  the.  Germans  were  unable  to  reach 
Ypies,  \\liich  was  held  by  the  British.  The  at- 
tack thus  initiated  lasted  a  month  but  without 
further  German  success. 

In  May,  there  occurred  a  combined  attack  by 
the  British  and  French  along  the  front  between 
Nome  Cliapelle  and  Airas.  The  British  attack 
was  made  by  three  corps  at  Festubert  and  re- 
Hiiltod  in  an  advance  of  000  yards  over  a  front 
of  four  miles.  The  French  *  attack  was  made 
by  seven  corps  on  a  10-mile  front  north  of  Ar- 
rkb;  at  one  point  the  French  troops  advanced 
two  and  a  half  miles  but  a  break -through  was 
not  secured.  The  struggle  on  this  front  con- 
tinued on  through  June.  These  attacks  occurred 
shoitly  after  the  Germans  began  their  great  ad- 
vance against  Russia 

In  September,  there  were  simultaneous  attacks 
by  the  French  and  British  on  widely  separated 
fionts.  In  the  north  the  British  attacked  with 
three  corps  in  combination  with  the  French  on 
the  front  where  the  French  had  attacked  in 
May.  The  British  objective  was  the  mining 
town  of  Lens.  The  British  almost  attained 
their  objective  but  were  unable  to  hold  it;  they 
bccured  the  neighboring  town  of  Loos.  The 
French  on  their  right  attacked  with  about  seven 
corps,  their  objective  being  the  ridge  overlook- 
ing Lens,  the  Vimy  ridge.  They  were,  however, 
held  up  in  the  valley  in  front  and  succeeded 
only  in  taking  the  town  of  Souchez. 

Tho  great  French  attack  in  September,  how- 
ever, was  made  on  a  front  of  15  miles  in  Cham- 
pagne, between  Reims  and  the  Argonne  Forest. 
Here  two  armies  were  employed  and  the  attack 
was  preceded  by  a  three  days'  bombardment  by 
as  heavy  a  force  of  artillery  as  the  French  could 
assemble.  Under  this  fire  the  intricate  system 
of  trenches  and  wire  entanglements  became  a 
perfect  labyrinth  through  which  it  was  im- 
possible to  advance  in  good  order.  As  a  result, 
the  French  were  held  up  at  the  German  second 


14*3 


WAB  IN  ETTBOFE 


line  some  miles  in  rear  where  fresh  troops  had 
just  arrived  from  the  Russian  front. 

During  the  year,  the  French  made  various 
attempts  to  force  the  Germans  to  evacuate  tho 
St.  Mihiel  salient  but  they  met  with  little  suc- 
cess. Minor  operations  also  took  place  in  the 
Argonne  Forest  and  along  the  Vosges  front. 
On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  lines 
established  at  the  close  of  1014  remained  prac- 
tically unchanged  during  1015 

In  1915,  the  British  forces  on  the  Western 
front  were  greatly  increased  and  at  the  close 
of  the  year  the  British  front  extended  from  the 
Belgian  front  north  of  Ypres  almost  down  to 
Arras.  The  British  were  also  prepared  to 
place  a  third  army  in  line  early  in  1910.  This 
enabled  the  French  to  increase  their  reserve 
troops. 

1916.  Verdun.  The  offensives  of  1915  were 
completely  overshadowed  by  the  battle  of  Ver- 
dun, which  began  in  February,  1910.  Von  Fal- 
kenhayn,  the  German  chief-of-staff,  who  suc- 
ceeded von  Moltke  after  the  battle  of  the  Marne, 
was  greatly  disturbed  by  the  Allied  offensives 
in  September,  1915,  which  came  so  close  to  suc- 
ceeding, and  determined  to  forestall  another 
Allied  offensive  by  a  German  effort  on  a  grand 
scale.  After  careful  consideration  Verdun  was 
decided  upon  as  the  place  of  operations.  For 
dynastic  and  political  reasons  the  command  of 
the  attacking  forces  was  given  to  the  German 
Crown  Prince. 

Verdun  was  an  entirely  different  place  from 
the  Verdun  of  the  beginning  of  the  War.  Hav- 
ing profited  by  the  fate  of  Liege  and  Namur. 
the  forts  at  Verdun  were  held  by  light  garrisons 
only  and  the  French  line  was  established  about 
10  miles  to  the  north  and  east  Intermediate 
lines  and  positions  covered  the  area  between  the 
fortress  and  the  outer  line  of  defense.  The  Ver- 
dun position  was  a  salient  about  45  miles  wide 
across  the  neck  which  extended  from  St.  Mihiel 
to  the  Argonne.  Most  of  the  salient  was  on  tho 
eastern  side  of  the  Meuse.  Along  the  east  bank 
of  the  Meuse  there  is  a  ridge — Cote  de  Meusc — 
five  miles  wide  and  about  400  feet  high  To  the 
east  of  the  ridge  and  extending  to  the  south  is 
the  plain  of  the  Woevre,  which  in  the  sprint? 
is  too  soft  for  any  operations.  The  French 
line  crossed  the  ridge  from  the  Meuse  River  and 
extended  about  five  miles  into  the  plain  of  tho 
Woevre  The  two  trunk  lines,  which  supplied 
Verdun  before  the  War,  Paris-Verdun  and  Paris- 
Verdun  via  Commercy,  were  under  the  observa- 
tion and  fire  of  the  Germans  in  the  Argonno 
and  at  St.  Mihiel.  A  single-track  narrow-gauge 
road  from  Bar-le-Duc  via  Souilly  was  the  only 
railway  means  of  supplying  troops  to  Verdun. 

The  Crown  Prince  planned  his  main  attack 
along  the  ridge  from  the  north.  If  this  were 
successful,  the  French  would  be  obliged  to  evac- 
uate their  line  in  the  Woevre  to  prevent  capture 
and  a  secondary  attack  could  oe  made  along 
that  point.  Von  Falkenhayn  believed  that  au 
attack  on  Verdun  would  succeed  because  its  in- 
ferior rail  communications  and  the  limited  num- 
ber of  bridges  across  the  Meuae  would  interfere 
with  its  reinforcement.  The  operation,  which 
he  estimated  would  take  eight  days,  was  to  have 
its  right  flank  protected  by  a  later  advance  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Meuse,  which  would  pro- 
tect operations  on  the  east  from  French  artil- 
lery on  the  west  bank.  The  German  Crown 
Prince  had  at  his  disposal  nearly  one-half  mil- 
lion men,  many  of  whom  were  completely  rest- 


WAR  XH  BTJBOPB 

ed  and  others  of  whom  were  picked 
troops.  Besides  these,  many  other  divisions 
wore  held  in  reserve  along  other  parts  of  the 
Western  front  in  readiness  for  immediate  trans- 
portation. Tremendous  amounts  of  heavy  ar- 
tillery were  concentrated  with  an  unlimited  am- 
munition allowance.  Every  request  for  labor 
and  equipment  was  complied  with. 

The  artillery  preparation  for  the  attack  was 
begun  at  7  A.M.  on  Feb.  21,  1016.  It  continued 
until  4  P.M.,  when  the  infantry  moved  out  on 
a  front  of  about  4  miles  southward  along  the 
ridge.  During  the  first  period  of  the  battle 
(February  22-March  4),  the  Germans,  in  a  slow 
advance,  covered  by  extremely  heavy  artillery 
fire,  captured  the  let,  2nd  and  *3rd  positions  east 
of  the  Meuse  and  Fort  Douaumont,  the  most  ad- 
vanced of  the  Verdun  forts,  five  miles  from  the 
city.  Joffre  immediately  sent  troops  of  the  II 
army  then  in  reserve,  and  selected  its  com- 
mander Pe"tain  to  command  at  Verdun.  These 
were  to  be  followed  by  the  X  army  from  the 
Arras  section  when  they  were  to  be  replaced 
by  the  IV  British  army. 

General  Pe*tain  arrived  at  Verdun  on  Febru- 
ary 26,   and  ordered  a   counterattack  at  once 


along  the  entire  line.  He  divided  the  front  into 
corps  zones  and  assigned  the  artillery,  which 
was  arriving  in  great  numbers,  to  the  zones. 
The  occupied  ground  wa*  to  be  organized  and 
held,  and  the  forts  to  be  reoccupied  and  rearmed. 
The  number  of  bridge*  between  Verdun  and  St. 
Mihiel  was  to  be  increased  from  7  to  41. 
Petain  also  organized  a  truck  line  of  communi- 
cation from  Bar-le-Duc  to  Verdun,  over  which 
3000  auto  trucks  passed  every  day.  This  saved 
the  supply  situation,  and  the  French  call  the 
road  "the  Sacred  Way."  On  March  4  the 
French  were  holding  their  fourth  position,  a 
series  of  ridges  between  Douaumont  and  Verdun. 
During  the  second  period  of  the  battle 
(March  5-22)  the  Germans  were  unsuccessful 
in  their  attempts  to  advance  their  right  wing 
west  of  the  Meuse  to  Hill  304  and  Dead  Man's 
Hill,  and  their  left  wing  from  the  Woevre  plains, 
which  had  been  evacuated  by  the  French  who 
established  a  new  line  on  the  east  crest  of  the 
ridge  around  Fort  Vaux.  During  the  third 
period  (March  22-April  30),  the  German  Crown 
Prince  suffered  such  losses  that,  by  March  22, 
fresh  troops  were  required.  On  April  9-10  he 
ordered  a  general  attack  along  the  whole  line 
and  captured  the  crest  of  Dead  Man's  Hill. 
This  was  recaptured  by  the  French  on  April  20. 
Many  local  battles  were  fought  during  this 
period.  During  the  fourth  period  (May  and 
June)  General  Nivelle,  who  on  May  2, 
had  succeeded  General  Pltain  in  command  of  the 
Second  Army  and  of  the  defense  of  Verdun 
when  the  latter  was  promoted  to  command  an 
army  group,  carried  out  Plain's  policy  of 
counterattacking  on  every  possible  occasion. 
The  violence  of  the  German  attacks  and  the 
stubbornness  of  the  French  defense  may  be 
judged  by  the  fact  that  although  the  Germans 
attacked  Hill  304  from  Miay  4  to  7,  with  more 
than  100  batteries  of  heavy  artillery,  they  cap- 
tured only  the  north  part  of  the  hill.  Douau- 
mont was  recaptured  by  the  French  on  May  22- 
23.  On  the  latter  date,  the  Crown  Prince  cap- 
tured Dead  Man's  Hill  and  retook  Douaumont. 
In  June,  he  concentrated  on  the  attempt  to  cap- 
ture Forts  Vaux  and  Souville.  Fort  Vaux  was 
completely  destroyed  In  the  first  week  of  June, 
and  the  struggle  for  Souville,  which  was  really 


1404  WAB  IN  BUEOPB 

shock"  the  key  to  Verdun,  became  most  desperate. 
Joffre  forbade  any  retreat.  The  crisis  of  the  at- 
tack came  on  June  22  and  23  when,  after  an  un- 
paralleled bombardment,  the  Germans  reached 
the  edge  of  Souville  On  the  next  day  Nivelle 
began  counterattacks  on  a  grand  scale  and  by 
June  30  had  driven  the  Germans  beyond  Fleury 
a  mile  to  north.  The  next  day,  Joffre  arid  Haig 
launched  the  battle  of  the  So  in  me,  with  such 
force  that  von  Faikenhayn  was  forced  to  with- 
draw troops  from  Verdun  for  the  Somme,  and 
to  abandon  the  idea  of  an  immediate  capture 
of  Verdun. 

The  struggle  now  became  a  deadlock.  This 
continued  until  the  latter  part  of  October, 
when  the  French  regained  in  three  hours  what 
it  had  taken  the  Germans  months  of  effort  to 
attain.  This  and  subsequent  actions  are  usual- 
ly referred  to  as  the  Second  Battle  of  Verdun. 
This  three-hour  action  was  the  moat  brilliant 
action  of  the  whole  Verdun  campaign.  Gen- 
eral Nivelle's  artillery  preparations  were  brief 
but  of  exceedingly  great  intensity;  then  camo 
the  infantry  attack  on  October  24.  The  Ger- 
mans were  driven  back  and  \\hat  remained  of 
the  forts  Douaumont  and  Vaux  was  again  in 
the  potiBcssion  of  the  French.  During  the  next 
six  weeks  there  were  scarcely  any  infantry  en- 
gagements and  the  artillery  actions  that  oc- 
curred were  of  minor  importance.  On  December 
15,  however,  despite  wintry  conditions,  Nivelle 
executed  another  great  coup.  He  attacked  on 
a  front  of  bix  miles  after  a  three-day  artillery 
preparation.  He  succeeded  in  penetrating  the 
German  front  for  a  distance  of  nearly  two  miles. 
The  immediate  general  in  command  was  Mangin. 
After  this  advance  the  Verdun  front  once 
again  became  quiet,  each  adversary  watching 
the  other  and  being  content  to  remain  on  the 
defensive.  After  10  months  of  heavy  fighting 
the  Verdun  struggle  was  virtually  over.  The 
total  loss,  including  prisoners,  dead,  sick  and 
wounded,  was  exceedingly  great  on  both  sides. 
In  the  last  analysis,  it  was  a  great  French  vic- 
tory. The  moral  effects  on  the  French  tioopa 
and  French  nation  can  scarcely  be  overestimated. 
The  Verdun  slogan  "They  shall  not  pass*'  was 
taken  up  as  a  battle  cry  all  along  the  front 
and  behind  the  lines.  As  a  reward  for  his 
heroic  work  at  Verdun,  General  Nivelle  waa 
made  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  French 
armies,  succeeding  General  Joffre. 

First  Battle  of  the  Somme  (Picardy).  In 
his  reports  on  this  battle,  Haig  made  the  follow- 
ing statements: 


'The  principle  of  an  offensive  compaign  during  the 
summer  of  1916  hud  already  been  decided  b.\  the 
Allies.  The  various  possible  alternatives  on  the  West- 
ern front  had  been  studied  and  discussed  by  General 
J  off  re  and  myself  and  we  were  in  complete  agreement 
as  to  the  front  to  be  attacked  by  the  combined  Fremh 
and  British  armies.  Preparations  for  one  offensive  had 
made  considerable  progress;  but  as  the  date  at  which 
the  attack  should  begin  was  dependent  upon  many 
doubtful  factors,  final  decision  on  that  point  \\as  de- 
ferred until  the  general  situation  should  become  clearer 

"Subject  to  the  necessity  of  commencing  operations 
becore  the  summer  was  too  far  advanced,  and  \\ith 
due  regard  to  the  general  situation,  I  desired  to  post- 
pone an  attack  as  long  as  possible.  The  British 
armies  were  growing  m  numbers  and  the  supply  of 
ammunition  wa*  steadily  increasing. 

"By  the  end  of  May  the  pressure  of  the  enemy  on  the 
Italian  front  had  assumed  buch  proportions  that 
the  Russian  campaign  was  opened  earlv  in  June,  and 
the  brilliant  successes  gained  by  our  allies  against  the 
Austrian!  at  once  caused  a  movement  of  German 
troops  from  the  Western  to  the  Eastern  front.  This, 
however,  did  not  lessen  the  pressure  on  Verdun.  The 
heroic  defense  of  our  French  allies  bad  already  gained 
many  weeks  of  inestimable  value  and  had  caused  the 


WAE  IN  STOOPS 

enemy  heavy  lowei;  hut  the  strain  continued  to  in- 
crease.  In  view,  therefore,  of  the  eituation  in  the 
various  theatres  of  war,  it  was  eventually  agreed 
between  General  Joffre  and  myself  that  the  combined 
offensive  should  not  be  postponed  beyond  the  end  of 
June  " 

The  Allies  proposed  to  attack  on  a  front  of 
about  30  miles  in  an  air  line  in  order  if  pos- 
sible to  effect  a  break  through  the  German 
lines;  this  front  was  about  equally  divided  be- 
tween the  British  and  French.  The  VI  French 
army — Fayolle — was  astride  the  Somme  with 
the  X  French  army — Micheler — on  its  right. 
Directly  in  front  of  the  French  armies,  and  five 
miles  away,  lay  their  objective,  the  town  of 
Pe*ronne  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Somme  The 
ground  in  their  front  was  generally  level  The 
IV  British  army — Rawlinson — was  on  the  left 
of  the  French,  facing  a  ridge  which  rose  between 
the  Albert-Peronne  and  the  PeVonne-Bapaume 
roads.  On  the  slope  of  this  ridge,  facing  the 
British,  the  Germans  had  organized  the  posi- 
tion consisting  of  two  strong  lines  about  two 
miles  apart;  between  the  two  lines  were  woods, 
villages,  etc.,  strongly  organized  for  defense.  A 
third  and  even  a  fourth  line  had  been  begun 
still  farther  to  the  rear  The  entire  front  was 
held  by  the  II  German  army  but  after  the  at- 
tack began  it  was  subdivided  into  two  sectors, 
the  I  German  army  being  organized  in  one  of 
them. 

The  artillery  preparation  for  the  great  at- 
tack began  June  24  and  continued  for  an  entire 
week;  the  infantry  attack  was  launched  July  1. 
In  the  opening  attack  the  greatest  advance  was 
made  by  the  VI  French  army  which  broke 
through  the  Geiman  first  and  second  lines  and 
at  one  point  advanced  three  miles  by  July  5; 
the  British  during  the  same  period  advanced 
their  whole  front  about  half  this  distance. 
Kresh  troops  were  now  brought  up  to  reduce  the 
centres  of  resistance  between  the  two  lines  on 
the  British  front  and  by  the  middle  of  July 
on  both  fronts  the  Allies  were  ready  for  a 
second  grand  attack  by  which  the  VI  French 
army  advanced  to  the  Somme  River  opposite 
lY'ronnc  but  was  unable  to  force  the  crossing; 
the  British  on  their  front  broke  through  the 
German  second  line.  It  was  now  decided  not 
to  attempt  any  further  advance  of  the  VI 
French  army  south  of  the  Somme  but  to  move 
its  reserves  to  the  north  of  the  Somme,  where 
thev  were  to  be  employed  on  the  right  of  the 
British.  From  the  middle  of  July  until  the 
middle  of  September,  the  British  were  engaged 
in  the  capture  of  the  remainder  of  the  German 
second  line  and  the  villages,  woods  and  other 
strong  points  between  it  and  the  third  line. 
About  the  middle  of  September,  after  a  three 
clays'  artillery  preparation,  the  German  third 
line  was  taken.  In  this  attack  the  British 
heavy  tank  was  employed  for  the  first  time  and 
met  with  considerable  success.  A  fourtli  at- 
tack made  about  the  end  of  September  carried 
the  last  of  the  German  prepared  lines  and  the 
entire  ridge  was  in  the  possession  of  the  Allies. 
After  September  the  attack  died  down  some- 
what but  resulted  in  the  straightening  of  the 
British  front  About  the  middle  of  November, 
the  weather  conditions  made  further  operations 
impossible. 

According  to  Haig,  who  had  been  in  command 
of  the  British  army  in  France  since  the  begin- 
ning of  1016,  the  British  employed  in  this  at- 
tack 45  of  their  70  divisions  on  this  front  and 
the  Germans  reinforced  their  original  6  divisions 


WAB  IK  ETTBOPB 

by  30  more  during  the  operations  The  Ger- 
mans had  been  driven  back  over  the  entire  front 
of  30  miles  and  on  the  British  front  to  a  depth 
of  about  seven  miles.  Although  a  break-through 
had  not  been  secured,  it  was  felt  that  the 
morale  of  the  German  army  had  received  a  severe 
blow  by  their  failure  at  Verdun  and  the  ad- 
vance of  the  Allies  on  a  front  that  had  been 
made  especially  strong.  Although  the  losses  in- 
curred in  the  great  attacks  on  the  Western  front 
had  been  very  heavy  in  all  three  armies,  it  was 
felt  that  the  Germans  would  feel  the  losses 
much  more  than  the  Allies. 

1917.  Betreat  of  the  Germans.  After  the 
close  of  operations  on  the  Western  front  in 
1916,  the  Allies  were  quite  confident  that  the 
War  would  be  ended  in  1917.  They  were  now 
greatly  superior  to  the  Germans  in  artillery, 
aircraft,  and  men.  In  a  conference  between 
Joffre  and  Haig,  it  was  decided  to  forestall  the 
Germans  in  1917  and  begin  operations  as  early 
as  possible.  To  prevent  the  Germans  from 
shifting  their  reserves  as  they  had  previously 
done  when  an  attack  was  delivered  on  a  com- 
paratively narrow  front,  it  was  now  proposed 
to  attack  simultaneously  along  the  entire  front 
from  Lens  on  the  north  to  the  Cine  River  on  the 
south,  in  combination  with  a  secondary  attack 
by  the  French  between  Soissons  and  Reims.  In 
December,  however,  Nivelle  succeeded  Joffre, 
and  he  made  a  new  plan  which  Haig  was  direct- 
ed by  his  government  to  support.  According  to 
this  plan  the  French  were  to  make  the  main  at- 
tack between  Soissons  and  Reims,  and,  to  aid  in 
this  attack,  the  VI  and  X  French  armies  on  the 
Pe"ronne  front  were  to  be  replaced  by  British 
troops  The  British,  however,  were  to  attack 
as  previously  arranged.  The  change  of  plan  de- 
layed the  opening  of  the  attack  and  enabled  the 
Germans  to  secure  the  initiative. 

In  August,  191fi,  Falkenhayn  was  relieved  as 
chief  of  staff  of  the  German  armies  by  Ilinden- 
burg, whose  chief  assistant  was  Ludendorff. 
In  the  winter  of  1916-17,  they  decided  that  the 
Western  front  was  too  long  for  the  available 
troops  and  decided  to  evacuate  the  Roy  salient 
and  fall  back  on  a  chord  of  this  salient  running 
from  Arras  on  the  north  to  the  vicinity  of  Sois- 
sons on  the  south  The  new  line  was  carefully 
selected  and  fortified  during  the  winter;  it  was 
called  the  Siegfried  line  but  was  known  to  the 
Allies  as  the  Ilindenburg  line  The  withdrawal 
of  the  stores  began  early  in  February  and  in 
the  middle  of  March  the*  troops  began  their  re- 
treat. To  prevent  the  Allies  from  making  an 
early  attack  on  the  new  front,  as  the  troops 
retired  roads  were  blown  up,  and  everything  that 
could  be  of  use  or  protection  to  the  troops  of 
the  Allies  was  carefully  destroyed 

As  a  result  of  this  unexpected  movement,  the 
plan  of  the  Allies  had  to  be  changed,  as  the 
new  line  was  in  places  25  miles  in  the  rear  of  the 
old  one.  Before  any  serious  attack  could  be 
made  on  the  new  line  it  was  necessary  to  con- 
struct railways,  repair  roads,  organize  muni- 
tion dumps,  etc.,  all  of  which  would  take  con- 
siderable time.  The  Allied  attacks  could  no 
longer  be  made  as  planned  over  the  entire  front 
from  Lens  to  Reims  but  had  to  be  confined  to  the 
parts  of  the  old  German  front  that  had  not 
been  evacuated.  It  was  decided,  therefore,  to 
make  an  attack  as  soon  as  possible  with  the 
III  British  army  assisted  by  the  I  British  army 
on  the  German  line  in  the  vicinity  of  Arras, 
while  the  IV  and  new  V  British  army  organized 


WAE  IN  EUBOPX 


1406 


WAB  IN  EUBOPB 


their  position  before  the  new  German  line  far- 
ther south.  Xhellc  was  to  make  LU  great  at- 
tack as  planned  between  Soissons  and  Reims  but 
it  was  to  be  extended  to  the  east  of  Reims.  The 
British  and  French  armies  on  the  front  of  the 
Hindenburg  line  were  to  cooperate  as  well  as 
they  could,  simply  to  prevent  reserves  being  sent 
to  the  fronts  to  be  attacked. 

Battle  of  Arras.  One  of  the  reasons  for  the 
German  withdrawal  was  to  nullify  any  prepara- 
tions the  Allies  had  made  for  a  spring  offensive 
This  object  failed  of  realization  \\hen  scarcely 
a  week  later  the  British  began  an  offensive  on 
a  12-mile  front  north  and  south  of  Arras  (April 
9).  Haig  made  long  and  minute  preparations 
for  the  offensive.  A  continued  aerial  offensive 
gave  him  the  control  of  the  air.  Tie  also  car- 
ried out  a  three-week  wire-cutting  artillery 
fire,  interdicted  the  back  areas,  and  for  a  few 
days  preceding  the  attack  laid  down  a  terrific 
destructive  fire,  accompanied  by  extensive  gas 
discharges;  4000  cannon  were  used  in  this  pre- 
liminary work.  Tanks  were  assigned  to  each 
corps  to  lead  iu  the  assaults.  It  was  prescribed 
that  halts  for  reorganization  would  occur  only 
after  the  capture  of  each  successive  position. 

On  April  9  the  British  attacked  on  a  20-mile 
front.  The  I  army  under  Home  advanced  north 
of  the  Scarpc  and  the  III  army  under  Allenby 
advanced  south  of  the  Scarpe.  On  that  day  the 
Canadians  stormed  Vimy  Ridge.  The  entire 
first  line  positions  were  captured  in  4C  minutes. 
The  second  positions  were  captured  by  noon. 
The  third  position  presented  gi eater  obstacles, 
largely  because  the  wire  had  not  been  effectively 
cut  by  the  artillery.  A  gap  had  been  made  in 
the  German  lines  but  Haig  failed  to  exploit  his 
success  and  the  probability  of  cutting  the  ene- 
my's lines  of  communication  was  loht.  Instead 
of  sending  the  cavalry  through  the  gap,  Ilaig 
ordered  the  gap  widened.  This  hesitation  en- 
abled the  Germans  to  bring  up  the  sorely  needed 
reserves  and  prevented  a  serious  break-through. 
The  British  were  greatly  hampered  in  their 
operations  which  Iwgan  in  a  snow  storm;  this 
was  followed  by  rain  which  made  the  movement 
of  artillery  extiemely  difficult.  After  the  open- 
ing attack  which  ended  April  13  the  attacking 
divisions  were  replaced  and  the  operations  were 
renewed  but  the  original  momentum  was  lost. 
The  attack,  however,  went  on  until  May  4,  in  or- 
der to  prevent  resenes  from  being  sent  to  the 
French  front  \\hen  Xivelle's  attack  was  going  on. 
By  May  5,  Haig  had  advanced  live  miles  on  a 
front  of  20  miles  and  siege  conditions  again  ob- 
tained. The  Germans  had  lost  15,000  prisoners 
and  200  puna.  The  result  was  to  give  the  Brit- 
ish the  Vimy  Ridge  and  its  extension  southward, 
which  proved  of  great  value  when  the  Germans 
made  their  great  attack  the  following  year. 
Checked  on  this  front,  the  British  suddenly 
shifted  their  operations  to  the  Ypres  sectors. 

French  Offensive  on  the  Aisne.  After  the 
retreat  of  the  Germans  to  the  Hindenburg  line, 
General  Nivelle  had  concentrated  a  force  of  1,- 
200,000  men  (V,  VI,  X  and  IV  armies)  and 
5000  guns  in  the  Aisne  area  between  the  Oise 
and  the  Argonne.  With  this  force  he  planned 
to  attack  the  German  front  on  a  grand  scale. 
The  German  front  ran  due  south  from  the 
Ailette  River  to  the  Aisne  at  the  junction  of 
the  Vesle  and  thence  along  the  south  bank  for 
a  few  miles  where  the  Germans  had  a  bridgehead 
captured  in  the  winter  of  1914-15;  thence  the 
line  crossed  the  river  to  the  Ghemin  des  Dames 


Ridge  (Ladies'  Way,  so  culled  because  it  was 
built  by  Louis  XV  a*  a  promenade  for  his 
daughters),  between  the  Ailette  and  Aisne 
Rivers  and  along  that  ridge  to  Craonne.  From 
Craonne  the  line  ran  southeast  to  some  heights 
commanding  Reims  and  thence  over  the  Moron 
villers  ridge  between  the  Suippe  and  Vesle  Rivers 
to  the  Suippe.  The  attack  was  to  be  prepared 
by  a  long  artillery  bombardment. 

The  artillery  liegan  its  operations  on  April 
9,  but  the  weather  conditions  were  so  bad  that 
the  infantry  attack  had  to  l>e  postponed  from 
the  12th  to  the  16th.  Even  then  the  weather 
conditions  were  unfavorable.  Besides  this,  Ilin- 
denburg  was  fully  cognizant  of  the  French  plans 
through  the  medium  of  captuied  despatches  and 
had  taken  adequate  means  to  fend  off  the  French 
attack  He  also  withdrew  the  I  army  from 
the  Hindenburg  line  and  sent  it  to  the  "French 
front.  As  a  result,  although  the  German  lines 
were  penetrated  at  various  points  along  the 
front,  only  the  first  of  the  Geiinan  lines  could 
be  captured  and  held  on  the  Chemin  des  Dames 
Ridge  and  to  the  east.  At  the  close  of  the 
first  day  it  was  evident  that  there  was  to  be  no 
break-through.  Despite  this  Xivelle  kept  up 
attack  until  the  21st.  In  an  intermittent  battle 
lasting  from  April  17  until  May  20,  the  French 
IV  army  east  of  Reims — Anthoine — succeeded 
in  capturing  the  higli  ground  of  Moronvillers. 
On  the  night  of  May  4  the  French  captured 
Craonne,  a  key  point  on  the  Chemin  des  Dames, 
and  by  the  next  day  captured  the  crest  of  the 
Chemin  des  Dames  to  the  west  and,  to  the  east, 
the  plateau  of  Craonne. 

The  French  troops,  after  the  initial  defeat  of 
April  10,  considered  success  on  the  Aisne  im- 
possible. Units  up  to  divisions  in  si/e,  al- 
though asserting  themselves  to  be  lojal  and 
ready,  if  necessary,  to  die  for  France,  lefused 
to  continue  the  attack  on  the  Aisne,  on  the 
ground  that  it  was  a  useless  loss  of  life.  Al- 
though 20,000  prisoners  and  a  large  number  of 
guns  had  been  taken  the  Fiencli  casualties 
amounted  to  about  120,000  and  its  general  ad- 
vance west  of  Reims  had  been  slight.  General 
Xivelle  lost  the  confidence  of  his  government 
by  this  gigantic  failure  and  on  May  15,  P£tain 
succeeded  him  in  command  of  the  French  armies, 
and  Foch,  who  had  been  without  any  important 
duty  since  the  preceding  December  became  chief 
of  staff  at  the  War  Department.  Foch  had 
been  in  command  of  the  northern  group  of 
French  armies  since  1914  but  this  group  was 
broken  up  when  the  VI  and  X  armies  were 
moxed  to  the  Aisne  front. 

British  Operations  in  Flanders.  The  U- 
boat  campaign  had  become  exceedingly  effec- 
tive and  as  the  principal  base  of  these  opera- 
tions was  Zeebrugge,  the  Channel  port  of 
Bruges,  the  capture  of  this  port  became  a  very 
important  objective.  Haig  believed  that  this 
could  be  accomplished  by  land  operations  from 
the  British  front  in  Flanders  operating  from 
the  Ypres  front  in  the  direction  of  Bruges. 
In  June,  1917,  when  operations  were  begun  on 
this  front,  the  IV  German  army  held  most  of 
the  front  from  the  Channel  to  the  Lyg  River. 
In  the  north,  its  line  was  the  east  bank  of  the 
Yser  River  except  on  the  coast  where  the  Al- 
lies had  a  bridge-head  on  the  east  bank.  From 
the  Yser  it  followed  the  Ypres  Canal  almost  to 
that  town,  which  was  held  by  the  British. 
South  of  Ypres  it  held  the  Messines  Ridge, 
which  had  been  captured  from  the  British  in 


WAB  IN 


1407 


WAR  IN  EtT&OPB 


1914.  To  strengthen  its  lines  it  had  constructed 
a  large  number  of  concrete  machine-gun  em- 
placements called  by  the  British  "pill  boxes." 

Haig  was  given  the  I  French  army — An- 
thoine — to  assist  in  his  campaign  and  brought 
up  the  headquarters  staffs  of  the  IV  and  V 
British  armies  whose  fronts  were  taken  over  by 
the  ITI  army.  A  new  IV  army  was  to  operate 
along  the  coast  and  a  new  V  army  was  to 
operate  with  the  II  army  already  on  this  front. 
While  preparations  were  made  to  attack  north 
and  east  of  Ypres  he  directed  the  II  army  to 
capture  the  Messincs  Ridge. 

This  attack  opened  on  June  7,  1917,  when  there 
occurred  one  of  the  most  spectacular  events 
of  the  entire  war.  This  was  the  blowing  up 
of  the  Messines-Wytschaete  Ridge.  This  ridge 
formed  a  salient  which  dominated  the  entire 
Ypres  sector  from  the  south  and  which  was 
literally  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  the  Allies. 
For  over  two  years  British  sappers  had  been 
burrowing  under  this  ridge  and  finally  succeeded 
in  placing  in  position,  undetected  by  the  Ger- 
mans, 20  mines  containing  more  than  1,000,000 
pounds  of  ammonite.  These  were  exploded  by 
electricity  on  the  morning  of  June  7.  The  whole 
tops  of  the  hills  were  blown  off  and  the  roar 
could  be  heard  for  a  distance  of  150  miles.  A 
tremendous  shell  fire  which  had  been  playing  on 
the  ridge  for  two  weeks  reached  its  greatest 
intensity  as  the  mines  were  exploded.  After 
the  explosion  the  British  infantry  rushed  for- 
ward and  by  the  end  of  the  day  had  wiped  out 
the  entire  salient.  The  Germans  retaliated  for 
this  Allied  offensive  by  a  successful  attack  on 
the  British  line  at  its  most  northern  extremity 
in  Belgium.  On  July  11,  after  heavy  artillery 
preparation,  the  Germans  made  a  strong  in- 
fantry attack  on  the  British  positions  east  of 
the  Yser  River  and  captured  the  entire  works. 
The  preparations  on  the  front  of  the  main  at- 
tack were  made  during  the  month  of  July  but 
as  the  Germans  had  captured  the  bridgehead 
near  the  Channel  the  attack  was  confined  to  the 
front  from  Dixmude  to  the  Lys  River.  In  this 
opening  attack  the  I  French  and  the  V  and  II 
British  armies  were  to  be  employed.  After  a 
prolonged  artillery  preparation  the  infantry  at- 
tack was  to  be  launched  on  July  31  ana  the 
Allied  forces  advanced  about  two  miles,  captur- 
ing the  first  and  second  German  lines.  A 
heavy  rain  now  set  in  which  lasted  several 
days  and  made  further  operations  impossible. 
The  field  of  operations  being  generally  flat, 
it  was  converted  into  an  immense  swamp  over 
which  movement  was  possible  only  on  the  few 
roads. 

Some  minor  operations  were  undertaken  about 
the  middle  of  August  by  the  V  army  that  met 
with  so  little  success  that  the  commander  of 
that  army  was  relieved  and  the  British  front 
placed  under  the  orders  of  the  commander  of 
the  II  army — Plumer.  In  the  latter  part  of 
September  the  ground  was  again  sufficiently  dry 
to  admit  of  another  general  advance  and  on 
September  20  the  Allies  again  advanced  about  a 
mile.  Then  followed  a  succession  of  attacks 
with  limited  objectives  carried  on  under  very 
unfavorable  weather  conditions.  The  Allied  ob- 
jective was  no  longer  the  Belgian  coast  but 
only  a  ridge  about  five  miles  east  of  their  ori- 
ginal position;  this  ridge  overlooked  the  ground 
to  the  east  and  in  the  possession  of  the  Allies 
would  make  future  offensive  operations  on  this 
front  practically  impossible  to  the  Germans. 

46 


Most  of  this  ridge  was  secured  early  in  Novem- 
ber when  the  Canadians  captured  Passchendaeie. 
This  closed  the  operations. 

According  to  Haig,  in  these  operations  the 
British  employed  two-thirds  of  their  divisions 
in  France  one  or  more  times  and  the  Germans 
78  divisions,  18  of  which  were  employed  a 
second  and  a  third  time  after  being  with- 
drawn to  rest  and  refit.  The  casualties  on  both 
sides  were  extremely  heavy.  As  a  strategic 
movement  it  was  not  a  success  but  it  did  pro- 
duce a  great  effect  on  the  morale  of  the  Ger- 
man army. 

Verdun  Again.  On  Aug.  20,  1017,  after 
nine  months  of  comparative  quiet,  the  French 
resumed  the  offensive  at  Verdun.  After  a  three- 
day  bombardment  they  advanced  on  both  sides 
of  the  Meuse  and  penetrated  a  mile  and  a  quar- 
ter on  an  11-mile  front.  In  the  next  four  days 
smashing  blows  were  delivered  which  resulted 
in  a  further  advance.  By  the  l;3th  of  September 
the  French  had  recovered  100  square  miles  of 
the  120  the  Germans  had  seized  in  their  great 
offensive.  They  now  held  all  the  dominating 
positions  in  the  Verdun  sector  and  on  the  west 
of  the  Meuse  the  Germans  were  back  in  the 
lines  from  which  they  advanced  in  19 1C. 

Second  Battle  of  the  Aisne.  On  Oct  23, 
the  French  X  army — Maistre — launched  a  suc- 
cessful attack  in  the  Aisne  region.  The  attack 
was  directed  at  the  salient  of  the  German  line 
northeast  of  Soissons  and  just  south  of  the 
Ailette  River.  The  objectives  were  reached  that 
day  and  immediately  organized.  The  result  of 
this  attack  was  the  abandonment  by  the  Ger- 
mans of  the  Chemin  des  Dames  by  November 
2,  and  the  retirement  across  the  Ailette.  This 
operation  which  was  based  on  surprise,  captured 
with  comparative  ease  what  Nivelle  failed  to 
capture  with  nearly  a  million  and  a  half  men. 
It  worked  marvels  in  the  restoration  of  confi- 
dence and  the  rehabilitation  of  the  French  sol- 
diers' morale. 

Battle  of  Cambrai.  While  the  British  opera- 
tions in  Flanders  were  in  progress,  the  com- 
mander of  the  III  British  army — Byng — had 
been  preparing  plans  for  an  attack  on  new  lines. 
The  battle  was  to  be  a  complete  surprise  with- 
out artillery  preparation,  a  method  untried  up 
to  this  time  in  the  War.  The  attack  was  to  be 
led  by  a  lone  line  of  tanks  followed  by  the 
infantry.  Special  preparations  had  been  made 
to  enable  these  tanks  to  cross  the  German 
trenches  of  the  Hindenburg  line  which  were 
here  15  feet  wide  and  9  feet  deep.  After  the 
close  of  the  operations  in  Flanders,  Haig  gave 
his  consent  to  the  attack  but  was  unable  to  send 
enough  divisions  to  hold  the  ground  won  by  its 
unexpected  success. 

The  attack  was  to  be  delivered  on  a  front 
of  about  6  miles  between  the  Canal  du  Nord 
and  the  St.  Quentin  Canal  southwest  of  Cam- 
brai. A  strong  cavalry  force  was  assembled 
in  rear  to  be  employed  if  a  break-through  was 
secured.  On  the  morning  of  November  20,  pre- 
ceded by  a  barrage,  350  fighting  tanks  moved 
off  followed  by  the  infantry.  The  main  and 
reserve  lines  of  the  German  position  were  taken 
and  on  the  second  day  the  British  were  five 
miles  in  advance  of  their  own  lines  fighting  for 
a  ridge  which  in  their  possession  would  have 
commanded  Cambrai.  Their  force  was  too  small 
to  effect  its  capture  and  although  other  divi- 
sions were  hurried  up  it  was  then  too  late. 
The  cavalry  was  disappointed  as  the  bridge 


WAB 


STOOPS 


1406 


WAB  IN  ETOOPE 


over  which  they  expected  to  cross  the  St.  Quen- 
tin  Canal  was  broken  down  and  the  arrival 
of  a  German  division  from  Russia  closed  this 
front.  While  the  fighting  was  still  going  on  in 
the  captured  area,  the  Germans  hurried  up  re- 
serves and  on  November  30  made  a  counter- 
attack across  the  St.  Quentin  Canal  and  re- 
covered about  half  the  area  they  had  lost. 

The  battle  of  Cambrai  established  the  value 
of  tanks,  and  preparations  were  made  both  by 
the  British  and  French  to  employ  them  on  a 
grand  scale  in  1918. 

Allied  Unity.  The  prime  ministers  of 
France,  Italy  and  Great  Britain  met  at  Ra- 
pallo,  Italy,  on  November  0,  and  formed  the 
Supreme  War  Council,  which  was  to  coordinate 
the  military  powers  of  the  Allies  and  wage  war 
as  a  unified  group  and  not  as  individuals.  The 
members  of  the  Supreme  War  Staff  were  to  be 
Generals  Cadorna  (Italy),  Foch  (France),  and 
Wilson  (British).  According  to  the  agreement, 
"The  Supreme  War  Council  has  for  its  mission 
to  \\ntch  over  the  general  conduct  of  the  War. 
It  prepares  recommendations  for  the  considera- 
tions of  the  governments  and  keeps  itself  in- 
formed of  the  execution  and  reports  thereon 
to  the  respective  governments."  General  Bliss 
later  became  the  American  representative. 

American  Expeditionary  Force.  The  first 
contingents  of  a  United  States  army  to  fight  in 
Europe  arrived  at  a  French  port  on  June  26 
and  27,  1017.  They  wore  commanded  by  Maj.- 
Gen.  William  L.  Si'bert  and  received  a  tremen- 
dous ovation  from  the  French  people.  On  the 
way  over,  the  transports  had  been  unsuccessfully 
attacked  twice  by  submarines.  Gen.  John  J. 
Pershing,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  Ameri- 
can force,  had  been  in  France  for  some  time  pre- 
paring for  the  coming  of  the  "Sammies,"  as 
the  French  characterized  the  American  soldiers. 
Training  camps  for  the  American  troops  had 
been  located  in  various  parts  of  France  and  were 
ready  for  occupancy  when  the  soldiers  arrived. 
Infantry,  artillery,  aviation  and  medical  bases 
were  established.  The  number  of  men  gradual- 
ly  increased,  many  of  them  stopping  in  Eng- 
land before  going  over  to  France.  An  intensive 
system  of  training  was  entered  upon  during 
the  latter  part  of  July.  American  officers  were 
aided  by  officers  and  men  of  the  British  and 
French  armies.  The  American  transportation 
service  took  over  transportation  on  all  railways 
leading  to  American  bases  and  a  section  of 
French  forest  was  turned  over  to  American  lum- 
bermen for  the  needs  of  the  Expeditionary 
Force. 

For  the  details  of  the  actual  raising,  train- 
ing, and  equipping  of  the  American  army,  see 
UNITED  STATES  and  allied  topics. 

1918.  Last  Year  of  War  on  Western 
•Front.  The  months  of  January  and  "February, 
1918,  were  months  of  comparative  inactivity 
along  the  battle  line  from  the  North  Sea  to  the 
Swiss  border.  The  outstanding  feature  of  the 
War  at  the  close  of  1917  was  the  signing  of  an 
armistice  between  the  Central  Powers  on  the 
one  hand  and  Rumania  and  the  de  faeto  govern- 
ment of  Russia  on  the  other.  The  defection  of 
Russia  from  the  side  of  the  Allies  was  the  sig- 
nal for  a  tremendous  publicity  campaign  in 
Germany,  predicting  a  gigantic  blow  on  the 
Western  front,  which  would  completely  crush 
the  British  and  French  armies  before  the  Ameri- 
can forces  could  land  in  sufficient  numbers  to 
give  any  substantial  aid.  The  depression  in 


Allied  countries  caused  by  the  abolition  of  the 
Eastern  front  was  somewhat  overcome  by  Al- 
lenby's  victories  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  un- 
expected rapidity  with  which  the  United  States 
rushed  men  and  material  to  Europe. 

The  chief  cause  for  the  optimistic  tone  of  the 
Teutonic  press  was  tho  fact  that  huge  quan- 
tities of  material  and  a  large  number  of  men 
could  not  be  transferred  from  the  Eastern  front 
for  immediate  service  on  the  Western  front. 
The  German  High  Command  adopted  a  policy 
of  careful  selection  of  the  men  who  were  to  be 
transported  westward.  As  a  skeleton  for  the 
new  division  to  be  formed  they  picked  out  all  the 
soldiers  in  Russia  between  the  ages  of  25  and 
35.  They  realized  that  it  would  be  impossible 
to  withdraw  all  the  men  from  Russia  inasmuch 
as  the  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk  provided  for  the 
occupation  of  a  considerable  amount  of  Rus- 
sian territory  by  German  troops.  While  it  was 
generally  known  that  the  personnel  and  morale 
of  the  Germans  on  the  Eastern  front  were  con- 
siderably lower  than  on  the  Western  front, 
nevertheless  the  German  command  hoped  to 
build  up  from  the  Eastern  material  about  59  or 
CO  divisions  of  12,000  men  each.  This  would 
increase  the  fighting  strength  on  the  Western 
front  by  about  700,000  men  and  would  bring  the 
highest  total  of  available  men  up  to  approxi- 
mately 2,340,000.  This  total  would  approxi- 
mately equal  the  number  of  men  Great  Britain 
and  France  had  available.  American,  Belgian, 
and  Portuguese  troops  practically  assured  tho 
Allies  a  numerical  superiority  over  the  uliole 
front  although  not  necessarily  in  any*one  sector 

On  the  Western  front,  during  the  first  10 
weeks  of  the  year  the  fighting  consisted  of  a 
series  of  almost  unending  trench  and  aerial 
raids,  carried  out  for  the  purpose  of  reconnais- 
sance. Sometimes  the  trench  raids  would  fol- 
low heavy  bombardments,  but  generally  speak- 
ing they  were  carried  out  by  small  patrols  un- 
der cover  of  darkness.  The  Germans  with  vary- 
ing success  carried  out  raids  in  Flanders,  Ar- 
tois,  Picardy,  the  Verdun  sector,  Champagne, 
and  Lorraine,  with  the  evident  intention  of 
ferreting  out  the  weak  points  of  the  Allied  line 
for  the  much  heralded  offensive  on  the  Western 
front.  The  purpose  of  the  Allied  raids  was  to 
discover,  if  possible,  the  places  on  the  German 
lines  where  any  unusual  concentration  was 
being  made.  The  aerial  raids,  to  a  large  extent, 
were  carried  out  over  the  valleys  of  the  Rhine 
and  Moselle  Rivers,  where  it  was  known  that 
the  troops  transported  from  the  Eastern  front 
were  being  refitted  for  service  on  the  Western 
front. 

The  American  troops,  which  had  been  pouring 
into  France  in  an  ever-increasing  stream,  and 
which  had  been  gradually  concentrating  in 
camps  in  eastern  France,  were  prepared  to 
take  over  a  section  of  the  battle  line.  Pershing 
from  the  first  had  insisted  on  a  distinctly  Ameri- 
can unit  and  had  steadfastly  refused  to  brigade 
the  American  troops  with  the  British  and 
French.  The  sector  allotted  to  the  1st  Ameri- 
can division  was  about  eight  miles  long  and  was 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  St.  Mihiel  salient, 
which  had  been  established  by  the  Germans  ad- 
vancing from  Metz  in  1914,  and  which  had 
withstood  several  attempts  on  the  part  of  the 
French  to  "pinch"  it.  Three  French  divisions 
were  thus  relieved  for  duty  against  the  impend- 
ing German  attack.  The  Germans  lost  no  time 
in  trying  out  the  new  American  forces  by  means 


WAB 


1409 


WAB  IN  EU&OPE 


of  heavy  bombardments  of  high  explosives  and 
gas  shells. 

Second  Battle  of  Picardy:  The  Somme 
Again.  Shortly  before  5  A.  M.  on  Mar.  21,  1918, 
came  the  great  blow  which  the  German  press 
and  public  had  been  so  continually  prophesying 
since  the  collapse  of  Russia  and  Rumania  The 
German  plan  was  based  on  sound  military 
strategy.  It  was  to  strike  the  Anglo-French 
line  where  the  two  armies  joined,  break  through 
and  reach  the  channel  ports,  and  thus  either 
confine  the  British,  Belgian  and  Portuguese 
armies  in  the  narrow  region  between  the  Somme 
and  the  Belgian  border  or  drive  them  into  the 
sea,  and  then  turn  their  attention  southward  to 
the  French  armies,  and  make  a  direct  advance 
on  Paris.  The  attack  was  BO  timed  as  to  offset 
any  increase  to  the  Allied  force  from  the  United 
States.  The  success  of  this  scheme  depended 
entirely  on  a  complete  break-through  at  the 
junction  point  of  the  British  and  French 
armies. 

The  front  chosen  for  the  attack  was  between 
the  Scarpe  and  the  Oise  Rivers,  and  was  held 
by  the  III  British  army  under  General  Byng 
and  by  the  V  British  army,  under  General 
Gough.  The  V  army  section  of  the  battle  line 
was  taken  over  by  the  British  from  the  French 
at  the  beginning  of  Ihe  year.  The  V  army  was 
composed  of  about  14  divisions,  roughly  170,000 
men,  which  had  to  protect  a  line  about  50  miles 
long.  It  is  difficult  to  understand  why  this 
particular  section  of  the  line  was  held  so 
lightly.  This  entire  front  was  attacked  by  a 
force  composed  of  between  40  and  50  divisions, 
amounting  to  approximately  750,000  men,  about 
150,000  of  which  were  concentrated  between  St. 
Quentin  and  La  Fere.  It  is  scarcely  to  be 
wondered  at  that  the  V  British  army  was 
brushed  aside  by  such  a  superiority  of  men, 
and  by  the  dogged  determination  on  the  part 
of  the  Germans  to  get  through  at  any  cost. 
The  German  armies  facing  the  battle  line  were 
under  the  supreme  command  of  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Bavaria  and  the  individual  armies, 
XVII,  II,  and  IX,  under  the  leadership  of  Von 
Billow,  Von  der  Marwitz,  and  Von  Hutier.  The 
plan  of  attack  was  drawn  up  by  the  last  named 
general. 

The  weather  favored  the  Germans  to  a  very 
large  extent.  The  attack  was  begun  a  little 
before  5  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  21st 
under  the  cover  of  such  a  heavy  fog  and  mist 
that  it  was  impossible  to  see  more  than  100 
feet  ahead.  It  was  preceded  by  a  brief  but  very 
intense  artillery  fire  which  was  composed  main- 
ly of  high  explosive  and  gas  shells.  Simul- 
taneously a  heavy  artillery  fire  broke  out  in 
the  Champagne  and  Lorraine  sectors  with  the 
obvious  purpose  of  preventing  the  bringing  up 
of  reinforcements  to  the  vital  places  attacked. 
The  Germans  also  bombarded  Paris  with  a 
long-range  gun  placed  in  the  forest  of  St.  Go- 
bain,  approximately  75  miles  away.  This  gun 
killed  many  civilians  and  did  much  material 
damage  in  Paris,  but  instead  of  causing  a  panic 
it  seemed  to  renew  the  grim  determination  of 
the  Parisians  to  carry  on. 

General  Gough,  commander  of  the  V  British 
army,  knew  from  documents  taken  from  Ger- 
man prisoners  that  the  assault  was  impending 
and  had  made  preparation  to  meet  it,  but  his 
preparations  were  practically  nullified  by  the 
weather  conditions.  The  first  line  of  defense, 
i.e.  the  outpost  line,  was  taken  before  the  Brit- 


ish were  cognizant  of  the  fact  that  the  attack 
had  begun.  The  tremendous  superiority  of 
numbers  forced  the  resistance  line  (second 
line)  very  quickly  and  enabled  the  Germans  to 
rush  up  to  the  battle  line  or  last  system  of  de- 
fense. Here  again  the  inequality  of  numbers 
ultimately  told  and  the  II  and  IX  German  ar- 
mies forced  their  way  through  where  some  of 
Gough's  division  joined.  Apparently  the  Brit- 
ish had  made  no  provisions  for  a  break-through, 
because  there  were  no  defense  lines  behind  the 
third  defense  system.  The  road  to  Amiens 
seemed  open  and  only  heroic  efforts  saved  it. 

The  battle  line  of  the  German  offensive  ex- 
tended from  southeast  Arras  in  the  direction  of 
Cambrai,  as  far  as  La  Fere  The  first  infantry 
attack  broke  through  the  first  and  second  lines 
of  British  trenches  of  the  III  army  on  a  16-mile 
front  from  Lagni court  to  just  south  of  Gouzeau- 
court.  The  result  of  this  attack  was  evacuation 
of  the  British  positions  in  the  salient  that  re- 
mained after  the  battle  of  Cambrai  at  the  close 
of  1917.  On  the  22nd,  the  Germans,  after  more 
heavy  artillery  preparation  smashed  through 
the  entire  British  position  along  the  whole 
front.  The  V  British  army  was  now  completely 
cut  off  from  the  permanent  French  position  be- 
fore La  Fere  and  the  permanent  British  position 
at  Arras.  Between  these  two  points  there  was 
a  struggling  mass  of  humanity  with  practically 
no  organization  as  far  as  the  Allies  were  con- 
cerned. It  seemed  certain  that  the  German  plan 
was  to  succeed  and  a  permanent  wedge  inserted 
between  the  French  and  British  armies  On 
the  23rd  the  British  were  defeated  near  Monchy, 
St.  Quentin,  La  Fere,  and  opposite  Cambrai, 
and  the  British  second  positions  between  Fon- 
taine les  Croisselles  and  Moeuvres  were  pen- 
etrated. The  Allies  hoped  to  be  able  to  hold 
the  line  of  the  Soinme,  but  were  unable  to  do  so 
because  no  adequate  defenses  had  been  construct- 
ed there.  On  the  24th  the  Germans  took  Pe*- 
ronne,  Chauny  and  Ham,  and  crossed  the  Somme 
River  at  \arious  points  south  of  the  first  men- 
tioned place,  by  means  of  a  pontoon  bridge  and 
rafts.  The  British  were  unable  to  completely 
destroy  the  bridge  because  of  the  haste  with 
which  they  were  withdrawing  their  artillery. 

Continuing  to  advance  on  the  25th,  the  Ger- 
mans captured  Bapaume,  Nesle,  Etalon,  Bar- 
leux,  Biaches  and  Guiscard.  On  this  day  the 
French  War  Office  announced  that  British  lines 
south  of  St.  Quentin  and  around  Noyon  had 
been  taken  over  by  a  French  army,  thus  show- 
ing that  at  last  the  Allies  were  making  some 
successful  attempts  to  stem  the  tide  of  invasion 
On  the  20th,  the  Germans  crossed  the  old  battle 
line  of  1916  in  several  places  and  captured 
Noyon,  Roye  and  Lihon.  The  26th  was  the  de- 
cisive day  of  the  battle  of  Picardy.  This  day 
saw  the  closing  of  the  gap  caused  by  the  break- 
through of  the  21st.  The  French  came  up 
along  the  Southern  front  from  the  Aisne  to 
the  Avre,  and  west  of  the  Avre,  where  they 
united  with  the  British  at  Moreuil.  The  26th 
also  saw  the  organization  of  a  temporary  foice 
under  Gen.  Sandeman  Carey,  who  had  received 
orders  to  close  a  gap  made  by  the  Germans. 
With  rare  judgment  and  skill  he  improvised  an 
army  from  sappers,  laborers,  engineers,  in  fact 
anybody  he  could  find,  and  with  this  cosmopol- 
itan force  faced  the  Germans,  fighting  over  un- 
known ground,  and  with  officers  in  charge  of 
men  they  had  never  seen  before. 

A    few   words    should    be    said    here    of    the 


WAB  IN  ETJBQPE 

method  used  by  the  Germans  to  relieve  men  who 
were  exhausted  by  constant  attacking  or  shot 
to  pieces  by  the  heroic  British  defense.  Re- 
serve divisions  were  kept  directly  behind  the 
battle  line  and  when  advanced  divisions  needed 
replacement,  the  reserves  were  passed  through 
tbe  forward  divisions  and  the  latter  were  rested 
and  reformed,  and  then  they  became  the  re- 
serve. By  this  means  the  Gfermana  were  able 
to  present  continually  fresh  men  to  the  British, 
who  had  been  fighting  without  rest  or  relief 
since  the  tremendous  offensive  began.  Another 
thing  to  be  noticed  about  this  battle  was  the 
ease  with  which  the  Germans  were  able  to 
manoeuvre  their  attacking  columns.  The  attack 
was  made  with  three  or  four  columns  of  sev- 
eral divisions  each,  and  when  they  were  stopped 
in  one  direction  they  were  able  to  turn  without 
loss  of  power  in  another  direction.  As  most  of 
the  new  ideas  worked  out  in  this  battle  were 
devised  by  Von  Hutier,  this  plan  of  attack  be- 
came known  as  the  Von  Hutier  method.  Many 
of  its  features  were  later  adopted  by  the 
Allies. 

The  27th  saw  the  first  perceptible  signs  of 
the  slowing  up  of  the  German  forward  move- 
ment. The  British,  now  reinforced,  checked  tbe 
Germans,  and  recaptured  Mo rlan court  and  Clii- 
pilly  north  of  the  Somme  and  advanced  to  Pro- 
yart  south  of  the  Somme.  These  gains  were 
offset,  however,  by  the  capture  of  Albert  and 
the  crossing  of  the  Ancre  River  north  and  south 
of  that  city,  and  forcing  the  French  back  east 
of  Montdidier.  Tbe  28th  saw  the  fall  of  Mont- 
didier  but  it  also  saw  the  complete  repulse  of 
a  tremendous  German  attack  on  Arras.  The 
artillery  preparation  was  terrific  and  the  Ger- 
mans' orders  were  not  only  to  take  the  city  but 
Vimy  Ridge  also,  at  all  costs.  The  Germans 
used  about  20  divisions  in  the  huge  effort,  and 
after  suffering  appalling  losses  which  materially 
reduced  their  numbers,  were  compelled  to  give 
up  the  attempt  after  an  all-day  battle  which 
equaled  in  intensity  anything  that  the  War  had 
produced. 

The  German  effort  had  now  almost  spent  it- 
self and  the  German  High  Command  found 
itself  caught  in  a  rather  difficult  position.  The 
Germans  had  pushed  a  35-mile  salient  towards 
Amiens,  which  was  quite  narrow  at  its  extreme 
tip.  The  northern  side  of  the  salient  was 
bounded  roughly  by  the  Ancre  River  and  the 
southern  side  by  the  Avre.  These  water  bar- 
riers were,  comparatively  speaking,  no  protec- 
tion to  the  Allies,  but  tne  high  ground  on  the 
Allied  sides  was  an  ideal  spot  for  artillery  em- 
placements, which  commanded  all  the  German 
positions  in  the  tip  of  the  salient.  The  German 
problem  was  to  break  through  the  sides  of  this 
wedge  and  broaden  the  salient  or  face  a  possible 
disaster.  The  attempt  at  Arras,  an  has  been 
noticed  above,  failed  During  the  first  week 
of  April  tremendous  assaults  were  made  from 
Albert  at  the  Ancre  line  on  the  north,  and  on 
the  Avre  line  from  Grivesneg  to  north  of  the 
Amiens-Roye  road  on  the  south  Although  local 
successes  were  gained  by  the  Germans,  they 
failed  in  their  main  purpose,  i.e.  breaking  the 
lines  of  the  Avre  and  Ancre  and  widening  the 
salient.  The  chief  reason  for  this  was  the  time 
element,  which  had  permitted  the  British  and 
French  to  bring  up  men  and  guns  and  thus 
stabilize  their  lines.  Another  contributory 
cause  was  the  fact  that  a  heavy  rain  had  turned 
the  Somme  battlefield  into  a  desolate  sea  of 


1410 


WAB  IN  JSl 


mud,  and  hindered  the  Germans'  transportation 
of  men,  munitions  and  supplies.  The  failure 
during  the  first  week  of  April  to  smash  the  sides 
of  the  Amiens  salient  ended  the  battle.  As  to 
results,  the  main  German  plan  was  frustrated. 
The  French  and  British  were  still  united  and 
held  strong  defensive  positions.  The  Germans 
had  taken  practically  all  the  ground  they  held 
at  the  beginning  of  the  battle  of  the  Somme 
in  1916,  and  some  more  besides,  approximately 
1500  square  miles.  Both  sides  suffered  severe 
losses.  A  conservative  estimate  would  place  the 
German  casualties  at  a  quarter  of  a  million 
men,  while  the  Allies'  were  probably  50,000  less. 
Most  of  the  Allies'  losses  were  borne  by  the 
British. 

Ferdinand  Foch,  Allied  Commander-in- 
Chief.  The  terrific  blow  struck  at  the  British 
army  on  the  21st  of  March,  with  the  subse- 
quent demoralization  and  almost  complete  de- 
feat of  the  Allies,  compelled  them  to  take  a 
step  that  up  to  this  time  they  had  been  loath 
to  take.  That  was  to  appoint  one  man  as  the 
leader  of  all  the  Allied  armies.  It  is  idle  to 
speculate  on  what  might  have  happened  if  this 
had  been  done  previously,  but  many  critics  have 
stated  that  the  great  March  disaster  would  have 
been  avoided  under  a  unified  command.  On 
Nov.  12,  1917,  after  creation  of  the  Supreme 
War  Council,  Lloyd  George  said  concerning  it 
".  .  .  The  Italian  disaster  necessitated  action 
without  delay  to  repair  it.  .  .  It  is  true  we 
sent  troops  to  Saloniki  to  succor  Serbia,  but  as 
always  they  were  sent  too  late.  Half  the  men 
who  fell  in  that  vain  effort  to  pierce  the  West- 
ern front  would  have  saved  Serbia,  saved  the 
Balkans,  and  completed  the  blockade  of  Ger- 
many. ...  1915  was  the  year  of  the  Serbian 
tragedy:  1916  was  the  year  of  the  Rumanian 
tragedy.  .  .  .  National  and  professional  tra- 
ditions, questions  of  prestige  and  susceptibil- 
ities, all  conspired  to  render  our  best  decisions 
vain.  .  .  .  The  War  has  been  prolonged  by 
particularism.  It  will  be  shortened  by  solidar- 
ity "  These  words  seem  to  point  to  a  unified 
command  but  Lloyd  George  was  compelled  to 
go  back  on  them  because  the  British  General 
Staff,  which  was  opposed  to  the  scheme,  was 
too  influential  with  the  British  public  and  Par- 
liament. The  move  was  characterized  as  an  at- 
tempt to  subordinate  the  military  to  the  po- 
litical leaders.  The  British  felt  that  a  French 
leader  would  not  protect  the  British  lines  to 
the  sea,  and  the  French  felt  that  a  British 
leader  would  sacrifice  Paris  for  the  sake  of  de- 
fending the  coast.  But  Allied  failure  on  the 
Western  front,  such  as  at  Cambrai,  the  collapse 
of  Italy,  and  the  colossal  defeat  just  suffered  by 
the  British  arms,  converted  the  British  public 
to  Lloyd  George's  point  of  view. 

From  the  time  that  the  United  States  en- 
tered the  War,  President  Wilson  had  argued 
unity  of  command  as  well  as  the  pooling  of  all 
the  resources  of  the  Allies.  When  the  Germans 
struck  in  March,  General  Pershing  offered  the 
small  American  forces  in  France  to  the  Allies 
for  use  in  any  way  they  saw  fit.  This  act  on 
the  part  of  the  American  commander  finally 
overruled  the  last  objections  on  the  part  of  the 
British  Staff.  General  Foch,  whose  ability, 
achievements,  and  popularity  in  the  Allied 
countries,  eminently  fitted  him  for  the  task, 
was  named  Commander-ih-Chief  of  all  the  Al- 
lied Armies.  His  first  statement  was  an  as- 
surance that  Amiens  would  not  fall.  In  all  the 


WAB  IN  EUBOPB 


countries  involved  he  was  heartily  welcomed  at 
the  savior  of  the  world  by  the  press  and  the 
public. 

Battle  of  Lys  Biver.  Possibly  as  a  result 
of  the  Von  Hutier  idea  of  changing  the  direc- 
tion of  the  attack  or  possibly  as  a  result  of  the 
check  they  received  before  Amiens,  the  Germans 
suddenly  launched  an  attack  between  the  high 
ground  north  of  Yprcs  and  Arras  with  their 
IV  and  VI  armies.  The  German  Staff  also  es- 
tiniated  that  the  British  armies  defending  these 
fronts  were  considerably  weakened  by  the  at- 
tack on  Amiens.  The  main  part  of  the  attack 
was  aimed  between  the  first  mentioned  positions 
and  La  Bassee,  astride  the  Lys  River.  A 
break-through  of  any  size  would  seriously  im- 
peril the  channel  ports,  inasmuch  as  the  British 
had  scarcely  40  miles  to  manoeuvre  in.  An  ad- 
vance similar  to  that  before  Amiens  would  have 
resulted  in  the  capture  of  Calais,  one  of  the 
chief  bases  of  supply  of  the  British  armies. 
The  chief  objectives  of  the  first  Gorman  thrust 
were  Be'thune,  Bailleul  and  Hazebrouck.  The 
last  named  place  was  a  little  over  15  miles  from 
the  starting-place,  and  if  captured  meant  the 
fall  of  Ypres  and  the  dislocation  of  the  entire 
railway  line  behind  the  British  and  Belgian 
armies. 

On  April  9  the  German  armies  struck  at  a 
portion  of  the  line  between  Estaires  and  Bac 
St.  Maur,  held  by  a  Portuguese  division  and 
smashed  it  completely,  capturing  Richebourcq- 
St  Vaast  and  Laventie.  This  attack  created  a 
gap  of  ulxmt  3  miles  in  the  British  lines  and 
through  this  opening  German  troops  began  to 
pour  and  spread  out  in  cAcr-incrcnsing  num- 
IMMS.  On  the  U)th  the  Germans  crossed  the  Lya 
Ruer  at  se\eral  points  between  Estaires  and 
Armentieres,  and  launched  a  tremendous  assault 
at  the  base  of  Messines  Ridge.  These  move- 
ments caused  the  fall  of  Armentieres.  On  tho 
llth  the  Germans  launched  an  attack  all  along 
the  front  from  La  Basset1  to  the  Ypres-Comines 
Canal  and  took  Estaires  and  Steenwerck.  The 
Germans,  as  in  their  previous  offensive,  were 
making  rapid  advances  in  the  centre  towaid 
Ha/ebrouck,  but  were  checked  by  the  defense 
around  the  wings  at  Ypres  and  Arras.  Unless 
one  or  the  other  of  these  wings  could  be  pierced 
the  German  advance  was  hound  to  be  stopped 
before  it  could  reach  its  main  objective  at  Haze- 
brouck. By  the  13th  the  Germans  were  only 
5  miles  from  Hazebrouck.  The  seriousness  of 
the  British  position  may  be  gathered  from  Gen- 
eral Haig's  statement  to  his  troops  on  April  12, 
"Many  among  us  are  now  tired.  To  those  I 
would  say  that  victory  will  belong  to  the  side 
which  holds  out  the*  longest.  Every  position 
must  be  held  to  the  last  man.  There  must  be 
no  retirement.  With  our  backs  to  the  wall,  and 
believing  in  the  justice  of  our  cause,  each  one 
of  us  must  fight  to  the  end.  The  safety  of  our 
homes  and  the  freedom  of  mankind  depend  alike 
upon  the  conduct  of  each  one  of  us  at  this 
critical  moment." 

Although  it  appeared  that  the  German  of- 
fensive had  slowed  up  on  the  14th,  on  the  15th 
the  Allies  met  with  severe  reverses.  A  terrific 
assault  towards  Bailleul  and  Wulverghem  re- 
sulted in  the  capture  of  Bailleul,  Wytschaete 
and  Spanbraekmolen.  On  the  17th  the  Germans 
occupied  Poelcappelle  Langemarck,  and  Pass- 
chendaele,  which  the  British  were  compelled  to 
evacuate,  in  order  to  escape  the  dangers  of  a 
salient,  the  base  of  supplies  of  which  was  nearer 


1411 


WAB  IN  BUBOPB 


to  the  Germans  than  to  the  British  themselves. 
The  capture  of  Wytschaete  placed  the  British 
positions  around  Ypres  in  a  very  precarious 
situation.  Messines  Ridge,  on  which  this  was 
located,  dominated  all  the  British  positions  in 
Ypres  and  overlooked  the  means  of  communica- 
tion with  that  city.  In  order  to  prevent  a  se- 
rious catastrophe  the  British  retired  to  a  line 
that  ran  from  Bixschoote  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Zonnebeke.  By  the  18th  their  positions  were 
almost  identical  with  those  they  held  after  the 
first  battle  of  Y>res  in  1914.  The  surrender  of 
territory  was  a  terrible  blow  to  British  morale 
and  pride.  The  first  and  second  battles  of 
Ypres  had  made  that  city,  in  the  eyes  of  all 
Englishmen,  what  Verdun  was  to  the  French- 
men. 

The  Germans,  checked  for  the  time  being  in 
the  north,  made  a  heavy  assault  on  Villers 
Bretonneux,  southeast  of  Amiens,  on  the  24th. 
With  the  aid  of  a  number  of  tanks,  they  cap- 
tured the  village.  At  the  same  time,  just  south 
of  this,  French  and  American  forces  were  com- 
pelled to  abandon  an  unimportant  salient  near 
Hangard,  in  the  valley  of  the  Luce  River. 
Mount  Kemmel,  which  seemed  to  be  the  only 
remaining  key  to  the  Ypres  salient,  was  the 
scene  of  extremely  bitter  fighting  from  April 
24  to  April  27.  The  Germans,  prodigal  of  men, 
made  frontal  and  flank  attacks  on  the  positions, 
until  by  sheer  weight  of  men  and  metal  they 
compelled  the  Allies  to  relinquish  the  height, 
as  well  as  the  villages  of  Kemmel  and  Dra- 
noutre.  Ypres  did  not  fall  as  was  expected  be- 
cause of  the  failure  on  the  part  of  the  Germans 
to  capture  Mont  Rouge,  Mont  ties  Cats,  Scher- 
perberg,  and  several  other  hills  that  belonged 
to  the  same  range  as  Mount  Kemmel. 

The  second  great  German  thrust  was  ended. 
Tt  failed  to  accomplish  its  purpose,  although 
approximately  800  square  miles  of  French  and 
Belgian  territory  were  occupied.  The  signif- 
icant fact  that  remained  after  these  two  Ger- 
man attempts  to  gain  a  decision  was  that  the 
15-rnile  front  between  Lens  and  Arras  held. 
This  prevented  the  Germans  fiom  broadening 
their  salients  and  thus,  in  a  sense,  limited  the 
depth  of  their  penetration  inasmuch  as  a  nar- 
row salient  is  constantly  in  danger  of  being 
"pinched.'' 

Forcing  of  the  Aisne  and  the  Maine.  The 
fact  that  the  defensive  around  Arras,  partic- 
ularly Vimy  Ridge,  and  around  Ypres,  partic- 
ularly Mont  Rouge,  held  against  all  assaults, 
forced  the  Germans  to  turn  to  the  southern 
side  of  the  Picardy  salient  and  attempt  to 
widen  it  there.  Hindenburg  would  undoubtedly 
have  preferred  to  attack  the  British  army  again, 
but  as  that  would  require  a  large  amount  of 
preparation,  he  decided  to  go  through  with  his 
plans  on  the  Aisne,  in  order  to  keep  the  offen- 
sive. A  few  days  previous  to  the  beginning  of 
the  battle  of  the  Aisne  heavy  artillery  fire  in 
the  Picardy  and  Ypres  salients  seemed  to  presage 
an  attack  in  those  localities.  When  the  real 
direction  of  the  attack  was  revealed  and  the 
Germans  forced  the  Chemin  des  Dames  positions 
and  the  Aisne  River  with  comparative  ease, 
many  critics  believed  that  Marshal  Foch  had 
been  out-generaled  and  out-manonuvred.  Later 
events  proved  that  he  had  adopted  the  best 
course  of  action,  because,  while  he  could  doubt- 
less have  held  these  positions  at  great  cost, 
he  achieved  far  better  results  by  permitting  the 
Germans  to  advance  in  the  centre  while  hol<" 


WAB  IK  EUBOPB 


1412 


WAB  US  EtTBOPE 


them  on  the  wings,  thus  placing  them  in  a  vul- 
nerable position. 

On  May  27,  the  Aisne  offensive  began.  As 
in  the  previous  two,  great  concentrations  of 
men  and  material  were  made  by  the  Germans 
with  comparative  ease,  and  apparently  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  Allies.  A  three-hour  ar- 
tillery preparation,  composed  mainly  of  gas, 
with  a  sprinkling  of  high  explosives,  preceded 
the  infantry  attack.  The  attacking  force  com- 
prised 250,000  of  the  best  fighting  men  in  the 
German  army.  The  British  and  French  de- 
fenders consisted  of  between  50,000  and  75,000 
men.  The  attack  was  on  a  40-mile  front  from 
around  Vauxaillon,  near  the  Ailette,  to  Reims. 
The  chief  attack  was  near  Craonne  and  its  pur- 
pose was  to  outflank  the  Cliemin  des  Dames,  in 
case  it  could  not  be  taken  by  frontal  assault. 
The  entire  Cheinin  des  Dames  line  was  overrun 
on  the  27th,  and  the  Allies  retreated  across  the 
Aisne  between  Vailly  and  Berry-au-Bac,  a  dis- 
tance of  18  miles,  in  relatively  good  order.  On 
the  28th,  the  Germans  drove  forward  about  6 
miles  on  a  9-mile  front  between  Vauxaillon  and 
Cauroy,  took  about  20  towns  and  villages, 
crossed  the  Aisne  and  Vesle  Rivers  and  reached 
Fismes  on  the  southern  bank  of  the  latter  river. 
The  Allies  were  falling  back  in  the  centre,  but 
on  the  Reims  side  they  held  the  Thillois- 
Savigny-Brouillet  line  which  protected  that  city. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  do  the  same  on  the 
western  side  to  protect  Soissons,  but  the  line 
failed  to  hold.  The  same  day  also  saw  the  end 
of  the  German  assaults  in  the  Ypres  and 
Picardy  sectors,  which  were  intended  to  divert 
attention  from  the  main  battle.  The  Allies 
recovered  their  lines  on  the  Lys- Ypres  front 
east  of  Dickebusch  Lake.  The  American  1st 
division  took  Cantigny,  near  Montdidier,  after 
a  brilliant  assault,  and  held  it  against  several 
strong  counterattacks. 

On  the  29th  Soissons  fell  after  an  extremely 
heavy  bombardment  of  high  explosive  and  in- 
cendiary shells.  On  the  20th  the  Germans  con- 
tinued 'their  advance  in  the  centre  but  were 
checked  on  the  flanks.  They  captured  Fere-en- 
Tardenois  and  Vezilly,  and  forced  the  Allies 
back  on  Reims,  but  in  the  south  were  held  along 
the  Soisflons-Cha\teau -Thierry  highroad.  They 
succeeded  in  wiping  out  the  salient  south  of 
Noyon  from  the  Oise  canal  to  Soissons.  The 
31st  saw  an  8-mile  drive  to  the  Marne,  which 
was  reached  on  a  0-mile  front  from  Chateau- 
Thierry  to  Dormans.  Attempts  in  the  next  few 
days  to  broaden  this  front,  particularly  in  the 
direction  of  Epernay,  were  severely  repulsed. 

On  June  15  the  Germans  began  to  widen  this 
salient  to  the  westward.  They  pushed  6  miles 
in  that  direction  along  the  Ourcq,  a  tributary 
of  the  Marne.  This  drive  brought  them  beyond 
Neuilly  and  Cliony  and  reached  Nouvron  and 
Fontenoy  northwest  of  Soissons.  A  heavy  as- 
sault against  Reims,  with  the  intention  of 
smashing  the  eastern  side  of  the  salient,  was 
severely  checked  before  it  made  any  headway. 
The  tide  of  battle  was  now  slowly  but  surely 
swinging  to  the  side  of  the  Allies.  Although 
the  Germans  had  almost  500,000  men  across  the 
Aisne,  General  Foch,  by  calling  on  the  British, 
French,  American,  and  Italian  reserves,  pre- 
sented at  least  an  equal  number  to  them.  On 
the  next  day  French  counterattacks  in  force 
slowed  up  the  German  drive  westward. 

The  German  advance  had  now  practically 
stopped  and  during  the  next  few  days,  the 


French,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Americans, 
not  only  stopped  the  Germans,  but  drove  them 
back  in  the  neighborhood  of  Chateau-Thierry. 
On  June  6,  Franco-American  troops  advanced 
nearly  a  mile  in  the  vicinity  of  Veuilly-la- 
Poterie,  and  Americans  took  Torcy  and  Bour- 
esches,  which  they  held  against  strong  counter- 
assaults.  The  subsequent  activities  of  the 
Americans  in  this  sector  will  be  treated  in  the 
following  section.  On  June  18,  a  terrific  at- 
tack on  Reims,  carried  out  by  40,000  Germans, 
was  completely  crushed. 

The  German  War  Office  announced  that  45,- 
000  prisoners  and  400  guns  had  been  captured; 
650  square  miles  of  territory  had  been  occupied, 
and  the  Germans  had  advanced  a  maximum 
depth  of  30  miles,  and  created  another  salient 
with  a  narrow  tip,  only  6  miles,  along  the 
Marne.  No  considerable  strategical  ad  van  tap1 
had  been  gained,  unless  it  be  the  fact  that  the 
Germans  were  now  only  44  miles  from  Paris 
instead  of  62.  The  price  paid  to  gain  what  was 
merely  a  geographical  advantage,  was  conserva- 
tively, 110,000  men,  killed,  wounded,  and  cap- 
tured. 

The  Offensive  Against  Compiegne.  The 
battle  of  the  Aisne  and  Marne  left  the  Germans 
in  a  very  precarious  position.  The  salient  had 
to  be  widened,  strongly  fortified,  or  else  aban- 
doned. The  line  from  Chflteau-Thierry  was  in 
the  shape  of  a  huge  crescent  with  the  bend  fac- 
ing towards  the  Germans.  The  German  plan 
was  to  link  up  the  Picardy  salient  with  the 
Marne  salient  and  thus  wipe  out  the  huge  bulge 
in  their  line  and  to  capture  Compiegne,  Com- 
piegne Forest,  and  Villers  Cottorets  Forest  and 
then  use  the  first  mentioned  place  for  a  direct 
attack  on  Paris.  The  capture  of  Compiegnu 
was  considered  absolutely  necessary  because  of 
the  insufficient  line  of  supplies  for  the  troops 
in  the  Marne  salient.  The  capture  of  Com- 
piegne would  open  up  the  Lie"ge  trunk  line  and 
solve  the  problem  of  supply.  The  river  valleys 
of  Aisne,  Oise,  Marne,  and  Ourcq  would  then  be 
available  for  a  converging  attack  on  Paris,  the 
nerve  centre  of  France.  The  strategy  of  the 
offensive  was  sound  but  its  execution  failed. 
In  five  days  the  Germans  suffered  one  of  their 
most  ghastly  failures  of  the  entire  war  The 
offensive  lacked  the  element  of  surprise,  which, 
undoubtedly,  was  the  chief  cause  of  the  initial 
successes  of  the  earlier  offensives.  The  French 
command  had  inado  a  minute  survey  of  th« 
field  and  placed  artillery  and  machine  guns  in 
such  position  as  to  enfilade  all  avenues  of  at- 
tack. They  also  made  provisions,  in  case  of 
initial  German  successes,  to  check  their  forward 
movement  on  second  and  third  defense  lines, 
as  carefully  prepared  as  the  first.  The  French 
plan  was  to  hold  this  front  line  lightly  and  re- 
sist the  enemy  on  the  combat  lines,  which  were 
out  of  range  of  the  German  light  artillery. 

The  attack  was  preceded  by  a  heavy  artillery 
attack,  again  mainly  composed  of  gas,  which 
lasted  from  midnight  until  4,30  in  the  morning 
of  the  9th  of  June  when  the  attack  began  on  a 
20-mile  front  from  Montdidier  to  Noyon.  As 
in  the  previous  battles  the  Germans  advanced 
in  the  centre  but  were  held  on  the  flanks.  The 
total  advance  on  the  first  day  was  2%  miles 
and  was  only  attained  after  frightful  losses. 
The  French  made  a  heavy  counterattack  on  the 
very  first  day  between  the  Oise  and  the  Aisne, 
which  showed  that  the  forces  on  both  sides  were 
nearly  equal.  On  the  next  day  the  Germans 


WAB 


EUBOPE 


14X3 


WAB  IN  ETTBOPE 


advanced  about  3  miles  farther  and  captured, 
after  extremely  bitter  fighting,  Mery,  Belloy, 
and  St.  Maur.  The  German  penetration  was 
now  about  5  miles  and  this  was  approximately 
the  depth  of  their  entire  advance. 

On  the  third  day  the  Germans  were  compelled 
to  bring  up  fresh  divisions  and,  with  their  aid, 
reached  the  Aronde  River,  a  small  stream  on 
the  western  side  of  the  battle  line.  They  also 
advanced  a  mile  along  both  banks  of  the  Matz 
River  and  almost  reached  its  junction  with  the 
Oise  on  its  northern  bank  On  the  eastern  end 
of  the  battle  line,  Ourscamps  Forest  was  en- 
veloped. This  day  was  the  turning-point  of 
the  battle,  because  before  it  was  over,  two 
French  counterattacks  had  driven  the  Germans 
back  between  Ribescourt  and  St.  Maur,  and  re- 
captured Bolloy,  Sen! is  wood,  and  the  heights 
between  Mortemer  and  Courcelles.  On  the  next 
day  the  French  gained  further  ground  between 
Belloy  and  St.  Maur.  The  Germans  forced  a 
crossing  of  the  Matz,  but  on  the  13th  the  French 
again  counterattacked  in  force  and  drove  the 
Germans  bark  across  the  Matz.  This  ended  the 
German  offensive  which  resulted  in  the  using 
up  of  over  300,000  German  troops  and  the  ac- 
tual putting  out  of  action  of  80,000.  No  strate- 
gical advantage  was  gained. 

A  word  should  be  spoken  here  of  the  activ- 
ities of  the  Franco-American  troops  in  the 
neighborhood  of  ChAteau-Tliierry.  On  the  10th, 
American  marines  moved  forward  in  the  Belleau 
\\  ood  and  by  the  next  day  had  captured  all  of 
it  The  Americans  also  crossed  the  Marne  on 
scouting  expeditions. 

Second  Battle  of  the  Marne.  On  July  15, 
Ludendorff  opened  his  fifth  and  what  proved  to 
be  the  last  German  offensive  of  the  year.  It 
also  proved  to  be  the  last  German  offensive  of 
the  War.  It  was  under  the  personal  direction 
of  the  German  Crown  Prince  and  was  called 
"Friedensturm"  (peace  offensive).  The  whole 
line  attacked  was  roughly  60  miles  long  and  ex- 
tended from  Chftteau-Thierry  to  Dormans, 
around  Reims,  and  then  east  almost  to  the 
Argonne  Forest.  It  is  estimated  that  the  Ger- 
man Crown  Prince  had  more  than  800,000  men 
available  for  this  "peace  offensive."  The  plan 
of  attack  was  to  encircle  and  capture  Reims  by 
taking  the  Reims  mountains,  and  also  to  get 
control  of  the  railway  centre  of  Epernay,  which 
would  compel  the  French  to  give  up  the  entire 
Champagne  line,  which  was  very  strongly  fort- 
ified, and  thus  leave  the  centre  in  a  very  vul- 
nerable position.  The  capture  of  Reims  would 
also  solve  the  supply  question  of  the  overex- 
tended Marne  salient. 

The  attack  began  at  6  A.M.  on  the  15th.  The 
first  blow  was  aimed  at  the  Americans  on  both 
sides  of  ChAtcau-Thierry.  The  Germans  crossed 
the  Marne  in  .June  southeast  of  Chateau-Thierry 
between  Fossay  and  Mezy,  compelling  the  Amer- 
icans to  retire  on  Concl£-en-Brie.  Here  a  coun- 
terattack was  immediately  organized,  which 
drove  the  Germans  back  across  the  river  and 
left  1500  prisoners  in  American  hands  On 
other  positions  of  the  front  the  Germans  were 
more  successful.  They  crossed  the  Marne  east 
of  Dormans  and  advanced  astride  it  in  the  di- 
rection of  Epernay.  At  Bligny,  southwest  of 
Reims,  they  penetrated  positions  held  by  Ital- 
ian troops  and  thus  threatened  to  get  in  the 
rear  of  Reims.  Southeast  of  Reims,  the  Ger- 
mans made  a  fierce  attack  east  of  Prunay,  with 
the  idea  of  squeezing  out  the  city,  in  conjunc- 


tion with  the  advance  at  Bligny.  General 
Gourand's  IV  army  put  up  a  magnificent  re- 
sistance and  held  the  Germans  to  very  slight 
gains  after  inflicting  appalling  losses  on  them. 
The  42d  American  division  formed  part  of  this 
army.  On  the  16th  and  17th,  further  attacks 
against  the  American  forces  were  checked  al- 
most before  they  had  started,  but  the  pockets 
around  Bligny  and  Prunay,  southwest  and 
southeast  of  Reims,  respectively,  were  deepened. 
Everywhere  else  the  Germans  were  held  or 
driven  back  by  counterattacks.  The  distance 
across  the  base  of  the  Reims  salient  was  scarce- 
ly 10  miles,  which  shows  the  critical  position 
of  this  Allied  bulwark.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
Crown  Prince  in  this  "peace  offensive"  used 
400,000  men,  just  one-half  of  those  available, 
and  that  at  the  end  of  three  days  one-fourth  of 
those  employed  were  on  the  casualty  list. 

The  Allied  Offensive.  The  great  German 
offensive  begun  in  March  was  finally  termi- 
nated on  July  17  and  the  Allied  counteroffen- 
sive  began  on  the  following  day.  In  this 
counteroffensive  there  were  two  distinct  periods 
although  the  fighting  was  practically  contin- 
uous. The  first  period  was  that  covered  by  the 
operations  that  ended  in  the  compulsory  retire- 
ment of  the  Germans  not  only  from  the  three 
great  salients  made  by  the  advance  of  their 
armies  in  1918 — the  Marne,  Somme  and  Lys 
salients — but  also  from  the  St.  Miluel  salient 
captured  in  1914.  This  period  ended  about  the 
middle  of  September.  This  was  followed  by  the 
final  campaign  in  which  the  Allied  armies  ad- 
vanced in  practically  a  continuous  line  from 
the  Channel  to  the  Meuse  River;  it  ended  with 
the  Armistice.  This  period  l>egan  about  the 
25th  of  September  and  ended  November  11. 

Marne  Salient.  As  early  as  June  1,  Gen- 
eral Pershing  saw  that  the  Marne  salient  was 
inherently  weak,  and  suggested  to  Marshal  Foch 
an  immediate  attack  along  the  western  face  to- 
ward Soissons.  Marshal  Foch  was  strongly  im- 
pressed by  Pershing's  plan  but  determined  to 
wait  until  he  had  a  preponderance  of  force. 
By  the  middle  of  June  a  plan  for  a  counter- 
offensive,  drawn  up  by  General  Ptftain,  in  con- 
ference with  Generals  Fayolle,  Mangin,  and 
Degoutte,  had  been  approved  by  Marshal  Foch. 
While  the  Crown  Prince  was  attempting  to  en- 
circle Reims  and  cross  the  Marne  the  details 
were  being  worked  out.  The  plan  was  to  strike 
on  the  western  side  of  this  salient  along  tho 
line  between  Soissons  and  Chateau-Thierry. 
The  preparations  for  this  counterattack  were 
kept  very  secret.  Vast  quantities  of  supplies 
were  stored  up  in  the  Villers-Cotterets  forest, 
which  lent  itself  admirably  to  the  purpose. 
Great  numbers  of  men  of  the  army  of  mananivro 
(the  existence  of  which  the  Germans  doubted) 
were  concentrated  in  the  ravines  and  valleys  of 
this  forest  without  detection  by  the  enemy. 

The  Allies  attacked  on  July  18  on  a  28-mile 
front  from  Ambl^ny,  west  of  Soissons,  to 
Bouresehes  northwest  of  Clulteuu-Tliierry.  The 
attack  was  made  without  artillery  preparation, 
the  advancing  infantry  being  protected  by  large 
numbers  of  tanks  and  a  creeping  barrage.  It 
was  made  by  Franco-American  troops,  the  latter 
being  most  prominent  in  the  Soissons  and  Cha- 
teau-Thierry regions,  actually  being  the  spear- 
head of  the  attack  in  the  former  place.  The 
blow  took  the  Germans  completely  by  surprise, 
and,  as  a  result  of  it,  and  the  vulnerability  of 
the  German  lines,  the  Crown  Prince  and  his  ar- 


WAK  IN  EUROPE 

mies  were  driven  across  the  Vesle.  The  hinge 
of  the  entire  German  retirement  was  the  high 
ground  around  Chaudon,  southwest  of  Soissons. 
The  first  push  netted  the  Allies  a  6-mile  ad- 
vance to  the  Crise  River,  which  runs  around 
the  Chaudun  plateau  and  which  joins  the  Aisne 
at  Soissons.  This  brought  General  Mangin  and 
his  Franco-American  force  to  within  a  mile  of 
the  city,  but  the  German  High  Command  con- 
tinued to  hurl  in  fresh  divisions  in  this  vicinity, 
which  effectively  prevented  the  retreat  from 
becoming  a  rout.  The  Allies  also  advanced 
from  2  to  3  miles  astride  the  Ourcq,  and  the 
whole  German  line  from  Soissons  to  Chateau- 
Thierry  began  to  retreat.  Assaults  carried  out 
by  British,  Italian,  and  French  troops,  along 
the  line  from  Chateau-Thierry  to  Reims  won 
initial  success  but  were  unable  to  make  a  break- 
through similar  to  that  on  the  western  side. 

Chateau-Thierry  was  evacuated  on  the  21st 
and  on  the  same  day  Franco-American  troops 
crossed  the  Marne  and  advanced  4  miles  toward 
the  Ourcq.  By  the  23rd  the  entire  So  is  sons- 
Chateau-Thierry  highroad,  with  the  exception 
of  a  small  portion  south  of  Soissons,  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Allies.  On  the  eastern  leg  of  the 
salient  the  British  and  Italian  troops  achieved 
local  successes,  but  were  unable  to  make  a  hole 
big  enough  to  threaten  the  rear  of  the  enemy. 
They  did  keep  many  German  divisions  actively 
engaged  which  might  otherwise  have  been  used 
to  stem  the  Allied  advance.  On  the  24th  the 
Franco-American  forces  advanced  2  miles  north 
of  Chateau-Thierry  and  the  British  penetrated 
the  German  lines  in  the  neighborhood  of  Vrigny 
on  the  eastern  leg  of  the  salient.  On  the  next 
day  the  Germans  made  a  heavy  assault  against 
the  eastern  leg,  with  the  hopes  of  widening  the 
salient,  but  they  were  thrown  back  everywhere. 
On  this  day  the  French  captured  Oulchy,  and, 
together  with  the  Americans,  occupied  40  square 
miles  of  territory.  After  a  week  of  severe 
lighting,  the  Crown  Prince  was  using  every 
effort  to  extricate  his  armies  in  the  best  pos- 
sible shape  out  of  a  salient  of  which  the  neck 
was  scarcely  20  miles  wide.  A  German  counter- 
offensive  or  another  attack  against  Ypres  which 
Hindenburg  had  planned  for  August,  were  out 
of  the  question. 

By  the  27th  the  Germans  were  in  full  retreat 
and  on  the  28th  they  al>andoned  the  line  of  the 
Ourcq.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  salient  the 
Allies  crossed  the  Reims-Dorman  highway  aft- 
er bitter  fighting.  This  threat  to  completely 
crush  the  Germans  resulted  in  severe  fighting 
in  the  vicinity  of  Vrigny  and  St.  Euphraise. 
The  advance  to  the  Vesle  River  was  marked  by 
extremely  heavy  fighting  between  the  Prussian 
Guards  and  American  forces  at  Sergy  and  Se- 
ringes.  The  former  place  changed  hands  nine 
times  and  the  latter  five  before  remaining  in 
the  hands  of  the  Americans.  On  the  31st,  the 
Germans  made  bitter  but  unsuccessful  efforts  to 
keep  the  Americans  from  Nesles  forest.  On 
August  1  the  Allies  struck  on  a  10-mile  front 
north  of  La  Fere,  penetrated  2  miles,  captured 
the  height  north  of  Grand  Rozoy,  and  advanced 
to  Cramoiselles.  This  effectively  broke  the 
hinge  around  Soissons  and  enabled  the  French 
to  enter  the  city  on  the  2d  after  bitter  street 
fighting.  The  advance  on  the  3d  was  6  miles 
deep  in  some  places  and  recovered  more  than  50 
villages,  the  most  important  of  which  was  Fis- 
mes.  The  Germans  were  now  completely  behind 
the  Aisne-Vesle  line  and  made  desperate  at- 


WAB  IN  ZUBOPE 

tempts  to  hold  the  north  bank  of  the  latter 
river  with  the  aid  of  the  heavy  artillery  on  the 
far  side  of  the  Aisne.  The  results  of  the  first 
Allied  offensive  of  the  year  were  enormous — 
35,000  prisoners  and  more  than  500  guns  were 
in  Allied  hands.  The  Germans  at  home,  as 
well  as  in  the  field,  were  convinced  that  their 
armies  were  not  invincible.  On  the  other  hand 
the  morale  of  the  Allies  was  consider- 
ably heightened  both  by  the  German  defeat 
and  the  spirited  fighting  of  the  American  sol- 
diers. 

Somme  Salient.  On  Aug.  8,  1918,  Mar- 
shal Foch  struck  his  second  great  blow.  In 
many  ways  it  resembled  the  Marne  offensive. 
His  aim  was  to  "pinch"  the  overextended  sa- 
lient in  Picardy,  reaching  out  toward  Amiens. 
He  was  making  his  plans  and  preparations  for 
this  attack  while  the  offensive  was  being  car- 
ried out  on  the  Marne.  The  immediate  ob- 
jective was  the  railroad  running  from  Pe"ronne 
to  Rove. 

The  attack  was  on  a  front  approximately  30 
miles  long  from  Amiens  to  Montdidier.  Later 
this  front  was  extended  all  the  way  to  Soissons. 
The  element  of  surprise  was  entirely  with  the 
Allies.  The  Allied  aircraft,  artillery,  and 
tanks,  worked  in  complete  harmony  wHh  the 
infantry.  The  British  IV  army,  under  Rawlin- 
son,  struck  the  Germans,  under  von  der  Mar- 
witz,  before  Moreuil,  and,  in  three  days,  drove 
them  back  15  miles  in  some  places  and  an  av- 
erage of  10  miles  along  the  entire  line.  Most 
of  the  advance  was  on  the  plateau  just  south 
of  the  Somme  River.  During  this  time  the 
Frencli  I  army  under  Debeney,  who  were  sup- 
porting the  right  of  the  British,  crossed  the 
Avre  River  in  the  face  of  an  extremely  destruc- 
tive artillery  fire  and  wiped  out  strong  enemy 
positions,  which  threatened  to  outflank  Raw- 
linson's  advance.  When  he  had  accomplished 
this,  he  and  Rawlinson  began  a  concerted  ad- 
vance in  the  general  direction  of  the  Hindenburg 
line.  By  the  18th  the  Germans  had  retreated 
to  the  Albert-Chaulnes-Roye-Lassigny  line  and 
had  lost  most  of  the  Lassigny  plateau.  On  the 
13th  the  French  struck  between  the  Oise  and  the 
Matz  Rivers  and  captured  Canny-sur-Matz. 
Tliis  blow  also  threatened  Noyon,  since  that 
place  was  dominated  by  the  artillery  along  the 
banks  of  the  Oise. 

On  August  20  Mangin,  with  the  aid  of  Amer- 
ican troops,  launched  an  offensive  from  the 
Oise  near  Ribecourt  to  the  Aisne  near  Soissons. 
This  was  a  part  of  Foch's  plan  to  keep  the 
whole  line  in  action  so  that  the  German-  High 
Command  would  have  great  difficulty  in  bring- 
ing up  reserves.  Probably  it  was  the  activity 
of  the  Franco-Americans  from  Montdidier  to 
Reims  that  enabled  the  British  to  make  such 
huge  strides  to  the  Hindeuburg  line  without 
suffering  severe  losses.  The  object  of  Mangin'd 
blow  was  to  secure  the  control  of  the  plateau 
between  the  two  rivers.  Ten  thousand  pris- 
oners fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Franco-Amer- 
ican troops.  On  the  same  day  Lassigny  fell 
and  the  Germans  evacuated  Ourscamps  Forest. 
On  the  23d,  the  French  advanced  7  miles  along 
the  front  from  Lassigny  to  north  of  Soissons. 
They  captured  several  villages  and  crossed  the 
Ailette  River.  On  the  23d  the  III  French  army 
crossed  the  Divette  River,  near  Avrincort,  and 
General  Mangin's  X  army  crossed  the  Oise  Riv- 
er and  the  Oise  Canal  at  Manicamp  8  miles  east 
of  Noyon  and  reached  the  outskirts  of  Morlin- 


WAB  IK  ETJEOPE 


14x5 


WAR  IN 


court,  which  seriously  threatened  the  entire 
Noyon  salient. 

Roye  fell  on  the  27th,  Chaulnes  on  the  28th, 
and  Noyon  on  the  29th.  The  operation  which 
resulted  in  the  capture  of  Chaulnes  drove  for- 
ward 8  miles  and  made  it  certain  that  the  Ger- 
man retreat  could  not  stop  short  of  the  Hinden- 
burg  Line. 

On  the  30th,  Mt.  St.  Sim&m  northeast  of 
Noyon  was  completely  occupied  and  the  Franco- 
Americana  captured  Juvigny,  a  small  town 
north  of  Soissons,  which  was  of  great  strategic 
importance  because  it  controlled  the  Juvigny 
plateau.  The  entire  line  of  the  Roye-Noyon- 
Soissons  railway  was  now  in  the  hands  of  the 
Allies.  During  the  next  five  days  the  Franco- 
Americans  saw  bitter  fighting,  but  nevertheless 
made  advances  of  an  extremely  important  na- 
ture. They  gained  a  strong  foothold  on  the 
Soissons-St.  Quentin  highway,  by  the  capture 
of  Terny-Serny.  In  conjunction  with  this  ad- 
vance on  and  from  the  Juvigny  plateau  the 
French  made  rapid  progress  up  the  Ailette 
River  and  captured  Creey-au-Mont  and  Leury 
( September  1 ) .  The  result  of  this  drive  be- 
tween the  Oifle  and  the  Aisne  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Soissons  was  to  outflank  the  German 
positions  on  the  Vesle.  Consequently,  on  Sep- 
tember 4,  the  Germans  began  a  hasty  retreat 
on  a  20-mile  front  from  the  river,  setting  fire 
to  ammunition  dumps  and  other  supplies  that 
they  could  not  take  away  with  them.  Their  re- 
treat was  covered  by  the  heavy  artillery  on  the 
noi  th  bank  of  the  Aisne  and  the  Chemin  des 
Dames.  Franco-American  troops  forced  a  cross- 
ing of  the  Voslc  on  the  first  day  of  the  retreat. 
I\v  the  eighth,  the  Allied  troops  were  fighting 
around  Villers-en-Prayeres  and  Revillon.  By 
tho  middle  of  the  month  the  Germans  were 
everywhere  thrust  behind  the  Aisne  in  this  re- 
gion as  far  as  Vailly.  The  French  now  began 
piepniations  to  make  a  direct  assault  on  the 
St  Gobain  forest  and  the  western  end  of  the 
Chemin  des  Dames.  Laon  could  be  seen  in  the 
distance. 

In  the  meantime,  the  other  French  armies 
operating  just  south  of  the  Somme  River  were 
making  rapid  strides  toward  the  Hindenburg 
line.  On  September  4  the  P'rench  gained  north- 
east of  Xoyon  and  forced  the  Germans  to  beat 
n  hasty  retreat  over  the  territory  between  the 
Canal  du  Nord  and  the  Oise.  On  the  Oth,  Ham 
and  Chauny  fell  and  the  French  advanced  6 
miles  in  some  places  east  of  the  Canal  du  Nord. 
Dining  the  next  few  days  they  made  slow  prog- 
ress astride  the  Oise  in  the  direction  of  La  Fere. 
VMien  the  fighting  slowed  down  the  French  and 
Americans  were  practically  in  the  positions  held 
by  the  French  before  the  Hindenburg  line  pre- 
vious to  the  huge  offensive  of  March  21. 

The  beginning  of  this  section  related  that 
Rawlinson  smashed  the  southern  side  of  the 
Amiens  salient  by  striking  from  Albert  to  Mont- 
didier.  Foch  gave  the  Germans  no  rest.  Aft- 
er Rawlinson's  blow  had  exhausted  its  pos- 
sibilities, he  hurled  Byng's  III  British  army 
north  of  the  Somme  and  took  Bapaumc,  and 
when  this  blow  exhausted  possibilities  he  hurled 
Home's  1  British  armv  astride  the  Scarpe  and 
actually  broke  the  fiindenburg  line,  besides 
threatening  Cambrai  and  Douai. 

On  August  21,  Byng  struck  on  a  10-mile  front 
from  the  Ancre  River  to  Moyenneville  and  took 
seven  villages.  In  the  course  of  the  next  day's 
fighting  the  British  captured  Albert,  after  bit- 


ter street  fighting,  and  advanced  2  miles  on  a 
6-mile  front.  A  similar  gain  was  made  the 
next  day  from  Bray  to  the  vicinity  of  Grand- 
court,  which  resulted  in  the  seizure  of  nine  vil- 
lages and  an  imminent  threat  to  outflank  Ba- 
paume. On  the  24th,  the  British  captured 
Bray  on  the  Somme,  10  other  towns  and  the 
famous  Thiepval  Ridge  captured  by  the  British 
in  the  Somme  drive  of  1916.  The  British  swept 
on  despite  stiffening  resistance  and  the  utter 
disregard  with  which  the  Crown  Prince  of  Ba- 
varia hurled  his  reserves  into  the  fray;  12 
more  villages  and  the  Albert- Bapaume  highway 
were  seized  on  the  25th.  After  steady  pressure 
the  Germans  were  compelled  to  give  up  Bapaume 
on  the  29th,  and  to  begin  a  retreat  along  the 
whole  line  southward  to  Pe"ronne  and  Brie  on 
the  Somme.  Two  days  later  the  Australians  in 
a  brilliant  assault  stormed  Mt.  St.  Quentin  and 
Feuillancourt.  The  former  position  is  the  key 
to  Peronne  and  this  city  fell  on  the  first  of 
September,  along  with  Bouchavesnes  and  Ran- 
cour t. 

The  interest  of  the  drive  toward  the  Hinden- 
burg Line  now  centres  in  the  advances  made  by 
Home's  army,  which  struck  astride  the  Scarpe, 
when  Byng's  forward  movement  began  to  slow 
up.  Nevertheless  it  was  the  success  of  Bang's 
push  that  made  Home's  attack  possible. 
Home's  blow  was  tremendously  successful  be- 
cause it  not  only  broke  the  Hindeiiburg  line  at 
its  northern  end  but  broke  the  famous  Drocourt- 
Que"ant  switch  line  as  well.  The  very  first  day 
of  the  new  drive,  August  20,  saw  the  piercing  of 
the  Hindenburg  line.  The  Canadians  captured 
Wancourt  and  Monrhy-le-Preux.  On  the  next 
day  they  smashed  through  the  Hindenburg  line1 
for  4  miles  southeast  of  Arras,  and  occupied 
Cherisy,  Vis-en-Artois,  and  the  Bois-du-Sait. 
Scotch  troops  crossed  the  Sense"c  River  just 
south  of  the  Cojeul  and  captured  Fontaine-les- 
Croiselles,  besides  seizing  Rosux  and  Gavrelle, 
north  of  the  Scarpe.  On  the  28th,  the  Ger- 
mans lost  Croisselles  and  the  Canadians  took 
Boiry  and  Pelves  behind  the  Hindenburg  Line. 
Bullecourt  was  reached  on  the  29th,  and  the 
British  were  face  to  face  with  the  Drocourt- 
Qu£ant  line  which  had  held  them  up  in  thoir 
Cambrai  offensive  at  the  end  of  1917  (see 
supra). 

The  Drocourt-Qudant  line  was  a  very  for- 
midable line  of  defense  intended  to  be  a  second 
barrier  to  the  great  bases  at  Cambrai  and 
Douai.  It  branched  off  from  the  main  line  at 
Qu6ant  and  then  ran  almost  paiallel  to  it  to 
Drocourt.  The  British  attacked  it  at  5  o'clock 
on  the  morning  of  September  2,  under  the  pro- 
tection of  an  extremely  heavy  ban  age  fire.  In 
their  first  attack  the  Biifish  penetrated  b* 
miles  of  the  lines  to  a  depth  of  4  miles.  Dur- 
ing the  second  day,  the  British  having  broken 
the  line,  penetrated  6  miles  along  a  front  of 
more  than  20  miles.  Quean  t.  was  taken  by 
storm,  along  with  a  dozen  towns  and  villages. 
More  than  10,000  prisoners  fell  to  the  British 
in  this  one  operation. 

They  now  settled  do\vn  to  a  slow  but  steady 
advance  along  tho  Bapaume-Cambrai  road.  It 
might  be  added  here  that  Lens  was  evacuated 
by  the  Germans  on  September  4,  but  the  Allies 
were  unable  to  occupy  it  immediately  because  it 
was  saturated  with  poison  gas.  By  the  l'2th, 
Havrincourt,  Mocvres,  and  Trescault  were  in 
their  hands,  and  the  threat  toward  Cambrai 
increased. 


WA&  IN  STOOP* 


1416 


WAB  IN  ETTBOPE 


Lys  Salient.  In  order  to  save  the  Crown 
Prince  of  Bavaria's  army  from  an  overwhelm- 
ing defeat  similar  to  those  suffered  during  the 
"pinching"  of  the  Marne  and  Picardy  salients, 
the  German  High  Command  determined  to  with- 
draw from  the  overextended  salient  south  of 
Ypres.  This  withdrawal  was  accelerated  by 
short,  sharp  blows  by  the  British.  The  first 
retirement  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  La 
Bassee  on  August  5.  This  movement  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  attack  on  the  Lawe  River  which 
advanced  more  than  %  mile  on  a  5-mile  line. 
Two  days  later  the  British  made  an  advance 
between  the  Lawe  and  Bourre  Rivers  which 
penetrated  2000  yards  and  occupied  five  villages, 
including  Locon.  Haig  then  struck  due  west 
of  Armentieres,  between  Bailleul  and  Vieux- 
Berquin,  and  captured  Outterateene.  These  at- 
tacks were  made  on  the  side  of  the  salient  and 
besides  joining  almost  all  of  its  area,  placed 
the  tip  pointing  toward  Nieppe  Forest,  in  a  se- 
rious position. 

Merville,  almost  at  the  tip  of  the  salient,  was 
entered  on  August  19,  after  an  advance  by  the 
British  on  a  6-mile  front.  On  August  30,  the 
Germans  evacuated  Bailleul,  and  the  next  day 
the  famous  Kemmel  Hill.  Haig  had  planned  to 
take  this  hill  by  assault  with  the  aid  of  the 
American  divisions,  but  the  German  withdrawal 
forestalled  him.  The  British  on  the  same  day 
advanced  along  the  Lawe  River  on  the  southern 
leg  of  the  salient.  On  September  2  American 
troops  north  of  Wytschaete  were  thrown  into 
battle  and  captured  Voormezeele,  while  the 
British  were  taking  Neuve  Eglise  and  some 
territory  east  of  Estaires.  Early  in  September 
the  IV  and  VI  German  armies  were  ordered  to 
evacuate  the  Lys  salient  to  economize  troops. 

St.  Mihiel  Salient,  and  the  American 
Army.  By  September  12,  Foch  realized  that 
he  had  exhausted  the  possibilities  of  further  im- 
mediate advance  against  the  Hindenburg  line. 
Instead  of  resting,  which  of  course,  would  per- 
mit the  Germans  to  rest  also,  he  hurled  the 
American  army  against  the  St.  Mihiel  salient, 
and  reduced  it,  thus  confronting  the  Germans 
with  the  necessity  of  defending  Metz  and  the 
Briey  iron  fields.  This  salient,  enclosing  the 
Woevre  plain,  and  with  its  tip  extending  to  the 
Mcuse,  had  existed  since  the  first  year  of  the 
war.  One  of  the  most  important  results  of 
Pcrshing's  successful  offensive  was  the  freeing 
of  the  great  railway  system  running  through 
Verdun,  Toul,  and  Nancy.  It  was  the  loss  of 
this  railway  that  greatly  hampered  the  bringing 
up  of  reserves  during  the  Crown  Prince's  tre- 
mendous assaults  on  Verdun. 

Pershing  was  able  to  form  his  distinctly 
American  force  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty 
The  Allied  attitude  from  the  beginning  had 
been  one  of  absorption.  France  and  Great 
Britain  arid  even  Italy  requested  that  the  Amer- 
ican troops  be  used  to  reinforce  Allied  troop 
units.  General  Pershing  stoutly  insisted  on 
the  foundation  of  an  American  army  which 
should  be  thoroughly  trained  in  open  warfare 
and  deliver  an  American  blow  against  Germany 
on  a  definite  front.  After  considerable  argu- 
ment and  many  conferences  Pershing  finally 
won  his  point,  and  as  the  first  step  he  organ- 
ized seven  army  corps.  The  American  army 
was  formed  on  the  vesle  front  but  it  was  se- 
cretly transferred  to  the  Woevre  front  with 
headquarters  at  Neufchateau.  It  was  given  the 
mission  of  reducing  the  St.  Mihiel  salient  by 


Foch,   at  Bombon,  on   July  24.    General   Per- 
shing took  command  of  the  army  himself. 

Pershing's  general  plan  was  to  make  a  feint 
toward  Belfort,  and  then  in  a  surprise  attack 
strike  at  both  sides  of  the  salient  and  advance 
to  the  centre  while  carrying  on  a  holding  en- 
gagement at  the  nose  of  the  salient.  The  battle 
order  from  left  to  right  was  as  follows: 

The  Southern  Force.  The  American  1st  Corps 
(General  Liggett)  with  right  near  Pont-a- 
Mousson.  had  divisions  on  the  line  as  follows: 
82d  (Burnham),  90th  (Allen),  5th  (McMahon), 
and  2d  (Lejeune),  with  the  78th  (McRae)  in 
reserve.  The  American  4th  Corps  (Dickman) 
with  right  joining  the  left  of  the  1st  Corps  had 
divisions  on  the  line  as  follows:  89th  (Wright), 
42d  (Menoher)  and  1st  (Summerall)  with  the 
3d  (Buck)  in  reserve. 

Central  Force  (French).  The  French  2d 
Colonial  Corps  (Blondlet)  with  right  joining 
the  left  of  the  American  4th  Corps,  had  French 
divisions  in  the  line  as  follows:  39th,  36th,  and 
the  2d  Cavalry  division  (dismounted). 

The  Western  Force.  The  American  5th  Corps 
(Cameron)  with  the  right  joining  the  left  of 
the  French  2d  Colonial  Corps,  had  divisions  on 
the  line  as  follows:  26th  (Edwards),  4th 
(Hines),  and  the  French  15th. 

The  west  of  the  line  was  near  Watronville. 
General  Pershing  held  the  35th  and  91st  Di- 
visions (Traub  and  Johnston)  in  rear  of  the 
western  face  of  the  salient,  in  reserve,  and  a 
general  reserve  consisting  of  the  80th  Division 
(C'ronkhite)  in  rear  of  the  western  face  and 
the  33d  Division  (Bell)  in  rear  of  the  southern 
face. 

The  chief  attack  was  made  on  the  southern 
leg  on  a  front  extending  about  12  miles  due 
west  of  Pont-iVMousson.  The  attack  on  the 
western  leg  extended  for  a  distance  of  about 
8  miles  from  between  Dommartin  and  Fresnes 
Simultaneously  with  these  attacks  the  French 
destroyed  the  bridges  over  the  Meuse  Kiver  at 
St.  Mihiel.  The  attacks  were  made  at  5  A.M. 
on  September  12,  after  about  four  hours'  ar- 
tillery preparation.  Foggy  weather  aided  the 
attackers.  The  chief  resistance  was  in  the  west, 
where  the  German  positions  were  defended  by 
the  heights  on  the  edge  of  the  Woevre  plains. 
The  Americans  stormed  these  heights,  the  high- 
est of  which  is  Les  Eparges,  and  took  the  vil- 
lages of  Herbeuville,  IfattonchAtel,  llanonville, 
Billy,  St.  Maurice,  Thillot,  and  Hattonville, 
and  during  the  night  entered  Vitfneulles,  which 
is  at  the  southern  end  of  the  line  of  hills  pro- 
tecting this  side  of  the  salient.  On  the  south- 
ern leg  of  the  salient  the  results  were  just  as 
successful  to  Americ-an  arms,  and  were  carried 
out  with  the  same  precision.  During  the  first 
day  Labayville,  St.  Bausscaut,  Vilcey,  Esscy, 
and  the  important  town  of  Thiaucourt  wore  cap- 
tured. During  the  night  Pannes,  Nonsard, 
Buxiores,  and  St.  Mihiel  were  captured.  Twen- 
ty-seven hours  after  the  attack  began,  the  forces 
advancing  from  the  east  and  west  met  at  Vig- 
neulles  and  Heudicourt,  and  the  St.  Mihiel  sa- 
lient was  no  more. 

During  the  next  few  days  the  pocket  was 
"mopped  up"  and  the  new  lines  consolidated; 
16,000  prisoners,  among  whom  were  some  Aus- 
tro-IIungariaris,  and  almost  450  guns  were 
taken.  Besides  these,  vast  stores  of  ammuni- 
tion, arms  and  military  supplies  were  captured. 
Nearly  175  square  miles  of  territory  and  70 
villages  were  delivered  by  the  enemy.  The 


WAB  IK  EUROPE 


1417 


WAR  IN  ETTBOPB 


Allies  were  now  in  a  position  to  seriously 
threaten  Metz  and  the  great  Metz-MSzieres 
trunk  railway,  one  of  Germany's  main  supply 
lines  Another  important  result,  for  the  Ger- 
mans as  well  as  for  the  Allies,  was  to  show  that 
the  American  forces  had  reached  a  stage  of  de- 
velopment where  they  could  be  depended  upon 
to  take  their  full  share  in  the  War. 

What  might  be  called  the  first  period  of  the 
Allied  offensive  was  now  over.  The  result  was 
everywhere  favorable  to  the  Allies  With  the 
exception  of  the  Aisne  region,  the  Germans  were 
back  at  their  starting-place  in  March  The 
Gorman  people  at  home,  although  somewhat 
buoyed  up  by  false  reports,  had  lost  their  su- 
preme faith  in  the  army.  Vast  quantities  of 
supplies  and  ammunition  were  captured  or  des- 
troyed to  prevent  cnptuie  Eight  German  di- 
viMons  had  been  destroyed  since  the  beginning 
of  the  Allied  offensive  up  to  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember Approximately  200,000  prisoners  and 
2300  guns  had  fallen  into  Allied  hands.  Al- 
most 300,000  fresh  American  troops  were  pour- 
ing into  France  a  month.  LudendorfTs  attempt 
to  retreat  to  a  smaller  front  was  frustrated  by 
Foch's  tactics,  the  fundamental  theory  of  which 
was  to  keep  the  enemy  engaged  all  along  the 
line  and  not  to  let  him  effectively  use  his  re- 
serves. This  was  the  principle  of  exhaustion 
and  is  strikingly  similar  to  Grant's  campaign 
which  won  the  Civil  War. 

Argonne-Meuse  Offensive.  As  has  been  re- 
lated above,  Marshal  Foch,  in  the  last  week  of 
Sept  ember,  began  an  offensive  over  the  entire 
front  from  Switzerland  to  the  sea.  He  attacked 
the  German  right  in  Flanders,  the  centre  along 
the  Hindenburg  line,  and  the  left  between 
Reims  and  the  Meuse  River.  From  the  strate- 
gic point  of  view,  the  German  left  was  by  far 
the  most  important  front.  A  break -through  of 
any  si/e  here  would  cut  the  lines  of  communica- 
tion between  Germany  and  her  armies  in  France 
and  Belgium.  The  Argonne-Meuse  line  was 
also  the  hinge  of  the  German  retreat  in  Belgium 
and  northern  France,  and,  if  broken,  would 
doubtless  cause  a  huge  debacle.  The  German 
defenses  on  this  region,  both  natural  and  ar- 
tificial, were  exceptionally  strong.  The  liend  in 
the  Aisne,  west  of  the  Argon ne  Forest,  the  for- 
est itself  and  the  Meuse  River,  were  tremendous 
natural  advantages;  the  German  High  Com- 
mand, realizing  the  strategic  importance  of  the 
sector,  had  placed  many  of  its  best  divisions 
there,  as  well  as  profusely  sprinkling  the  area 
\\ith  barbed  wire  and  machine-gun  emplace- 
ments. 

After  the  fall  of  the  St.  Mihiel  salient,  which 
really  paved  the  way  for  this  offensive,  the 
American  army  took  over  the  lines  from  the 
Argonne  Forest  and  the  Meuse  River.  This 
army  was  to  cooperate  with  Gouraud's  1\ 
French  army,  which  extended  from  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Reims  to  where  it  joined  the  Americans 
in  the  Argonne.  For  the  opening  attack  in 
the  American  sector  General  Pershing  employed 
three  corps:  Left.  1st  Corps  (Liggett),  which 
contained  the  77th,  28th,  and  35th  divisions, 
with  the  1st  division  in  reserve.  Centre.  5th 
Corps  (Cameron)  which  contained  the  91st, 
37th  and  70th  divisions,  with  the  3d  division  in 
reserve.  Right.  3d  Corps  (Bullard)  which 
contained  the  4th,  80th  and  33d  divisions,  with 
the  32d  division  in  reserve.  The  general  reserve 
included  the  29th,  82d,  and  92d  divisions  Per- 
iling stated  "About  2700  guns,  189  small  tanks, 


142  manned  by  Americans,  and  821  airplaines, 
604  manned  by  Americans,  were  concentrated 
to  support  the  infantry.  We  thus  had  a  su- 
periority in  guns  and  aviation  and  the  enemy 
had  no  tanks.  The  French  and  Americans 
hoped  to  advance  on  either  side  of  the  Argonne 
and  squeeze  the  Germans  out  of  the  Argonne. 
They  were  unable  to  do  this  in  the  first  attack 
as  they  were  temporarily  held  up  by  German 
second  positions." 

First  Phase.  The  preliminary  bombardment 
began  at  11  P.M  on  September  25  and  at  5.30 
A.M.  on  the  26th  of  September  the  infantry  at- 
tack was  launched.  The  French  advanced  4 
miles  and  the  Americans  about  6.  By  the  28th 
the  Americans  had  taken  Montfaucon,  Exer- 
mont,  Garcourt,  Cuisy,  Septsarges,  Malancourt, 
Ivoiry,  Epinonville,  Charpentry,  Very,  and  10,- 
000  prisoners.  The  French  took  Sevron,  the 
Butte  des  Mesnil,  and  Navarin  Farm.  The 
Americans  were  within  range  of  the  Kriemhilde 
line  which  extended  from  Grand  Pr6  to  Dam- 
villers  across  the  Meuse.  East  of  the  Meuse  the 
Americans  captured  Marcheville  and  Rieville, 
which  strengthened  the  flank  of  the  army  west 
of  the  Meuse.  On  the  29th  and  30th,  Gouraud 
advanced  to  within  5  miles  of  Vouziers. 

Second  Phase.  The  second  phase  of  the  Ar- 
gonne-Meuse offensive  was  carried  out  by  tho 
1st,  5th,  and  3d  Corps  and  lasted  from  October 
4  to  31.  In  the  first  part  of  this  phase  the 
American  army  encountered  its  hardest  fight- 
ing of  the  War.  About  the  middle  of  this  pe- 
riod, General  Pershing  divided  the  American 
forces  into  the  I  and  II  armies.  The  I  army, 
which  was  assigned  to  General  Liggett,  extend- 
ed from  the  Argonne  to  Fresnes-en-Woevre. 
The  II  army,  extending  from  Fresnes  to  the 
Moselle,  was  commanded  by  General  Bullard. 
Beginning  on  the  4th,  the  I  American  army  cap- 
tured Cesnes,  and  advanced  2  miles  up  the  Aire 
River  valley.  On  October  5,  the  Germans  be- 
fore Gouraud  retired  along  a  12-mile  front 
clo&ely  pursued  by  the  French  army.  By  the 
llth,  the  French  held  the  whole  line  of  the 
Suippe  River  and  the  Americans  had  seized  the 
heights  dominating  the  Aire  valley.  So  far  the 
French  had  taken  21,000  prisoners  and  600 
guns.  On  the  14th,  the  Americans  took  St. 
Juvin,  and  two  days  later  took  the  important 
town  of  Grand  Pre  and  Champigneulles.  On 
the  17th  Romagne  fell  and  the  Americans  were 
everywhere  beyond  the  Kriemhilde  positions. 
During  the  next  day  Bantheville  and  Talma 
Farm  were  seized  in  surprise  attacks.  They 
changed  hands  several  times  before  remaining 
in  the  possession  of  the  Americans.  On  the 
same  day  the  French  crossed  the  Aisne  near 
Vouziers,  and  made  important  gains  toward 
Rethel. 

The  only  German  defense  between  the  Amer- 
icans and  the  Belgian  border  was  the  Freya- 
Stellung  which  ran  from  near  Dun-sur-Meusc 
to  the  Bourgogne  wood.  About  10  miles  north 
of  this  line  was  the  great  trunk  railway  line 
running  from  Metz  to  Mezieres,  through  Sedan 
and  Montmedy.  Part  of  the  Freya  line  was 
seized  on  October  26  and  the  railway  line  was 
bombarded 

Last  Phase  and  Pursuit.  In  connection  with 
this  phase  of  the  Argonne-Meuse  offensive,  Gen- 
eral Pershing  states,  "On  the  21st  my  instruc- 
tions were  issued  to  the  I  army  to  prepare 
thoroughly  for  a  general  attack  October  28  that 
would  be  decisive  if  possible.  In  order  that  the 


WAB  IN  BUB0F8 


1418 


WAB  IK  BTJBOPB 


attack  of  the  I  army  and  that  of  the  IV 
French  army  on  its  left  should  be  simultaneous 
our  attack  was  delayed  until  November  1. 

"On  this  occasion  and  for  this  first  time  the 
army  prepared  for  its  attack  under  normal  con- 
ditions. We  held  the  front  of  attack  and  were 
not  under  the  necessity  of  taking  over  a  new 
front  with  its  manifold  installations  and  serv- 
ices. Our  own  personnel  handled  the  commu- 
nications, dumps,  telegraph  lines  and  water 
service,  our  divisions  were  either  on  the  lines 
or  close  in  rear,  the  French  artillery,  aviation 
and  technical  troops  which  had  previously  made 
up  our  deficiencies  had  been  largely  replaced  by 
our  own  organizations,  and  our  army,  corps 
and  divisional  staffs  were  by  actual  experience 
second  to  none." 

On  November  1,  both  General  Pershing  and 
General  Gouraud  began  their  final  advance 
The  latter  crossed  the  Aisne  between  Rethel  and 
Vouziers,  and  advancing  with  Bcrthelot's  army 
on  the  left,  reached  the  outskirts  of  M&ieres, 
when  the  Armistice  went  into  effect  (November 
11).  General  Per sh ing's  forces  reached  Sedan 
on  the  6th.  Between  that  date  and  the  llth, 
east  of  the  Meuse,  he  seized  the  heights  of  the 
Woevre,  and  had  brought  Metz  into  offensive 
gun-fire  range. 

The  Fran co- American  advance  in  the  Cham- 
pagne-Argomie-Meuse  region  cut  the  German 
main  line  of  communication  (mentioned  above) 
and  foreordained  a  complete  defeat  within  a 
very  short  time  for  Germany,  had  the  Armistice 
not  intervened  Some  of  the  bitterest  fighting 
of  the  War  occurred  in  this  section.  Most  of 
it  was  hand  to  hand  and  the  nature  of  the 
ground,  with  its  ravines,  gullies,  forests,  etc., 
made  it  necessary  to  wipe  out  machine-gun 
nests  with  infantry  rather  than  with  artillery. 
The  Americans  captured  20,000  prisoners  and 
468  guns.  The  French  took  about  30,000  pris- 
oners and  700  guns  It  is  estimated  that  the 
Germans  lost  150,000  men  trying  to  defend  their 
main  line  of  communication. 

American  Troops  in  France.  On  Armistice 
Day,  42  American  divisions  had  either  reached 
France  or  were  en  route;  of  these,  29,  including 
replacements  from  the  other  divisions,  were 
actually  engaged  in  combat.  Of  the  latter,  7 
were  Regular  divisions,  11  National  Guard  divi- 
sions, arid  11  National  Army  divisions  The  to- 
tal American  forces  sent  to  France  is  given  as 
2,084,000  of  whom  it  is  estimated  that  1,390,- 
000  took  part  in  campaign;  of  the  latter  1,100,- 
000  as  divisional  troops,  240,000  as  corps  and 
armv  troops,  and  50.000  in  the  service  of  supply 

The  casualties  in  the  American  army  were 
about  200,000,  of  whom  about  50,000  were 
battle  deaths  As  the  army  met  with  no 
serious  reverses,  the  number  of  prisoners  taken 
by  the  enemy  was  small,  only  4500.  The 
casualties  occurred  mainly  between  May  28, 
1018,  when  the  1st  division  attacked  Cantigny, 
and  November  11.  In  its  operations  it  cap- 
tured 63,000  prisoners  and  about  1400  pieces 
of  artillery  in  addition  to  other  arms  and 
stores. 

Breaking  the  Hindenburg  Line.  In  the 
section  treating  the  German  retreat  to  the 
Hindenburg  line  it  WRH  narrated  how  certain 
sectors  of  this  line  were  penetrated  and  how  the 
Qugant-Drocourt  line  was  smashed  This  sec- 
tion will  deal  with  the  breaking  of  the  line 
itself,  the  capture  of  Cambrai,  St  Quentin,  and 
JLaon  and  the  advance  across  France  and 


Belgium  until  the  Armistice  put  an  end  to  the 
fighting.  The  reader  must  bear  in  mind  that 
while  this  tremendous  drive  was  pushing  the 
centre  back  the  Allies  were  crushing  one  flank 
in  Flanders  and  the  other  in  the  Argonne- 
Meuse  region.  In  the  bitter  fighting  that  re- 
sulted in  the  breaking  of  the  famous  defense 
system,  the  27th— O/Ryan— and  the  30th-— 
Lewis — American  divisions  played  important 
parts. 

Although  the  main  attack  was  made  on  Sep- 
tember 20,  important  advances  in  the  direction 
of  Cambrai  were  made  on  the  27th,  when  Byng 
and  Home  with  the  American  2d  Corps — • 
Graves—  (27th  and  30th  divisions)  struck  on 
a  14-mile  front  before  Cambrai,  crossed  the 
Canal  du  Nord,  and  pierced  the  outposts  of  the 
Hindenburg  line.  On  the  28th,  Marcoing. 
Fontaine-Notre-Dame,  Cantaing,  and  Novelles 
were  taken.  On  the  20th,  Rawlinson,  with  the 
aid  of  the  Americans,  struck  on  a  30-mile  front 
from  St  Quentin  to  the  Sensed  Canal  The 
former  crossed  the  Scheldt  Canal  and  the  latter, 
after  seizing  Ballicourt  and  Nauroy,  entered 
the  suburbs  of  Cambrai  itself  Borne  now  at- 
tacked in  the  Arras  sector  and  advanced  towaid 
Douai  by  capturing  Oppy  and  Biache-St.  Vaast. 
This  compelled  the  Germans  to  retire  from  tho 
Lens  coal-field  region.  Byng,  by  crossing  tho 
Scheldt  Canal  northwest  of  Cambrai,  threatened 
the  city  from  that  direction. 

While  these  operations  were  going  on  around 
Cambrai,  the  fate  of  St  Quentin  was  being 
sealed  After  nibbling  operations,  the  French 
and  British  captured  Thorigny  and  Le  Tron- 
quoy,  about  3  miles  from  the  city  (September 
30).  On  the  first  of  October,  Decency's  army 
occupied  part  of  the  city,  and  the  next  day 
seized  all  of  it.  In  the  meantime  Rawlinson's 
army  forced  the  Scheldt  Canal  and  occupied  Le 
Catelet  and  Beauvoir. 

On  October  0  a  great  drive  covering  the  whole 
line  from  Cambrai  to  the  neighborhood  of  St. 
Quentin  was  begun  without  artillery  prepara- 
tion. It  was  a  tremendous  success,  penetrating 
9  miles  on  a  20-mile  front  Cambrai  was  oc- 
cupied on  the  very  first  day,  which  necessitated 
a  further  retreat  on  the  Arras-Lens  front,  to- 
ward Douai  By  the  10th  the  British  had  ad- 
vanced their  lines  to  the  Selle  River  between 
Solesme?  and  H.  Souplet,  and  captured  the  im- 
portant German  base  of  Le  Cateau.  On  the 
next  day  the  Germans  abandoned  the  line  along 
the  Sensfe  River  and  the  Allies  were  closing  in 
on  Douai  This  city  fell  on  the  17th. 

On  the  20th,  the  British  forced  a  crossing  ot 
the  Selle  north  of  Le  Cateau  and  on  the  22<1 
advanced  from  northwest  of  Tournai  to  south- 
west of  Valenciennes,  patrols  actually  reaching 
the  suburbs  of  the  latter  city.  On  the  25th  tho 
Valenciennes-Le  Qucsnoy  railway  was  reached 
on  a  7-mile  front  On  November  2,  Valen- 
ciennes fell  after  a  pinching  operation,  and  they 
advanced  along  the  road  to  Mons.  On  Novem- 
ber 4,  the  British  and  Americans  struck  a  20- 
mile  front  between  the  Scheldt  and  the  Oise- 
Sanibre  Canal  and  forced  the  Germans  to  make 
a  retreat  on  a  75-mile  front  from  the  Scheldt 
to  the  Aisne.  As  a  result  of  this  the  French 
took  the  fortified  city  and  railroad  centre  of 
Hirson,  and  the  British  captured  the  fortress 
of  Maubeuge  on  the  9th  of  November.  On  the 
llth,  the  last  day  of  fighting,  the  British  cap- 
tured Mons,  the  scene  of  their  defeat  and  re- 
treat in  August,  1914. 


WAB  IN  EUEOPB 


14x9 


WAB  IN  ETTBOm 


In  considering  the  breaking  of  the  Hinden- 
burg  line,  the  events  that  occurred  between  the 
Oise  and  the  Aisne  and  which  resulted  in  the 
capture  of  Laon  and  the  Chemin  des  Dames, 
must  be  included.  Foch  determined  to  use  his 
"pincers"  method  on  a  large  scale  in  order  to 
capture  Laon.  To  accomplish  this  he  had  to  ad- 
vance through  the  formidable  forest  of  St.  Go- 
bain  and  recapture  the  Chemin  des  Dames  posi- 
tions. After  the  "pinching"  of  the  Marne  sali- 
ent (July,  1918)  the  Franco-Americans  had  nib- 
bled away  at  the  German  positions  to  get  a  good 
place  to  start  their  offensive.  The  Americana 
had  taken  the  Juvigny  plateau  and  later  the 
French  seized  the  Vauxaillon  plateau  just  south 
of  the  Aisne.  The  German  Crown  Prince  made 
repeated  and  bitter  attacks  to  retake  these 
strategic  positions,  but  they  were  futile  as  well 
as  costly.  On  September  28,  General  Mangin's 
Franco-American  army  captured  Fort  de  Mal- 
maison,  the  old  limestone  position  which  is  in 
the  rear  of  the  Chemin  des  Dames.  Then  began 
a  slow  advance  between  these  positions  and  the 
Ailette  Kiver  as  well  as  between  the  Aisne  and 
the  Vesle.  Berthelot's  V  army  in  conjunction 
with  Mangin's  X  army  and  witli  the  aid  of 
Italian  troops,  began  an  advance  northwest  of 
Reims,  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Berry  - 
au-Bac  on  October  7.  On  the  9th,  Bazancourt 
and  Vaux-les-Mauion  fell.  By  the  12th,  Man- 
gin  had  succeeded  in  occupying  practically  the 
entire  C'hemin-dcH-DatncH  positions.  The  next 
day  saw  the  success  of  Foch's  htrategy  because 
the  St.  Gobain  Forest,  La  Fere,  and  Laon  were 
evacuated  by  the  Germans  with  scarcely  any 
fighting. 

The  Fiench  armies  of  the  left  now  advanced 
rapidly  between  the  Aisne  and  the  Oise  Rivers 
with  the  idea  of  reaching  the  Franco-Belgian 
frontier  l>etwecn  Hirson  and  Mlzieres.  When 
the  Germans  began  their  retreat  between  the 
Scheldt  and  the  Aisrie,  the  French  armies  of  the 
left  exerted  strong  pressure  on  the  German 
flank.  By  the  8th  of  November  they  were  at 
the  outskirts  of  M£zieres,  but  were  unable  to 
capture  it  before  the  Armistice  was  signed  on 
the  llth. 

Thus  ended  the  battle  or  series  of  battles 
which  resulted  in  the  breaking  of  the  Hinden- 
burg  line  and  which  were  also  largely  responsi- 
ble for  the  Germans  suing  for  an  armistice. 
The  occupation  of  the  east  bank  of  the  Meuse 
nortli  of  Verdun  by  the  Americans  left  the  Ger- 
mans with  no  easily  defended  line  west  of  the 
Rhine.  It  is  extiemely  doubtful  whether  the 
Germans  could  have  reached  the  Rhine  with  suf- 
ficient men,  material  and  organization,  to  pre- 
vent an  invasion  of  Germany  by  the  Allies  on  a 
grand  scale. 

Operations  in  Belgium.  The  opening  attack 
on  September  28  was  made  by  the  reorganized 
Belgian  army,  under  the  personal  direction  of 
King  Albert,  and  the  British  II  army,  under 
Pluiner,  on  a  10-mile  front  from  Dixmude  to 
Passchendaele  Ridge,  north  of  Ypres.  This  ini- 
tial attack  penetrated  4  miles.  On  the  next 
day  the  Belgians  captured  Dixtnude,  Passchen- 
daele, Stadenberg,  Mooreslede,  and  Zarren  and 
were  only  2  miles  from  Roulers.  On  this  same 
day  the  British  took  the  formidable  Messines 
and  Passchendaele  Ridges  and  Gheluvelt.  On 
the  1st  of  October,  the  Allies  crossed  the  Menin- 
Roulers  road  and  struck  in  a  southerly  direc- 
tion, reaching  the  Lys  River  between  Warvioq 
and  Warneton. 


The  threat  to  develop  the  industrial  centre  of 
Lille  had  now  become  so  pronounced  and  had 
created  such  a  serious  position  for  the  German 
forces  that  the  German  command  determined  to 
evacuate  it,  which  necessitated  retirement  from 
the  Belgian  coast  Consequently,  on  the  2d 
the  Germans  began  the  evacuation  of  the  city 
and  a  retreat  on  both  sides  of  La  Basset  Canal. 
This  retreat  was  accelerated  by  the  joining  of 
Degoutte's  VI  French  army  to  the  Belgian  and 
British  armies.  The  Belgians  captured  Hoog- 
lede  and  Handzeeme  northeast  of  Roulers,  and 
the  British  seized  Rolleghencapello,  between 
Courtrai  and  Roulers.  Armentieres  was  en- 
tered on  the  same  day. 

After  a  week  and  a  half  of  further  prepara- 
tion, the  Allies  struck  an  extremely  heavy  blow 
aimed  at  clearing  the  west  bank  of  the  Scheldt 
as  far  as  Ghent.  The  attack  extended  from 
the  Lys,  near  Comines,  to  the  sea.  The  Bel- 
gians drove  forward  7  miles  north  of  a  line 
running  from  Handzeeme  to  Courtermarck,  and 
the  French  and  British  to  the  llooglede  pla- 
teau, Winckelhoek  and  Lendelede  The  German 
forced  retreat  from  Belgium  now  began  in  earn- 
est. The  Belgians  advanced  steadily  along  the 
roads  to  Bruges  and  Ostend  from  Thourout,  and 
the  French  advanced  toward  Thielt,  while  the 
British  advanced  along  the  Lys  from  Comines. 
On  the  17th  the  Britisli  entered  Lille  and  naval 
forces  entered  Ostend,  which  had  been  evacuated. 
On  the  next  day  Zeebrugge  was  entered,  as  well 
as  Bruges,  Thielt,  Courtrai,  Tourcoing,  and 
Roubaix. 

Between  the  20th  and  25th  of  October,  the 
French  and  British  forced  the  Lys  Canal  in  the 
direction  of  Ghent.  The  British  in  the  south 
took  Bruay  and  Kstaiii.  On  the  last  day  of  the 
month  Byng's  army,  with  the  aid  of  the  30th 
American  division,  struck  between  the  Lys  and 
the  Scheldt  from  Deynze  to  Avelghem  and  cap- 
tured several  villages,  and  towns.  \Miile  this 
operation  was  going  on  the  British  and  French 
were  driving  the  Germans  back  on  Ghent  and 
the  lines  of  the  Scheldt.  The  retreat  was  pre- 
cipitous. On  November  3,  the  Belgians  ad- 
vanced 10  miles  along  the  Dutch  frontier  and 
reached  the  Terneuzen  (Dutch)  Ghent  Canal. 
This  advance  coupled  with  that  of  the  French 
and  the  British  in  the  south  brought  the  Allies 
to  within  5  miles  of  Ghent.  The  Britisli  forced 
the  Scheldt  near  Pofter  and  began  an  advance 
on  Brussels.  Tournai  fell  to  the  British  on 
November  0,  and  when  fighting  ceased  two  days 
later,  the  line  in  Belgium  ran  almost  north  and 
south  from  Terneuzen  to  north  of  Audenarde 
and  then  southeast  to  Mons.  Marshal  Foch  is 
credited  with  the  statement  that  the  German 
army  would  have  been  captured  or  destroyed 
within  six  weeks  (after  November  11)  but  he 
had  agreed  to  an  armistice  to  save  lives.  More 
than  00,000  prisoners  and  500  guns  of  all  cal- 
ibres had  been  captured  in  this  flank  movement. 

The  Armistice.  Negotiations  between  the 
United  States  and  Germany,  which  began  on 
October  5,  ended  on  November  5,  when  President 
Wilson  informed  the  Germans  that  Foch  had 
been  authorized  by  the  United  States  and  the 
Allies  to  open  negotiations  with  accredited 
German  agents.  This  was  followed  two  days 
later  by  announcement  that  German  agents  had 
l>een  appointed  and  we^e  about  to  leave  the 
German  Headquarters  at  Spa,  Belgium.  They 
were  received  at  Foch's  quarters  the  next  day 
and  received  the  terms  of  the  armistice  from 


WAB  IK  EtTBOFE 


1420 


WAB  IK  BTTBOPB 


him.  A  request  to  stop  hostilities  until  the 
terms  had  been  sent  to  the  German  Headquar- 
ters was  refused.  After  several  delays  the 
terms  were  accepted  by  Germany  on  November 
11  at  5  A.M.,  Paris  time,  and  the  War  ended  at 
11  A.M.  that  day.  A  brief  summary  of  the 
terms  follows. 

Germany  surrendered  all  her  submarines  and 
agreed  to  disarm  her  surface  men-of-war  which 
were  to  be  interned  in  neutral  ports,  or  taken 
over  by  the  Allies.  The  treaties  of  Bucharest 
and  Brest-Litovsk  were  renounced,  all  damage 
done  was  to  be  repaired  and  all  foreign  occupied 
tenitory  was  to  be  evacuated.  An  indemnity 
was  to  be  agreed  upon  later.  The  Allies  were 
to  occupy  the  valley  of  the  Rhine.  There  was 
to  be  a  neutral  zone  on  the  cast  bank  of  the 
Rhine  and  Allied  and  American  bridgeheads  at 
Mayence,  Coblenz,  and  Cologne,  each  with  a 
radius  of  30  kilometers. 

The  evacuation  of  the  territory  west  of  the 
Rhine  went  along  very  smoothly.  The  Allies 
were  hailed  as  deliverers  in  Belgium,  Luxem- 
burg and  especially  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  which 
was  triumphantly  entered  by  French  forces,  A 
similar  entry  was  made  into  Brussels  by  King 
Albert  and  his  Queen  riding  at  the  head  of  the 
Belgian  troops.  The  British  took  over  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  zone  around  Cologne,  the 
Americans  that  around  Coblenz,  and  the  French 
that  around  Mayence. 

On  Dec.  14,  1918,  the  terms  of  the  Armistice 
were  renewed  until  Jan.  17,  1919.  During  this 
period  the  conditions  that  wore  unfulfilled  were 
to  be  completed.  The  following  provision  was 
also  added  to  the  general  terms:  "The  Allied 
High  Command  reserves  the  right  to  begin, 
meanwhile,  if  it  thinks,  it  wise  in  order  to 
ensure  new  guarantees,  to  occupy  the  neutral 
zone  on  the  right  hank  of  the  Rhine  to  the  north 
of  the  bridgehead  of  Cologne,  up  to  the  Dutch 
frontier.  This  occupation  will  be  announced  by 
the  Allied  High  Command  by  giving  six  days' 
notice."  Subsequent  renewals  of  the  Armistice 
terms  occurred  during  the  time  that  the  Peace 
Conference  was  holding  its  meetings  at  Paris. 

THE  EASTERN  FRONT 

The  early  advance  of  the  Russian  armies  into 
East  Prussia  in  August,  1914,  seriously  affected 
the  German  invasion  of  France  and  almost  up- 
set the  entire  German  plan.  Von  Hindenburg, 
however,  frustrated  the  attempt  of  the  Russians 
to  overrun  East  Prussia  by  his  victory  at 
Tannenberg.  Meanwhile  the  Russian  armies  ad- 
vanced victoriously  into  Galicia  and  soon  were 
well  on  their  way  to  Cracow  and  into  the  passes 
of  the  Carpathians.  To  relieve  the  pressure  on 
the  Austrians,  German  Headquarters  organized 
a  counteroffensive  through  West  Poland,  which 
ended  in  a  deadlock  in  the  winter  of  1914-15 
with  the  opposing  armies  intrenched.  In  the 
spring  of  1915,  the  Central  Powers  began  a  great 
offensive  and  by  September  of  that  year  the 
Russians  were  driven  out  of  Poland  and  Cour- 
land.  This  front  then  remained  stabilized  until 
May,  1916,  when  the  Russians  opened  a  success- 
ful campaign  against  the  Austrian  front  to  re- 
lieve the  pressure  of  the  Austrians  in  Italy. 
This  success  was  followed  by  the  Russian  Revolu- 
tion which  ultimately  prevented  that  country 
from  being  a  further  factor  in  the  War. 

The  detailed  account  of  the  military  opera- 
tions falls  under  the  following  head:  (1)  Rus- 
sian invasion  of  East  Prussia  terminating  in  the 


battle  of  Tannenberg  and  the  first  battle  of  the 
Masurian  lakes;  (2)  Russian  invasion  of  Galicia; 
(3)  German  operations  in  West  Poland;  (4) 
second  battle  of  the  Masurian  lakes ;  ( 5 )  Austro- 
German  drive  in  Galicia;  (6)  great  Austro- 
German  drive  in  the  east ;  ( 7 )  Russian  offensive 
in  19 10;  (8)  military  operations  during  the 
Kerensky  government;  (9)  military  operations 
during  the  Bolshevik  government  to  the  end  of 
the  War. 

The  struggle  on  the  Eastern  front  was  condi- 
tioned by  a  number  of  circumstances.  First 
the  German  plan,  which  was  based  on  a  decisive 
victory  in  France  before  the  Russians  could  get 
ready;  few  troops  were  therefore  to  be  left  to 
guard  the  east  front.  Next  was  the  unexpected 
promptness  of  the  Russian  mobilization  and  con- 
centration. Lastly  and  of  paramount  impor- 
tance was  the  configuration  of  the  frontier  itself 
and  its  organization  in  view  of  war.  The  strik- 
ing feature  of  the  configuration  was  that  Rus- 
sian Poland  projected  like  a  huge  bastion  200 
miles  deep  between  East  Prussia  on  the  north 
and  Galicia  on  the  south  and  that  the  political 
frontier  separating  the  belligerant  states  was  in 
no  sense  a  military  frontier.  The  Russian  base 
of  operations  against  Ka«t  Prussia  and  the  line 
of  defense  to  which  the  armies  could  retire  in 
case  of  defeat  wa«  that  formed  by  the  Nicmcn 
River  between  Kovno  and  Grodno  and  the  Narew 
River  with  its  principal  tributary,  the  Bohr, 
from  Grodno  to  the  mouth  of  the  Nnrew.  On 
the  Niomen  were  the  fortified  bridgeheads  of 
Kovno,  Olita  and  Grodno  where  railways  crossed 
the  river.  On  the  Narew  and  Bohr  were  the 
fortified  bridgeheads  of  Osowiec,  Lom/a,  Ostro- 
leuka,  Rozan,  Pultusk,  Sierok,  and  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Narew  and  Vistula  the  great  fortress 
bridgehead  of  Novogeorgiovsk.  The  German  base 
of  opeiations  in  the  north  was  the  Vistula  River 
between  the  fortresses  of  Danzig  and  Thorn. 
Along  this  stretch  of  river  there  were  a  numlHT 
of  fortified  bridgeheads.  The  province  of  East 
Prussia  lay  in  advance  of  this  line  and  for  its 
defense  the  Germans  had  to  rely  on  active  de- 
fense by  troops  based  on  their  complete  network 
of  railways  and  roads.  The  Masurian  lakes  near 
the  frontier  formed  a  north  and  south  natural 
barrier  about  40  miles  long  and  the  fortress  of 
Konigsberg  was  a  strong  point  of  support  for 
military  operations. 

The  Russian  base  of  operations  in  Central  Po- 
land was  the  Vistula  River  from  Novogoorgievsk 
to  the  Austrian  frontier;  along  this  htretch  of 
river  were  the  great  fortified  bridgeheads  of 
Warsaw  and  Ivangorod.  The  German  frontier 
from  the  Vistula  to  the  Austrian  frontier  was 
an  open  one  but  parellel  to  it  were  a  number  of 
excellent  railways  for  active  defense. 

From  the  Vistula  to  the  frontier  of  Rumania 
the  Austro-Russian  frontier  was  an  open  one  and 
for  its  defense  both  countries  had  to  rely  on 
active  operations  of  their  armies.  The  military 
frontier  of  Austria  was  the  Carpathian  range  of 
mountains  in  rear  of  its  border  provinces  of 
Galicia  and  Bukovina.  Against  invasion  from 
the  east,  Austria  could  hardly  hope  to  hold  the 
entire  province  of  Galicia,  so  her  military 
authorities  had  constructed  a  barrier  line  from 
the  Vistula  to  the  Carpathians  along  the  San 
River.  On  this  river  there  were  the  fortified 
bridgeheads  of  Jarislau,  Radymo  and  the  great 
fortress  of  Przemysl. 

In  accordance  with  the  Allied  plan,  the  Rus- 
sian armies  were  to  assume  the  offensive  as  soon 


EASTERN  EUROPE 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


1421 


WAB  IN  ETTBOPB 


as  possible.  The  aim  of  their  drat  campaigns 
was  to  drive  the  Germans  out  of  East  Prussia 
and  the  Austrians  out  of  Galicia  and  Bukovma 
hi  preparation  for  an  advance  from  West  Po- 
land For  these  campaigns  they  immediately 
organized  six  great  armies,  two  for  the  invasion 
of  East  Prussia  and  four  for  the  invasion  of 
Galicia.  The  Russian  commander-in-chief  was 
the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas. 

Russian  Invasion  of  East  Prussia.  For 
the  defense  of  East  Prussia,  German  Head- 
quarters left  in  the  east  of  the  active  army  only 
thiec  army  corps  and  a  cavalry  division.  There 
were  mobilized  in  addition  two  reserve  corps 
and  the  local  Landwehr  and  Landstrum  troops. 
These  troops  formed  the  Vlll  army — von  Britt- 
witz — and  alao  furnished  the  garrisons  for  the 
fortified  bridgeheads  on  the  Vistula  and  the  gar- 
rison of  the  fortress  of  Konigsberg.  As  the 
Kussians  would  probably  invade  East  Prussia 
both  north  of  the  Masurian  lakes  from  the 
direction  of  Kovno  and  south  of  the  lakes  from 
the  Narew  Kiver,  the  Vill  army  was  divided 
into  two  separate  wings;  the  left  wing,  consist- 
ing of  t\\o  active  coips  and  three  reserve  divi- 
sions with  the  cavalry  division,  was  to  guard 
the  frontier  uoitli  of  the  lakes,  while  a  single 
active  corps  with  Landwehr  troops  was  to  guard 
the  frontier  south  and  west  of  the  lakes. 

In  August,  11)14,  .Russian  Headquarters  or- 
ganized two  armies  for  the  invasion  of  East 
I'lUbsia.  The  1  army — Renncncamp — was  to  ad- 
vance from  the  Niomen  River  between  Kovno 
and  Grodno  and  advance  along  the  Kovno-Ko- 
nigi.lKTg  lailway  north  of  the  Masurian  lakes. 
The  11  army — Samsaiioil' — was  to  advance  fiom 
the  Narcw  Jliver  with  its  left  resting  on  the 
\\  arsaw-Dan/ig  railway  and  its  right  passing 
the  south  end  of  the  Masurian  Jakes.  Contact 
between  the  two  armies  was  to  be  secured  after 
passing  the  lakes.  Rennencauip  was  the  first  to 
ir-ach  the  frontier,  August  17,  just  as  the  Ger- 
man HI mies  in  the  \\est  began  their  advance; 
heie  hi*  cncounteied  the  advance  posts  of  the  left 
\ving  of  the  Vlll  army.  For  a  week  there  was 
constant  lighting  in  which  the  weaker  German 
foice  was  steadily  pushed  back  and  on  August  24 
Jlennencanip  reached  the  line  of  the  lakes  and 
JnwU'iljurg.  Instead  of  pushing  on  westward  lie 
apparently  halted  here  to  await  the  arrival  of 
SainsanoO  to  protect  his  left  and  in  the  mean- 
time lus  cavjiliy  sought  the  right  ilank  of  the 
11  army  and  reconnoitred  along  his  front. 
SaniHanoff  reached  the  frontier  several  days 
later,  August  22,  and  easily  dispersed  the  weak 
detachments  in  his  front.  His  centre  now  moved 
on  Allenstcin  while  his  right  moved  northward 
to  seek  contact  with  Rcnnencamp. 

On  August  22  the  situation  seemed  very  serious 
to  the  commander  of  the  Vlll  German  army,  who 
found  both  wings  in  retreat,  and  although  lie 
made  preparations  to  concentrate  on  Samsanoff, 
ho  informed  German  Headquarters  at  Coblenz 
that  he  might  lie  compelled  to  retire  behind  the 
Vistula.  At  this  stage  Headquarters  decided  to 
intrust  the  command  of  the  VIII  arrny  to 
von  Hindenburg,  a,  retired  general  who  was 
thoroughly  conversant  with  the  topography  of 
East  Prussia,  and  sent  to  him  as  his  chief  of 
staff  von  Ludendorff,  a  staff  officer  of  the  II  arrny 
who  had  shown  great  initiative  in  the  capture  of 
the  town  and  bridges  of  Liege.  Von  Hindenburg 
took  command  on  August  23  and  found  the  situa- 
tion as  above  stated.  The  two  Russian  armies 
were  still  separated  and  his  only  chance  for 


success  was  to  decisively  defeat  one  of  them  be- 
fore they  could  unite.  Calling  from  the  near- 
by fortresses  all  their  available  troops,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  raising  his  army  to  five  and  one-half 
corps,  which  was  nearly  that  of  the  II  Russian 
army.  His  plan  was  a  bold  one  for  he  proposed 
to  leave  but  a  mere  screen  in  front  of  Rennen- 
camp  and  employ  his  entire  force  against  Sam- 
sanoff. In  order  to  make  his  victory  decisive, 
if  possible,  he  proposed  to  envelop  both  wings 
of  the  II  Russian  army.  His  predecessor  had 
already  made  this  possible  by  moving  a  corps 
from  the  extreme  left  of  his  army  to  the  extreme 
right  by  rail.  It  took  several  days  to  get  the 
troops  in  position  but  by  the  27th  all  was  ready 
for  the  attack.  Two  and  one-half  corps  were  in 
front  of  Allenstein  to  chock  the  advance  of 
Sarnsanoff's  centre,  consisting  of  three  corps; 
two  corps  had  withdrawn  from  Rennencamp's 
front  and  were  ready  to  move  son th ward  in  rear 
of  the  lakes  on  Samsanoff's  rear  protected  by  a 
single  corps,  and  one  corps  was  ready  to  turn 
SamsanofFs  left  protected  by  a  single  corps. 
Fortunately  for  Hindenburg,  Rennencamp  mado 
no  attempt  to  advance  and  his  cavalry  failed  to 
penetrate  the  German  screen  to  discover  what 
was  going  on  in  its  rear. 

The  battle  of  Tannenberg,  as  it  was  called,  be- 
gan on  the  morning  of  August  27  and  lasted 
three  days.  Samsanoff  was  found  dead  on  the 
field  and  two  of  his  corps  commanders  with 
90,000  men  were  captured  Three  of  his  corps 
were  practically  annihilated  and  the  others 
escaped  only  with  severe  losses.  The  battle  was 
named  in  honor  of  one  of  the  same  name  fought 
there  in  1400  between  the  German  Knights  and 
the  allied  Poles  and  Lithuanians.  As  the  I  and 
II  Russian  armies  were  advancing  into  East 
Prussia,  Russian  Headquarters  began  the  or- 
ganization of  the  X  Army  at  Grodno  to  serve  as 
a  general  reserve.  Two  corpa  of  this  army  ad- 
vanced across  the  frontier  east  of  the  Masurian 
lakes  just  in  time  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the 
remnants  of  the  II  army. 

After  the  battle  of  Tannenberg,  von  Hinden- 
burg was  reinforced  by  two  army  corps  and  a 
cavalry  division  from  the  Western  front  and 
made  preparations  to  attack  Rennencamp's  army. 
His  plan  was  to  engage  Rennencamp's  front  with 
his  main  force  while  his  right  wing  moved  south 
around  the  Masurian  lakes  to  cut  off  the  retreat 
of  the  Russian  army.  His  right  wing,  however, 
unexpectedly  encountered  the  X  Russian  army, 
which  defeated  his  plan,  and  all  he  was  able  to 
accomplish  was  the  retreat  of  the  Russians 
across  the  frontier  to  the  Nicmeu  River.  In 
these  operations,  which  began  September  7  and 
lasted  about  a  week,  the  Germans  claim  to  have 
taken  45,000  additional  prisoners;  they  call  the 
operations  the  first  battle  of  the  Masurian  Lakes. 
While  tlie  situation  on  this  front  was  still  un- 
ptabilized,  von  Hindenburg  was  compelled  to  go 
to  the  assistance  of  the  Austrians. 

Kussian  Invasion  of  Galicia.  The  German 
plan,  as  we  have  seen,  contemplated  the  crush- 
ing of  Franco,  while  Russia  should  be  held  by  the 
Central  Powers.  In  form,  so  far  as  Austria  was 
concerned,  the  holding  was  to  begin  by  an 
invasion  of  Russian  Poland.  South  of  the  fron- 
tier two  railways  run  roughly  parallel  to  the 
boundniy,  and  from  these  two  ran  branch  lines 
and  feeders.  The  Russians  were  not  nearly  so 
well  off  in  the  matter  of  transportation.  Given, 
therefore,  the  supposed  slowness  of  Russia's 
mobilization  and  the  poverty  of  her  rail  system, 


WAB  IN  ETJB0PE 

an  invasion  of  Russian  Poland  seemed  to  be  a 
promising  undertaking. 

According  to  the  plan  of  attack  drawn  up  by 
the  chief  of  staff,  Gen.  Conrad  von  Hotzendorff, 
the  invasion  was  to  be  made  by  two  armies. 
The  I  army  under  General  Dankl  concentrated 
on  the  lower  San  River  was  to  advance  north- 
ward east  of  the  Vistula  to  seize  the  railway 
junction  of  Lublin;  its  left  was  protected  by  a 
detachment,  largely  cavalry,  which  was  to 
operate  west  of  the  Vistula  and  then  cross  that 
river.  Its  right  was  protected  by  the  TV  army 
— Auffenberg — which  was  concentrated  at 
Jaroslav  and  was  to  advance  northward  to  the 
railway  junction  of  Cholm.  The  III  army — 
Brudermann — was  concentrated  east  of  Lem- 
berg  and  was  to  defend  the  frontier  between  the 
Bug  and  Dniester  Rivers.  The  II  army  was  on 
the  Serbian  frontier  but  had  one  corps  in 
Galicia  which  was  to  guard  the  frontier  south 
of  the  Dniester  River  and  cooperate  with  the 
HI  army. 

The  Russian  mobilization  against  Austria  was 
begun  a  week  before  that  against  Germany  and 
in  the  month  that  elapsed  before  actual  hos- 
tilities the  armies  were  concentrated  for  active 
operations  In  southern  Poland  between  the 
Vistula  and  Bug  Rivers  was  an  army  group  con- 
sisting of  the  IV  and  V  Russian  armies  under 
General  Ewart.  On  the  eastern  frontier  of  Gali- 
cia between  the  Bug  and  Dniester  Rivers  were 
the  III  Russian  army — Russky — and  the  VIII 
Russian  army — Brusiloff — forming  a  group  under 
Ivanoff.  South  of  the  Dniester  River  were  de- 
tachments of  the  VII  Russian  army  on  the  fron- 
tier of  Bukovinn.  Each  of  the  four  principal 
armies  was  stronger  than  any  of  the  three 
Austrian  armies. 

On  August  2.1,  well  south  of  Lublin  and  Cholm, 
the  two  Austrian  armies  encountered  such  strong 
resistance  that  they  \\ere  unable  to  advance  as 
the  IV  and  V  Russian  armies  were  in  their 
front.  On  August  22  the  great  Russian  advance 
of  the  Til  and  VIII  armies  began  and  the  VII 
invaded  Bukovina  The  Austrian s  were  unable 
to  offer  any  adequate  resistance  and  the  Russians 
advanced  triumphantly  and  occupied  Lemberg 
on  September  3.  To  stem  the  Russian  tide, 
Austrian  Headquarters  recalled  the  remaining 
corps  of  the  II  army  from  Serbia  and  with  the 
II,  III  and  IV  armies  took  up  the  position  of 
Rawaruska-Grodek  west  of  Lemberg  facing  east. 
Here  was  fought  a  battle,  September  7-11,  on 
the  same  days  that  Hindenburg  was  attacking 
Rennencamp  in  the  north  and  the  battle  of  the 
Marne  was  in  progress  in  the  west.  The  Aus- 
trians  were  defeated  and  retired  to  the  San  River 
where  the  I  Austrian  army  was  compelled  to 
join  them.  The  Russians  now  pushed  on,  crossed 
the  San  River  and  invested  the  fortress  of 
Przemysl.  South  of  the  Dniester  they  occupied 
Bukovina,  took  possession  of  the  passes  in  the 
Carpathians  and  their  cavalry  was  advancing 
into  Hungary.  Such  was  the  situation  when 
Austrian  Headquarters  called  on  the  Germans 
for  help  and  von  Hindenburg  was  sent  from  East 
Prussia  to  Silesia  to  take  command  there  and 
organize  a  new  army. 

German  Operations  in  Went  Poland.  In  order 
to  create  the  IX  German  army  in  Silesia,  von 
Hindenburg  was  compelled  to  withdraw  four  of 
his  corps  from  East  rruswia  and  replace  them  as 
far  as  possible  with  Landwelir  and  newly  or- 
ganized units.  When  he  reached  Silesia,  von 
Hindenburg  learned  that  there  were  few  Russian 


WJLB  IK  ETJBOPB 

troops  in  Poland  west  of  the  Vistula  River; 
with  the  Austrian  chief  of  staff  he  decided  on 
the  plan  of  operations.  The  IX  German  army 
with  the  I  Austrian  army  on  its  right  were  to 
advance  eastward  to  the  north  of  the  Vistula 
thus  turning  the  flank  of  the  Russians  in  Galicia, 
so  that  they  would  bo  obliged  to  cease  their 
pressure  on  the  Austrians  south  of  the  Vistula  to 
meet  this  threat.  The  IV,  III  and  II  Austrian 
armies  were  then  to  advance  as  soon  as  possible 
and  relieve  the  fortress  of  Przemysl;  the  IV 
army  from  the  west  and  the  111  and  II  over  the 
Carpathian  mountains. 

The  IX  German  army  began  its  advance  in  the 
latter  part  of  September  and  soon  the  effects  of 
the  movement  were  seen  in  the  shifting  of  tho 
Russian  troops  These  fell  back  across  the  San 
River  and  the  IV  and  V  armies  began  a  move- 
ment up  the  east  side  of  the  Vistula  Rivei 
The  IX  German  and  the  1  Austrian  armies 
reached  the  Vistula  without  much  opposition  and 
eventually  the  I  Austiian  army  took  up  the 
front  from  Ivangorod  to  the  San  while  tho  IX 
German  army  extended  its  flank  northward  to 
Warsaw.  They  were,  however,  unable  to  capture 
the  bridgehead  of  Ivangorod  or  that  of  Warsaw, 
so  the  Russians  still  had  access  to  the  west  bank. 
In  Warsaw  the  Russians  had  begun  the  forma- 
tion of  their  IX  army.  Due  to  the  shifting  of 
the  Russian  troops,  tho  Austrians  were  able  to 
get  supplies  into  Pre/eniysl  but  that  \\as  all; 
their  armies  were  unable  to  cross  the  San  Ri\rr. 

When  the  Russiang  began  to  shift  their  troops 
the  command  of  those  left  in  Galicia  was  »i\en 
to  Ivanoff  and  those  assigned  to  operate  in  West 
Poland  to  Russky.  By  the  20th  of  October,  Rus- 
sky  felt  strong  enough  to  engage  his  adversaries 
west  of  the  Vistula  and  the  Russians  advanced 
once  more,  this  time  on  the  \*hole  front  from 
Kovno  to  the  Carpathians.  In  East  Piussia,  the 
German  VIII  army  was  compelled  to  retiie 
across  the  frontier  to  an  intrenched  line  which 
ran  from  the  Masurian  Lakes  to  the  Xicmcii 
River  Von  Hindenburg  was  unable,  to  offer  ad- 
equate resistance  in  \\est  Poland  and  with  the 
I  Austrian  army  retired  about  200  miles  back 
across  the  frontier  into  Posen  and  Silesia.  To 
delay  the  Russian  advance  he  destroyed  the  rail- 
ways that  his  troops  had  just  repaired.  In  Gali- 
cia the  Austriana  retired  to  the  vicinity  of 
Tarnow  and  over  the  Carpathians  leaving  the 
garrison  of  Przemysl  to  its  fate. 

On  November  1  the  situation  of  the  Central 
Powers  on  the  Eastern  front  was  apparently 
desperate,  as  the  German  armies  in  the  west 
were  engaged  in  the  despernte  battle  of  Flanders 
and  could  not  afford  to  send  infantry  to  the  enst; 
most  of  the  cavalry  had  already  been  sent  to  the 
VIII  and  IX  armies.  Von  Hindenburg  was  now 
placed  in  command  of  both  the  VIII  and  IX 
armies  and  von  Mackensen  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  IX  army. 

Realizing  that  he  was  not  strong  enough  to 
meet  the  Russians  at  all  points  of  their  front, 
von  Hindenburg  decided  to  concentrate  the  IX 
army  for  a  flank  attack.  He  therefore  had  it 
railed  to  the  frontier  between  the  Vistula  and 
Warta  Rivers  where  it  could  advance  with  one 
flank  protected  by  the  Vistula.  The  defense  of 
the  frontier  from  the  Warta  southward  was  left 
to  Landwehr  and  local  troops  assisted  by  the  I 
Austrian  army.  They  were  to  advance  if  his 
attack  was  successful. 

On  November  11  he  was  ready  to  strike;  at 
this  time  the  Russians  were  already  near  Che 


WAB  IN  EUBOPE 


1433 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


frontier  all  the  way  from  the  Vistula  to  Cra- 
cow and  some  of  their  cavalry  had  actually 
crossed  it.  The  IX  German  army  drove  back 
the  right  wing  of  Russky's  armies  between  the 
Niemen  and  the  Warta  and  the  endeavor  of  the 
Russians  to  check  the  advance  resulted  in  more 
or  less  confusion  along  their  entire  front.  Ewart 
now  took  command  of  the  left  wing  of  these 
armies  while  Russky  remained  in  command  on 
the  right.  The  operations  in  West  Poland  con- 
tinued from  week  to  week  and  ended  only  about 
the  close  of  the  year.  They  ended  w'ith  the 
opposing  armies  intrenched  along  the  Bzura, 
Rawa  and  Nida  Rivers.  The  most  important 
engagement  was  the  battle  of  Lodz,  in  which,  in 
attempting  to  envelop  the  flank  of  the  Russian 
armies,  three  German  divisions  and  two  cavalry 
divisions  were  suddenly  cut  off  from  the  re- 
mainder of  the  IX  army  and  for  two  days  were 
surrounded  by  Russians.  According  to  German 
reports  they  finally  emerged  with  10,000  prisoners. 
In  Galieia  the  Austrians  were  driven  behind  tho 
Dunajec  River  and  lost  nearly  all  the  important 
passes  in  the  Carpathians.  After  operations 
closed  in  Novemlier  on  the  Western  front,  a  num- 
ber of  corps  were  sent  from  there  to  West  Poland 
in  the  hope  tbat  1he  Russians  might  be  forced 
behind  the  Vistula  River.  By  the  time  of  their 
arrival  the  Russians  were  already  intrenched 
and  the  desperate  attempts  made  to  dislodge 
them  resulted  only  in  tremendous  losses  in  the 
attacking  German  troops. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  the  combatant  troops 
on  the  Ka stern  front,  as  given  by  the  German 
chief  of  staff,  were  as  follows: 


between  the  Vistula  and  Carpathians  while  the 
II  and  III  Austrian  and  VIII  Russian  armies 
faced  each  other  on  the  crest  of  the  Carpathians. 
The  XI  Russian  army  was  besieging  rrzemysK 
German  divisions  had  been  sent  to  reinforce  the 
Austrians  in  the  mountains  to  recapture  the 
passes  but  the  winter  operations  there  were  of 
no  avail.  In  March,  Przemysl  surrendered  and 
its  besieging  army  reinforced  the  VIII  Russian 
army.  In  Bukovina  the  VII  Austrian  army  was 
engaged  with  the  VII  Russian  army. 

In  the  spring  of  1915  the  situation  on  the 
Eastern  front  was  very  unsatisfactory  to  German 
Headquarters.  The  Austrian  armies  were  dis- 
couraged and  from  the  crests  of  the  Carpathians 
the  Russians  threatened  an  invasion  of  Hungary. 
The  government  of  Italy  was  wavering  and  at 
any  moment  Austria  might  be  called  upon  to 
meet  a  new  enemy.  It  was  therefore  decided  to 
attempt  a  blow  that  would  compel  the  Russians 
to  retreat  from  the  mountains.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  new  army,  the  German  XI  army,  was 
organized  behind  the  IV  Austrian  army;  this 
was  made  up  of  picked  corps  from  the  Western 
front  and  was  well  supplied  with  heavy  artillery. 
Von  Mackensen,  who  had  successfully  commanded 
the  IX  army,  was  assigned  to  its  command  and 
the  IV  Austrian  army  as  well  as  the  Austrian 
and  German  troops  in  the  Carpathians  were 
directed  to  cooperate  with  him.  This  new  army 
quietly  replaced  the  troops  of  the  IV  Austrian 
army  in  the  southern  sector  between  the  Vistula 
and* the  Carpathians.  If  the  XI  German  army 
could  break  through  the  left  wing  of  the  III 
Russian  army  and  advance  at  the  foot  of  the 


On  the*  East 

Germans 
105  000 

Austrians 

Total 
105  000 

Russians 
320  000 

West    Poland 

385  000 

140  000 

525  000 

847  000 

(JfflijClQ     QD(1 

12  000 

513,000 

525,000 

521,000 

A  German  division  was  assisting  the  Austrians  in  the    Carpathian  passes. 


1915.  Second  Battle  of  the  Masurian 
Lakes,  At  the  close  of  1014,  as  previously 
stated,  the  Russians  again  occupied  East  Prus- 
sia as  far  west  as  a  north  and  south  line  through 
the  Masurian  Lakes.  This  force  was  the  X  Rus- 
sian army — Siovcrs — as  the  I  Russian  army  was 
now  along  the  frontier  between  the  lakes  and  the 
Vistula.  German  Headquarters  decided  to  take 
advantage  of  the  cessation  of  hostilities  on  other 
fronts  and  by  a  winter  campaign  drive  the  Rus- 
sians across* the  frontier  and  if  possible  across 
the  Niemen  and  Narew  Rivers.  For  this  pur- 
pose several  new  divisions  were  sent  to  von 
Ilindenburg  and  he  formed  the  X  German  army 
— von  Eichorn — to  operate  to  the  left  of  the 
VIII  army.  As  at  Tannenberg,  von  Ilindenburg 
planned  to  envelop  both  flanks  of  the  X  Russian 
army  by  attacking  close  to  the  Niemen  in  the 
north  and  south  of  the  lakes.  The  Russians 
were  in  winter  quarters  and  not  expecting  attack 
when  it  suddenly  developed  February  7  and  was 
executed  under  severe  weather  conditions  with 
frequent  snow  storms.  The  campaign  lasted  two 
weeks  and  ended  with  the  capture  of  100,000 
Russians,  including  a  corps  and  three  division 
commanders  and  some  300  guns.  The  Germans 
attempted  to  capture  the  fortress  of  Ossoviec  but 
were  repulsed.  The  operations  were  extended  to 
cover  the  front  of  the  I  Russian  army  but  met 
with  little  success.  Russky,  who  had  been  in 
rommand  of  the  Russian  right  which  included 
the  X  army,  was  now  relieved  by  Alexieff. 

In  Galieia,  during  the  winter,  the  IV  Austrian 
and  the  III  Russian  armies  faced  each  other 


mountains,  the  Russians  in  the  passes  would 
have  to  retreat  or  risk  the  danger  of  capture. 
Once  the  passes  were  freed,  the  Austrian  and 
German  troops  in  their  rear  could  advance  to 
the  plain  and  take  part  in  the  general  drive.  It 
should  be  stated  that  the  Russian  intrenched 
lines  were  by  no  means  so  stiong  as  the  in- 
trenched lines  on  the  Western  front. 

Austro-German  Drive  in  Galieia.  A  ter- 
rific cannonade  began  along  Mackensen's  front 
on  the  afternoon  of  May  1  and  continued  through 
the  night  to  prevent  the  Russians  from  repair- 
ing damages.  On  the  2d  it  began  at  daylight 
and  lasted  four  hours,  when  the  infantry  attack 
was  launched.  The  Russian  front  was  shattered 
and  although  here  and  there  the  Russians  offered 
stublmrn  resistance  the  tide  swept  on  and  one  by 
one  the  Carpathian  passes  were  evacuated  and 
the  Austro-German  forces  in  their  rear  moved 
clown  to  swell  the  forces  in  the  plain.  By  May 
15  the  San  was  reached,  where  the  advance  was 
temporarily  halted  to  repair  the  railways,  bring 
up  supplies  and  heavy  artillery,  relieve  some  of 
the  corps  engaged  in  the  first  movement,  and 
secure  both  banks  of  the  river  for  a  further 
advance.  It  was  at  this  time  that  Italy  de- 
clared war  and  a  part  of  the  I  Austrian  army 
was  sent  there  to  reinforce  the  V  and  VI  armies 
from  the  Serbian  front.  On  June  2,  Przemysl 
was  evacuated  by  the  Russians  and  by  the  middle 
of  June  the  Austro-German  armies  were  ready 
for  another  advance.  In  the  meantime  the  Rus- 
sians had  taken  up  a  defensive  position  on  the 
Rawaruska  line,  where  they  had  defeated  the 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


1424 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


Austrians  in  1914.  This  line  was  forced  on 
June  18  and  on  June  22  one  of  the  Austrian 
armies  occupied  Lemberg. 

From  the  San  River  the  IV  Austrian  and  XI 
German  armies  had  turned  northward  and  ad- 
vanced with  the  left  flank  resting  on  the  Vistula 
hut  at  the  frontier  they  were  stopped.  The  Rus- 
sian armies  in  West  Poland  had  retired  to  the 
vicinity  of  the  Vistula  and  had  concentrated  a 
strong  force  in  their  front.  To  reduce  this  re- 
sistance it  became  necessary  to  strike  another 
blow  at  some  other  point  of  the  Russian  front. 
Opera  tionw  had  already  been  begun  in  the  extieme 
north  where  the  German  Baltic  army,  largely 
cavalry,  had  crossed  the  Niemen  River  in  April 
and  now  occupied  the  line  of  the  Libau-Kovno 
railway.  On  July  2  there  was  a  conference 
between  von  Falkenhayn,  chief  of  staff  of  the 
German  armies,  and  von  Hindenburg  to  deter- 
mine the  new  point  of  attack.  Von  Hindenburg 
recommended  that  this  attack  be  made  in  the 
direction  of  Kovno  and  thus  threaten  the  main 
lines  of  communication  of  the  Russians  which 
ran  through  Vilna  and  its  vicinity.  A  successful 
drive  here  would  compel  the  Russians  to  retreat 
toward  the  Pripet  marbhes.  Falkenhayn,  how- 
ever, considered  this  plan  too  ambitious  and  was 
content  with  forcing  the  Russians  to  evacuate 
the  line  of  the  Vistula.  Upon  his  recommenda- 
tion, therefore,  the  attack  was  to  be  delivered 
along  the  Narcw  River;  here  a  successful  drive 
would  compel  the  Russians  to  evacuate  Warsaw 
but  would  leave  their  lines  of  retreat  open. 

The  Great  Austro-German  Drive  in  the 
East.  For  the  opening  attack  of  the  great 
drive  which  was  to  extend  from  the  Baltic  on 
the  north  to  Rumania  on  the  south  a  new  XII 
army — von  Gallwitz — was  formed  on  the  left  of 
the  VIII  army,  whose  mission  was  to  force  the 
crossing  of  the  Narew  River.  The  attack  opened 
on  July  13  but  it  was  only  10  dnys  later  that 
the  Germans  by  the  capture  of  the  bridgeheads 
Ostralenka,  Ho/an,  and  Pultusk  were  able  to 
cross  the  Xarew  in  force.  It  was  immediately 
followed  by  the  complete  withdrawal  of  the  Rus- 
sian forces  from  West  Poland  across  the  Vistula 
River  and  the  beginning  of  the  general  retreat. 
Ivangorod  was  evacuated  on  August  4  and  War- 
saw on  the  following  day.  In  Xovogeorgievsk 
the  Russians  left  a  garrison  of  80,000  men  but 
under  the  fire  of  heavy  artillery  it  fell  in  a  few 
days  and  its  garrison  surrendered.  The  retreat 
of  the  Rubsians  was  followed  by  an  advance  of 
the  Austro-German  forces  along  the  entire  front. 
In  the  south  the  Austro-German  Carpathian 
armies  moved  eastward  from  Lemberg  and  into 
Bukovina;  farther  north  von  Mackensen  with 
his  two  armies  advanced  to  the  Bug  River,  where 
the  Russians  evacuated  the  fortress  of  Brest- 
Litovsk,  August  25,  and  fell  back  to  the  Pinsk 
marshes,  the  Austro-German  forces  in  West  Po- 
land crossed  the  Vistula  and  reinforced  the  XII 
army;  the  VIII  army  forced  the  crossing  of  the 
Narew  and  Bohr  Rivers  and  captured  the  bridge- 
head of  Lomza,  August  10,  and  that  of  Ossoviec, 
August  22;  the  X  army  ad\anced  against  the 
fortress  of  Kovno  on  the  Niemen,  captured  it  on 
August  17,  and  the  great  railway  junction  at 
Vilna  a  month  later;  in  the  extreme  north  the 
German  Baltic  army  captured  Mitau  and  reached 
the  Dwina  River  between  Riga  and  Dwinsk  or 
Dunaberg 

About  the  middle  of  September  active  opera- 
tions ceased  and  the  Eastern  front  became 
stabilized.  The  new  front  followed  the  Dwina 


River  from  Riga  to  Dwinsk  then  ran  almost  due 
south  to  the  Dniester  River;  the  Russians  still 
occupied  a  small  section  of  eastern  Galicia. 
While  the  Germans  had  possession  of  all  the 
frontier  fortresses  of  Russia  and  had  seriously 
injured  the  morale  and  the  fighting  ability  of 
the  Russian  armies,  they  had  not  been  able  to 
force  a  decision  on  the  Eastern  front  because  of 
their  failure  to  prevent  the  retreat  of  the  Rus- 
sian armies.  It  was  during  the  Russian  retreat 
on  September  5  that  the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas 
was  relieved  from  the  command  of  the  Russian 
armies  and  sent  to  command  the  Russian  foices 
on  the  Turkish  front;  the  C/ar  took  command  of 
the  armies  with  Alexieff  as  chief -of -staff  and 
Rusfiky  again  commanded  the  northern  group. 

Year  of  1916.  After  the  cessation  of  opera- 
tions in  the  autumn  of  1915  and  during  the 
following  winter  the  Russians  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  reorganize  and  equip  their  armies. 
In  this  they  were  considerably  handicapped  by 
a  corrupt  and  inefficient  war  department  and  by 
their  inability  to  receive  munitions  from  their 
allies  and  neutrals.  During  the  winter  sup- 
plies from  the  outside  could  only  be  received 
through  ports  on  the  Pacific  wfieie  tei  initial 
facilities  were  inadequate  and  over  a  long  line 
of  railway  with  limited  rolling  stock  in  poor 
condition  as  a  result  of  the  War.  In  the  spring, 
Kuropatkin,  who  had  been  in  command  of  the 
Russian  armies  in  the  Russo-Japanese  \Var,  was 
assigned  to  the  command  of  the,  northein  group, 
and  Brusiloff  to  the  southern  gioup.  Ivunoff 
was  assigned  to  duty  at  headquarters.  Kwart 
remained  in  command  of  the  central  group. 

The  military  situation  on  the  Russian  front 
was  improved  during  the  autumn,  winter,  and 
spring  by  the  withdrawal  of  German  and  Aus- 
trian troops,  first  for  the  drive  in  Serbia,  then 
the  attack  on  Verdun  and  lastly  by  the  Aus- 
trian drive  in  Italy.  At  this  time  tlic  northern 
and  central  groups  of  Russian  armies,  uhich 
extended  from  Riga  to  the*  Pripet  marshe^,  weie 
facing  the  Baltic,  X,  VIII,  and  XII  German 
armies  under  von  Hindenburg  and  the  central 
group  under  Prince  Leopold  of  Bavaria,  con- 
sisting of  the  IX  German  army  with  some  Aus- 
trian troops  which  prolonged  the  line  to  the 
marshes.  The  southern  Russian  group  was  op- 
posed mainly  by  Austrian  troops;  in  the  centre 
was  an  Austro-German  army  under  German 
command. 

When  the  German  Crown  Prince  opened  his 
tremendous  assault  on  Verdun  in  February  the 
Russians  were  requested  to  attack  the  Germans 
to  relieve  the  pressure  on  the  Western  front  and 
to  prevent  the  sending  of  German  troops  to  the 
Western  theatre.  Attacks  were  consequently 
made  at  various  points.  The  main  attack  was 
made  by  two  armies  of  the  central  group  east 
of  Vilna  in  March,  feevere  fighting  followed, 
but  did  not  change  the  position  of  the  lines, 
although  the  object  was  probably  accomplished. 
While  they  were  unable  to  assume  the  offensive, 
the  Germans  had  strongly  organized  their  lines, 
as  they  desired  to  hold  all  the  territory  gained 
in  order  to  draw  from  it  supplies;  the  Allied 
blockade  had  cut  them  off  from  supplies  through 
neutral  states.  Minor  attacks  were  made  on 
this  front  during  the  year  but  without  material 
results. 

BrusilofTs  Offensive.  Brusiloff  whose  front 
extended  from  the  Pripet  Marshes  to  Rumania 
had  under  his  command  four  armies  and  was 
later  reinforced  by  a  fifth  from  the  central 


group 
Italia 


WAB  IK  EUROPE 

up.  When  called  on  in  May  to  assist  the 
Italians  by  a  counterattack  in  the  east  he  was 
ready  to  act.  At  this  time,  the  Russians  had 
on  the  east  front  about  140  divisions  of  infantry 
and  33  divisions  of  cavalry,  probably  depleted 
in  strength.  From  the  railway  junction  of 
Rovno,  then  held  by  the  Russians,  two  railways 
run  westward,  one  to  the  northwest  to  the  rail- 
way junction  of  Kovel  where  the  line  forks 
toward  Warsaw  and  Brest-Litovsk  and  the  other 
to  the  southeast  toward  Lemberg  crossing  the 
Galician  frontier  at  Brody.  It  was  along  these 
two  railways  that  Brusiloff  planned  attacks  by 
his  right  wing,  consisting  of  two  armies  with 
Kovel  and  Brody  as  objectives.  Farther  south 
one  army  was  to  attack  on  each  side  of  the 
Dniester  River. 

The  attack  began  on  May  4;  that  same  day 
the  Austrian  line  in  front  of  his  right  wing  was 
broken  and  two  days  later  the  Russians  had 
captured  Lusk,  several  miles  in  rear  of  the 
Austrian  front.  The  two  Russian  armies  now 
advanced  and  at  the  end  of  two  weeks  had  ad- 
vanced about  40  miles  on  a  front  of  80.  In  the 
meantime,  German  troops  were  sent  from  the 
north,  and  succeeded  in  checking  the  advance. 
A  fifth  Russian  army  was  now  deployed  on  the 
right  of  the  others  but  was  unable  to  make  any 
headway;  the  objective,  Kovel,  could  not  be 
reached.  The  attack  north  of  the  Dniester  was 
repulsed  and  it  was  only  in  the  latter  part  of 
July,  when  Brusiloff  captured  Brody  and  threat- 
ened the  think  of  the  Austro-German  army  on 
this  front,  that  it  fell  back  to  a  new  position 
15  miles  in  the  rear,  from  which  it  could  not  be 
dislodged.  South  of  Dniester,  the  Russians  re- 
captured Bukovina  and  advanced  as  far  as  they 
could  safely  go  while  the  Austro-Germiinft  still 
held  the  north  bank.  About  the  middle  of 
August  the  Russian  operations  ceased  on  this 
front,  as  Rumania  was  about  to  declare  war 
and  Brusiloff  was  directed  to  send  troops  to 
her  aid. 

Although  he  had  effected  no  material  change 
on  the  Eastern  front,  Brusiloff  had  caused  Aus- 
trian troops  to  be  withdrawn  from  Italy  where 
they  had  begun  an  offensive  campaign  and  thus 
permitted  the  Italians  to  go  on  with  their  own 
offensive  operations,  and  he  probably  also  en- 
couraged the  Rumanians  to  declare  war.  Had 
the  Russian  armies  in  the  north  cooperated  with 
him,  possibly  greater  results  might  have  been 
attained. 

Year  of  1917.  The  operations  on  the  Rus- 
sian front  were  greatly  influenced  by  the  politi- 
cal changes  during  the  year.  In  March  the 
reactionary  government  of  the  Czar  was  over- 
thrown and  a  provisional  government  established 
under  Kerensky.  In  November  the  Kerensky 
government  was  overthrown  and  the  Bolsheviks 
came  into  power  under  the  leadership  of  Lenine 
and  Trotsky.  For  the  details  of  the  Russian 
Revolution  see  RUSSIA,  History.  Previous  to 
the  fall  of  the  Czar's  government  there  was  an 
unsuccessful  offensive  attempted  on  the  Aa  River 
in  the  Riga  district,  the  prime  object  of  which 
was  to  relieve  the  tremendous  pressure  on  Ru- 
mania. 

Military  Operations  During  the  Kerensky 
Government.  After  the  breakdown  of  the 
Russian  offensive  on  the  Aa  River,  the  Russian 
front  was  comparatively  quiet  until  the  Rus- 
sian Revolution  was  well  under  way.  The  sit- 
uation on  the  entire  front  was  deplorable.  Dis- 
cipline had  completely  broken  down.  Generals 


WAB  IN  EUB02E 

were  appointed  and  removed  or  they  resigned. 
The  orders  issued  by  the  officers  had  to  be  ap- 
proved by  the  men  themselves.  Fraternization 
between  the  Russian  and  German  soldiers  was 
carried  on  to  a  large  extent  and  could  not  be 
checked.  The  situation  could  not  have  been 
much  worse.  As  a  result  of  this  demoralization, 
the  Germans  and  Austrians  were  able  to  re- 
move several  divisions  from  the  Russian  front 
for  use  on  other  fronts.  What  fighting  was 
done  was  spasmodic  and  of  a  local  character. 
The  Allies  looked  on  the  revolution  at  first  with 
favor  as  they  thought  it  would  result  in  a  more 
vigorous  prosecution  of  the  War  but  they  soon 
discovered  that  it  really  resulted  from  war 
weariness.  The  Kerensky  government  was  urged 
to  renew  hostilities  but  it  was  not  until  the 
middle  of  the  year  that  operations  could  be  re- 
newed. Even  then  there  was  little  hope  that 
anything  could  be  accomplished  by  the  north- 
ern armies  as  they  had  been  in  Hue  need  by 
German  propaganda  and  by  the  events  in  the 
capital. 

Brusiloff,  who  was  now  commander-in-chief, 
therefore  decided  to  assume  the  offensive  with 
his  old  armies,  now  commanded  by  Guter  on  the 
Austrian  front,  as  these  armies  had  been  less 
affected  by  the  revolution  than  those  in  the 
north.  The  northern  armies  were  to  cooperate 
in  the  general  advance  but  it  is  doubtful  if  he 
expected  much  from  them. 

The  operations  of  the  southern  armies  began 
on  July  1  and,  as  in  the  preceding  year,  the 
Russian  armies  swept  all  before  them  for  about 
two  weeks  and  advanced  about  30  miles  on  a 
front  of  100.  This  attack  compelled  German 
Headquarters  to  bring  some  of  their  best  shock 
troops  from  the  Western  front.  The  counter- 
attack of  these  troops  was  made  against  the  left 
flank  of  the  Russian  group  of  armies  July  10 
and  it  was  at  once  discovered  that  the  Russians 
were  no  longer  the  disciplined  troops  of  the 
previous  years.  The  left  army  was  routed,  and 
as  disintegration  began  in  the  other  three,  all 
the  armies  retired  across  the  frontier  and  for 
the  first  time  since  the  beginning  of  the  War 
there  were  no  Russian  troops  in  Galicia.  The 
northern  Russian  armies  made  some  isolated 
attacks  but  without  success. 

In  August,  in  the  extreme  north,  the  Germans 
captured  the  port  of  Riga  which  had  resisted  all 
their  efforts  of  the  preceding  year.  This  was 
followed  by  the  occupation  of  the  islands  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Riga  and  the  landing 
of  troops  on  the  coast  of  Esthonia  to  the  east  in 
preparation  for  an  advance  on  Petrograd  if 
necebsary.  However,  the  Kerensky  government 
was  replaced  by  that  of  the  Bolshevist  govern- 
ment in  November  and  an  armistice  was  de- 
clared between  the  new  government  and  the 
Central  Powers  early  in  December.  Military 
operations  on  the  Russian  front  now  ceased  as 
the  armistice  was  later  followed  by  the  treaty 
of  Brest-Litovsk  (see  RUSSIA). 

Military  Operations  Under  Bolshevist 
Government  Until  Nov.  11,  1918.  After 
the  Bolshevists  had  made  peace  with  the  Central 
Powers,  their  attempts  to  pacify  that  part  of 
Russia  which  remained  in  their  hands  were 
rather  unsuccessful.  A  considerable  army  of 
Czecho-Slovaks  was  roaming  around  the  central 
part  of  Russia,  attempting  to  reach  Vladivostok 
and  then  join  the  allies  in  order  to  down  their 
hereditary  enemies,  the  Austrians.  These  men 
had  deserted  from  the  forces  of  the  Central 


WAB  IK  EUBOPE 


14*6 


WAB  IN  ETJBOPE 


Powers  or  had  been  taken  prisoners  and  had 
later  fought  with  the  Russians.  After  B rest- 
Li  to  vsk  they  received  permission  to  cross  Si- 
beria. For  some  time  their  relations  with  the 
Bolsheviks  were  very  friendly,  then  Moscow  or- 
dered them  disarmed;  the  Czecho-Slovaks  re- 
sisted and  conflicts  occurred  between  them  and 
the  Soviet  forces.  The  first  battles  began  in 
May  and  continued  throughout  1918. 

When  it  became  known  that  the  treaties  of 
peace  between  Germany  on  the  one  hand  and 
Finland,  Russia,  Rumania,  and  the  Ukraine,  on 
the  other,  were  to  be  used  by  Germany  as  a 
means  for  making  these  countries  subservient 
to  Germany,  the  Allies  determined  upon  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  military  intervention  in  order 
to  try  to  save  something  from  the  chaos  that 
existed  in  Russia.  The  Allies  seized  the  region 
around  the  Murman  coast,  with  the  cities  of 
Murmansk,  Kola,  and  Kern  (July,  1918).  The 
purpose  of  this  was  primarily  to  prevent  the 
Germans  from  capturing  the  supplies  that  the 
Allies  had  landed  at  the  Arctic  terminus  to  the 
Murman  railway  completed  during  the  War. 
The  Americans  furnished  a  small  force  for  this 
expedition. 

In  July,  1918,  it  was  also  announced  that  the 
Allies  after  a  long  period  of  consultation  had 
determined  to  send  a  combined  force  of  men 
to  Vladivostok  to  aid  the  Czechs  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, and  also  to  attempt  to  break  up  the 
armed  bands  of  Austrian  and  German  prison- 
ers who  were  the  main  part  of  the  Bolshevik 
forces.  Therefore  10,000  Americans,  10,000 
Japanese,  and  smaller  numbers  of  French  and 
British  were  placed  under  the  command  of  Gen- 
eral Otani  (Japanese),  and  despatched  to  Vladi- 
vostok in  August.  Maj.-Gen.  William  S.  Graves 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  American  troops. 
For  further  details  see  SIBERIA. 

ITALIAN  FRONT 

Italy's  entrance  into  the  war  in  May,  1916, 
which  the  Allies  hoped  would  relieve  the  pres- 
sure on  Russia,  had  two  main  movements: 
( 1 )  to  the  north,  to  close  the  passes  of  the 
Alps  against  invasion;  (2)  to  the  northeast, 
to  cross  the  Isonzo  and  take  Trieste.  The 
Isonzo  line  was  reached,  but  the  operation  was 
not  completed.  An  Austrian  invasion  from 
the  north  (May,  1916)  was  checked  mainly  by 
an  opportune  Russian  drive  into  Galicia.  Af- 
ter a  successful  attack  against  Austria  the 
Italians  were  compelled  to  beat  a  precipitous 
retreat  to  the  Piave  in  1917.  From  there  they 
organized  the  blow  that  crushed  Austria  in 
1918. 

Tear  of  1915.  As  a  result  of  an  agreement 
between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Italy, 
known  as  the  Pact  of  London,  Italy  declared 
war  on  Austria,  May  23,  1915.  The  Italian 
army  on  a  peace  footing  consisted  of  12  army 
corps  or  25  infantry  divisions,  which  at  war 
strength  without  reserves  would  give  an  army 
of  about  375,000  men.  The  division  consisted 
of  two  brigades  of  infantry,  about  12,000  men, 
and  one  regiment  of  field  artillery  with  30  guns. 
Each  regiment  of  infantry  had  a  section  of  two 
machine  guns.  The  cavalry  consisted  of  29 
regiments  which  were  to  furnish  the  corps  cav- 
alry and  independent  cavalry  divisions.  Of 
heavy  artillery  there  were  four  regiments  of 
four  batteries  each,  equipped  with  6-inch  howit- 
zers which  were  to  be  assigned  to  armies.  The 
Italian  army  entered  the  campaign  with  an  in- 


sufficient equipment  of  artillery,  which  was  grad- 
ually increased  in  the  course  of  the  War. 

The  work  before  the  Italians  was  simple  in 
respect  of  conception,  difficult  in  point  of  exe- 
cution. The  configuration  of  the  frontier  at 
once  fixed  the  nature  of  the  task.  It  was  aln 
solutely  essential  to  close  the  passes  of  the  Alps 
from  Switzerland  eastward  in  order  to  protect, 
the  flank  and  rear  of  their  armies  on  the  Jsonzo 
line  and  to  prevent  invasion  of  Italy  from  the 
Trentino.  This  condition  secured,  the  task  of 
the  remainder  of  the  forces  was  to  cross  the 
Isonzo,  for  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Italy's 
material  objective  was  Trieste  with  the  Istrian 
Peninsula. 

Four  armies  took  the  field,  two  on  each  fron- 
tier, the  northern  and  eastern.  A  fifth  force, 
composed  of  Bersaglieri  and  Alpini,  was  desig- 
nated for  operations  in  the  Carnic  Alps.  Gen. 
Count  Luigi  Cadorna,  the  chief  of  the  general 
staff,  was  in  general  command,  although  the 
armies  were  under  the  nominal  leadership  of 
the  King.  On  May  24  the  frontier  of  the  Tren- 
tino was  crossed  and  two  weeks  later  the  road 
to  Verona  was  closed.  During  the  opening  days 
of  the  campaign  in  this  region  the  Austrian** 
had  opposed  but  slight  resistance  to  the  for- 
ward movement  of  the  Italians  because  of  the 
events  on  the  Eastern  front.  Farther  west  the 
Italians  closed  the  gateways  opening  southward 
into  the  valley  of  the  Tagliamento  after  severe 
lighting.  In  the  Trentino  as  a  whole  the  Ital- 
ians managed  to  get  control  of  most  of  the  roads 
leading  into  their  own  country. 

The  nature  of  events  on  the  eastern  frontier 
was  almost  wholly  determined  by  the  obstacle 
forming  the  line  of  separation  between  the  con- 
tending armies,  i.e.  the  Isonzo  River  From  its 
left  (Austrian)  bank  rises  ridge  upon  rid^e, 
whereas  the  right  bank  from  which  the  attack 
must  come,  below  Gorizia,  is  flat,  the  Friuli 
plain.  In  crossing  the  river  here,  therefore,  the 
Italians  would  be  compelled  to  fight  uphill. 
The  rectangle  Gorizia-Gradisca-Trieste-San  Dan- 
iele  is  occupied  by  the  Carso  plateau,  with  hills 
from  150  to  1700  feet  high.  This  plateau  would 
have  to  be  taken,  or  at  least  a  passage  opened 
through  it,  before  Trieste  could  be  reached.  On 
May  24,  Italian  troops  occupied  various  small 
towns  just  across  the  frontier.  Their  troubles 
began  when  they  undertook  to  cross  the  Isonzo, 
for  soon  after  reaching  it  they  found  it  in  flood. 
Their  difficulties  were  increased  by  the  failure 
of  the  cavalry  to  seize  the  bridges  at  Pieris  A 
dash  for  these  bridges  would  have  insured  a 
crossing  and  might  have  gained  possession  of  a 
part  at  least  of  the  Carso  plateau.  As  it  was, 
the  Austrians  blew  up  the  bridges  before  any 
Italians  got  across.  The  flood  subsiding  on 
June  5,  a  crossing  was  made  at  Pieris,  and 
Monfalcone  occupied.  But  now  a  fresh  obstacle 
presented  itself;  the  Austrians  flooded  the  low 
country  at  the  foot  of  the  Carso  plateau.  The 
advance  was  thus  blocked,  and  operations  along 
the  entire  line  delayed.  After  three  unsuccess- 
ful attempts  to  make  another  crossing  of  the 
river  just  above  Sagrado,  the  Italians  finally 
succeeded  on  June  24.  By  the  27th  they  had 
obtained  a  bridgehead  on  the  Isonzo  and  a  line 
of  advance  to  the  Carso  plateau.  This  formed 
part  of  a  general  struggle  over  the  whole  line 
from  Plezzo  to  the  sea.  The  conflict  was  neces- 
sarily intensified  at  certain  points,  such  as  Gori- 
zia,  Plava,  and  Tolmino. 

Gorizia  lies  in  a  bend  of  the  river,  and  is 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


1437 


WAB  IN  ETJBOPE 


dominated  by  the  hills  behind  it  stretching  away 
into  the  general  mountain  system.  On  the  west 
bank,  Monte  Sabotino,  itself  commanded  by  the 
hills  on  the  eastern  bank,  likewise  controls  the 
position ;  from  Sabotino  run  the  Podgora  heights 
well  below  (south  of)  Gorizia.  Between  Pod- 
gora and  Gorizia  is  open  ground  3  miles  wide, 
bounded  on  the  southeast  by  the  river.  Sabo- 
tino and  Podgora,  thoroughly  organized  de- 
fensively by  the  Austrians,  were  unsuccessfully 
attacked  by  the  Italians  at  the  end  of  May. 
They  were  slightly  more  successful  at  Plava 
On  the  17th  of  June,  after  heavy  fighting,  they 
gained  the  summit  of  the  hill  controlling  this 
town.  They  held  the  hill  thereafter  in  spite  of 
the  efforts  of  the  Austrians  to  win  it  back,  but 
were  unable  to  extend  their  holdings  on  the  left 
bank.  At  Tolmino  the  river  turns  !)0  degrees 
from  southeast  to  southwest.  In  the  bend  stand 
two  hills  joined  by  a  saddle,  Santa  Maria  and 
Santa  Lucia.  These  were  held  by  the  Austrians, 
and  formed  with  Sabotino  and  Podgora  the  only 
positions  retained  by  them  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Isonzo.  The  resistance  offered  at  Tolmino 
was  more  serious  than  appaiently  the  Italians 
had  expected.  Their  attempt  to  seize  it  by 
sudden  uttack  failed,  and  they  were  compelled 
to  proceed  against  the  place  by  regular  invest- 
ment. In  the  meantime  they  were  more  fortu- 
nate to  the  northwest  at  Caporetto,  which  they 
had  occupied  on  the  first  day  of  the  War.  By 
.June  23,  the  Italians  had  succeeded  in  getting 
into  positions  from  which  they  threatened  the 
Plc7zo  valley.  They  now  came  down  from  the 
1101  th  against  Tolmino.  In  August  they  at- 
tacked Santa  Lucia  and  Santa  Maria,  but  were 
compelled  to  resort  to  trench  warfare.  Later 
in  October  the  offensive  was  resumed,  without, 
however,  succeeding  in  dispossessing  the  Aus- 
tnans.  At  the  end  of  the  year  the  Italians  had 
gained  one  of  their  points.  They  had  closed 
tlie  gates  of  the  northern  frontier,  and  held  the 
keys  On  the  other  hand,  they  were  unsuccess- 
ful on  the  Carso.  A  period  of  relative  quiet 
then  prevailed. 

1916.  Austrian  Attack  in  the  Trentino. 
The  Austrian  plans  for  19 1C  contemplated  an 
attack  on  the  Italian  front  before  the  Italians 
recovered  from  their  unsuccessful  campaign  of 
1915.  Inasmuch  as  they  selected  the  Trentino 
front,  which  was  largely  mountainous,  they  were 
compelled  to  wait  until  May  before  beginning 
operations,  so  that  the  snow  would  have  a 
chance  to  melt.  During  the  winter  and  spring, 
the  Austrians  were  concentrating  troops  in 
Trent,  collecting  them  from  the  Russian  and 
Seibian  fronts  as  well  as  from  the  interior. 
The  advance  was  to  be  made  over  the  mountains 
between  Lake  Garda  in  the  west  and  the  Brenta 
River  in  the  east  In  this  section  there  were  a 
number  of  valleys  which  led  to  the  crest  of  the 
mountain  boundary  and  thence  to  the  plains  of 
Italy.  The  Austrian  forces,  which  were  concen- 
trated, however,  were  entirely  too  weak  to  ac- 
"  coinplish  the  object  set  before  them  and  did 
little  more  than  divert  interest  from  the  Isonzo 
front. 

The  front  to  be  attacked  was  held  by  the  1st 
Italian  army,  which  was  ill  prepared  for  modern 
warfare  and  which  was  led  by  an  ovei  confident 
commander,  who  had  taken  little  care  to  fortify 
his  position,  which  he  knew  for  months  was  go- 
ing to  be  attacked.  The  attack  began  in  the 
middle  of  May  and  was  preceded  bv  a  heavy 
bombardment,  which,  being  new  to  the  Italian 


troops,  had  a  very  demoralizing  effect  upon 
them.  The  result  was  a  slow  but  steady  ad- 
vance on  the  part  of  the  Austrians.  At  the 
end  of  two  weeks,  Asiago  and  Arsiero  had  been 
captured.  By  this  time  the  attack  had  ex- 
hausted itself  and  this  fact,  coupled  with  an 
attack  by  the  southern  group  of  Russian  armies, 
forced  the  Austrians  to  begin  to  recall  their 
troops.  They  fell  back  to  a  position  intermedi- 
ate oetween  their  advanced  and  original  posi- 
tions. No  serious  fighting  followed  this  with- 
drawal, as  the  Italians  returned  to  their  attacks 
on  the  Isonzo  front. 

Operations  on  the  Carso  Plateau.  While 
the  Austrian  attack  was  being  carried  on  in 
Trentino,  the  Italian  II  and  III  armies  contin- 
ued their  operations  against  the  Austrian  posi- 
tions north  and  south  of  Gorizia.  By  August 
their  work  had  produced  results  which  made  a 
huccessful  assault  feasible.  The  attack  was  de- 
livered north  and  south  of  Gorizia  on  August  (i 
It  was  preceded  by  a  bombardment  of  great  in- 
tensity. By  the  9th  the  Austrian  first  line  had 
been  broken  and  by  the  12th  they  had  been 
driven  back  3  miles  to  their  second  position. 
Gorizia  had  been  evacuated  on  the  9th.  North 
of  this  town  all  the  Austrian  positions  on  the 
heights  of  Sabotino  and  Podgora  we^t  of  the 
Isonzo  were  captured.  During  the  remainder  of 
the  year  attempts  were  made  by  the  Italians  to 
advance  farther  along  the  Carso*  plateau,  but  the 
Austrian  lines  proved  too  strong. 

1917.  Italian  Spring  and  Summer  Of- 
fensive. The  winter  on  the  Italian  front  was 
very  severe  and  of  long  duration.  The  time 
was  spent  in  increasing  the  entire  military  es- 
tablishment on  the  front  and  in  preparing  to 
meet  an  Austrian  attack  on  the  Trentino  front 
and  in  organizing  an  Italian  attack  on  the 
southern  part  of  the  battle  line.  The  plans  of 
the  Italian  General  Staff  were  as  follows:  First, 
to  engage  the  enemy  on  the  entire  front  from 
Tolmino  to  the  sea 'in  an  intense  artillery  ac- 
tion which  would  leave  him  doubtful  as  to  the 
real  direction  of  the  decisive  attacks;  then  to 
attack  along  the  Isonzo  with  the  II  and  III 
armies.  The  II  army  was  to  seize  the  heights 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Isonzo  from  Gorizia 
about  6  miles  northward,  \\hen  the  Austriana 
concentrated  here  the  III  army  was  again  to 
press  forward  in  the  main  attack  along  the 
Carso  plateau  in  the  south. 

Operations  were  begun  on  May  12,  and  on  May 
14,  the  infantry  advanced  from  Plava  and  Gori- 
zia. On  the  entire  front  the  Austrians  pre- 
sented stubborn  and  determined  resistance.  The 
first  phase  of  the  assault  lasted  until  May  22, 
by  which  time  the  Italians  had  captured  the 
Austrian  first  line.  The  Austrian  second  line, 
however,  was  on  heights  which  overlooked  and 
dominated  the  first  line.  In  order  to  create  a 
diversion  the  Aiistiians  unsuccessfully  attacked 
in  the  Trentino  region,  May  19  to  22. 

On  May  23  the  Italian  infantry  began  the 
second  phase  of  the  battle.  After  tremendous 
artillery  preparation,  it  attacked  on  the  south 
edge  of  the  Carso  plateau  from  Castagnavizza 
to  the  sea.  Over  100  aeroplanes  aided  in  thh 
battle.  On  the  next  day  the  battle  was  resumed 
and  extended  from  Gorizia  to  the  sea.  Allied 
monitors  bombarded  the  extremity  of  the  Aus- 
trian lines  with  heavy  naval  guns.  The  Ital- 
ians advanced  in  the  face  of  exceedingly  stub- 
born resistance — counterattacks,  violent  shell- 
ing, and  aerial  bombardments  from  machines 


WAR  IS  EUROPE 


14*8 


WAR  IN  EUROPE 


flying  near  the  ground.  The  Italians  advanced 
their  lines  about  2  miles,  but  had  not  accom- 
plished all  that  was  expected,  inasmuch  as  the 
key  position  was  2  miles  farther  on  from  the 
new  Italian  front  line. 

The  Austrians,  on  June  1,  began  an  offensive 
which  compelled  the  Italians  to  retire  somewhat 
from  their  newly-won  positions.  On  account  of 
conditions  in  Russia  they  were  able  to  bring  up 
great  quantities  of  men  and  material  from  the 
Eastern  front  On  June  3,  a  general  attack 
from  Mount  San  Marco  to  the  sea  was  begun 
and  lasted  with  unabated  intensity  for  three 
days.  It  was  at  first  successful,  'driving  the 
Italians  back  about  1V4  miles.  A  counteras- 
sanlt  by  General  Cadorna  in  the  Trentino  com- 
pelled the  Austrians  to  give  up  this  offensive, 
which  was  supposed  to  neutralize  the  Italian 
gains  in  the  latter  part  of  May.  During  July 
und  the  first  part  of  August  the  opposing  forces 
battled  back  and  forth  in  an  attempt  to  get  ad- 
vantageous positions.  On  the  night  of  August 
18,  the  Italians  began  a  spectacular  offensive 
from  Tolmino  to  the  sea,  a  front  of  approxi- 
mately 37  miles.  The  attack  was  made  by  the 
IT  army,  under  General  Cappello,  which  oper- 
ated on  the  Bainsizza  plateau,  Monte  Santo, 
and  Monte  San  Gabriele,  and  the  III  army  un- 
der the  Duke  of  Aosta,  which  operated  in  the 
Vippacco  and  Brestoviz/a  valleys,  and  in  front 
of  Mount  Hermnda,  the  keypoint  to  the  Carso 
plateau.  These  armies  were  aided  by  Italian 
and  British  monitors  in  the  Gulf  of  Trieste. 

The  Italians  paved  the  way  for  their  advance 
by  a  great  engineering  feat.  *  They  had  diverted 
the  course  of  the  waters  of  the  Isonzo  River 
from  its  bed  above  Anhovo  and  had  built  bi  idges 
across  the  shallow  stream  that  remained.  This 
work  was  done  at  night  and  at  daylight  the 
stream  was  redivertcd  to  its  regular  channel. 
By  means  of  these  bridges  and  some  pontoon 
bridges  hastily  constructed,  the  Italians  crossed 
the  river  on  the  18th  and  gained  a  foothold  on 
the  northern  part  of  the  Bainsizza  plateau  At 
the  same  time  Cappello's  right  wing  began  to 
envelop  Monte  Santo.  Those  two  movements 
compelled  the  Austrians  to  retire  to  the  eastern- 
most edge  of  the  Bainsizza  plateau.  From  the 
nature  of  the  Austrian  defenses,  it  was  quite 
apparent  that  the  Austrian  Staff  thought  this 
plateau  impregnable  On  August  24,  the  Ital- 
ians occupied  the  summit  of  Monte  Santo,  2240 
feet  high,  but  attempts  to  reach  the  summit  of 
Monte  San  Daniele  were  futile. 

The  Duke  of  Aosta  had  been  busy  in  the  south 
in  the  meanwhile  His  object  was  to  surround 
the  Hermada  Mountains,  which  were  the  key  to 
1he  Carso  plateau  and  Trieste,  and  to  occupy  the 
Vippacco  valley.  He  was  unable  to  break 
through  the  Hermada  Mountains,  however,  and 
.spent  the  entire  month  in  fruitless  efforts 

At  the  end  of  September,  General  Cadorna  re- 
ported to  his  allies  that  his  offensive  of  1017 
was  ended.  In  the  attacks  north  and  south  of 
Gorizia  his  losses  in  killed,  wounded,  and  miss- 
ing were  350,000;  with  losses  due  to  sickness, 
his  casualties  were  about  700,000.  The  II  army 
especially  suffered  from  the  latter  cause.  It  is 
probable  that  the  Austrian  losses  were  about  as 
great,  as  they  appealed  to  the  German  G.  II.  0. 
for  assistance 

Austro-German  Counterattack  and  Italian 
Retreat.  As  has  been  described  above,  the 
main  Italian  army  was  striking  on  a  compara- 
tively limited  front  on  the  Bainsizza  plateau. 


This  attacking  force  was  composed  of  seasoned 
veterans.  The  armies  protecting  its  flanks  were 
of  unequal  strength  and  were  used  for  different 
purposes.  Those  on  the  upper  Isonzo  were  Ter- 
ritorials, i.e.  older  men  who  in  peace  times  are 
held  in  reserve  They  extended  from  Tolmino  to 
Plezzo  and  were  to  protect  the  flank  of  the  Bain- 
sizza army.  The  troops  on  the  lower  Isonzo 
were  veterans,  who  were  thrusting  forward  on 
the  Cargo  plateau  pari  paaau  with  the  troops  on 
the  Bainsizza  and  who  were  ultimately  to  march 
on  Trieste 

The  German  General  Staff  had  been  receiving 
calls  for  help  for  some  time  and  at  last  gave 
heed  to  them,  sending  the  XIV  Germany  army, 
consisting  of  six  or  seven  divisions  The  strn't- 
egy  of  the  Austro-German  plan  was  to  strike 
at  the  unseasoned  troops  on  the  upper  leonzo, 
break  through,  and  then  cut  the  lines  of  com- 
munications of  the  other  two  armies  by  out- 
flanking them.  This  plan  was  put  into  opera- 
tion and  worked  exceedingly  well.  The  task 
was  made  easier  by  the  collapse  of  Russia,  a 
superiority  of  artillery,  surprise,  socialistic 
propaganda,  and  cowardice,  which  General  Ca- 
dorna claimed  was  exhibited  by  his  troops  on 
the  upper  Isonzo. 

The  battle  began  on  October  24,  with  a  bom- 
bardment of  the  Plezzo-Tolmino  front  and  the 
northern  flank  of  the  BainsUza  plateau  Under 
cover  of  these  guns  the  Germans  and  Austriaus 
broke  through  the  front  line  trenches  at  Pltvzo 
and  Tolmino  and  crossed  to  the  western  bank  of 
the  Jsonzo.  Converging  from  these  points  on 
Caporetto,  the  Germans  opened  the  way  down 
the  valleys  of  the  Natisone  and  Judrio "Rivers. 
This  move  threatened  the  rear  of  the  Bainsisza 
and  Carso  armies,  and  compelled  them  to  begin 
a  hasty  retreat.  The  retreat  from  the  plateau 
through  Gorizia  across  hastily  constructed 
bridges  over  the  Isonzo  became  a*  rout.  On  the 
28th,  Civadale  was  taken,  which  opened  up  rail- 
way communication  with  Udine,  the  seat  of  the 
Italian  Headquarters.  This  advance  also  com- 
pelled the  IV  Italian  army,  which  was  guarding 
the  frontier  in  the  Carnic  Alps,  to  abandon  the 
passes  on  the  frontier  and  retreat  down  the 
streams  flowing  into  the  Tagliamento  and  Piavo 
Rivers.  On  October  30,  Udine  fell,  and  by  No- 
vember 1,  the  Austro-German  forces  had  reached 
the  Tagliamento  River,  which  they  crossed  in 
scores  of  places  after  a  slight  pause  The  Ital- 
ian II  army  was  no  longer  a  fighting  unit.  The 
next  river  "flowing  into  the  Gulf  of  Trieste  was 
the  Livenza.  This  offered  very  little  chance  of 
resistance  and  was  defended  merely  to  give  more 
time  to  prepare  the  line  of  the  Piave  River, 
from  10  to  20  miles  farther  west  French  and 
British  infantry  and  heavy  artillery,  which  were 
sorely  needed,  were  arriving  daily  in  ever- 
increasing  numbers,  and  being  sent  to  the  crit- 
ical points.  The  French  sent  six  divisions  arid 
the  British  five.  At  this  stage  a  change  in 
command  was  made.  General  Cadorna  was  sue* 
ceeded  by  General  Diaz,  who  was  to  be  assisted  • 
by  Generals  Badoglio  and  Giardino.  Cadorna 
was  assigned  to  the  Supreme  War  Council,  which 
was  organized  largely  as  a  result  of  the  Italian 
disaster  (see  above).  Reserves  were  held  on 
the  Adige  line  in  cage  the  Italians  were  unable 
to  hold  the  Piave.  The  Adige  line  was  very 
strong  naturally,  and  was  practically  incapable 
of  a  flanking  movement  such  as  hud  won  all 
the  rivers  so  far  gained 
The  line  eventually  taken  by  the  Italians  ran 


WAE  IN  EUROPE 


1429 


W AB  IK  ETJBOPE 


along  the  Piave  River  from  the  Adriatic  to 
the  foothills  of  the  mountains,  thence  westward 
across  the  Mount  Grappa  group  of  mountains  to 
the  Brenta  River  where  it  connected  with  the 
lines  of  the  I  Italian  army,  which  prolonged  the 
line  across  the  Asiago  plateau  and  through  the 
mountains  to  Lake  Garda.  The  IV  Italian 
army  held  the  line  between  the  two  rivers, 
while  the  III  held  the  line  along  the  Piave.  The 
Austro-German  attack  had  by  this  time  ex- 
hausted itself  and  neither  the  X  or  XT  Austrian 
armies  in  the  north  nor  the  German  and  Aus- 
trian Isonzo  armies  were  able  to  make  any  im- 
pression on  the  new  line.  During  December, 
therefore,  the  German  divisions  were  withdrawn. 
The  Austro-Germans  had  taken  almost  4000 
square  miles  of  territory,  .300,000  prisoners,  and 
2700  guns.  The  winter  months,  which  were  very 
severe,  were  spent  by  the  Italians,  with  the 
aid  of  the  British  and  French,  in  strengthening 
the  Piave  line,  particularly  at  its  weakest  point, 
in  the  mountains. 

1018.  The  Austrian  Failure.  The  long 
looked  for  offensive  on  the  Italian  front,  which 
was  expected  to  finish  the  work  of  1917,  devel- 
oped in  June,  11)18,  and  extended  along  the 
whole  front  from  the  Asiago  plateau  to  the  sea, 
nearly  100  miles.  The  Austrian  plan  of  attack 
was  as  follows:  Field  Marshal  von  Iloetzen- 
dorf  was  to  break  through  the  Allied  positions 
on  the  Asiago  plateau,  and  at  Monte  Grappa 
and  Monte  Tomba,  and  then  march  down  the 
Brenta  valley,  and  debouch  on  to  the  plains  by 
way  of  Bassano.  In  conjunction  with  Hoctzen- 
dorf,  General  Borovic  was  to  cross  the  Piave  be- 
tween Montello  and  the  upper  stretches  of  the 
Piave  delta,  and  thus  outflank  Venice  and  leave 
it  the  alternative  of  surrender  or  destruction. 
The  capture  of  Montello  would  assure  the  Aus- 
trian domination  of  several  important  railway 
centres  and  possibly  cause  a  huge  disaster.  The 
offensive  was  \\ell  planned  and  everything  was 
done  to  insure  its  success.  The  Austrians  were 
well  supplied  with  gas  shells,  smoke  shells, 
rafts,  pontoons,  and  every  other  means  of  carry- 
ing on  modern  warfare.  From  the  outset,  the 
ai tempts  to  reach  the  manufacturing  heart  of 
Italy  were  doomed  to  failure.  In  the  mountain 
region  the  opening  attack  took  the  first  line 
licnchcs  from  the  British  and  French  defenders. 
Less  than  two  days  later,  the  Allies,  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet,  had  recovered  all  the 
ground  lost  and  some  more  besides. 

The  Austrians  were  little  more  successful 
along  the  Piave.  Their  success  was  largely  due 
to  the  effective  use  of  "tear"  shells  and  smoke 
screens.  They  crossed  the  Piave  at  several 
places  and,  by  the  16th,  they  reached  Fossalta 
and  threatened  to  cross  the  canal  of  the  same 
name,  which  branches  off  from  the  Piave  at  Fos- 
sa! ta  and  extends  to  Porte  Grand.  Nature  now 
came  to  the  aid  of  the  Italians,  in  the  form 
of  exceedingly  heavy  rainstorms,  which  made 
the  Piave  a  swollen  flood.  This  had  two  eiiects: 
first,  by  washing  away  nearly  all  the  bridges, 
it  cut  off  almost  completely  the  Austrians  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  river;  and  second,  it 
enabled  Italian  naval  monitors  of  light  draft 
to  go  up  the  river  and  heavily  bombard  the 
Austro-Hungarian  positions.  On  June  23,  the 
Italians  began  an  offensive  all  along  the  western 
bank  against  the  isolated  Austrian  positions. 
By  the  first  week  in  July,  not  only  had  the  Al- 
lies driven  the  enemy  back  to  its  old  positions, 
but  in  some  cases  had  captured  ground  that 


had  been  lost  in  1017,  notably  the  delta  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Piave.  The  offensive  and  counter- 
offensive  had  now  exhausted  themselves  and 
General  Diaz  held  the  line  of  the  Piave  until 
ordered  by  Foch  to  open  an  offensive. 

Complete  Collapse  of  Austria-Hungary. 
Austria-Hungary  was  the  third  member  of  the 
Central  Alliance  to  make  a  separate  peace  with 
the  Allies  (see  below).  An  armistice  amount- 
ing to  unconditional  surrender  was  signed  on 
November  3,  after  Italy  and  her  Allies  had  se- 
cured one  of  the  most  decisive  victories  of  the 
War  in  which  63  Austrian  divisions  were  utterly 
routed  by  fil  Italian  divisions,  3  British,  2 
French,  and  1  Czecho-Rlovak  division,  and  the 
332d  American  infantry  regiment.  On  Novem- 
ber 4,  the  Italian  War  Office  reported  "The 
Austro-Hungarian  Army  is  destroyed.  It  suf- 
fered heavy  losses  in  the  fierce  resistance  of  the 
first  days  of  the  struggle,  and  in  pursuit  it  has 
lost  an  immense  quantity  of  material  of  all 
kinds,  nearly  all  its  stores  and  depots,  and  has 
left  in  our  hands  about  300,000  prisoners,  with 
their  commands  complete,  and  not  less  than  500 
guns." 

The  main  attack  was  made  on  October  24, 
when  the  Italians  and  their  allies  began  a  heavy 
artillery  fire  in  the  mountainous  regions  around 
the  Asiago  plateau  and  Monte  Grappa.  The 
first  Italian  infantry  assault  forced  a  passage 
of  the  Ornic  River  and  captured  Monte  Salarole, 
and  parts  of  Mounts  Prossolan  and  Pertica.  By 
the  28th  the  allied  armies  had  forced  their 
way  across  the  Piave  and  were  driving  the  en- 
emy precipitously  before  them,  with  cavalry 
units  well  in  advance  of  the  infantry.  The 
Austro-Hurigarians  were  in  a  disorderly  rout 
and  made  absolutely  no  attempt  to  carry  along 
or  destroy  their  munitions  and  supplies.  Vit- 
torio  was  reached  on  the  30th,  and  on  the  next 
day  Italian  foiccs  reached  Ponte  nelle  Alpi, 
which  separated  the  Austrian  army  in  the 
mountains  from  that  along  the  Piave.  The 
capture  of  the  Vadal  Pass  on  the  same  day 
penned  I.')  Austrian  divisions  between  the  Brenta 
and  Piave  Hivers. 

By  November  1,  four  armies  had  reached  the 
Livenza  and  cavalry  outposts  had  operated  al- 
most to  the  Tagliamento.  On  the  2d,  the  Ital- 
ians had  advanced  in  the  Trentino  as  far  as  the 
Hugana  valley  and  by  the  next  day,  when  the 
armistice  was  signed,  Roverato  and  Trent  were 
occupied.  Italian  and  British  cavalry  also  had 
entered  Udine  and  had  overrun  the  plains  sur- 
rounding it.  On  the  lost  day  of  the  fighting, 
Italian  land  and  sea  forces  had  occupied  the 
great  Austrian  naval  base  and  seaport  at  Trieste. 
On  October  31,  Austria-Hungary  sued  for  an 
armistice.  Terms  were  handed  to  her  on  the 
next  day,  which  were  accepted.  They  went  into 
effect  on  November  4.  The  more  important 
clauses  provided  briefly  for  the  demobilization  of 
the  Austro-Hungarian  Army  on  all  fronts,  the 
evacuation  of  all  occupied  territory,  wherever 
hold  by  Austro-Hungarian  troops,  repatriation 
of  Allied  prisoners  of  war,  and  the  occupation  of 
any  strategical  points  in  Austria-Hungary  by 
the  Allies  that  they  desired. 

BALKAN   FRONT 

Serbia,  Bulgaria,  Saloniki.  War  was  de- 
clared by  Austria  on  Serbia  June  28,  1914, 
and  at  once  Austrian  forces  began  to  con- 
centrate on  the  Serbian  frontier.  Serbia  began 


WAB  IN 

her  mobilization  two  days  before  Austria  de- 
clared war.  The  Austrian  plan  was  to  invade 
the  northwest  corner  of  Serbia;  one  corps  was 
to  cross  the  Save  River  at  Shabatz  and  three 
were  to  cross  the  Drina  River  from  Bosnia. 
Accordingly,  after  demonstrations  on  the  Dan- 
ube, on  August  12,  she  sent  her  first  troops  over 
at  Losnitza  on  the  Drina  and  on  the  same  day 
she  crossed  the  Save  near  Shabatz.  Other 
troops  crossed  the  Drina  at  Zvornik  and  Lin- 
bo  via.  The  direct  objective  of  the  Austrians 
was  to  reach  Valievo,  and  thence  Kraguyvats, 
the  site  of  the  national  Serbian  arsenal.  The 
commanding  generals  of  the  respective  sides  were 
Potiorek  (Austrian)  and  Putnik  (Serbian). 

The  line  of  the  Austrian  invasion  being 
known,  the  bulk  of  the  Serbians  moved  to  meet 
it  in  the  direction  of  the  Jadar  valley,  while 
sending  troops  to  the  northwest  to  offset  the 
invasion  from  Shabatz.  In  the  meantime  the 
Austrians  moved  up  the  Jadar,  and  the  Serbians 
intrenched  at  Jarebitze,  across  the  valley.  The 
battle  opened  in  earnest  August  16,  on  the  Ser- 
bian right.  The  action,  lasting  all  day,  resulted 
in  the  defeat  of  the  Austrians,  and  in  bring- 
ing to  naught  their  plan  to  join  their  forces 
on  the  Jadar.  It  also  left  the  Serbians  free  to 
operate  against  Shabatz,  which  they  entered  on 
the  14th  While  this  operation  was  going  on, 
the  Austrians  farther  south  had  been  retreating 
to  the  Drina,  and  the  Austrian  invasion  had 
failed,  due  to  over  confidence  and  exposing  their 
columns  to  separate  attacks  by  the  Serbians 
who  were  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
country. 

On  September  1,  the  Serbs  invaded  Syrmia,  a 
province  lying  between  the  Save  and  the*  Danube. 
On  the  whole  this  step  was  ill-advised,  and  in 
any  case  of  short  duration,  for  now  the  Aus- 
triana  were  about  to  launch  another  invasion, 
like  the  first,  from  the  line  of  the  Drina,  under 
the  same  general. 

After  six  weeks  of  position  fighting  the  Serbs 
retreated,  abandoning  the  Matchva  and  the  Tzer. 
On  November  1,  the  Austrians  again  invaded 
Serbia  from  the  same  frontier  with  two  armies 
composed  of  four  active  corps  and  reserve  divi- 
sions. Valievo  was  entered  on  the  llth.  The 
Serbs  now  took  up  a  position  down  the  Kolu- 
bara  River  to  the  Lyg,  up  which  their  line 
turned  to  the  southeast;  the  heights  south  of 
this  position  were  occupied  and  protected  by 
earthworks.  On  the  llth,  the  Austrians  at- 
tacked towards  Lazorevatz,  and  moved  against 
a  detached  force  20  miles  southwest  guarding 
the  valley  of  the  western  Morava.  On  Novem- 
ber 20,  the  first  of  these  attacks  proved  suc- 
cessful and  drove  in  the  Serb  centre.  By  the 
24th,  the  action  had  extended  over  the  whole 
front  with  continued  success  falling  to  the  Aus- 
trians. They  had  now  succeeded  in  extending 
their  front  to  Belgrade,  which  they  entered 
December  1,  and  thus  had  cut  the  region  in 
two,  driving  back  the  Serbs  in  the  direction  of 
Kraguyevats,  on  a  line  from  the  Belgrade  rail- 
way to  the  western  Morava.  The  situation  was 
now  saved  to  the  Serbs  by  the  resumption  of 
the  offensive.  On  December  2  they  attacked, 
and  in  the  next  few  days  drove  back  the  Aus- 
trians right  and  centre  to  Valievo.  The  ad- 
vance was  equally  successful  in  the  other  sec- 
tors. Its  result  was  an  interposition  between 
the  three  Austrian  corps  in  the  south  and  the 
two  farther  north.  The  three  southerly  corpH 
retreated  as  well  as  they  could  on  the  frontier. 


WAB  IN  81 

The  action  now  turned  towards  Belgrade, 
towards  which  the  Austrian s  were  steadily 
driven  back.  The  evacuation  of  the  capital  oc- 
curred on  December  14  and  15. 

It  is  difficult  to  understand  the  object  of 
Austria's  operations  in  Serbia  during  1014  when 
she  needed  all  her  troops  on  the  Russian  front. 
It  was  highly  improbable  that  the  Serbian* 
would  cross  the  Danube  and  an  invasion  of  the 
mountainous  provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Her/e- 
govina  could  have  been  easily  defeated  by  the 
local  corps  stationed  there.  It  was  to  her  in- 
terest to  remain  on  the  defensive  on  this  front. 

1915.  Bulgaria.  In  October,  1915,  Serhi.i 
was  once  more  called  upon  to  defend  her  terri- 
tory, for  Bulgaria  had  finally  decided  to  cast  in 
her  lot  with  the  Central  Powers  (see  BULGARIA). 
Accordingly  her  armies  crossed  the  Serbian 
frontier  towards  Nish,  striking  in  conjunction 
with  the  Austro-German  forces  which  had  al- 
ready begun  their  invasion  from  the  nortn  under 
the  leadership  of  Von  Mackensen.  Meanwhile 
French  and  British  troops,  under  an  arrange- 
ment with  Venizelos,  the  prime  minister  of 
Greece,  debarked  at  Saloniki,  and  were  hasten- 
ing up  along  the  Saloniki-Nish  railroad.  In  the 
first  week  of  October  the  Austro-German  army 
crossed  the  Danube  near  Belgrade  and  at  Sernen- 
dria,  while  other  armies  attacked  farther  west 
along  the  Drina  and  Save  Rivers.  Bulgaria's 
first  operations  were  directed  towards  Nish ;  but 
realizing  the  danger  of  the  arrival  of  Allied 
reinforcements  at  Saloniki,  the  Bulgarians  then 
developed  their  main  attacks  farther  south 
against  the  railroad  at  Vranya  and  Vilandovo. 
The  advance  of  the  Austro-German  columns  was 
at  first  slow,  for  by  the  end  of  October  they 
had  gained,  advancing  on  a  100-mile  front,  only 
from  25  to  40  miles  south  of  Belgrade.  In  the 
south,  however,  the  Bulgarians  having  seized 
the  Nish-Saloniki  railway  at  Vranya,  promptly 
confirmed  their  grip  on  the  enemy's  line  of  sup- 
plies by  taking  the  important  city  of  Uskub 
( October  22 ) ,  and  Veles,  25  miles  farther  south 

The  Germans  took  the  Serbian  arsenal  at 
Kraguyvats  during  the  second  week  in  Novem- 
ber. In  the  meantime,  the  other  Austro-German 
columns  had  reached  the  east  and  west  line  of 
the  Western  Morava  before  the  middle  of  the 
month.  The  fall  of  Nish  was  not  long  delayed, 
upon  a  heavy  bombardment  by  the  Bulgars.  A 
route  to  Constantinople  had  already  been  opened 
via  the  Danube,  when  Germans  and  Bulgars 
joined  hands  near  Orsova. 

Meanwhile  the  Anglo-French  forces  from  Sa- 
loniki held  the  railroad  from  Krivolak  south  to 
the  frontier,  and  had  gained  some  successes 
against  the  Bulgars  around  Strumnitza.  The 
French  were  scarcely  able  to  maintain  their 
position  on  the  Vardar  and  Cerna  Rivers,  and 
the  small  British  force  was  but  little  in  evidence 
north  of  Doiran. 

The  remaining  strokes  in  Serbia's  defeat  fol- 
lowed quickly.  Sienitza,  Novibazar,  and  Mitro- 
vitza  (the  last  the  temporary  Serb  capital)  fell 
in  rapid  succession  before  the  Austro-German 
columns.  Teutonic  and  Bulgarian  invading 
forces  joined  hands  at  Prishtina,  on  the  railroad 
branch  south  of  Mitrovitza.  On  November  30, 
the  two  remaining  cities  of  importance,  Pris- 
rend  and  Monastir,  were  lost  to  Serbia.  The 
fugitive  Serb  army  was  driven  either  into  Monte- 
negro or  Albania.  At  the  beginning  of  Decem- 
ber, the  main  object  of  the  German -Bulgar 
campaign  in  Serbia  had  been  achieved,  The 


WAB  IK  EUBOPE 


1431 


WAB  IN  EUBOPE 


Serbian  army  had  been  eliminated  as  a  fighting 
force  and  the  surviving  Serb  troops,  fewer  than 
100,000  men,  had  retreated  into  Montenegro 
and  Albania  en  route  for  the  Adriatic  shores. 

The  retreat  of  the  Serbs  from  Katchanik  left 
the  French  left  flank,  on  the  Cerna  River,  in  a 
critical  position.  The  retreat  of  the  Allies,  how- 
ever, was  skillfully  conducted,  and  they  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping  to  neutral  territory,  where 
they  fortified  themselves  at  Saloniki,  with  the 
intention  of  holding  their  position  at  all  costs 
and  using  it  as  a  base  for  future  operations. 

Year  of  1916.  Montenegro  was  conquered 
by  the  Austrians  in  January,  1916.  The  Aus- 
trians  then  proceeded  to  take  Scutari  in  Al- 
bania (Jan.  26,  1916),  and  joined  hands  with 
the  Bulgars,  east  of  Durazzo,  February  17.  The 
Italians  abandoned  the  place  February  26,  and 
the  Austrians  now  advanced  against  Avlona. 
The  remnant  of  the  Serbian  army  was  trans- 
ported by  the  Allies  from  the  Albanian  coast  to 
the  island  of  Corfu  to  undergo  reorganization. 
After  a  few  months'  rest  the  refitted  army  was 
taken  to  Saloniki  to  reinforce  the  French  and 
British. 

When  Rumania  decided  to  enter  the  War  on 
the  side  of  the  Allies  (see  below)  one  of  her 
terms  wan  that  the  Allies  should  begin  an  offen- 
sive from  Saloniki  to  prevent  Bulgaria  from  tak- 
ing part  in  the  operations  against  her.  About 
the  first  of  August,  therefore,  General  Sarrail 
was  made  commandor-in-chief  of  the  Allied 
forces  and  began  operations  in  the  centre 
against  the  Bulgarians  on  his  front.  The  Bul- 
garians replied  by  invading  Greece  and  occupy- 
ing the  line  of  the  Struma  River  and  the  for- 
tress of  Kavala  on  the  coast  of  Macedonia  and 
the  town  of  Fiorina  west  to  Lake  Ostrovo. 
Sarrail,  not  being  able  to  advance  in  the  centre, 
transferred  his  offensive  to  the  west  and  the 
French  and  Serbs  c-aptured  Fiorina  and  advanced 
into  Serbia,  capturing  Monastir  about  the  end 
of  November.  This  campaign  was  of  little  as- 
sistance to  the  Rumanians.  The  failure  of 
Greece  to  declare  war  on  Bulgaria  after  the  in- 
vasion of  the  country  led  to  the  establishment 
of  the  Greek  revolutionary  government  under 
Venizelos  at  Saloniki  and  on  some  of  the  Greek 
islands. 

Year  of  1917.  No  events  of  any  importance 
occurred  on  this  front  during  this  year.  Gen- 
eral Sarrail  began  an  offensive  in  the  spring  but 
gave  it  up  very  shortly,  accomplishing  nothing. 
King  Constantino  was  forced  to  leave  the  coun- 
try and  one  of  his  sons  was  placed  on  the  throne 
by  the  Allies  in  the  course  of  the  year  (see 
GREECE).  Greece  declared  war  on  the  Central 
Powers  and  the  Greek  army  was  organized  and 
trained  to  aid  the  Allies. 

1918.  Surrender  of  Bulgaria.  The  Bul- 
garians were  very  much  dissatisfied  with  the 
terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest  and  resented 
the  action  of  the  German  and  Austrian  govern- 
ments, which  had  dictated  the  terms.  Of  the 
Bulgarian  army  at  this  time,  Ludendorff  says: 
"The  Bulgarian  army  had  time  for  rest  and 
training.  But  it  could  not  be  denied  that  since 
March  its  spirit  had  visibly  deteriorated,  owing 
to  bad  food  and  clothing.  The  irritation  against 
Germany  was  cleverly  fomented  by  hostile  propa- 
ganda and  by  Bulgarians  who  favored  the  En- 
tente. The  peace  of  Bucharest  and  the  with- 
drawal of  a  few  German  units  to  the  west 
added  fresh  fuel  to  it." 

Bulgaria  w%a  the  first  of  the  Central  Powers 


to  surrender  to  Allied  arms.  This  act  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  end  of  the  great  War. 
Bulgaria's  surrender  was  the  direct  result  of  a 
brilliant  offensive  carried  out  by  the  Allies  un- 
der the  supreme  leadership  of  Gen.  Franchet 
d'Esperey,  who  assumed  command  of  the  Salon- 
iki front  in  June,  1918.  The  artillery  prepara- 
tions began  on  Sept.  14,  1918,  and  on  the 
17th  and  18th  the  Allied  right  started  to  ad- 
vance, as  well  as  the  centre.  British  and  Greek 
troops  struck  around  Lake  Doiran,  on  the  right 
of  the  Macedonian  front;  French  and  Serbian 
troops  struck  in  the  centre,  and  Italians  struck 
on  the  left  rear  and  in  Albania.  By  September 
22,  the  Serbians  had  succeeded  in  cutting  the 
communications  of  the  I  Bulgarian  army,  oper- 
ating along  the  Vardar,  and  those  of  the  II 
army  and  the  Germans  north  of  Monastir.  This 
day  saw  a  general  pursuit  of  the  armies  of  the 
Central  Powers  on  a  90-mile  front.  On  the 
23d,  the  Serbians  and  French  crossed  the  Var- 
dar. On  the  24th  French  cavalry  entered  Pri- 
lep.  The  British  entered  Strumnitza  on  the 
26th,  and  the  Serbians  reached  Kochana  and 
Veles.  The  road  to  Sofia  was  opened  to  the  vic- 
torious Allies.  Consequently  the  Bulgarians 
sued  for  a  separate  armistice.  One  containing 
terms  of  unconditional  surrender  was  granted 
on  the  30th,  when  active  fighting  ceased.  The 
last  act  of  the  fighting  was  the  occupation  of 
Uskub  by  the  French  on  the  30th. 

A  brief  summary  of  the  armistice  terms,  which 
were  purely  military,  are  as  follows:  Bulgaria 
was  to  evacuate  all  Allied  territory,  demobilize 
her  army  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  turn  over 
to  the  Allies  all  means  of  transport.  The  Al- 
lies were  to  be  allowed  to  pass  through  Bul- 
garia if  necessary  to  future  military  opera- 
tions; control  of  the  Danube  and  Bulgarian 
merchant  marine  on  that  river  was  to  be  given 
up;  all  important  strategic  points  to  be  oc- 
cupied by  the  Allies  if  they  wished;  the  armis- 
tice was  to  remain  in  force  until  a  general 
peace  was  concluded. 

Interest  in  the  Balkans  after  the  signing  of 
the  armistice  centred  in  the  driving  out  of 
Austrian  troops  from  Albania,  Serbia,  and 
Montenegro.  On  October  1,  the  Bulgarians  be- 
gan to  evacuate  Serbian  territory,  and  two  days 
later  the  Austrians  began  the  evacuation  of  Al- 
bania. By  the  end  of  the  month  they  were  well 
out  of  Montenegro  also.  On  November  3,  Bel- 
grade was  reoccupied  and  the  II  Serbian  army 
crossed  the  Danube  and  Save  Rivers,  and  on  tho 
10th  entered  Sarajevo,  the  Bosnian  capital  and 
scene  of  the  assassination  of  the  Archduke 
Francis  Ferdinand  and  his  wife  on  June  28,  1914. 

RUMANIAN   FRONT 

As  has  been  stated  above,  the  question  of  Ru- 
mania's entrance  into  the  War  was  settled  on 
Aug.  27,  1916.  Her  period  of  neutrality  was 
greatly  affected  by  events  on  the  Russian  and 
Dardanelles'  fronts.  The  failure  of  the  Galli- 
poli  campaign,  the  Russian  retreat,  and  the  in- 
vasion of  Serbia  kept  her  out  of  the  War  in 
1915.  After  Brusiloff's  successful  advance  in 
June,  1916,  Rumania  determined  to  enter  the 
War  on  the  side  of  the  Allies.  She  frankly  ad- 
mitted that  her  action  was  influenced  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  thought  that  the  time  was  ripe 
to  put  into  effect  her  nationalist  policies.  She 
made  the  following  demands  upon  the  Allies  be- 
fore she  took  the  decisive  step:  Brusiloff  was  to 
keep  up  his  offensive,  the  Saloniki  army  was  to 


WAR  IN  ETJBOPE 

attack,  certain  concessions  of  territory  were  to 
be  made  to  her,  and  she  was  to  be  supplied 
with  ammunition,  etc.  These  demands  being 
promised,  Rumania  declared  war.  Her  reliance 
on  the  Allies  was  too  great,  however.  Her  chief 
weakness  was  lack  of  ammunition.  As  this 
could  be  supplied  only  through  Russia,  it  was 
inevitable  that  Rumania  should  go  short,  be- 
cause Russia  had  scarcely  enough  for  herself, 
in  the  first  ^lace,  and  in  the  second,  the  Rus- 
sian Revolution  soon  put  Russia  out  of  the 
War.  This  new  force  added  about  500,000 
trained  men  to  the  Allied  cause.  Including  the 
reserves,  900,000  men  could  be  put  into  the 
field. 

The  territory  of  Rumania  forms  a  great  let- 
ter Y.  The  base  is  formed  of  the  province  of 
Dobrudja,  which  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 
Bulgaria,  on  the  east  by  the  Blac-k  Sea  and  on 
the  north  and  west  bv  the  Danube.  The  two 
arms  are  formed  by  the  province  of  Moldavia, 
which  extends  northward  between  the  Truth 
River  and  the  Carpathian  range  of  mountains; 
and  the  province  of  Wallachia,  which  extends 
westward  between  the  Danube  and  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  Alps.  The  two  mountain  chains  form 
a  great  barrier  350  miles  long,  separating  Ru- 
mania from  Hungary. 

The  Rumanian  plan  of  operations  contem- 
plated an  invasion  of  Hungary  by  three  armies 
deployed  over  this  immense  front,  which  were 
to  advance  in  a  number  of  small  columns 
through  the  passes  and  eventually  unite  on  the 
Maros  River  near  Karlsburg  for  the  final  ad- 
vance to  the  range  of  mountains  separating 
Transylvania  and  Hungary  proper.  The  Ru- 
manians proposed  to  hold  and  annex  Transyl- 
vania, which  was  largely  inhabited  by  Ruman- 
ians. Assuming  that  even  if  Bulgaria  declared 
war,  her  forces  would  be  held  by  the  Allied  ad- 
vance from  Saloniki,  the  Rumanians  left  a  sin- 
gle army  to  guard  the  line  of  the  Danube  and 
the  Bulgarian  frontier. 

The  plan  of  the  Central  Powers  was  to  form 
a  gioup  of  three  armies  for  operations  in  Tran- 
sylvania and  one  in  Bulgaria.  One  of  the  for- 
mer armies  was  composed  of  the  scattered 
troops  on  the  frontier  at  the  beginning  of  hos- 
tilities and  the  other  two  were  to  be  new  armies 
organized  from  reserves  and  troops  on  other 
fronts;  i.e.  the  I  Austrian  and  the  IX  German. 
The  German  army  was  to  be  commanded  by  von 
Falkcnhayn,  late  chief -of -staff.  These  new  ar- 
mies would  not  be  concentrated  before  the  mid- 
dle of  September.  In  Bulgaria,  a  group  under 
von  Mackeiisen  was  to  be  formed  of  the  III  Bul- 
garian army  and  a  number  of  German  and 
Turkish  divisions. 

In  the  campaign  which  began  on  August  28, 
we  note  the  following  phases: 

Aug.  28  to  Sept  20.  Advance  of  Rumanian  armies 
into  Transylvania  and  the  ad- 
vance of  Mackcnsen's  group  into 
Dobrudja. 

Sept  20  to  Oct.  20  Retreat  of  Rumanians  from 
Transylvania.  Mackensen  held 
in  check  in  Dobrudja. 

Oct  20  to  Nov.  10  Ausho-Germanft  held  on  the 
frontier  in  the  north  Marken- 
seu  advances  in  Dobrudja  across 
the  Bucharest  ConHtanza  railway. 

Nov.  10 'to  Nov.  25.  AuMro-Qermans  penetrate  Vul- 
can PasR  and  reach  the  plains 
of  Wallachia.  Mackensen  held 
in  check  in  Dobrudja. 

Nov.  25  to  Jan.  10.  Mackensen  crosses  the  Danube 
at  Bistova  with  his  German  and 
Turkish  forces  and  with  the 
Austro-German  forces  from  the 
north  drives  the  Russian  and 


143*  WAS  IN  EUROPE 

Rumanian  forces  out  of  Walla- 
chia  and  across  the  Sereth 
River.  The  Bulgarians  left  in 
the  Dobrudja  hold  the  RUBHO- 
Rumanian  forces  in  check  until 
the  latter  retire  from  the  Do- 
brudja, when  the  Bulgarians 
cross  the  Danube  and  rejoin 
Mackensen. 

On  August  28,  the  I,  II,  and  IV  Rumanian  ar- 
mies crossed  the  mountains;  the  I  army  in  the 
west  from  the  Danube  to  the  Red  Tower  Pass; 
the  II  army  in  the  centre  between  the  Gyimes 
and  Tar s burg  Passes,  and  the  IV  army  north 
of  the  Gyimes  Pass.  The  II  and  IV  armies  met 
with  little  opposition  and  by  September  20  were 
on  the  meridian  of  Fogaras  between  the  Maros 
River  and  the  Carpathians.  The  various  col- 
umns of  the  I  army  met  with  greater  opposi- 
tion, and  had  barely  reached  the  base  of  the 
mountains.  At  the  Red  Tower  Pass  the  column 
had  taken  Hermanstadt  and  at  the  Vulcan  Pass 
the  town  of  Petrosiny.  The  division  on  the 
Danube  had  taken  Orsova  at  the  Iron  Gates. 
While  the  Rumanian  armies  were  advancing 
triumphantly  in  Transylvania,  Bulgaria  de- 
clared war  on  September  1  and  immediately  von 
Muck  en  sen  crossed  the  frontier  into  Dobrudja, 
and  on  September  0  captured  the  larger  pait  of 
two  divisions  left  by  the  Rumanians  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Danube  at  Tutrakan.  This 
unexpected  blow  caused  the  Rumanians  to  di- 
vert the  commander  of  the  II  Rumanian  army 
— Averescue — witli  some  of  his  division  from 
Transylvania  to  the  Dobrudja  to  check  the  atl- 
\ance  of  Mackensen.  This  lie  was  able  to  do  be- 
fore Mackensen  reached  the  Bucharest-Oon- 
stanza  railway. 

Such  was  the  situation  about  September  20 
when  the  I  Austiian  and  IX  German  aunies 
had  completed  their  organization  and  were 
leady  to  move.  Their  plan  WUH  first  to  scc-uie 
the  Vulcan  Pass  and  then  penetrate  the  gap 
l>etween  the  II  Rumanian  army  at  Fogaras  and 
the  1  army  at  the  Red  Tower  Pass  and  attempt 
the  capture  of  the  Rumanians  in  the  vicinity  of 
Hermanstadt  by  seizing  the  pass  in  their  rear. 
The  operations  were  successfully  executed;  both 
passes  were  captured,  with  a  large  number  of 
Rumanian  troops.  Leaving  guards  in  the 
passes,  the  main  body  of  the  two  armies  moved 
eastward  against  the  II  Rumanian  army,  which 
was  obliged  to  seek  safety  by  falling  back  to  the 
mountain  passes.  The  IV  Rumanian  army  was 
compelled  to  conform  to  this  movement  and  by 
October  20  both  armies  were  back  in  the  moun- 
tain passes.  The  Russians  now  relieved  the 
IV  Rumanian  army  so  it  could  be  used  farther 
south.  During  this  period  'Mackensen  was  un- 
able to  advance  and  called  for  reinforcements. 

As  a  result  of  the  retreat  of  the  Rumanian 
armies  in  the  north,  Averescue  was  sent  to  his 
old  command,  the  IT  army,  and  strenuous  ef- 
forts were  made  to  hold  the  I  Austrian  and  IX 
German  armies  at  the  mountain  passes.  In 
this  the  Rumanians  were  successful  during  the 
latter  part  of  October  and  the  early  part  of  No- 
vember. During  this  period,  however,  Macken- 
sen, having  received  reinforcements,  broke 
through  the  Rumanian  defense  in  Dobrudja  and 
succeeded  in  advancing  across  the  Bucharest- 
Con  stanza  railway  and  capturing  the  seaport  of 
Constanza.  A  short  distance  east  of  the  rail- 
way he  was  obliged  to  again  intrench,  as  the 
Rumanians  had  been  strongly  reinforced  by 
Russians  and  he  met  with  temporary  defeat. 

Early  in  November  the  Austro-Gennane  north 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


1433 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


of    the    mountains   received    further    reinforce-  ous  to  the  Balkan  wars,  but  without  much  BUC- 

ments  and  made  a  determined  effort  to  reach  cess.    The  staff  and  supply  services  were  woe- 

the    Wallachian    plains    by    the    Vulcan    Pass,  fully  weak,  and  the  great  quantities  of  artillery 

where  the  Rumanians  were  weakest.     After  10  lost  in  those  wars  were  scarcely  replaced      The 

days'  hard  fighting  they  succeeded  in  reaching  country  was  divided  into  four  military  districts 

Craiova  and  about  November  25   were  on  the  with  headquarters  at  Constantinople,  Erzingan 

Aluta   River   facing  east.     As   soon   as  he   was  in  Armenia,  Damascus  in  Syria,  and  Bagdad  in 

assured  that  the  northern  armies  would  reach  Mesopotamia.     At   the    beginning   of   the    War, 

A1.lied  tro°P8  appeared  in  the  Caucasus  dis- 
trjct  o^  puagift  ou  tjie  Armenian  border  and  in 

Mesopotamia  a  British  force  landed  at  Fao  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Shatt-el-Arab  River  and  se- 
cured a  base  for  operations  in  Mesopotamia. 

1915.  Armenian  Front.  On  the  Armenian 
front  the  Russian  base  for  operations  was  Kars 
and  the  Turkish  base  Erzerum,  opposite  Kars. 
Each  city  was  about  50  miles  from  the  frontier 
and  about  midway  between  the  Black  Sea  and 
Mount  Ararat.  About  the  middle  of  Novem- 
ber, 1914,  a  Russian  column  crossed  the  Turk- 
ish frontier  and  advanced  about  half  the  dis- 
tance to  Erzerum  along  the  roads  leading  to 
that  base.  In  the  meantime  a  Turkish  force 
advanced  against  the  Russian  column,  while  a 
corps  at  Trebizond  attempted  to  reach  the  flank 
and  rear  by  way  of  Kardahan.  The  Turks 
crossed  the  frontier  but  were  defeated  and  the 
Trebizond  unit  got  no  farther  than  Kardahan. 
The  lurks  recros&ed  the  frontier  and  opera- 
tions ceased  for  the  remainder  of  1915  because 
both  the  Russian  and  Turkish  troops  were 
needed  elsewhere.  Persian  territory  was  in- 
vaded and  some  operations  of  minor  importance 
carried  out  near  Tabriz. 

Mesopotamia.  The  Turks  had  two  corps  in 
the  Tigris  valley,  one  at  Mosul  and  the  other 
at  Bagdad,  200  miles  farther  south.  The  Brit- 
ish occupied  Basra  early  in  November,  1914,  to 
gain  a  base  for  operations  in  Mesopotamia  arid 
to  protect  the  British  oil  fields  in  southern 
Persia.  The  operations  of  this  force  were  con- 
ducted by  the  Indian  government.  The  force 
was  gradually  increased  to  an  army  corps  and 
in  April,  1915,  General  Nixon  was  sent  to  com- 
mand it.  About  the  end  of  May,  General  TONMI- 
shend  started  north  up  the  Tigris  with  the  Oth 
Indian  division,  accompanied  by  naval  vessels 
of  light  draft.  In  a  month,  it  reached  Amara 
about  100  miles  up  the  river  with  only  slight 
opposition.  During  July  the  12th  Indian  divi- 
sion advanced  about  100  miles  up  the  Eu- 
phrates. 

The  advance  had  been  accomplished  so  easily 
that  the  British  commanders  determined  to 
combine  the  two  forces  and  advance  up  the  Ti- 
gris to  Kut  el  Amara,  which  is  about  100  miles 
south  of  Bagdad.  The  expedition  started  on 
August  1,  and  Kut  was  reached  about  the  last 
of  fSepteinber,  with  only  one  engagement  of  any 
size.  The  British  were  successful  in  this.  The 
pursuit  was  kept  up  until  the  British-Indian 
army  reached  Azizieh  about  halfway  between 
Kut  and  Bagdad.  The  problem  before  the  Brit- 
ish was  now  whether  to  continue  on  to  Bagdad 
or  wait  at  Kut  for  reinforcements.  Townshend 
favoied  the  latter  course  but  for  political  rea- 
sons Geneial  Nixon  overruled  him  and  ordered 
the  advance  on  Bagdad.  Consequently  an  ad- 
vance was  begun  from  Azizieh  in  the  middle  of 
November  and  by  the  2 1st  Townshend  reached 
Ctesiphon,  about  halfway  between  Azizieh  and 
Bagdad.  Here  the  Turks  were  strongly  in- 


Wallachian    plains, 

leave  the  Bulgarians  to  hold  his  trench  line  in 
Dobrudja  and  transfer  his  German  and  Turk- 
ish troops  to  the  north  bank  of  the  Danube. 
These  troops  were  ferried  across  the  Danube 
November  23-25  at  Sistora  and  Mackensen  as- 
sumed command  in  Wallachia.  The  Rumanian 
division  that  had  taken  Orsova  was  now  wholly 
cut  off  and  was  later  compelled  to  surrender. 

From  November  25  to  January  10,  the  Russo- 
Rumanian  armies  were  driven  steadily  eastward 
and  the  passes  in  the  north  were  evacuated  in 
succession.  At  the  close  of  the  operations  the 
opposing  armies  were  facing  each  other  along 
the  Sereth  River.  The  Dobrudja  was  evacuated 
by  the  Russo-Rumanians  and  most  of  the  Bul- 
garians joined  von  Mackensen  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Danube.  Moldavia  still  remained 
in  the  possession  of  the  Rumanians,  who  moved 
their  capital  to  Jassy,  as  the  Russians  still  held 
the  passes  of  the  Carpathians. 

In  October,  a  French  Military  Mission  reach- 
ed Bulgaria,  and  after  the  close  of  hostilities, 
the  Russians  took  over  the  front  and  the 
Rumanian  army  was  reorganized  and  trained 
by  French  officers. 

1917.  In   July,    1917,   the   Rumanians  were 
again    to    assume    the    otlensive    in    cooperation 
with    Brusiloff's    offensive   under   the    Kerensky 
government.     The     Russian     advance,     however, 
noon  terminated  in  a  rout  and  operations  ceased. 
In  December,  the  Bolshevik  government  entered 
into  an  armistice  with  the  Central  Powers  and 
Rumania  was  compelled  to  follow  suit. 

1918.  After  the  surrender  of  Bulgaria,  Sep- 
tember   30,    Rumania   a<*ain    took   up   arms   but 
the    surrender   of    Austria    followed    so    quickly 
that  the  Rumanian  forces  were  not  engaged. 

TURKISH   FRONT 

The  strategic  importance  of  Turkey  from  the 
Germanic  point  of  view  lay  in  keeping  supplies 
from  Russia  through  control  of  the  Dardanelles. 
Activities  on  the  Turkish  front  manifested 
themselves  in  five  distinct  phases:  (1)  Ar- 
menian front  (a)  Turkish  thrust  against  Rus- 
sia (1914-15),  (b)  Russian  campaign  (1!)10) 
forcing  the  Turkish  armies  behind  Trebizond, 
Erzerum,  and  Bitlis  line  to  the  west  and  threat- 
ening Bagdad  on  the  south;  (2)  British  ad- 
vance in  Mesopotamia;  (3)  Turkish  attack  on 
the  Suez  Canal;  (4)  Gallipoli  campaign  by 
Franco-British  forces;  (5)  conquest  of  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Palestine  with  resultant  collapse  of 
Turkey. 

War  was  begun  by  Turkey  and  Russia  on 
Oct.  31,  1914,  through  the  activities  of  the 
Turkish  fleet,  but  formal  declaration  was  with- 
held by  the  Allies  until  the  first  week  in  No- 
vember. As  a  matter  of  fact  Turkey  began  to 
mobilize  at  the  end  of  July,  1914,  and  by  the 
end  of  October  it  was  estimated  that  she  had 
600,000  men  in  her  army  with  250,000  more  at 
the  depots.  The  strength  of  her  army  on  a 


peace  basis  was  estimated  at  250,000.  At-  trenched.  Townshend  unsuccessfully  attacked 
tempts  had  been  made  by  German  officers  to  re-  on  the  22d.  He  remained  in  front  of  the  Turk- 
organize  and  train  the  Turkish  army  just  previ-  ish  positions  until  the  night  of  the  25th,  when, 


WAB  IN  EUBOPB 


1434 


WAB  IN  EUBOPE 


upon  learning  that  the  Turks  were  about  to  be 
reinforced,  he  began  a  retreat  on  Kut.  He 
reached  this  place  December  2,  closely  pursued 
and  harassed  by  the  Turks.  He  determined  to 
hold  it  until  relief  arrived  and  as  the  year 
closed  he  was  invested  by  the  Turks  and  his 
position  was  very  precarious. 

Egypt.  As  early  as  1914,  the  Turks  planned 
a  campaign  against  Egypt,  in  the  hope  proba- 
bly of  raising  an  insurrection  in  that  country. 
The  plan  of  operations  called  for  the  crossing 
of  the  Sinai  Peninsula  through  a  desert  150 
miles  wide,  as  well  as  the  Suez  Canal.  The 
main  column,  consisting  of  three  divisions,  was 
to  start  from  Beersheba  in  southern  Palestine. 
A  smaller  column  was  to  follow  the  coast  road 
from  Gaza  to  El  Kantara  on  the  canal,  and  a 
third  column  was  to  follow  a  caravan  route 
still  farther  south  and  reach  the  town  of  Suez. 
The  three  columns  reached  the  canal  about  the 
first  week  in  February.  A  miscellaneous  force 
defended  the  canal,  Australians,  New  Zen  land- 
ers, Indians,  English,  and  Egyptians.  All  at- 
tacks on  the  canal  were  easily  repulsed  and  the 
Turks  retreated  un  pur  sued  by  the  Allies.  No 
damage  was  done  to  the  canal  and  the  front 
remained  stabilized  for  the  remainder  of  the 
year. 

Gallipoli  Campaign.  The  temptation  to 
strike  a  blow  at  the  vitals  of  Turkey  by  taking 
possession  of  the  Dardanelles,  and  hence  of 
Constantinople,  was  irresistible  (for  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  straits,  see  VOL.  VI).  Success  here 
would  have  met  with  a  rich  reward.  A  way 
would  have  been  opened  to  supply  Russia  with 
the  war  munitions  she  so  sorely  needed;  the 
Balkan  question  would  have  been  settled  out  of 
hand,  and  in  a  manner  favorable  to  the  Allies. 
But  the  entire  campaign  was  mismanaged  from 
the  outset;  the  nature  of  the  effort  to  be  made 
was  certainly  not  correctly  estimated;  efforts 
were  scattered;  time  was  lost. 

For  the  naval  campaign,  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  naval  sub-division  of  this  article. 
It  opened  Nov.  3,  1914,  and  it  was  not  until 
the  following  March  that  joint  land  and  naval 
operations  were  decided  upon  after  a  great  deal 
of  bickering  and  hesitation.  By  that  time  the 
Turks  had  received  ample  warning,  and  here, 
as  elsewhere,  under  German  leadership,  had 
made  what  turned  out  to  be  more  than  ample 
preparation. 

In  the  Gallipoli  Peninsula,  nature  was  on  the 
side  of  the  defense.  Furthermore,  the  Turks 
enjoyed  an  advantage  in  their  supply  of  men, 
for  the  bulk  of  their  forces  was  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Constantinople  and  could  therefore 
be  drawn  upon  as  needed.  Gen.  Sir  Ian  Ham- 
ilton was  selected  to  direct  the  land  operations 
of  the  Allies.  These  were  to  be  carried  on  by 
a  French  force  under  General  d'Amade,  drawn 
from  north  Africa,  and  by  Colonials,  Territo- 
ials,  and  some  Indians  from  Egypt  and  Imperi- 
al troops. 

On  arriving  at  Tenedos  (March  17),  selected 
as  his  headquarters,  Sir  Ian  made  up  his  mind 
that  the  transports  had  been  so  badly  loaded 
that  he  would  not  undertake  any  operations 
until  the  loading  had  been  corrected.  The 
transports  were  accordingly  sent  back  to  Egypt 
to  be  reloaded.  Upon  their  return  five  weeks 
had  been  lost  to  the  Allies  and  gained  to  the 
Turks.  The  British  began  their  landings  on 
April  25,  under  exceedingly  great  difficulties. 
The  Turkish  force  on  the  peninsula  was  in  the 


neighborhood  of  100,000  men,  commanded  by 
the  German  general,  Liznan  von  Sanders.  The 
chief  landings  were  made  at  the  tip  of  the 
peninsula.  Once  ashore,  the  advance  was  to 
ue  made  against  the  village  of  Krithia,  and  the 
height  of  Achi  Baba  was  then  to  be  car- 
ried. At  each  of  the  beaches  selected  the 
Turks  were  ready  and  received  the  landing 
party  with  tremendous  fire.  Obstacles  of  all 
sorts  under  the  water  and  on  the  beaches 
and  cliffs  were  skillfully  placed  in  way  of  the 
invaders.  The  Australian  and  New  Zealand 
corps  (Anzacs)  near  Gaba  Tepc  especially  dis- 
tinguished themselves  by  rushing  the  Turku 
with  the  bayonet,  clearing  the  slopes  and  secur- 
ing a  foothold  on  the  top.  The  French  landed 
a  regiment  on  the  Asiatic  side,  near  Kum  Kale, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  an  attack  by  gun 
fire  against  the  transports  at  the  nose  of  the 
peninsula.  In  this  they  were  more  or  less 
successful,  but  at  considerable  loss  to  them- 
selves. The  result  of  the  work  of  the  24  hours 
was  that  the  Anzacs,  isolated,  were  holding  a 
semicircular  line  against  an  enemy  ever  increas- 
ing in  numbers;  at  the  tip  of  the  peninsula 
one  landing  was  abandoned,  some  forces  were 
holding  their  own  but  isolated,  while  other 
landing  parties  had  managed  to  join  hands. 
The  next  three  or  four  days  were  marked  by 
severe  fighting  and  an  advance  of  the  British 
from  the  tip  of  the  peninsula.  By  the  after- 
noon of  April  28  some  of  the  troops  had  pushed 
up  to  within  1300  yards  of  Krithia  but  could 
get  no  farther.  The  lines  then  dug  in.  On 
May  1,  the  Turks  attacked  at  night,  and  there 
was  a  counterattack  the  next  clay.  This  is  the 
first  so-called  battle  of  Kiithia.  The  second  oc- 
curred on  May  6,  and  was  an  attempt  to  win 
the  Krithia  Ridge;  this  attempt  failed  but  the 
British  advanced  their  line  500  yards.  The 
third  came  off  on  June  4,  with  the  same  objec- 
tive and  the  same  result.  The  fourth  was 
fought  on  July  12,  and  resulted  in  an  advance 
of  300  yards  more  or  less.  Achi  Baba  still 
remained  in  Turkish  hands.  Meanwhile  the 
Turks  were  attacking  the  Anzacs  (May  5-10) 
and  were  repulsed.  They  renewed  their  efforts 
in  great  force  on  May  18,  and  were  again  beat- 
en off  with  great  loss.  There  were  other  en- 
gagements, as  that  of  the  French  (June  21) 
who  captured  a  work  known  as  the  Haricot  He- 
doubt,  and  the  English  action  of  June  28, 
known  as  the  battle  of  the  Gully  Ra\ine.  And 
so  it  went  until  fresh  British  forces  wcie  landed 
at  Suvla  Bay  on  August  7,  and  the  Anzaos  ad- 
vanced upon  the  ridges  of  Sari  Bair. 

The  Suvla  Bay  landing  and  simultaneous  op- 
erations at  the  tip  of  the  peninsula  and  by  the 
Anzacs  constitute  the  last  great  attempt  to 
drive  the  Turks  off  the  peninsula.  In  May, 
Sir  Ian  Hamilton  asked  for  two  additional 
corps;  by  the  end  of  July  he  got  them.  His 
plan  was  now  to  reinforce  the  Anzaos  and  di- 
rect them  to  make  a  drive  and  capture  Sari 
Bair.  A  landing  at  Suvla  Bay  would  surprise 
the  Turks  and  might  enable  the  Anzacs  after 
taking  Sari  Bair  to  push  on  to  Maidos.  The 
Turks  at  Krithia  and  on  Achi  Baba  would  thus 
be  cut  off.  A  containing  attack  was  to  be 
made  at  the  tip  of  the  peninsula.  This  attack 
was  delivered  on  August  5  and  failed.  It  was 
renewed  on  the  7th  and  resulted  in  minor  local 
successes;  its  main  purpose  of  keeping  the 
Turks  busy  on  the  spot,  and  preventing  them 
from  lending  a  hand  elsewhere,  may  be  said  to 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


H35 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


have  been  realized.  The  Anzaca,  reinforced,  at- 
tacked on  the  Oth,  and  very  nearly  succeeded 
in  their  purpose;  but  on  the  9th  an  assaulting 
column  lost  its  way,  and  arrived  too  late  to 
clinch  the  positive  gains  made  on  the  emir  to 
the  southwest  of  the  main  elevation  (Hill  305) 
of  the  Turkish  position.  During  the  attack  on 
Sari  Bair  the  landing  at  Suvla  Bay  was  begun 
August  6  by  night  under  the  direction  of  Lieut.- 
Gen.  Sir  F.  Stopford.  It  resulted  in  failure, 
for  although  the  troops  got  ashore,  once  there 
they  accomplished  nothing.  Apparently  there 
was  no  well  thought  out  plan  of  operations,  or, 
if  there  was,  it  was  not  carried  out.  Some  of 
the  troop  units  were  landed  in  places  other 
than  those  designated,  others  were  late  in  mov- 
ing out.  Some  local  successes  were  obtained, 
however,  and  on  the  evening  of  August  7,  the 
British  extended  in  a  semicircle  around  the  bay. 
On  the  8th.  the  British  stood  fast  and  made  no 
attempt  to  advance,  and  so  lost  their  oppor- 
tunity not  merely  to  accomplish  something  on 
their  own  account,  but  to  help  their  comrades 
farther  south  engaged  in  the  desperate  strug- 
gle for  Sari  Bair.  There  was  more  or  less 
fighting  during  the  next  week.  Open  fighting 
gave  way  to  trench  warfare.  There  was  one 
more  battle  on  August  21,  when  an  unsuccess- 
ful attack  was  made  to  take  Hill  100,  about 
2  miles  east  of  Suvla  Bay. 

Tho  struggle  for  the  Dardanelles  was  now 
virtually  over  arid  it  ended  in  a  ghastly  failure 
for  the  Allies.  Sir  Jan  Hamilton  was  recalled 
in  October,  and  the  whole  peninsula  evacuated 
in  December  and  January,  some  of  the  troops 

foing  to  Saloniki,  but  most  of  them  goinjr  to 
-gypt  to  be  apportioned  among  the  other 
fionts.  General  Hamilton  in  his  GallipoH  Dia- 
ry places  the  blame  almost  entirely  upon  the 
insufficiency  of  artillery  and  inefficiency  of  the 
Home  authorities  in  supplying  guns,  ammuni- 
tion, spare  parts,  workshops,  etc.  The  British 
casualties  were  100,000  with  about  an  equal 
number  evacuated  because  of  sickness.  The 
Turkish  losses  were  placed  at  about  the  same 
amount. 

1916.  Armenian  Front.  As  soon  as  opera- 
tions were  possible  in  191C,  the  Russians, 
under  General  Yudenitch,  advanced  across  the 
frontier  from  the  Black  Sea  to  Lake  Van.  An- 
other unit  under  General  Baratoff  entered  Per- 
sia to  drive  the  Turks  out  of  northern  Persia. 
In  the  middle  of  February,  Erzerum  was  cap- 
tured. This  was  followed  by  the  capture  of 
Bitlis  and  Mush  near  Lake  Van,  and  Trebizond 
on  the  Black  Sea  in  April.  In  July,  Krzingan, 
the  headquarters  for  Turkish  troops  in  Ar- 
menia, was  captured.  In  the  meantime  the 
Russian  forces  in  Persia  advanced  south  as  far 
as  Kcrmanshah,  then  turned  toward  the  fron- 
tier which  they  reached  in  May;  the  objective 
was  Bagdad.  The  surrender  of  the  British 
forces  at  Kut,  however,  prevented  this  column 
from  advancing  past  the  frontier.  In  August 
the  Turks  began  a  counteroffensivo  which  re- 
sulted in  the  recapture  of  Van  and  Mush.  An 
advance  in  Persia  forced  the  Russians  back  al- 
most to  their  own  frontier.  The  second  half 
of  the  year  saw  little  fighting  on  this  front  but 
the  Russian  forces  compelled  the  retention  of  a 
large  Turkish  force  also. 

Mesopotamia.  As  stated  above,  General 
Townshend  was  invested  in  Kut-el-Amara  at 
the  close  of  1915.  His  position  was  a  strong 
one  and  the  Turks  made  several  futile  efforts 


to  take  it  by  assault  and  bombardment.  Then 
they  determined  to  starve  the  British  out.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this  they  constructed  de- 
fenses on  both  sides  of  the  Tigris  below  Kut  to 
prevent  a  relief  expedition  from  advancing  up 
the  river.  About  the  middle  of  December,  Gen- 
eral Lake,  who  relieved  General  Nixon,  began 
to  organize  a  relief  expedition  50  miles  south 
of  Kut.  This  force  was  organized  around  the 
12th  and  7th  Indian  divisions.  This  unit  was 
weak  numerically  and  did  not  have  the  proper 
artillery,  transportation,  or  medical  supplies. 

The  relief  force,  commanded  by  General  Ayl- 
mer,  set  out  on  January  4,  but  received  a  check 
at  Sheik  Saad,  25  miles  from  Kut.  Although 
the  attempt  to  take  the  positions  by  force 
failed,  the  Turks  abandoned  the  works  by  Jan- 
uary 9  By  the  21st,  the  British  had  advanced 
6  miles  further  but  were  compelled  to  halt  be- 
fore Umm-el-Heuna,  which  also  successfully  re* 
sisted  an  attack  in  force.  They  held  on  here 
until  early  March,  when,  they  were  reinforced. 
An  unsuccessful  attack  was  made  on  the  night 
of  March  8-9.  On  April  5,  with  the  aid  of  the 
13th  division  which  had  arrived  from  Galli- 
poli,  the  British  captured  Uram-el-Heuna.  The 
Turks,  however,  merely  retired  to  a  stronger 
position  at  Sannaiyat  a  mile  in  the  rear.  At- 
tempts to  take  these  works  between  the  8th  and 
18tl»  failed,  and  on  April  29,  General  Town- 
ehend  and  his  force  of  10,000  men,  after  143 
days  of  siege,  were  compelled  to  surrender  be- 
cause of  starvation.  After  the  fall  of  Kut  op- 
erations in  Mesopotamia  came  to  a  standstill. 
The  British  made  preparations  on  a  larger  and 
much  more  efficient  scale  for  an  advance  on 
Bagdad  in  1917.  General  Lake  was  relieved 
of  the  command  in  Mesopotamia  by  General 
Maude.  The  failure  in  Mesopotamia  has  gen- 
erally boon  abcribed  to  overconfidence,  weather 
(heat  and  floods),  and  inadequate  transporta- 
tion and  equipment  for  trench  warfare. 

Egyptian  Front.  After  the  unsuccessful  at- 
tack on  the  Suez  ("anal  in  1915,  the  British, 
early  in  1910,  destroyed  all  the  water  holes 
within  30  miles  of  the  canal  to  prevent  further 
operations  against  it.  They  also  determined  to 
construct  a  railroad  north  to  the  Katica  oasis 
and  to  put  a  pipe  line  alongside  it.  In  April 
and  August  the  Turks  made  efforts  to  interfere 
with  this  construction  work  but  were  repulsed. 
By  the  end  of  the  year  the  British  had  pushed 
the  railway  and  a  complete  and  modern  water- 
supply  system  to  within  15  miles  of  El  Arish, 
the  most  advanced  of  the  Turkish  strongly  held 
positions.  This  activity  presaged  an  attack  in 
Palestine  in  the  near  future.  During  the  year 
the  revolt  of  the  Arabs  in  Hedjaz  occurred 
(see  HEDJAZ). 

1917.  Palestine.  The  British  began  an  ad- 
vance on  Rafa  on  the  Sinai  Peninsula,  based  on 
the  railway  which  had  been  constructed  there. 
This  town  fell  early  in  February  and  the  Brit- 
ish advanced  northward  toward  Gaza  and  east- 
ward toward  Beersheba.  They  were  compelled 
to  spend  the  summer  on  the  Gaza  River  after 
failing  to  take  these  places  in  two  attacks.  In 
October  they  advanced  again  and  by  January, 
1918,  had  won  a  series  of  brilliant  successes. 
On  October  31,  Beersheba  was  taken  and  on 
November  6,  Gaza  fell.  By  November  15,  Gen- 
eral Allenby  had  cut  the  Jaffa-Jerusalem  rail- 
way at  Ludd  and  Er  Ramie.  Two  days  later 
Jaffa,  the  port  of  Jerusalem,  was  occupied. 
The  British  advanced  down  the  Surar  River  val- 


WAR  IN  ETJBOPB 


1436 


WAR  IN  EUROPE 


ley  toward  the  Holy  City  and  up  the  Damas- 
cus-Beersheba  railway  in  order  to  encircle  the 
city  and  cut  off  its  supplies,  so  that  it  would 
not  come  under  the  bombardment  of  the  artil- 
lery. All  the  towns  surrounding  the  city  were 
gradually  taken  by  storm  and  as  the  British 
closed  in  it  became  apparent  that  the  Turks 
would  not  risk  a  siege.  The  city  fell  on 
December  10  There  was  general  rejoicing 
throughout  the  world  over  the  return  of  the 
city  to  Christian  hands  after  having  been  in 
Turkish  hands  for  almost  seven  centuries.  The 
Tuiks  \\cst  and  northwest  of  the  city  broke  up 
into  small  bands  and  carried  on  guerilla  war- 
fare until  the  British  finally  got  control  of  all 
the  high  land.  General  Allenby  then  pushed 
across  a  small  stream  4  miles  north  of  Jaffa 
and  captured  several  small  towns  which  gave 
him  all  the  high  land  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
assured  a  good  defense  of  the  Jaffa-Jerusalem 
railroad. 

The  success  of  the  British  arms  in  Palestine 
effectively  put  an  end  to  Turkish  threats  on  the 
Suez  Canal  and  Egypt  which  had  been  going 
on  for  three  years.  It  also  revived  the  hopes 
of  the  Zionists,  who  dreamed  of  reestablish- 
ment  of  the  Jewish  nation  in  Palestine  The 
British  government  announced  on  several  occa- 
sions that  it  looked  with  favor  on  the  Zionist 
movement. 

Mesopotamia.  General  Maude,  who  took 
command  of  the  Mesopotamiai!  forces  in  Au- 
gust, 1916,  spent  the  remainder  of  the  year  in 
reorganizing  his  command  and  lines  of  supply. 
During  the  same  time  the  Turks  had  reduced 
their  force  at  Kut,  although  they  consideiably 
strengthened  their  positions  When  General 
Maude  was  ready  he  began  an  attack  on  the 
Turkish  lines  east  of  Kut  l>etween  the  Tigris 
and  the  Hai  (Dec.  20,  1916).  By  the  middle 
of  January,  1917,  the  British  reached  the  Ti- 
gris up  as  far  as  Kut.  A  month  later  the  Turks 
evacuated  their  works  on  the  south  bank  and 
were  all  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tigris,  which 
owing  to  floods  wat>  330  yards  wide  at  this  point. 
Under  great  difficulties  the  Biitish  crossed  the 
river  on  February  23.  The  Turks  A\ere  now  in 
full  retreat.  On  March  11,  the  British  entered 
Bagdad.  This  campaign  did  much  to  restore 
the  prestige  of  the  British  in  Mesopotamia  and 
throughout  the  entire  Moslem  uorld.  It  also 
compelled  the  Turkish  foiccs  in  Persia  to  re- 
treat. The  remainder  of  the  year  \vaa  spent  by 
the  British  in  making  their  position  secure 
within  a  radius  of  100  miles  of  Bagdad. 

1918.  Collapse  of  Turkey,  lurkey  was 
the  second  member  of  the  Central  Powers  alli- 
ance to  surrender  to  Allied  arms.  This  was  a 
direct  result  of  a  crushing  defeat  administered 
by  General  Allenby.  As  was  narrated  above, 
Jerusalem  was  captured  by  General  Allenby  in 
December,  1917.  Between  that  time  and  'Sep- 
tember, 1918,  the  British  commander  was  mak- 
ing preparations  for  his  attack  on  a  grand 
scale.  His  first  object  was  to  secure  his  right 
flank  by  the  captuie  of  Jericho  and  the  line  of 
the  Jordan.  This  operation  was  carried  out  in 
February,  and  was  highly  successful,  the  two 
objectives  having  been  taken  shortly  after  the 
middle  of  the  month.  During  March  General 
Allenby  was  engaged  in  gaining  a  line  which 
would  enable  him  to  carry  out  operations  east 
of  the  Jordan  and  against  the  TIedjaz  railway, 
in  cooperation  with  the  Arab  foices  under  the 
Emir  Faisal.  These  were  southeast  of  the 


Dead  Sea  and  were  under  the  command  of  Al- 
lenby. Rainy  weather  and  the  raising  of  the 
level  of  the  Jordan  River  prevented  General 
Allenby  from  making  any  advance  across  that 
river.  He  made  several  raids  which  materially 
hindered  the  Turkish  forces.  His  further  prog- 
ress was  also  held  up  by  the  difficulties  of  the 
Allies  in  France.  He  reported  that  in  April  the 
52d  and  74th  divisions,  9  yeomanry  regiments, 
5l/2  siege  batteries,  10  British  battalions,  and 
5  machine  gun  companies  were  withdrawn  pre- 
paraloiy  to  embaiking  for  France.  In  May,  14 
more  battalions  were  sent  to  Europe.  During 
July  and  August,  10  more  British  battalions 
were  withdrawn  from  the  fighting  in  the  east- 
ern area  While  it  is  true  that  most  of  these 
units  were  replaced  by  Indian  forces,  neverthe- 
less his  actual  fighting  force  was  so  reduced 
that  he  was  unable  to  continue  the  advance 
against  the  Turkish  troops  until  the  following 
September.  During  the  hot  summer  months 
the  only  fighting  of  any  note  was  an  attack  de- 
livered by  Turkish-German  forces  on  July  14 
It  gained  initial  successes  by  taking  Abu  Tellul, 
an  important  height,  and  surrounded  several 
other  advanced  positions.  These  gains  were  al- 
most immediately  lost  again  as  a  result  of  a 
brilliant  counterattack  by  Australian  forces. 

On  September  18,  the  British  and  the  Arabs 
be^an  an  advance  in  Mesopotamia  and  Palestine 
which  was  ultimately  to  result  in  the  surrender 
of  Turkey  and  settle  once  and  for  all  the  Berlin 
to  Bagdad  route  which  had  already  been  broken 
b4\  the  collapse  of  Bulgaria.  Allenby  made 
minute  prepaiations  for  his  blow  and  complete- 
ly fooled  the  Turks  as  to  his  intentions.  The 
British,  with  some  French  forces  in  support, 
struck  on  a  16-mile  front  and  broke  through 
tli?  Turkish  lines  Ixitween  Fafat  and  the  nea 
and  advanced  13  miles.  By  the  22<1,  enemy  re- 
sistance between  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
.Ionian  Rner  had  practically  broken  down  com- 
pletely and  the  Allies  were  forging  ahead  rapid- 
ly. In  four  days  they  had  advanced  approxi- 
mately 60  miles  and  had  occupied  Beisan,  Xax- 
areth,  and  El  Afule.  Arab  forces  cast  of  the 
Jordan  dest toyed  railroads  and  bridges  crossing 
the  stream  and  thus  forced  the  Turks  to  re- 
treat in  a  northerly  direction  only.  Haifa  and 
Acre  were  seized  on  the  23d  and  the  Turks  east 
of  the  Jordan  were  forced  to  retreat  southerly 
in  the  direction  of  Amman.  Three  days  later 
Haw  the  British  at  the  Sea.  of  Galilee  'and  the 
occupation  of  Tiberias,  Seniakh,  Es-Samra,  and 
Amman.  On  the  27th  the  British  forces  joined 
with  the  Arabs  cast  of  the  Jordan  at  Me/eris 
The  advance  was  now  a  steady  pursuit,  without 
any  frontal  fighting  on  the  part  of  the  Turks. 
Damascus  fell  on  the  1st  of  October,  Zahich 
and  Rayak  on  the  (5th,  and  Tripoli  and  Horns 
on  the  ICth.  In  the  first  three  weeks  of  the 
campaign  more  than  80,000  prisoners  and  350 
guns  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British  and 
Arabs. 

The  last  half  of  October  saw  the  capture  of 
Aleppo  and  the  complete  defeat  of  the  Turkish 
troops  along  the  Tigris  by  British  forces  under 
General  Marshall.  This  last  event  was  accom- 
plished by  the  capture  of  Kaleh  Sherghat,  which 
completely  cut  off  communication  with  Mosul, 
which,  with  Aleppo,  was  the  main  base  of  sup- 
plies of  the  Turkish-German  forces  in  Asia 
Minor. 

Facing  a  supreme  disaster,  the  Turks  sued 
for  an  armistice.  They  sent  the  British  gener- 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 

al,  Townshend,  who  had  been  captured  at  Kut- 
el-Amara,  to  the  Allied  commander  of  the 
/Egean  fleet,  Vice  Admiral  Calthorp,  to  ask 
for  terms.  He  asked  for  regularly  accredited 
agents  to  carry  on  the  negotiations.  These 
were  sent  to  the  island  of  Lemnos,  and  after  a 
three-day  session,  terms  were  handed  to  the 
Turks  which  they  accepted  on  October  30, 
and  which  went  into  effect  the  next  day.  A 
summary  of  these  terms,  which  practically 
amounted  to  unconditional  surrender,  follows: 
The  Dardanelles  Bosporus,  and  Black  Sea, 
were  to  be  opened  to  the  Allies;  there  was  to  be 
immediate  demobilization  of  the  Turkish  army; 
surrender  of  all  Turkish  warships,  and  use  of 
mercantile  vessels;  Allied  occupation  of  any 
strategical  points  in  Turkey  desired  by  them; 
immediate  withdrawal  of  Turkish  forces  from 
Persia;  all  Germans  and  Austrians  to  get  out 
of  Turkey  within  a  month  and  Turkey  to  break 
off  all  relations  with  their  countries. 

COLONIES 

Africa.  As  early  as  Aug.  7,  1914,  the  British 
government  telegraphed  the  South  African  gov- 
ernment to  suggest  the  desirability  of  seizing 
such  parts  of  German  Southwest  Africa  "as 
would  give  them  command  of  Swakopmund, 
Luderitzbucht,  and  the  wireless  stations  there 
or  in  the  interior,"  but  before  operations  could 
be  carried  on  against  German  territory  the  lo- 
cal government  found  itself  face  to  face  with  a 
rebellion.  See  Sot'TH  AFRICA,  UNION  OF. 

Togoland  was  taken  in  a  campaign  that 
lasted  just  thiee  weeks,  Aug.  7-28,  1914.  Sur- 
rounded on  three  side*;  by  hostile  territory, 
with  the  sea  under  British  control,  it  could  not 
hope  to  offer  any  iPMstance. 

Kamcrun  called  for  a  more  serious  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  Allies  Like  Togoland,  it  was 
surrounded  on  three  sides  by  hostile  territory, 
with  the  sea  under  Allied  control,  but  its  vast- 
ly greater  area  made  operations  moie  difficult 
and  it  was  more  strongly  defended.  Three  ex- 
peditions from  the  northwest  were  defeated  by 
the  Gentians  in  August  and  September,  1915. 
Attacking  from  the  sea,  however,  the  Allies 
took  Dualn  (September  27)  and  from  this  point 
\\ideneil  their  holdings.  Two  columns  pushed 
their  way  into  the  interior  along  the  railways; 
one  of  them  on  October  26  took  Edea,  repelling 
HIV  \\eeks  later  a  counterattack  for  its  recovery. 
1  he  other  column  north  of  Duala  captured  the 
entire  railway  and  advanced  beyond  its  head. 
The  French  sent  down  troops  from  the  Tchad, 
and  others,  reinforced  by  Belgians  from  Equa- 
toria.  The  result  of  all  these  efforts  was  that 
German  resistance  was  well  worn  down,  and 
came  to  an  end  with  the  surrender  of  Mora  Hill 
early  in  1916. 

In  Herman  Roulhwcttt  \frica  the  situation 
was  complicated  by  the  South  African  Rebel- 
lion. This  rebellion  crushed,  real  operations  be- 
gan in  January,  1915,  Luderitz  Bay  having 
been  occupied  as  early  as  Sept.  18,  1914.  Swa- 
kopmund was  occupied  January  14.  The  cam- 
paign was  directed  against  Windhoek  and  car- 
ried on  by  two  armies;  the  northern  under 
Botha  was  to  move  from  Swakopmund,  while 
the  southern  under  Smuts,  divided  into  three 
columns,  was  to  move  east  from  Luderitz  Bay, 
north  from  Warmbad,  and  west  from  Bechuana- 
land.  By  May  1,  the  end  was  near.  On  the 
12th,  Botha  entered  Windhoek  and  the  struggle 


WAR  IK  EUROPE 

was  practically  over;  for,  pushing  on  to  Groot- 
fontein,  now  the  German  capital,  he  received 
there  the  surrender  of  the  enemy  forces,  on 
July  9. 

German  East  Africa,  the  most  important  col- 
ony in  Africa,  gave  the  British  far  more  trou- 
ble than  any  of  the  others.  During  August, 
1914,  some  successes  fell  to  the  British — for  ex- 
ample, they  demolished,  August  13,  the  port  of 
Dar-es-Salaam — but  they  decided  to  remain  on 
the  defensive,  waiting  for  troops  from  India 
These  arrived  November  1 ,  and  lay  off  the  Ger- 
man port  of  Tanga.  An  attack  made  on  the 
4th  resulted  in  a  decided  reverse  for  the  Brit- 
ish, who  were  compelled  to  reembark.  The 
Germans  now  invaded  British  East  Africa,  but 
were  pushed  back  to  Jassin  in  German  ter- 
ritory, where  on  January  18  they  defeated  the 
British,  and  forced  a  withdrawal  of  all  outly 
ing  posts  in  that  region.  They  had,  as  early  as 
September,  1914,  invaded  northeast  Rhodesia, 
where  they  came  into  contact  with  Belgian 
troops.  General  Smith -Dorrien,  later  relieved 
by  General  Smuts,  was  sent  out  to  take  com- 
mand of  the  troops  in  British  East  Africa  and 
the  invasion  proceeded  from  that  region,  as 
well  as  from  Nyasa  on  the  south. 

The  British  expedition,  commanded  by  Gen- 
eral Jan  Smuts,  won  an  important  victory  at 
the  Kitovo  Hills,  near  the  northern  boundary 
of  German  East  Africa.  After  five  days  of 
fighting  (Mar.  7-12,  1916)  the  Germans  fell 
back  to  a  position  in  the  forest  along  the  Rufu 
River.  As  a  result  of  the  operations  that  fol- 
lowed, the  Germans,  although  reinforced,  were 
compelled  to  abandon  their  positions  and  retire 
southward  along  the  Tanga  railway. 

In  September,  1917,  the  Allies  began  to  tight- 
en the  ring  around  the  colony.  The  Belgians, 
French,  British,  and  Portuguese  were  invading 
it  from  all  sides.  All  of  the  seaports  were  in 
their  hands  and  Tabora,  a  strong  fortress  in  the 
north,  was  captured  (September  1-11),  by 
the  Belgians.  General  von  Lettow-Vorbeck,  the 
German  commander  who  held  out  for  such  a 
lon«r  time  against  the  Allies,  finally  surrendered 
on  Nov.  14,  1918,  three  days  after  the  Armistice 
was  signed. 

The  Pacific.  Japan,  as  Great  Britain's  ally, 
declared  war  on  Germany  Aug.  23,  1914,  but 
confined  her  offensive  to  Germany's  possessions 
in  the  Pacific.  On  August  27,  she  began  the 
blockade  of  Tsingtao,  and  by  the  end  of  Septem- 
ber, two  Japanese  armies  and  a  few  English 
troops  had  completed  landing,  one  on  the  north 
and  the  other  with  the  English  at  Rozan  Bay 
The  German  defenses  consisted  of  three  lines, 
the  first  of  fortified  hills,  the  second  of  10  forts, 
and  the  third  of  five.  By  September  28,  the 
first  two  lines  had  been  carried,  and  the  siege 
was  begun.  On  October  31  a  general  attack 
was  opened  on  the  third  line  which  was  occu- 
pied November  6.  The  next  day  the  place  was 
surrendered. 

For  the  capture  of  the  other  German  islands 
in  the  Pacific  see  the  section  on  Naval  Opera- 
tions, below. 

NAVAL  OPERATIONS 

Operations  In  North  Sea  and  Waters 
About  Great  Britain.  At  the  end  of  July, 
1914,  the  German  High  Seas  Fleet  was  off  the 
coast  of  Norway  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
British  Grand  Fleet  lay  at  Spithead  off  the  Isle 


WAB  IN  EUROPE  I4 

of  Wight.  As  the  probability  of  war  increased, 
more  and  more  definite  steps  were  taken  to  pre- 
pare for  mobilizing  the  entire  British  naval 
force  and  putting  into  commission  all  ships  in 
reserve  and  laid  up.  On  August  2,  German 
troops  invaded  Belgium;  on  July  29,  the  Brit- 
ish Grand  Fleet  got  under  way  to  proceed  to  its 
war  base  at  Scapa  Flow.  On  August  4,  Great 
Britain  and  France  declared  war  and  mobiliza- 
tion of  both  fleets  was  directed.  Within  four 
hours  of  the  declaration  of  war,  British  scout- 
ing squadrons  were  sent  towards  the  German 
coast,  and  one  submarine  flotilla  explored  the 
Helgoland  Bight. 

The  German  High  Seas  Fleet,  being  vastly  in- 
ferior to  the  British  forces  facing  it,  was  hasti- 
ly withdrawn  behind  the  defenses  of  the  Ger- 
man coast  at  Kiel  and  in  the  Kaiser  Wilhehn 
Canal. 

The  laying  of  mines  now  proceeded  with  great 
rapidity.  Not  only  were  the  German  harbors 
and  the  vicinity  of  Helgoland  protected  but  the 
North  Sea  was  planted  with  mines  where  they 
were  most  likely  to  be  useful  and  the  passages 
leading  to  the  'Baltic  were  closed  excepting  a 
narrow  strip  along  the  coast  in  Swedish  terri- 
torial waters,  the  channels  in  the  mined  areas 
being  known  only  to  German  and  Danish  pilots. 
The  separate  mine  areas  were  small  or  narrow 
but  were  so  numerous  as  to  make  navigation 
dangerous.  The  British  thereupon  closed  the 
Strait  of  Dover  by  a  mined  area.  They  then 
began  a  systematic  search  for  German  mines, 
mine  layers,  and  protecting  forces,  and  also  des- 
patched their  mine-sweepinp  groups  of  trawlers 
as  fast  as  work  was  found  for  them.  It  was  in 
connection  with  mine  planting  that  the  first 
naval  action  of  the  War  was  brought  about. 
On  August  5,  H.  M.  S.  AmpJiion,  with  the  third 
destroyer  flotilla,  was  carrying  out  a  prear- 
ranged plan  of  search  when  a  suspicious  ship 
was  reported  by  a  trawler.  This  was  the  Ger- 
man mine-layer  Konigin  Louise,  and  she  was 
chased  and  sunk;  but  early  the  next  morning 
the  Amphion  struck  a  mine  and  was  herself 
destroyed 

On  August  9,  protected  by  the  Channel 
squadron  and  a  special  detail  of  cruisers  and 
destroyers,  the  first  expeditionary  force  of  the 
British  army  crossed  to  France;  and  thence- 
forward there  was  a  similarly  protected  steady 
stream  of  transports  carrying  men,  munitions, 
and  supplies. 

On  August  26,  the  Eighth  Submarine  Flotilla, 
two  destroyer  flotillas,  and  their  flag  cruisers 
and  tenders  were  ordered  to  proceed  and  recon- 
noitre Helgoland  and  the  waters  to  the  south- 
ward. They  were  followed  by  the  battle  cruiser 
and  first  light  cruiser  squadrons.  On  August 
28,  the  destroyer  flotillas,  when  about  25  miles 
from  Helgoland,  and  not  much  farther  from 
Wilhelmshaven,  found  the  enemy  in  superior 
forre  and  were  compelled  to  fall  bark.  Admi- 
ral Beatty  promptly  sent  the  First  Light  Cruiser 
Squadron  to  their  assistance,  but,  as  the  en- 
emy's force  seemed  strong,  he  soon  decided  to 
follow  with  his  heavy  vessels.  The  advent  of 
the  battle  cruisers  quickly  decided  matters.  In 
a  short  time  the  German  vessels  were  retiring 
along  the  whole  front.  The  light  cruisers, 
Maim,  Koln,  and  Ariadne,  and  the  destroyer 
V-187  were  sunk.  No  British  vessels  were  lost, 
but  the  Arethusa,  flagship  of  the  destroyer 
fleet,  was  severely  injured  and  had  to  be  towed 
to  England.  The  Queen  Mary  was  twice  at- 


3ft  WA&  Itf 

tacked  and  the  Longest  oft  once,  by  submarines, 
but  the  high  speed  in  each  case  made  the  at- 
tempt abortive.  The  short  range  of  the  tor- 
pedoes used  in  the  German  submarines  was 
first  noticed  in  these  attacks.  This  action 
caused  the  Germans  to  adopt  a  purely  defensive 
position. 

The  month  of  September  was  a  particularly 
eventful  one.  On  September  3,  the  British  gun- 
boat Speedy  was  destroyed  by  a  mine  and,  on 
September  5,  the  light  cruiser  Pathfinder  was 
sunk  by  the  German  V-21,  the  first  surface 
craft  to  fall  a  victim  to  the  dreaded  submarine. 
On  September  28,  there  came  an  event  which 
startled  the  world  and  greatly  added  to  the 
prestige  of  the  submarine.  About  daylight 
that  morning,  the  British  armored  cruisers 
Aboukir,  Hogue,  and  Cressy  were  on  patrol  duty 
in  the  North  Sea  arid  steaming  at  moderate 
speed  in  column.  At  6.25  A.M.,  the  Aboukir, 
which  was  leading,  was  struck  by  a  torpedo 
from  a  submarine  and  began  to  sink  slowly. 
The  Hogue  and  Cressy  came  up  to  her  assis- 
tance, stopped  and  attempted  to  save  life.  A 
little  before  7  A.M.  a  torpedo  struck  the  IJognc. 
She  quickly  capsized  and  sank.  At  7.1.")  the 
Crcssy  was  hit  by  a  torpedo  and  15  minutes 
later  by  another.  Some  1460  officers  and  men 
lost  their  lives.  All  were  sunk  by  the  German 
submarine  U-9,  a  300-ton  boat  commanded  by 
Kapitan-Leutnant  Wcddigen.  The  ease  with 
which  he  performed  his  work  -was  due  to  a  lack 
of  a  destroyer  screen  and  the  folly  of  the  Ilogne 
and  Cresxy  in  stopping  their  engines  in  the 
known  presence  of  submarines.  The  frightful 
loss  due  to  this  error  caused  the  Admiralty  to 
issue  orders  forbidding  large  vessels  to  proceed 
to  the  assistance  of  others  under  such  circum- 
stances. Sec  section  below  on  Convoy,  etc., 
for  methods  of  fighting  the  submarine. 

During  the  month  of  October,  the  Germans 
lost  a  destroyer  and  a  submarine;  the  British, 
a  submarine,  an  old  ciuiser,  and  the  dread- 
nought battleship  Audacious  by  a  mine.  On 
November  3,  Yarmouth  and  Lowest  oft  were 
bombarded.  The  armored  cruiser,  Yorck,  re- 
turning from  this  service,  struck  a  chain  of 
mines  entering  the  Jahde  estuary  and  was  sunk. 
On  the  16th  the  German  auxiliary  cruiser 
Berlin  was  interned  at  Trondjem;  on  the  20th, 
TJ-18  was  rammed  by  a  patrol  boat  and  floun- 
dered; on  the  23d,  the  German  destroyer  tf-/2'/ 
was  sunk  in  a  collision  with  a  Danish  steamer; 
and  on  the  26th,  the  old  British  battleship  Bui- 
wark  was  blown  up  in  Sheerness  harbor,  due  to 
some  form  of  interior  explosion  in  which  her 
magazines  were  involved.  On  December  16,  a 
German  battle  cruiser  squadron  bombarded  the 
cities  and  harbors  of  Hartlepool,  Whitby.  and 
Scarborough.  Nearly  100  noncombatants  were 
killed  and  500  wounded.  These  were  not  forti- 
fied places. 

On  the  morning  of  Jan.  24,  1915,  the  fast 
cruiser  fleet  in  charge  of  Vice  Admiral  Sir 
David  Beatty,  was  patrolling  in  the  North  Sea. 
This  fleet  consisted  of  the  Fast  Battle  Cruiser 
Squadron,  Lion,  Tiger,  Princess  Royal,  New 
Zealand,  and  Indomitable;  the  First  Light 
Cruiser  Squadron,  Southampton,  "Nottingham, 
Birmingham,  and  Lowe  si  of  t ;  and  two  destroyer 
flotillas.  About  7  A.M.,  the  cruiser  Aurora 
sighted  the  German  light  cruiser  Kolberg  and 
a  destroyer  flotilla  and  at  7.25  action  began 
between  them.  About  this  time  the  German 
fast  squadron  (Rear- Admiral  Hipper),  steering 


WAB  IN  EUBOPE 


1439 


WAB  US  ET7BOFE 


northwest,  was  sighted  from  the  destroyer  flotil- 
las. This  consisted  of  the  battle  cruisers  Dcrf- 
flinger,  Seydlitz,  and  Moltke  and  the  large  ar- 
mored cruiser  Bliicher.  As  soon  as  the  infor- 
mation was  signaled  to  Admiral  Beatty,  he 
headed  for  the  enemy,  which  had  changed  its 
course  to  southeast  as  soon  as  it  perceived  the 
British  battle  cruisers.  At  8.52,  the  Lion 
(flagship)  opened  fire  on  the  Blucher,  the  rear 
ship  of  the  German  column,  at  a  range  of  a 
little  less  than  20,000  yards,  but  did  not  get  a 
hit  until  9.09.  The  German  vessels  began  to 
return  the  fire  at  9.14.  The  Blucher  had  much 
less  speed  than  the  other  German  vessels  and 
slowly  dropped  astern.  About  10.48  she  fell 
out  of  line  and  turned  to  the  northward  with  a 
heavy  list.  The  Indomitable  was  ordered  to 
complete  her  destruction  while  the  others  of  the 
British  fleet  pushed  forward  after  the  main 
body.  At  11.03,  the  Lion  received  a  shell  in 
her  engine  room  which  disabled  her  port  engine 
and  she  hauled  out  of  action.  The  Lion  was 
towed  home  by  the  Indomitable.  The  British 
squadron  was  now  retiring,  having  pursued  the 
enemy  as  close  as  possible  to  the  areas  pro- 
tected by  the  mine  fields  and  submarines. 

On  May  1,  1915,  the  British  destroyei,  Re- 
cruit, was  sunk  by  a  submarine  and  a  week 
later  the  Maori,  a  much  larger  boat,  was  de- 
stroyed by  a  mine  off  Zeebrugge.  On  May  27, 
tlio  British  auxiliary  cruiser  Princess  Irene  was 
blown  up  in  Sheerness  harbor,  only  one  of  her 
crew  escaping.  Karly  in  July  U-30  was  acci- 
dentally sunk,  but  was  raised  within  48  hours 
and  only  one  of  the  crew  was  found  dead. 

October  1-4,  the  Belgian  coast  was  bom- 
barded to  assist  military  operations.  On  Octo- 
ber 28,  the  armored  cruiser  Argyle  ran  ashore 
and  was  wrecked.  On  November  4,  a  German 
submarine  of  new  type  (250  feet  long)  was  cap- 
tured in  a  British  wire  net.  On  November  17, 
the  hospital  ship,  Analia,  was  sunk  by  a  mine 
in  mid-Channel  with  a  loss  of  100  lives — chiefly 
wounded  men.  On  November  28,  a  German  sub- 
marine was  sunk  off  the  Belgian  coast  by  a 
bomb  from  a  seaplane.  On  December  30,  'the 
armored  cruiser  \atal  was  destroyed  by  an  in- 
ternal explosion  while  at  anchor*  On  Jan.  9, 
1916,  the  King  Edward  ^  II  was  sunk  by  a 
mine.  This  battleship  belonged  to  a  class  that 
was  one  of  the  last  and  best  of  the  predrcad- 
n  oughts. 

On  May  31,  1910,  began  the  greatest  naval 
battle  of  the  War.  About  four  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  the  British  fast  battle  squadron  of 
seven  battle  cruisers  and  four  battleships  met 
the  German  High  Seas  Fleet  of  five  battle  cruis- 
ers and  24  battleships  off  Jutland  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  Denmark.  The  British  engaged 
the  enemy  but  fell  back  before  the  vastly  supe- 
rior force  in  the  direction  of  their  main  fleet. 
In  this  part  of  the  action  they  lost  the  battle 
cruisers  Queen  Mary,  Invincible,  and  Indefati- 
gable, and  three  armored  cruisers — ttll  of  which 
were  sunk;  eight  destroyers  were  sunk  during 
the  night  attacks.  The  British  Grand  Fleet 
came  up  about  six  o'clock,  and  soon  afterward 
the  Germans  began  to  retire,  pursued  by  the 
British.  The  action  continued  until  after  mid- 
night; the  night  attacks  being  those  of  destroy- 
ers and  submarines  chiefly.  The  German  losses 
included  the  battleship  Pommern,  the  battle 
cruiser  Lfttzen,  four  fast  cruisers,  and  five  de- 
stroyers. The  losses  of  officers  and  men  were 
about:  British,  5000;  Germans,  3500;  among 

47 


the  British  were  Rear-Admirals  Hood  and  Ar- 
buthnot.  The  Germans  were  favored  by  misty 
weather,  the  close  proximity  of  their  own  coast 
(which  injured  vessels  could  quickly  reach), 
and  by  the  fact  that  a  few  minutes  after  the 
arrival  of  the  main  British  fleet,  mist  and  dark- 
ness obscured  them  from  the  enemy. 

On  June  5,  1910,  the  British  cruiser  Hamp- 
shire was  destroyed  by  a  German  mine  near 
the  Orkney  Islands.  Lord  Kitchener  of  Khart- 
um and  his  staff,  on  their  way  to  Russia,  lost 
their  lives. 

In  August,  Admiral  Schcer,  commanding  the 
German  High  Seas  Fleet,  made  a  sortie  in  force. 
He  first  sent  out  12  submarines  which  he  post- 
ed in  two  lines  of  six  boats  each  across  the  ex- 
pected track  of  the  British  Grand  Fleet — one 
15  or  20  miles  north  of  the  Tyne  and  one  about 
twice  as  far  to  the  south  of  it.  On  August  18, 
the  High  Seas  Fleet  put  to  sea.  Admiral  Jelli- 
coe  had  received  ample  warning  of  the  prob- 
ability of  such  a  movement  and  had  instant  re- 
port of  its  actual  commencement  so  that  he  was 
able  to  start  south  with  the  British  Grand  Fleet 
soon  after  Schcer  got  his  force  formed  outside 
the  German  mine  fields.  Some  hours  later, 
British  Submarine  E-23  hit  the  dreadnought 
battleship  Wcstfalcn  with  two  torpedoes  which 
injured  her  so  seriously  that  she  was  forced  to 
return  to  her  base  under  escort.  But  Scheer 
pushed  on,  six  Zeppelins  scouting  ahead.  After 
meeting  Beatty's  battle  cruiser  squadron,  Jelli- 
coe  placed  it  30  miles  ahead  and  continued  on  a 
southerly  course  calculated  to  intercept  Scheer 
before  lie  could  reach  the  British  coast.  About 
G  A.M.  on  August  19,  Beatty's  light  cruiser 
screen  ran  into  the  first  line  of  U  boata,  which 
was  moving  slowly  northward.  Tho  light  cruis- 
er ^ottingham  w'as  hit  by  two  torpedoes  and, 
while  pndea\oring  to  make  port,  was  sunk  an 
hour  later  by  a  third  torpedo.  Jellicoe  imme- 
diately turned  and  headed  north  for  a  short 
time  "while  the  submarine  menace  could  be 
gauged  and  dispositions  made  to  meet  it 
About  0.30,  the  Harwich  forces  (Commodore 
Tyrwhitt),  which  were  scouting  for  the  German 
fleet,  sighted  its  light  cruisers  and  upon  steam- 
ing towards  them  soon  discovered  the  enemy's 
battle  Meet.  About  10.30,  Jellicoe  turned  south 
again,  Beatty  and  the  cruiser  screen  ahead  as 
before.  At  12.30  Beatty's  squadron  was  abreast 
Newcastle  and  only  42  miles  from  the  German 
battleships.  Scheer,  informed  of  the  situation 
by  his  airship  scouts,  then  turned  to  the  south, 
driving  Tyn\hitt's  light  forces  ahead  of  him. 
At  2  35  he  changed  course  to  the  eastward  and 
headed  for  the  entrance  to  the  Helgoland  Bight. 
The  Grand  Fleet  ran  into  the  second  line  of 
IT  boats  about  3.20  and  soon  afterwards  Jelli- 
coe, deeming  it  impossible  to  overhaul  the  Ger- 
man fleet  until  long  after  dark — and  then  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  Helgoland  submarine  base — 
gave  up  tiie  chase.  He  sent  Tyrwhitt  to  take 
up  a  position  north  of  Terschelling  and  make  a 
night  attack  if  practicable.  The  latter  proceed- 
ed in  obedience  to  orders  but  as  conditions  were 
unfavorable  he  returned  without  attacking. 
Soon  after  the  Grand  Fleet  turned  north,  about 
5  P.  M.  the  U  boats  made  another  attack  and 
succeeded  in  sinking  the  light  cruiser  Falmouth. 
Scheer's  objective  was  undoubtedly  the  British 
Grand  Fleet,  provided  his  submarines  could  sink 
or  disable  enough  battleships  to  reduce  its 
strength  materially.  As  they  failed  to  do  so  he 
retired.  With  two  or  three  times  as  many  sub- 


WAB  IN  ETJBOFE 


1440 


WAE  IN  EUBOPB 


marines  in  three  or  four  lines  he  might  have 
succeeded  if  the  first  one  or  two  lines  had  al- 
lowed Beatty's  force  to  pass  over  them  without 
attack.  A  second  sortie  was  planned  for  Octo- 
ber; but  the  resumption  of  the  qualified  sub- 
marine warfare  against  commerce  .(with  warn-' 
ing,  visit,  and  search)  left  no  submarines  avail- 
able for  service  with  the  fleet  and  the  project 
was  given  up. 

On  the  night  of  October  26-27,  11  German 
destroyers  made  a  very  successful  raid  in  the 
Channel,  destroyed  the  transport  Queen  (no 
troops  on  board)  and  seven  drifters,  disabled 
one  other  destroyer  and,  although  chased  and 
fired  upon,  escaped  into  Zeebrugge. 

On  November  5,  British  submarine  J-l  dis- 
covered a  division  of  German  battleships  en- 
deavoring to  refloat  two  stranded  U  boats.  She 
torpedoed  and  seriously  injured  the  battleships 
Grosser  Kurfurat  and  Kronprinz  but  they  were 
able  to  get  back  to  port. 

About  November  25  the  German  raider  Moewe 
made  her  way  through  the  blockade  and  was 
followed  on  the  30th  by  the  Wolf.  On  Jan.  9, 
1017,  unrestricted  warfare  against  commerce 
(see  BLOCKADE,  SUBMARINE)  was  ordered  to  be- 
gin on  February  1,  but  this  was  not  publicly 
announced  until  January  31.  In  February, 
German  destroyers  made  a  raid  in  the  Channel 
but  effected  no  damage.  On  March  17,  a  more 
successful  raid  took  place.  One  British  de- 
stroyer and  a  merchant  vessel  were  sunk  and 
another  destroyer  disabled.  On  the  same  day 
the  raider  Leopard  attempted  to  pass  through 
the  blockade  but  was  intercepted  and  sunk. 
About  this  time  the  Moewc  slipped  back 
through  the  blockade  after  capturing  27  ships, 
one  of  which  she  sent  into  Swinemunde. 

On  the  night  of  April  20  occurred  the  sharp- 
est fight  of  the  War  in  which  only  destroyers 
and  flotilla  leaders  were  engaged.  "About  12.45 
A.M.,  the  flotilla  leaders  Broke  (Comdr. 
E.  R.G.R.  Evans)  and  Sicift  (Comdr.  A.  Peck), 
constituting  the  West  Barrage  patrol,  sighted 
German  destroyers  on  the  port  bow  GOO  yards 
away.  These  boats,  six  in  number,  were  of  the 
latest  and  largest  German  type  and  were  on 
their  way  back  from  the  Dover  coast  where  they 
had  fired  a  few  shots  but  effected  no  damage. 
The  Surift  tried  to  ram  the  leader  but  failed 
and  passed  through  the  German  line,  firing  a 
torpedo  at  one  of  the  rear  boats;  then,  turning, 
she  again  attempted  to  ram  the  leader  which 
once  more  eluded  her  and  fled  with  the  8wft  in 
pursuit.  The  Broke  hit  the  second  German 
boat  with  her  torpedo  and  opened  a  furious  fire 
from  every  gun  tliat  would  bear.  At  the  same 
time  she  turned  to  port  and  rammed  the  third 
German,  her  stem  remaining  in  the  hole  it 
made.  While  thus  locked  together,  the  crews 
fought  hand  to  hand  as  in  old  sailing-ship  days. 
Of  the  Germans  who  attempted  to  board,  two 
were  captured,  several  killed  and  the  rest  driv- 
en back.  The  Broke  then  succeeded  in  extricat- 
ing herself  and  attempted  to  ram  one  of  the 
other  Germans;  while  she  failed  in  this  she 
hit  the  German's  consort  with  a  torpedo.  They 
both  started  away  and  the  Broke  attempted  to 
follow  but  a  shell  partly  disabled  her  engines, 
so  she  gave  up  the  chase  and,  turning  her  at- 
tention to  a  disabled  German,  which  was  on 
fire,  silenced  her  guns  and  sank  her  with  a 
torpedo.  The  Rwift,  returning,  completed  the 
destruction  of  the  boat  the  Broke  had  rammed. 
The  British  lost  22  killed ;  the  bodies  of  2H  Ger- 


mans were  recovered;    10  German  officers  and 
108  men  were  saved  and  made  prisoners. 

On  May  4,  the  first  division  (six  boats)  of 
American  destroyers  joined  the  British  fleet  and 
they  were  followed  within  30  days  by  three 
other  divisions  of  the  same  size.  By  midsum- 
mer the  numbers  had  grown  to  35  while  dozens 
more  were  nearly  completed  and  were  des- 
patched as  soon  as  they  were  finished,  commis- 
sioned, and  supplied.  This  great  addition  to 
the  destroyer  fleet  made  a  real  convoy  system 
possible,  but  it  was  not  until  a  year  later  that 
the  production  of  destroyers  had  so  much  more 
than  caught  up  with  the  U  boat  building  as  to 
make  commerce  and  the  transportation  of 
troops  sufficiently  safe  to  insure  German  defeat. 

During  the  summer  of  1017  the  British  moni- 
tors bombarded  the  German  submarine  and  de- 
stroyer bases  at  Zeebrugge  and  Ostend  but  ef- 
fected no  important  results.  On  July  9  the 
British  dreadnought  battleship  Vanguard  was 
utterly  destroyed  by  an  internal  explosion  while 
at  anchor  in  Sea  pa  Flow.  Ten  (and  probably 
eleven)  Allied  warships  were  lost  in  this  way 
during  the  War.  Eight,  if  not  all  of  them, 
were  using  some  form  of  nitroglycerin  gunpow- 
der. The  Americans,  French,  a'nd  Germans — 
who  used  nitrocellulose  powders — had  no  such 
experiences. 

On  October  17,  at  early  dawn,  the  weekly  con- 
voy between  Lerwick,  Scotland,  and  the  Nor- 
wegian coast  was  attacked  by  two  German  light 
cruisers.  There  were  two  British  and  nine 
neutral  vessels  convoyed  by  the  destroyers 
fttrongbow  and  Alary  Rose.  The  destroyers 
were  sunk  in  a  very  few  minutes,  and  only 'two 
or  three  of  the  merchant  \essels  escaped.  Con- 
sidering the  fact  that  this  convoy  made  a  reg- 
ular weekly  sailing  each  way,  the  convoying 
force  was  inexcusably  weak. 

On  November  2,  a  German  decoy  cruiser  lying 
in  wait  for  British  submarines  was  sunk  by  a 
destroyer  flotilla  and  on  November  17  an  inde- 
cisive action  occurred  off  Helgoland.  The  Brit- 
ish had  been  laying  mines  in  large  numbers 
acrosH  the  German  exit  channels  through  their 
own  mine  fields  and  the  enemy's  mine  sweepers 
were  kept  busy  in  maintaining  a  clear  channel 
An  attack  on  the  light  cruisers  scouting  ahead 
of  the  mine  sweepors  was  made  by  a  British 
force  consisting  of  the  light  cruisers  Courageous 
and  Glorious^  sevvral  other  light  cruisers,  the 
battle  cruisers  Renown  and  Repulse,  and  a  num- 
ber of  destroyers.  But  the  German  battleships 
Kaiser  and  Kaiserin  coming  up,  followed  by  the 
battle  cruisers  Moltke  and  Hindcriburg,  the 
British  retired. 

This  was  followed,  on  December  12,  by  a  sec- 
ond attack  on  the  Norwegian  flotilla  (six  ves- 
sels) convoyed  by  the  destroyers  Pcllcw  and 
Partridge  and  four  trawlers.  The  German  force 
consisted  of  five  or  six  destroyers.  The  four 
trawlers  were  quickly  sunk.  The  Partridge  was 
disabled,  captured,  and  sunk.  Her  officers  and 
men  were  made  prisoners.  The  Pellew,  though 
chased  by  three  of  the  enemy,  escaped  in  a  rain 
squall.  Tli is  second  catastrophe  led  to  a  change 
in  the  Norwegian  convoy  which  had  its  escort 
greatly  strengthened. 

On  Feb.  15,  1918,  the  Second  German  Destroy- 
er Division  made  a  raid  into  the  Channel  from 
Helgoland  Bight,  sinking  seven  drifters  and  one 
trawler  and  injuring  three  drifters  and  one 
mine  sweeper.  They  were  not  discovered  by  the 
patrol  until  too  late  and  they  escaped  home- 


WAB  IN  OTBOPB 

ward  without  injury.  In  another  raid  from 
Dunkirk  on  March  21,  the  German  destroyers 
were  not  so  lucky.  Instead  of  trawlers  and 
drifters,  they  met  the  flotilla  leader  Botha 
(1700  tons)  and  the  destroyer  Morris  (1000 
tons).  The  Botha  rammed  a  German  at  full 
speed  and  cut  it  in  two.  A  second  German  was 
disabled  by  the  fire  of  the  British  boats.  Short- 
ly afterward  the  Botha  was  hit  by  a  torpedo 
that  disabled  her  engines.  The  Morris  chased 
the  other  German  boats  into  Ostend.  On  her 
return  she  sank  the  disabled  German  and  took 
the  Botha  in  tow. 

On  the  night  of  April  22-23  occurred  one  of 
the  most  daring  feats  of  the  War.  This  was 
an  attempt  by  the  British  navy  to  close  the  in- 
ner channels  of  Zecbrugge  and  Ostend  by  sink- 
ing in  them  old  cruisers  whose  holds  were  half 
filled  with  concrete.  The  force  consisted  of  the 
old  5750-ton  cruiser  Vindictive  carrying  a  land- 
ing party  of  several  hundred  sailors  and  ma- 
rines; the  ex-ferry  steamers  Iris  and  Daffodil 
carrying  some  hundieds  more,  the  old  3400-ton 
cruisers  Thetis,  Intrepid,  and  Iphtgema,  with 
holds  half  filled  with  concrete;  several  patrol 
boats  fitted  to  make  a  heavy  smoke  screen; 
many  motor  boats  and  launches  for  scouting, 
laying  navigation  lights,  carrying  off  survivors, 
etc.;  lastly,  three  destroyers,  one  carrying  Ad- 
miral Keyes,  coinmander-in-chief  of  the  district. 
The  destioyers  were  not  expected  to  join  in  the 
blocking  opeiations  or  in  the  attack  but  were 
designed  to  keep  off  German  destioycis  and  to 
sink  any  trying  to  escape.  Just  at  midnight 
the  Zeebrugge  breakwater  was  sighted  40l)  yards 
away  and  the  ciuiacra  and  ferryboats  started 
in  at  full  speed  followed  by  the  small  craft.  A 
moment  later  they  were  discovered  by  the  ene- 
my who  opened  on  them  with  heavy  and  ma- 
chine guns  on  the  shore  and  breakwater.  In 
five  minutes  the  Vindictive  had  her  bow  secured 
to  the  breakwater  but  had  to  have  the  Daffodil 
force  her  stern  in  on  account  of  the  sweep  of 
the  tide.  The  gangplanks — 18  in  number — 
weie  promptly  placed  but  the  rolling  of  the  ship 
made  them  difficult  to  use,  the  men  having  to 
jump,  drop,  or  get  ashore  as  best  they  could, 
carrying  their  rifies,  machine  guns,  bombs,  etc. 
Meanwhile  the  enemy's  fire  was  terrific.  The 
naval  captain  commanding  the  bluejackets  of 
the  landing  party  and  the  colonel  commanding 
the  marines  were  killed  before  they  could  get 
ashore,  as  were  many  of  their  officers  and  scores 
of  their  men.  The  commander,  executive  officer, 
and  senior  lieutenant  of  the  Iris  were  killed 
and  the  officer  next  in  rank  was  wounded.  A 
shell,  exploding  between  decks  among  the  50 
marines  waiting  there  to  go  ashore,  killed  41) 
and  wounded  the  other  seven.  Altogether  the 
Ins  lost  eight  officers  and  09  men  killed  and 
three  officers  and  102  men  wounded.  The  guns 
of  the  Vindictive  swept  the  mole  and  behind 
their  barrage  the  landing  party  advanced,  driv- 
ing the  Germans  before  them  or  into  the  water. 
After  15  minutes  of  desperate  fighting  the 
breakwater  was  cleared,  its  guns  silenced,  and 
the  long  row  of  hangars  and  storcsheds  set  blaz- 
ing or  blown  up.  An  old  submarine  loaded 
with  explosives  was  now  driven  under  1he  via- 
duct leading  to  the  shore,  abandoned  and  blown 
up,  the  Germans  who  were  still  firing  from  the 
viaduct  going  up  with  it.  The  way  was  low 
clear  for  the  concrete  ships  and  10  minutes  lat- 
er they  rounded  the  end  of  the  mole  and  drove 
straight  for  their  objective  under  fire  that  was 


WAB  IN  ETJBOPB 

still  heavy.  The  leading  ship  fouled  the  wire 
nets  in  the  channel  so  she  had  to  be  sunk  too 
far  out  to  be  of  much  use,  but  she  cleared  the 
way  for  the  others  which  were  sunk  in  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  the  channel,  one  heading  east 
and  one  west.  It  was  still  possible  to  work 
small  submarines  and  torpedo  boats  around  the 
sunken  hulls,  but  destroyers  and  large  craft 
were  barred.  Notwithstanding  the  heavy  fire 
directed  at  them  practically  all  of  the  officers 
and  crews  of  the  concrete  ships  escaped  and 
were  picked  up  by  small  craft.  The  Vmdictirc 
and  her  consorts  then  gathered  up  their  wound- 
ed and  unwounded  and  put  to  sea.  Two  less 
well-planned  attacks  on  Ostend  failed  to  secure 
results  of  importance. 

On  Apr.  23,  1918,  the  German  High  Seas  Fleet 
made  its  last  sortie.  This  was  directed  against 
the  Norwegian  convoys  which  had  giown  great- 
ly in  size  and  now  consisted  of  25  to  50  mer- 
chantmen with  a  strong  convoying  force.  The 
Germans  arrived  off  the  Norwegian  coast  a  day 
too  soon  to  catch  the  westbound  ships  and  two 
days  too  soon  to  catch  those  bound  to  the  east- 
ward. The  Moltle  had  lost  one  propeller  on 
the  way  north  and,  while  being  towed  back  by 
a  battleship,  though  supposedly  covered  by  the 
returning  llect,  she  was  torpedoed  by  a  British 
submarine  and  seriously  injured. 

Work  on  the  great  northern  mine  barrage 
(sec  MINE,  SUBMARINE)  began  early  in  the 
year,  but  shortage  of  mines,  mine-layers,  and 
men  delayed  a  serious  prosecution  of  the  woik 
until  the  arrival  of  the  American  mining  squad- 
ron in  May,  with  many  large  mine-layers  and 
vast  supplies  of  mines,  permitted  the  operations 
to  be  carried  on  rapidly. 

United  States  Transport  Service.  As,  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  War,  very  few  American 
troops  were  ready  for  foreign  service,  the  lack 
of  adequate  means  for  the  transport  of  largo 
numbers  of  officers,  men,  and  supplies  was  not 
felt;  and  the  facilities  grew  faster  than  the  de- 
mand for  them  until  May,  1918,  when  the  great 
rush  of  troops  to  stem  the  German  advance 
strained  the  capacity  of  transport  to  the  ut- 
most. The  first  troops  were  sent  in  July,  1917, 
and  the  convoy  consisted  of  a  few  cruisers  and 
transpoits.  Tho  Cruiser  and  Transport  Serv- 
ice was  then  organized  and  placed  under  the 
command  of  Rcar-Adm  Albert  Gleaves  who 
rapidly  developed  it  into  the  most  wonderful 
thing  of  its  kind  the  world  has  ever  seen.  So 
successful  was  the  con\oy  sybtem  that  after  its 
establishment  not  a  single  American  transport 
was  torpedoed  on  her  eastward  voyage  when  she 
was  carrying  troops.  On  the  return  tnp,  with 
only  the  crews  and  a  few  others  on  board,  three 
transports  were  sunk  by  submarines  and  one 
badly  injured  but  able  to  reach  port,  total  loss 
of  life  on  the  four  ships  being  138.  On  the  re- 
turn voyage  it  was  not  always  practicable  to 
give  the  same  protection  as  on  the  eastward 
trip  The  total  army  personnel  carried  was  2,- 
075,834,  of  whom  about  83,000  were  doctors, 
nurses,  hospital  attendants,  mechanics,  and 
civilians  employed  in  auxiliary  services  In  ad- 
dition, 5,150,000  tons  of  cargo  weie  delivered  in 
France  and  England — artillery,  ammunition, 
aircraft,  food,  clothing  and  other  necessary  mil- 
itary supplies.  In  July,  1918,  300,500  officers 
and  men  were  brought  over  and  for  the  other 
months  of  the  year  from  May  to  October  the 
figures  were  almost  equally  large.  About  half 
the  vessels  used  were  American  and  half  Brit- 


WAB  IN  EUROPE 


Z449 


WAB  IK  ETTBOPE 


ish,  but  four  French  men-of-war  assisted  and 
several  neutral  vessels  were  chartered,  princi- 
pally for  carrying  supplies. 

The  German  Surrender.  The  terms  of  the 
Armistice  required  Germany  to  immediately 
surrender  to  the  Allies  10  battleships,  G  battle 
cruisers,  6  light  cruisers,  2  light  mine-laying 
cruisers,  50  destroyers  of  the  latest  types,  and 
all  submarines;  all  except  the  destroyers  and 
submarines  were  designated  by  name.  On  No- 
vember 21,  the  following  vessels  surrendered  to 
Sir  David  Beatty,  the  British  commander-in- 
chief:  9  dreadnought  battleships  (Friedrich 


Naval  Vessels  of  All  Combatants  Lost  or 
Destroyed.  The  accompanying  table  gives  the 
numbers  of  the  most  important  vessels  (ar- 
ranged in  classes)  lost  by  each  of  the  belliger- 
ent navies  from  Aug.  1,  1014,  to  Nov.  11,  1918, 
not  including  any  vessels  surrendered  by  the 
Armistice  or  by  peace  treaties.  The  abbrevia- 
tions used  signify  as  follows:  D  B.,  dread- 
nought battleship;  P.  B.,  predreadnought  bat- 
tleship; B.  C.,  battle  cruiser;  A.  C.,  armored 
cruiser;  L.  C.,  light  cruiser  or  protected  cruis- 
er; D.,  destroyer;  S.,  submarine.  Numbers 
marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  approximate. 


Nation 
United  States   

D.  B. 

P.  B. 

B.C. 

A.  C. 
1 

L.C. 

D. 
2 

S. 
2 

Great  Britain   

2 

11 

3 

13 

16 

64 

54 

4 

5 

13 

13 

Italy      

1 

2 

2 

2 

9 

7 

1 

1 

3 

2 

Russia  (to  1-1-'18)    

,  2 

2 

2 

1 

18 

15  * 

1 

1 

6 

17 

68  * 

208  * 

2 

1 

3 

6 

11  * 

2 

1 

3 

der  Grosse,  Konig  Albert,  Kaiser,  Prince  Regent 
Luitpold,  Kaisenn,  Bayern,  Afarkgraf,  Kron- 
prinz,  and  Grouser  Kurfurst) ;  5  battle  cruisers 
(Seydlitz,  Moltke,  Derfflinger,  Hindenburg,  and 
Von  der  Tann) ;  5  light  cruisers  ( Karlsruhe, 
Frankfort,  Emden,  Nurnberg,  Coin)  ;  2  light 
mine-laying  cruisers  (Drummer  and  Bremse), 
and  49  destroyers.  To  make  up  the  deficiencies, 
the  dreadnought  battleship  Konig,  the  light 
cruiser  Dresden,  and  one  destroyer  were  surren- 
dered on  December  4,  and  on  Jan.  10,  1919,  the 
dreadnought  battleship  Baden  was  sent  in  place 
of  the  battle  cruiser  Afackensen  which  was  not 
ready  for  sea.  The  total  number  of  submarines 
to  be  surrendered  was  158;  of  these,  87  reported 
to  Rear-Adm.  Sir  Reginald  Tyrwhitt  off  the 
Suffolk  coast  in  November;  by  Jan.  1,  1919,  114 
were  received. 

With  the  exception  of  the  submarines,  all  the 
vessels  named  or  enumerated  in  the  foregoing 
list  were  interned  in  Scapa  Flow.  The  Treaty 
of  Versailles  provided  that  the  interned  ships 
be  permanently  given  up  to  the  Allies;  that 
within  two  months  the  8  dreadnought  battle- 
ships still  in  Germany  should  be  given  up,  also 
8  light  cruisers,  42  modern  destroyers,  and  50 
modern  torpedo  boats.  It  further  provided  that 
the  German  navy  was  thereafter  not  to  possess 
more  than  6  battleships  of  a  predreadnought 
type,  6  light  cruisers,  12  destroyers,  12  torpedo 
boats,  and  was  to  have  no  submarines.  All  ves- 
sels under  construction  and  not  permitted  by 
the  foregoing  limitations  were  to  lie  broken  up. 
No  vessels  were  to  be  built  except  to  replace 
allowed  units  of  the  fleet— battleships  after  20 
years,  cruisers  and  destroyers  after  15  years 
The  personnel,  including  reserves  for  the  fleet 
and  coast  defenses,  was  not  to  exceed  15,000  of- 
ficers and  men.  As  soon  as  the  decision  of  the 
Versailles  Treaty  was  understood  by  the  Ger- 
mans to  be  irrevocable,  and  one  week  before  it 
was  signed,  at  11.15  A.M.,  June  21,  1919,  upon 
signal  from  the  Emden,  the  German  captains  at 
Scapa  scuttled  their  ships.  Only  four  were 
salvaged,  the  Baden,  Emden,  Frankfort,  and 
Nurnberg.  As  partial  indemnity  for  this  act  of 
treachery,  Germany  was  compelled  to  deliver  to 
the  Allies  300,000  tons  of  floating  docks,  her 
remaining  light  cruisers  (Graudenss,  Konigs- 
berg,  Pillau,  Regensburg,  and  Strassburg) ,  and 
42,000  tons  of  floating  cranes,  dredges,  and 
tugs. 


The  merchant  ships  of  the  Allies  and  neu- 
trals sunk  by  submarines  duiing  the  course  of 
the  war  totaled  4837,  divided  by  years  as  fol- 
lows: 1914,  3;  1915,  390;  1910,  964;  1917, 
2439;  1918,  1035.  During  the  same  period  sur- 
face craft  sank  177  merchantmen,  and  mines  ac- 
counted for  497  vessels  The  total  tonnage  of 
the  ships  sunk  by  submarines,  surface  craft  and 
mines  amounted  to  12,739,000.  The  peak  year 
was  1917,  when  more  than  6,000,000  tons  were 
sunk.  According  to  British  Admiralty  reports, 
189  enemy  submarines  were  sunk. 

Convoy  and  Other  Antisubmarine  Defense 
Measures.  The  principle  of  protecting  11011  com- 
batant vessels  by  means  of  accompanying  war- 
ships is  as  old  as  recorded  history  and  has  been 
used  to  some  extent  in  almost  every  naval  war. 
In  the  great  War,  for  various  reasons,  ita 
adoption  was  delayed — except  for  cross-Chan- 
nel transport — until  the  submarine  sinkingfl 
reached  a  point  that  demanded  the  better  use  of 
every  method  to  reduce  the  destruction.  The 
system  of  patrolled  routes  in  which  cruisers, 
destroyers,  and  patrol  vessels  moved  hack  and 
forth  along  the  lines  of  traffic  was  found  to  be 
wholly  ineffective.  General  convoy  was  opposed 
by  the  British  Admiralty,  the  officers  of  the 
Grand  Fleet,  and  owners  and  captains  of  mer- 
chant vessels.  Suitable  escort  vessels  were  in- 
adequate in  number,  and  so  many  destroyers — 
by  far  the  most  efficient  escort  craft — were 
needed  for  naval  operations  that  few  wore  left 
for  other  purposes;  but  the  urgency  of  the  situ- 
ation forced  the  naval  authorities  to  detach  as 
many  of  them  from  the  fleet  as  could  possibly 
be  spared.  The  owners  of  fast  merchant  vessels 
agreed,  after  considerable  grumbling,  to  the  de- 
lays made  necessary  by  convoy,  and  the  dissent- 
ing captains  were  forced  to  accept  tho  convoy 
system,  which  entailed  much  additional  care  in 
steering,  speedkeeping,  etc.  The  available  Brit- 
ish destroyers  were  reinforced  in  May,  1917,  by 
24  from  the  United  States  Navy.  Additional 
ones  were  constantly  arriving  from  the  United 
States  and  new  British  boats  were  being  com- 
pleted so  that,  notwithstanding  the  withdrawal 
of  many  United  States  boats  to  protect  Amer- 
ican troopships,  the  number  available  for  gen- 
eral British  convoy  increased  from  29  in  Janu- 
ary, 1917,  to  139  in  November,  and  continued 
to  grow.  After  the  system  got  in  full  working 
order  in  the  summer  of  1917,  the  amount  of  ton- 


WAB  IN  ETTBOPE 


1443 


IN  ETJBOPE 


nage  sunk  each  month,  with  some  slight  fluctu- 
ations, decreased  steadily  to  the  end  of  the 
Wan 

In  most  convoys  the  train  (i.e.  the  vessels  be- 
ing convoyed)  consisted  of  12  to  40  ships — 
preferably  25  to  35 — arranged  in  three  or  more 
columns.  The  distance  between  ships  in  each 
column  was  usually  500  yards  and  toe  interval 
between  columns  800  yards,  but  these  figures 
were  sometimes  increased  in  bad  weather  or 
under  special  circumstances  The  escort  of  the 
earlier  convoys  consisted  of  two  destroyers,  a 
wholly  inadequate  force  which  offered  no  pro- 
tection against  the  weakest  of  German  cruisers 
or  destroyer  divisions  (usually  five  boats)  and 
very  little  against  submarines.  Cruisers,  act- 
ing as  a  covering  force  for  the  convoy,  were  al- 
ways on  patrol  in  its  vicinity,  but  they  fre- 
quently failed  to  arrive  until  after  the  escorting 
destroyers  had  been  sunk  or  driven  off  and  a 
heavy  toll  taken  of  the  ships  convoyed.  Later 
convoys  had  an  escort  of  0  to  12  destroyers  dis- 
tributed ahead,  on  each  beam,  and  astern. 
British  convoys  were  assembled  in  certain  ports 
and  placed  in  charge  of  a  naval  officer,  called 
"commodore  of  convoy,"  who  took  passage  in 
one  of  the  ships  with  his  staff  arid  returned  in 
the  escort  when  the  convoy  broke  up  200  to  400 
miles  off  shore.  He  received  icports  of  danger 
and  directed  the  course,  speed,  and  steering. 
The  American  troopship  convoys  were  usually 
accompanied  by  a  regular  naval  cruiser,  the 
captain  of  which  acted  as  commodore  of  con- 
voy. As  the  captains  of  most  of  the  troopships 
were  officers  of  the  navy  or  of  the  naval  reserve, 
a  high  degree  of  convoy  efficiency  was  obtained 
and  this  was  an  important  factor  in  the  won- 
derful success  of  the  work.  The  "zig-zag'* 
method  of  steering  used  when  in  submarine-in- 
fested waters,  or  when  a  submarine  was  sighted, 
consisted  in  an  irregular  and  frequent  change 
of  course  of  one  to  two  points  on  either  side  of 
the  regular  course.  This  seriously  interfered 
with  a  submarine's  calculations  and  compelled 
it  to  get  very  close  to  the  target  (and  therefore 
within  easy  might  and  range  of  the  destroyers) 
in  order  to  have  any  reasonable  probability  of 
scoring  a  hit.  Another  means  of  deceiving  the 
submarine  as  to  the  course  steered  by  a  vessel 
was  camouflage  painting,  which  also  added 
much  to  the  difficulty  of  sighting  a  ship  and 
identifying  her  character;  for  these  reasons  it 
was  very  generally  adopted  by  both  war  vessels 
and  merchant  sh'ips.  A  camouflaged  ship  re- 
sembled a  huge  futurist  painting  of  nothing  in 
particular,  the  stripes,  areas,  colors,  and  lines 
so  breaking  up  the  picture  as  to  render  it  al- 
most impossible  to  make  out  the  actual  con- 
tours of  the  hull  and  unperworks  except  at  close 
range  or  under  exceptional  conditions  oi  light 
and  background.  Smoke  screens,  much  used  by 
destroyers  in  naval  actions,  were  occasionally 
employed  by  merchant  vessels,  especially  when 
not  under  convoy.  They  were  produced  by  spe- 
cial handling  of  the  fires  under  oil-burning 
boilers  or  by  chemicals. 

Operations  in  the  Baltic.  As  soon  as  the 
relations  with  Russia  became  strained,  German 
ships  began  to  patrol  the  coast  from  Memel  to 
the  Gulf  of  Riga.  Mine  laying  by  Germany  and 
Russia  began  in  the  Baltic  at  least  as  early  as 
in  the  North  Sea.  On  August  27,  the  German 
cruiser  Magdeburg  ran  ashore  in  a  fog  on  the 
Island  of  Odensholm  and  was  blown  up  to  avoid 
capture  by  an  approaching  Russian  naval  force. 


On  December  12,  the  German  armored  cruiser 
Friedrich  Karl  was  sunk  by  a  mine  and  on  the 
25th  the  old  cruiser  Bertha  and  a  mine  layer 
were  attacked  by  Russian  cruisers  and  sunk. 
The  Russian  submarines  were  now  becoming  ef- 
fective and,  notwithstanding  the  ice,  were  cruis- 
ing in  the  Baltic,  although  the  ice  interfered 
with  prosecuting  operations  of  importance  dur- 
ing the  remainder  of  the  winter  and  in  the 
early  spring. 

On  July  2,  1915,  a  Russian  cruiser  squadron 
drove  off  a  German  light  cruiser  and  several 
destroyers  and  forced  the  mine  layer  Albatross 
to  run  ashore  in  a  sinking  condition.  British 
submarines  had  now  reached  the  Baltic  in  con- 
siderable numbers,  passing  under  the  mine  fields 
or  through  the  Sound  and  along  the  Swedish 
coast.  Their  presence  acted  as  a  strong  check 
on  German  operations,  especially  after  the  Ger- 
man armored  cruiser  Pnnz  Adalbert  was  sunk 
(October  23)  off  Libau.  On  November  7,  a 
British  submarine  sank  the  German  cruiser 
Undine,  and  on  December  19,  another  subma- 
rine sank  the  Bremen  and  a  torpedo  boat. 

No  operations  of  importance  occurred  during 
1916  and  early  in  1917  the  Russian  Revolution 
left  the  control  of  the  Baltic  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Germans. 

Operations  in  the  Mediterranean.  On  the 
day  after  war  was  declared,  the  German  naval 
force  in  the  Mediterranean  bombarded  unde- 
fended seaport  towns  in  Algeria,  the  battle 
cruiser  Goeben  firing  upon  Phihppeville  and 
the  light  cruiser  Breslau  upon  Bona.  These 
cruisers  arrived  in  the  Dardanelles  on  August 
10.  To  avoid  immediate  trouble  for  the  Otto- 
man authorities  they  were  supposedly  sold  to 
Turkey  and  renamed  Sultan  Sehm  Javuz  and 
Medillu,  but  they  continued  in  command  of 
German  officers  and  retained  a  part  at  least  of 
their  German  crews. 

On  August  9,  Austria  declared  a  blockade  of 
the  Montenegrin  coast  and  bombarded  Antivari. 
About  the  same  date  French  and  British  fleets 
established  a  blockade  of  the  Austrian  coast  at 
the  Strait  of  Otranto.  The  Austrians  had 
placed  mine  fields  all  along  their  coast.  About 
the  middle  of  August,  Allied  forces  swept  up 
the  Adriatic,  driving  the  Austrians  to  the  north- 
ward. They  then  attempted  to  take  Cattaro  for 
a  naval  base,  but  lacked  the  military  force  for 
a  garrison  and  shore  operations,  and  therefore 
failed. 

The  peculiar  behavior  of  Turkey  and  the  min- 
ing of  the  Dardanelles  caused  a  British  force 
to  be  maintained  in  that  region.  While  on  this 
duty  the  armored  cruiser  Warrior  ran  ashore 
and*  was  injured  on  September  7.  On  the  10th, 
Turkey  abrogated  the  capitulations  with  foreign 
governments  and  during  the  latter  part  of  Oc- 
tober permitted  her  vessels  to  sink  Russian 
ships  of  war  and  to  attack  Odessa.  De  facto 
war  was  begun  by  the  Entente  Allies  on  No- 
vember 1.  On  November  21,  the  French  sub- 
marine Curie  was  sunk  while  scouting  along  the 
Austrian  coast  On  November  24,  Italy  landed 
a  force  at  Avlona  to  assist  her  protegS  Essad 
Pasha  against  the  Albanian  insurrectionists. 

On  February  24,  1915,  the  French  destroyer 
Dague  was  sunk  by  a  mine  off  Antivari.  On 
April  26,  the  French  armored  cruiser  Leon  Gam- 
betta  was  torpedoed  by  the  Austrian  submarine 
U-5  and  sank  in  10  minutes. 

On  May  24,  Italy  declared  war  on  Austria; 
on  the  same  day  Austrian  torpedo  boats,  sup- 


WAB  IN  ETJBOPE 


*444 


WAB  IN  EUBOPE 


ported  by  the  light  cruiser  Novara,  made  a  raid 
on  the  Italian  coast,  where  they  were  first  met 
by  Italian  destroyers  and  finally  driven  off  by 
Italian  cruisers.  The  Italian  destroyer  Turbine 
was  sunk  early  in  the  action.  On  June  10,  the 
Italians  captured  Monfalcone  with  its  ship- 
building yards.  The  advent  of  Italy  into  the 
War  completed  the  control  of  the  Adriatic  by 
the  Entente  Allies  and,  on  July  6,  Italy  clinched 
the  situation  by  a  proclamation  closing  it  to  all 
merchant  vessels  not  possessing  special  permits. 
Operations  of  the  Austrian  submarines  were 
much  hampered  by  the  destruction  of  their  base 
on  Lagosta  Island  by  the  French  destroyer 
Bisson. 

On  September  28,  a  fire  broke  out  on  the 
Italian  battleship  Benedetto  Bnn  while  she  was 
lying  at  anchor  in  Brindisi  harbor.  The  fire 
was  quickly  followed  by  an  explosion  which 
destroyed  the  ship. 

During  the  month  of  December,  1915,  the 
Italians  landed  a  large  force  of  troops  in  Al- 
bania. The  expedition  was  most  efficiently 
guarded  against  submarines  and  the  only  losses 
were  the  destroyer  Intrepido  and  the*  troop- 
ship K6  Umberto,  which  struck  drifting  mines. 
In  January,  1916,  a  cruiser  of  the  Noiara, 
type  was  sunk  by  the  French  submarine  Fou- 
cault. 

The  Italian  dreadnought,  Leonardo  da  Vinci, 
blew  up  in  the  harbor  of  Tar  an  to  on  August  2. 
The  British  transport,  Francoina,  wan  torpe- 
doed on  October  5,  and  on  October  9,  the  French 
auxiliary  cruiser,  Gallia,  was  similarly  sunk. 
The  British  ship  Britannic  was  sunk  by  a  mine 
in  the  -tfCgean  Sea  on  November  21.  On  Decem- 
ber 11,  the  Italian  battleship,  Reqina  Margher- 
ita,  struck  a  mine  and  sank  and  075  lives  were 
lost. 

The  naval  operations  in  the  Adriatic  during 
the  year  1918  were  very  active.  On  Dec.  U, 
1917,  Italian  torpedo  boats  made  a  raid  on 
Trieste,  and  sank  the  small  battleship  Wicn 
(5500  tons),  and  injured  another  of  the  same 
class.  On  April  22,  in  a  fight  between  two 
British  and  five  Austrian  destroyers,  the  for- 
mer were  reenforced,  and  the  latter  retreated 
to  Durazzo,  with  the  British  in  pursuit.  On 
June  10,  1918,  the  Austrian  battle  fleet  of  four 
dreadnought  battleships,  accompanied  by  cruis- 
ers and  destroyers,  while  on  its  way  to  make 
a  demonstration  in  force  against  the  Otranto 
barrage,  was  attacked  by  two  small  Italian 
torpedo  boats  which  sank  the  battleship  Bzent 
Istvan  and  seriously  injured  the  Prinz  Kuyen, 
a  sister  ship. 

Operations  in  the  Black  Sea  and  Darda- 
nelles. The  first  operations  took  place  on 
October  29,  when  the  Turkish  squadron,  includ- 
ing the  flultan  Selim  Javuts  (ex-Uoeben)  and 
Medillu  (ex-Breslau)  bombarded  several  Rus- 
sian ports.  A  destroyer  entered  Odessa  harbor, 
torpedoed  and  sank  the  gunboat  Donetz  and 
badly  injured  the  Kubanetz  (a  sister  to  the 
Donetz),  and  four  merchant  steamers.  On  the 
same  day  the  Medillu  bombarded  Theodosia,  se- 
riously injuring  the  cathedral  and  other  build- 
ings. On  their  way  to  Sebastopol  the  Turkish 
destroyers  sank  the  Russian  mine  layer  Pruth. 
The  next  day  (October  30),  accompanied  by  de- 
stroyers, the  Sultan  Selitn  bombarded  Sebasto- 
pol. By  the  return  fire  of  the  forts  she  was  so 
badly  injured  that  the  admiral  collected  the 
squadron  and  returned  to  Constantinople. 

During  January,  IP! 5,  the  Russian  fleet  sank 


several  Turkish  vessels  in  the  Black  Sea,  in- 
cluding a  number  of  troopships  and  transports, 
and  shelled  the  Turkish  naval  station  at  Sinope. 
On  the  17th  the  French  submarine  Saphir  wa« 
sunk  by  a  mine  in  the  Dardanelles.  About  the 
middle  of  February,  the  combined  British  and 
French  fleets  began  their  fruitless  attempt  to 
force  a  passage  of  the  Dardanelles.  No  opera- 
tions in  the  whole  course  of  the  War  were  so 
poorly  conceived  and  PO  inefficiently  carried  out. 
It  is  hard  to  understand  the  folly  of  the  British 
government  in  embarking  upon  such  an  expedi- 
tion. If  theie  is  one  thing  that  is  well  under- 
stood in  naval  war  it  is  the  absurdity  of  at- 
tacking strong  forts  by  ships,  especially  with- 
out adequate  military  support.  Even  if  the 
ships  can  drive  out  the  garrison  it  will  return 
as  soon  as  the  bombardment  ceases.  Unlews  the 
fortifications  are  badly  placed,  they  cannot  be 
wholly  destroyed  and  the  ravages  of  bombard- 
ment can  be  largely  restored  by  a  few  days' 
work.  Permanence  of  victory  can  only  be  ob- 
tained by  occupying  fho  works  as  soon  as  the 
defenders  are  expelled  (see  MILITARY  OPERA- 
TIONS). 

As  already  stated,  the  operations  began  in 
February.  Several  bombardments  of  the  forts 
were  carried  out  and  considerable  injury  in- 
flicted upon  them.  The  ships,  much  hampered 
by  bad  weather  outside,  then  entered  the  straits 
for  closer  work.  On  March  18,  the  British  bat- 
tleships Ocean  and  Irresistible  and  the  French 
battleship  Rouvct  were  sunk  by  mines  and  the 
British  battle  cruiser  Inflexible  badly  injured 
by  gun  fire.  The  plan  of  forcing  the  passage 
by  battleships  was  then  given  up,  and  the  sec- 
ond phase  of  the  operations  soon  began.  Late 
in  April  the  British  and  French  troops  were 
landed  under  fire  at  the  Dardanelles.  On  May 
12,  the  British  battleship  (JtoUath  was  sunk  by 
a  Turkish  destroyer  in  a  night  attack;  the  bat- 
tleships Triumph  and  Majestic  were  sunk  by 
submarines  a  few  days  later,  the  former  on  the 
25th,  the  lattei  on  the  27th.  The  British  sub- 
marines were  very  active  at  this  time  in  the 
Black  Sea  and  Se'a  of  Marmora,  sinking  many 
vessels,  chiefly  transports  and  troopships,  but 
on  August  8  they  sank  the  old  Turkish  battle- 
ship Khcyr-ed-din  Barbarossa  and  the  Turkish 
gunboat  Berk-i-tfatvet.  In  June,  the  German 
U-51  was  sunk  in  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Ger- 
man submarine  base  at  Smyrna  destroyed. 

About  August  1,  the  French  submarine  Mari- 
ottc  was  sunk.  During  the  summer  many  Brit- 
ish transports  and  troopships  were  destroyed 
by  German  submarines,  the  most  important  be- 
ing the  troopship  Royal  Eduard,  which  was 
sent  to  the  bottom  on  August  14  with  the  loss 
of  800  lives;  but  the  sinking  of  the  troop- 
ships Ramazan  ( British)  and  the  ftlarqucttc 
(French)  were  disasters  almost  equally  great. 
In  the  Black  Sea  the  Russians  seemed  to  have 
been  unable  to  blockade  or  capture  the  Medillu 
(ex-Rreslau)  or  the  Hamidieh.  In  October,  the 
tiultan  Sehm  Javuz  ( ex-Gfoefcen )  appeared 
again  in  the  Black  Sea  but  accomplished  noth- 
ing of  importance  and  seemed  to  be  partly  dis- 
abled. 

The  Dardanelles  operations  were  now  admit- 
ted to  be  a  failure,  and  the  British  began  to 
transfer  their  troops  to  Saloniki.  The  opera- 
tions in  the  Black  Sea  still  continued  but  by 
the  summer  of  1910  had  become  of  no  special 
importance,  since  the  Turkish  navy  had  for  a 
time  been  reduced  to  impotence.  On  Oct.  20, 


WAB  IK  ETTBOPE 


X445 


WAB  IK  ETJBOPE 


1016,  the  Imperatritsa  Marie,  a  Russian  dread- 
nought, blew  up. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Bolshevik  revolution, 
many  of  the  officers  and  men  of  the  Black  Sea 
fleet  refused  to  recognize  the  authority  of  the 
Bolshevik  leaders,  Lenine  and  Trotsky.  This 
resulted  in  several  battles  between  the  two  fac- 
tions which  usually  ended  disastrously  for  the 
anti-Bolshevik  men.  The  ships  were  surren- 
dered to  the  Germans  on  June  10,  1918.  The 
Turkish  cruiser  Medjidieh,  which  had  been  sunk 
in  action,  and  afterwards  raised  and  repaired 
by  the  Russians,  was  returned  to  the  Turks. 
Cruiser  Operations  in  Atlantic,  Pacific, 
and  Indian  Oceans.  At  the  outbreak  of  war 
the  only  German  vessels  beyond  the  reach  of 
home  ports  were  the  battle  cruiser  Goeben,  the 
armored  cruisers  Schamhorst  and  Gneisenau, 
the  fast  cruisers  Karlsruhe,  Brenlau,  Emden, 
Dresden,  Nurnberg,  Konigsberg,  Leipzig,  and 
Breslau,  and  a  number  of  small  cruisers  and 
gunboats.  To  these  were  quickly  added  several 
fast  merchant  steamers,  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
der  Qrosse,  Kronprinz  Wilhelm,  Prinz  Eitel 
Friedrich,  Cap  Trafalgar,  and  Sprcewald. 
These  had  their  armaments  on  board  or  in  Ger- 
man colonial  ports. 

The  operations  of  the  Goeben  and  Breslau 
are  described  elsewhere  in  this  article.  The 
Ncharnhorst  and  Gneisenau  were,  after  the  Goe- 
fcrn,  the  most  important  vessels  on  the  list  and 
were  under  the  command  of  Vice  Admiral  Count 
von  Spec,  the  only  German  flag  officer  outside 
of  European  waters.  After  the  commencement 
of  hostilities  these  vessels  were  first  heard  of 
at  Tahiti,  where  they  bombarded  the  port  of 
Papeete  and  sunk  tne  French  gunboat  Zetfe. 
The  Nurnbcrg,  after  cutting  the  America-Aus- 
tralia cable  at  Fanning  Island,  joined  Von 
Spec's  squadron.  He  then  proceeded  to  the 
west  coast  of  South  America,  where  he  met  the 
Dresden  and  Leipzig.  On  the  afternoon  of 
Nov.  1,  1014,  Rear-Adm.  Sir  Christopher  Crad- 
ock,  with  a  squadron  consisting  of  the  armored 
cruisers  Good  Hope  and  Afonmowf/i,  the  fast 
light  cruiser  Glasgow,  and  the  armed  merchant 
steamer  Otranto,  was  oif  the  Chilean  coast 
searching  for  German  cruisers.  The  old  battle- 
ship Canopus  was  near  at  hand  and  proceeding 
to  a  rendezvous  to  join  the  squadron.  About 
4.20  P.M.  smoke  was  seen  to  the  northward  and 
soon  afterward  Von  Spec's  squadron,  consisting 
of  the  Scharnhorst,  Gneisenau,  unarmored  cruis- 
ers Dresden,  Leipzig,  and  Nurnberg,  was  sighted 
heading  south.  At  7.03,  the  enemy  opened  fire 
at  about  11,500  yards,  quickly  followed  by  the 
British.  The  superiority  of  the  German  ships 
was  at  once  apparent.  At  7.50  a  tremendous 
explosion  occurred  on  the  Good  Hope  amid- 
ships, the  flames  reaching  an  altitude  of  200 
feet.  The  Monmouth  was  already  out  of  action, 
down  by  the  head,  and  leaking  badly.  Dark- 
ness and  a  rain  squall  coming  up  made  the 
pointing  of  the  guns  very  difficult,  so  Von 
Spee  signaled  the  light  cruisers  to  attack  the 
enemy's  ships  with  torpedoes.  The  Good  Hope 
could  not  be  found  and  had  probably  gone  down, 
but  the  N timber g  discovered  the  Monmouth 
and,  by  gun  fire  at  close  range,  caused  her  to 
capsize.  In  the  darkness  and  thick  weather  the 
Glasgow  and  Otranto  got  away  without  diffi- 
culty. 

The  British  Admiralty  immediately  took 
steps  to  meet  the  situation  by  secretly  despatch- 
ing a  squadron  under  Vice  Admiral  Sturdee  in 


pursuit  of  Von  Spee.  This  consisted  of  the  bat- 
the  cruisers  Invincible  and  Inflexible,  the  ar- 
mored cruisers  Carnarvon,  Cornwall,  and  Kent, 
the  fast  cruiser  Bristol,  and  the  Macedonia,  sup- 
ply steamer.  At  some  rendezvous  on  the  South 
American  coast  they  were  joined  by  the  Cano- 
pus and  Glasgow.  About  8  o'clock  on  the 
morning  of  December  8,  while  Sturdee  was  coal- 
ing in  the  Falkland  Islands,  the  leading  ships 
of  the  German  squadron  were  sighted.  Know- 
ing nothing  of  the  battle  cruisers,  the  Germans 
came  leisurely  on,  apparently  intent  on  destroy- 
ing the  wireless  station.  At  9.20,  they  were 
within  11,000  yards,  and  the  Canopus,  still  at 
anchor,  opened  fire  on  them  over  the  lowland. 
They  then  turned  to  the  southeast  to  rejoin  the 
main  body  which  immediately  proceeded  to  the 
eastward  at  full  speed  At  0.45,  the  British 
squadron  came  out  and  started  in  chase.  About 
1  P.M.  the  Invincible  and  the  Inflexible  began 
firing  on  the  rear  ships  of  the  German  column 
and  a  little  later  were  able  to  read:  the  armored 
vessels  and  leave  the  others  to  the  cruisers. 
At  4.04,  the  Scharnhorst  began  to  list  heavily 
to  port  and  at  4.17,  sank  with  all  hands.  The 
Gneisenau  continued  the  hopeless  fight,  though 
after  5  o'clock  she  was  hors  de  combat.  At  0 
P.M.,  she  heeled  very  suddenly  and  sank.  Of 
the  German  light  cruisers,  the  Leipzig  was  sunk 
by  the  fire  of  the  Glasgow  and  Cornwall  about 
9  P.M.,  and  the  Numberg  by  that  of  the  Kent 
at  7.27.  The  Dresden,  which  escaped,  was  dis- 
covered off  the  island  of  Juan  Fernandez  on 
Mar.  14,  1915,  by  the  Glasgow,  Kent,  and  aux- 
iliary cruiser  Grama.  After  an  action  of  five 
minutes'  duration  she  surrendered,  but  was  on 
fire  and  soon  afterward  blew  up. 

Of  all  the  German  cruisers  the  Emden  had 
the  most  spectacular  and  successful  career.  On 
August  1,  she  left  Tsingtao.  During  her  re- 
markable career  of  94  days,  the  Emden  cap- 
tured or  sank  30  vessels,  destroyed  $25,000,000 
worth  of  the  enemy  property,  almost  paralyzed 
the  commerce  of  the  East,  and  had  19  war  Ves- 
sels of  the  enemy  seeking  her.  -She  was  finally 
compelled  to  run  ashore  on  the  Cocoa  Island  by 
the  Sydney  on  November  9. 

The  Konigsberg  was  less  successful.  After  a 
cruise  of  two  months  along  the  South  African 
coast,  in  which  she  destroyed  several  British 
merchant  ships  and  the  small  cruiser  Pegasus, 
she  was  blockaded  in  the  Rufiji  River,  German 
East  Africa,  where  she  was  destroyed  by  a  Brit- 
ish expedition  on  July  11,  1915. 

Of  the  German  armed  merchant  steamers,  the 
Spreeuald  was  captured  by  the  armored  cruiser 
Berwick  on  September  12.  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm 
der  Grosse  had  a  still  shorter  career,  being 
sunk  on  Aug.  27,  1914,  by  the  British  cruiser 
Highflyer.  On  October  H,  the  Cap  Trafalgar, 
which  was  beginning  to  interfere  with  the  Brit- 
ish trade  to  South  America,  was  sunk  by  the 
British  armed  steamer  Carmania,  late  of  the 
Cunard  line.  The  Kronprinz  'Wilhelm  and  the 
Prinz  Eitel  Friedrich,  after  long  and  success- 
ful cruises  as  commerce  destroyers,  entered 
United  States  waters  and  were  interned  at 
Norfolk. 

Immediately  after  war  was  declared,  the  En- 
tente Allies  began  perfecting  arrangement's  for 
the  capture  of  German  colonies.  On  August  7, 
Togoland  was  seized  by  land  forces.  On  Au- 
gust 27,  Japan  declared  a  blockade  of  Kiaochow, 
and  on  November  7,  Tsingtao,  the  German 
stronghold  in  China,  surrendered  to  the  Allied 


WAB  IN  ETJBOPE 


1446 


WAB  IN  ETTROPE 


forces,  chiefly  Japanese,  Early  in  August,  a 
New  Zealand  expedition  sailed  for  Samoa.  At 
Noumea,  the  convoy,  which  was  a  weak  one,  be- 
came strengthened  by  the  battle  cruiser  Aus- 
tralia and  the  cruiser  Melbourne  of  the  Aus- 
tralian navy,  and  the  French  armored  cruiser 
Mont  calm.  The  expedition  arrived  at  Apia  on 
August  20  and  the  German  governor  surren- 
dered at  once,  as  he  had  practically  no  means 
of  resistance.  On  its  return  from  'Samoa,  the 
Australian  squadron  captured  Herbertshohe, 
the  capital  of  the  Bismarck  Archipelago,  and, 
on  September  27,  took  possession  of  the  town 
of  Friedrich  Wilhelm  in  Kaiser  Wilhelmsland 
(German  New  Guinea).  During  September 
and  October,  Australian  and  Japanese  expedi- 
tions seized  the  remaining  German  possessions 
in  the  Ladrone,  Marshall,  and  Caroline  Islands. 
For  a  technical  discussion  see  NAVIES; 
BLOCKADE,  SUBMARINE;  BOMB*  DEPTH;  MINE, 
SUBMARINE;  ROSYTH;  SCAPA  FLOW;  GUNNERY, 
NAVAL;  MINE,  SUBMARINE;  VESSEL,  NAVAL. 

AERIAL  OPERATIONS 

The  outbreak  of  the  War  found  the  Great 
Powers  of  Europe  ready  and  anxious  to  make 
immediate  application  of  aeronautics  to  their 
respective  militaiy  and  naval  operations.  That 
all  were  inadequately  prepared  on  the  score  of 
equipment  and  trained  personnel  the  opening 
weeks  of  the  war  soon  showed,  and  early  the 
demands  likely  to  be  made  on  the  aerial  serv- 
ices were  clearly  indicated.  But  in  no  field  did 
developments  follow  more  rapidly,  and  as  ear- 
ly as  the  Germans  undertook  the  invasion  of 
Belgium  and  France  it  was  realized  that  aSro- 
plane  and  airship  had  worked  materially  to 
change  the  nature  and  scope  of  military  opera- 
tions and  to  render  obsolete  tactics  and  move- 
ments that  long  had  prevailed  in  warfare.  By 
affording  to  scouts  and  intelligence  officers  a 
complete  view  of  the  enemy's  territory,  the  dis- 
position and  movement  of  his  troops  and  fleets, 
and  his  permanent  or  even  most  temporary  de- 
fenses, surprise  or  flanking  movements  were 
rendered  practically  impossible.  With  both 
sides  adequately  informed  as  to  the  forces  of 
their  adversaries  through  constant  aerial  scout- 
ing and  reconnoissance,  the  tendency  towards 
trench  fighting  and  the  protracted  sieges  and 
bombardments  of  the  Western  front  was  as  pro- 
nounced as  it  was  inevitable.  The  direction 
and  control  of  tire  from  an  observation  or  kite 
balloon  or  aeroplane  early  became  an  indispen- 
sable feature  of  the  work  of  the  artillery.  The 
tactical  changes  wrought  by  the  use  of  aircraft 
were  stupendous,  and  the  service  of  security 
and  information  by  aerial  observers  and  range 
finding  for  the  artillery  became  essential  fea- 
tures of  the  everyday  work  of  the  forces  in  the 
field.  In  addition  there  were  raids  by  aero- 
plane and  airship  to  drop  explosive  or  incendi- 
ary bombs  on  fortified  positions,  moving  col- 
umns, railway  trains,  supply  depots  or  muni- 
tions works,  or  on  warships,  submarines,  and 
transports. 

Such  activities  on  the  part  of  the  airmen 
soon  became  so  valuable  in  a  military  sense 
that  the  prevention  of  these  efforts  was  essen- 
tial, and  this  naturally  led  to  the  development 
of  the  purely  combative  side  of  ae*rial  warfare, 
which  soon  passed  from  individual  duels  in  the 
air  to  savage  actions  often  at  close  range  par- 
ticipated in  by  a  number  of  aeroplanes  of  dif- 


ferent types,  where  battle  tactics  of  an  elemen- 
tary form  were  evolved  as  a  result  of  training 
and  drill  to  secure  harmony  of  action. 

Naturally  this  led  to  increased  armament 
and  armoring  of  the  aeroplanes,  and  the  calibre 
of  the  rapid-fire  gun  that  soon  took  the  place 
of  the  automatic  pistol  became  greater,  so  that 
an  air  battle  was  indeed  a  serious  matter,  and 
the  protection  of  fuel  tanks  and  machinery  and 
the  design  of  machines  to  withstand  as  much 
penetration  of  the  wings  as  possible  figured 
prominently,  as  indeed  did  the  entire  question 
of  design  and  construction  for  power,  carrying 
capacity,  speed,  ease  of  manoeuvring,  and  gen- 
eral reliability.  Remarkable  advances  were  re- 
alized, together  with  wholesale  demands  which 
taxed  the  facilities  for  manufacture  in  the  bel- 
ligerent nations  as  well  as  in  America. 

Flying  corps  existing  in  armies  and  navies 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  War  were  greatly  aug- 
mented and  preparations  made  to  train  vast 
numbers  of  aviators.  It  was  estimated  that 
the  various  belligerent  nations  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  War  possessed  about  5000  aeroplanes  and 
109  dirigibles.  Naturally  Germany,  where  12 
Zeppelins  and  about  23  Parseval  and  Gross  air- 
shipti  and  about  1000  aeroplanes  were  available 
at  the  beginning  of  the  War,  was  preeminent 
as  regards  numtrcrs  and  trained  pilots  and  ob- 
servers, but  here  the  policy  of  standardization 
and  organization  contributing  so  much  to  her 
efficiency  in  other  fields  was  not  of  correspond- 
ing avail.  A  year's  service,  even  less,  demon- 
strated that  much  of  the  equipment  so  carefully 
assembled  and  standardized  soon  became  obso- 
lete and  inferior  with  respect  to  the  rapid  de- 
velopments that  war  conditions  were  bringing 
out  for  the  Allies. 

While  the  Germans  had  trained  men  in  their 
aviation  corps,  the  French,  with  perhaps  31  air- 
ships of  nonrigid  or  semirigid  types  and  pos- 
sibly 1200  military  aeroplanes  of  different  de- 
signs, had  fewer  enrolled  aviators  at  the  out- 
break of  the  War  in  actual  service,  but  had  a 
large  number  of  expert  civilians  and  their  ma- 
chines to  call  upon,  go  that  soon  there  was 
organized  a  body  of  men  whose  equipment,  both 
available  and  rapidly  supplied,  represented  the 
note  of  progress  ever  peculiar  to  the  French  in 
this  field.  The  organization  and  drill  of  the 
various  units  was  done  with  remarkable  mili- 
tary skill  and  care. 

Great  Britain,  distinctly  inferior  in  organiza- 
tion and  equipment  as  well  as  numbers,  for  its 
aeroplanes  hardly  totaled  500  and  its  dirigibles 
but  15,  at  the  beginning  of  the  War  endeavored 
speedily  to  repair  these  deficiencies,  and  while 
the  defensive  efforts  to  repel  the  Zeppelin  raids 
were  crowned  with  but  moderate  success,  British 
aviators  at  the  front  and  at  sea  achieved  a  good 
record.  Russia,  with  10  small  airships  and 
perhaps  800  aeroplanes,  many  of  which  were  in 
poor  shape,  suffered  from  inadequacy  of  equip- 
ment, while  in  Austria  and  Italy  from  the  out- 
set aerial  war  was  waged  by  both  powers  with 
a  fair  degree  of  preparation. 

Agrial  activities  in  war  became  not  only  im- 
portant but  indispensable  under  modern  condi- 
tions, yet  it  did  not  have  a  direct  and  primary 
effect  on  the  progress  of  the  War  itself,  com- 
parable, let  us  say,  to  the  activities  of  the  sub- 
marine. Indirectly  the  influence  of  aircraft  on 
warfare  proved  enormous,  but  four  years  of  ex- 
perience indicated  that  there  was  but  little  di- 
rect military  advantage  in  the  attempts  at 


WAB  IK  EUROPE 


wholesale  destruction  of  noncombatants,  build- 
ings, and  material,  by  airplanes  and  dirigibles. 
The  numerous  air  raids  over  Great  Britain  re- 
sulted in  little  positive  military  advantage  and 
the  "frightfulness"  that  they  were  to  inspire 
soon  gave  way  to  a  feeling  of  intense  irritation 
on  the  part  of  the  invaded. 

1914-15.    In  the  early  weeks  of  the  War,  a 
Zeppelin  dropped  bombs  over  Antwerp,  and  at 
the  end  of  August  and  on  Sept.   1,  2,  and  3, 
1914,   Taube  monoplanes  made   daily  visits  to 
Paris,  where,  as  in  London,  all  street  and  other 
lights  were  extinguished  and  means  hastily  im- 
provised to  defend  the  city  by  searchlight  and 
anti-aircraft  guns,  as  well  as  to  organize  spe- 
cial fire-fighting  facilities  to  deal  with  the  re- 
sults of  incendiary  bombs.     On   Oct.   11,   1914, 
another  raid  was  made  on  Paris  and  bombs  were 
dropped,  some  of  which  fell  on  the  Cathedral  of 
Notre  Dame,  while  others  damaged  streets,  sew- 
ers, and  the  underground  railway,  besides  caus- 
ing the  deaths  of  three  persons  and  injuries  to 
14.     In  the  meantime  the  aerial  defense  of  the 
city  was  being  developed,  but  on  Mar.  22,  1915, 
another  raid  was  made  on  Paris,  which,  while 
resulting  in  little  damage,  nevertheless  empha- 
sized  the  need   of  a   more  complete   system  of 
defense.     This    was    organized    under    General 
Ilirschauer,    former    chief   of    the    aeronautical 
department,  and   after   it  had   been   developed, 
Paris  was  free  from  attacks  for  many  months. 
Naturally  an  air  attack  on  the  British  Isles 
was  the  goal  aimed  at  by  the  Germans.    Vari- 
ous reconnoissances  were  made  by  the  Germans 
in  connection  with  the  flights  on  the  Western 
front  and  the  observation  of  the  British  navy. 
The   first   serious   raid   on   Britain   was   on   the 
evening    of    Jan.    19,    1915,    and    was    directed 
against    Yarmouth,     Sandringham,    and    other 
points  of  the  Norfolk  coast.     This  raid  was  but 
a  beginning,  for  on  the  night  of  May  31,  1915, 
the  metropolitan  section  of  London  was  reached 
and  considerable  damage  was  done,  41  lives  be- 
ing lost,  while  on  June  6,  another  raid  attended 
by  24  casualties  was  made  on  the  east  coast  of 
Kngland,  and  again  on  June  15,  on  this  last  18 
persons   being  killed   and  40   injured.     The  at- 
tacks of  the  Zeppelins  reached,  perhaps,  a  cli- 
max on  September  8-9  when  the  heart  of  Lon- 
don was  reached,  and  the  Zeppelins  flying  over 
Trafalgar    Square   were   distinctly   visible   from 
the   streets.     The   casualties   of   this   raid   were 
given  as  20  killed  and  88  wounded.     The  ma- 
terial   damage    was    considerable.     These    raids 
continued  during   September  over  parts  of  the 
eastern    counties.     On    October    13-14,    London 
was  again  attacked  by  Zeppelins  which,  fearful 
of  searchlights  and  gun  fire,  flew  very  high  with 
a  corresponding  effect  on  the  accuracy  of  their 
bomb  dropping.     The  roll  of  casualties  included 
71  killed  and  178  wounded.     For  a  few  months 
there  was  a  lull  in  the  air  attacks  on  Great 
Britain,  but  the  most  serious  raid  came  on  the 
night   of   Jan.   31,   1915,   when   nine   Zeppelins 
passed  over  the  midland  counties,  dropping  over 
300  bombs.    Here  71   were  killed  and   101   in- 
jured. 

1916.  Beginning  Mar.  31,  1916,  air  raids 
were  made  over  Great  Britain  for  five  succes- 
sive nights  and  not  only  the  eastern  counties 
but  even  Scotland  and  the  northeast  coast  were 
visited  and  bombs  dropped.  In  one  of  these 
raids  the  Zeppelin  L-15  suffered  severely  from 
gun  fire  and  was  forced  to  descend  and  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British. 


*447 


WAB  IN  EUEOPE 


The  aerial  defense  of  Great  Britain  came  in 
for  considerable  criticism  both  within  and  with- 
out Parliament  and  unfavorable  comparisons 
with  that  maintained  in  France  were  made. 
Many  Englishmen  urged  that  too  much  had 
been  done  for  defense  and  not  enough  in  the 
way  of  offensive  movements  against  the  Zep- 
pelins in  their  home  ports  and  stations. 

Such  raids  as  these  described  stand  out  apart 
from  their  actual  military  significance,  but  they 
must  not  be  allowed  to  eclipse  the  daily  routine 
and  the  ever-increasing  number  of  frequent 
combats  on  all  the  battle  fronts  of  this  great 
War.  What  was  remarkable  at  the  beginning 
of  the  War,  such  as  visits  of  the  German  Taubes 
to  Paris  in  August,  1914,  or  the  bomb  dropping 
by  a  Zeppelin  on  Antwerp  on  September  1,  of 
the  same  year,  soon  became  commonplace  as  did 
the  bombing  of  the  German  hangars  at  Diissel- 
dorf  and  Cologne  by  the  Allies  later  in  the 
month.  Attacks  on  Friedrk'hshafen  by  the 
British  and  on  Freiberg  by  the  French  followed, 
while  a  British  raid  on  Cuxhaven  on  Dec.  25, 
1914,  was  an  early  example  of  a  number  of 
aeroplanes  working  together.  Air  attacks  and 
reconnoissances  in  force  became  more  frequent, 
ever  on  a  larger  scale  and  with  more  elaboration 
of  organization  as  well  as  with  more  powerful 
and  more  heavily  armored  machines.  Bombing 
raids  by  aeroplanes  were  organized  on  a  large 
scale  by  the  French,  especially  with  their  heav- 
ier machines,  and  many  of  these  were  very  suc- 
cessful. While  both  sides  continually  lost 
many  aeroplanes  in  actual  fighting,  the  Ger- 
mans suffered  severely  with  respect  to  their 
Zeppelins  by  accident  as  well  as  by  gun  fire. 

Along  with  brilliant  feats  of  individual  avia- 
tors there  was  developed  a  tendency  towards 
tactical  formations  and  the  use  of  many  ma- 
chines. Aeroplanes  were  assembled  for '  flight 
over  the  enemy  lines,  difference  in  speed  and 
armament  making  possible  tactical  dispositions 
of  the  greatest  advantage.  The  Germans  for  a 
time  had  some  machines  of  superior  armament, 
and  from  August,  1915,  heavier  gurts  and  ar- 
mored aeroplanes  figured  and  operations  by 
flotillas  became  more  general,  these  including 
the  use  of  powerful  bombing  machines  accom- 
panied by  armored  scouts  for  their  protection, 
and  swift  flying  machines  for  reconnoitring. 
Aircraft  were  also  used  at  sea  against  warships. 
Aeroplanes  were  also  in  evidence  in  the  south 
and  east,  for  the  Russians  attacked  Constanti- 
nople in  August,  dropping  bombs  on  the  harbor 
forts,  and  from  this  time  both  sides  were  in 
active  aerial  warfare  until  the  close  of  the  Dar- 
danelles campaign.  The  Austrians  were  active 
against  Italy,  and  bombing  raids  were  made 
against  Brescia,  Verona,  Venice,  Udine,  and 
other  points  while  the  Italians  in  turn  made 
attacks  on  Austrian  territory. 

Everywhere  there  was  aerial  activity  and 
damage  wrought  by  aeroplanes,  yet  unavoida- 
bly this  was  accompanied  by  wholesale  destruc- 
tion of  machines  and  lives  of  aviators.  As  sam- 
ples of  air  attacks,  and  in  fact  but  little  more 
here  can  be  attempted,  mention  may  be  made 
of  the  bombing  of  a  poison  gas  plant  at  Dor- 
mach  on  Aug.  26,  1915,  by  a  French  aviator,  and 
a  bomb  attack  on  the  royal  palace  at  Stuttgart, 
a  step,  it  was  announced,  taken  in  retaliation 
for  German  bomb  dropping  on  unfortified  towns 
and  civilians.  In  every  kind  of  operations  air- 
craft aided,  as  at  the  battle  in  the  attack  on 
Artois,  Sept.  25,  1915,  when  the  British  airmen 


WAB  IN  ETTBOPE 


X448 


WA&  IN  BXTBOFB 


were  prominent,  and  later  at  Verdun  in  the 
spring  of  1916.  Typical  of  a  day's  work  for 
the  airmen  may  be  mentioned  the  British 
War  Office  report  of  Dec.  19,  1915,  which  an- 
nounced 44  combats  in  the  air  on  the  Western 
front. 

In  1916,  everywhere  there  was  increased  aeri- 
al activity,  a  more  active  patrol  service  was 
maintained,  and  actions  were  frequent  and  se- 
rious. At  sea  ae'roplanes  were  searching  for 
submarines  and  scouting,  and  employment  of 
airships  and  aeroplanes  before  and  in  a  large 
naval  battle  for  scouting  and  reconnoissance 
in  a  manner  and  on  a  scale  somewhat  corre- 
sponding to  their  use  on  land  found  a  notable 
opportunity  in  the  great  fight  off  Jutland  on 
May  31,  1016. 

1917.  In  the  battle  of  the  Somme  and  dur- 
ing the  great  German  retreat,  General  Haig 
depended  on  -his  air  service  to  find  out  just 
what  the  Germans  were  doing  and  how  far  they 
had  retreated.  We  find  the  aeroplane  possibly 
used  to  its  greatest  advantage  in  the  spring 
and  summer  campaigns  on  the  Italian  front  and 
during  their  retreat  to  the  Piave.  Fleets  of 
150  or  more  machines  would  fly  low  to  the 
ground  and  drop  bombs  on  forming  troops,  lines 
of  communications,  munition  dumps,  or  they 
would  rake  the  enemy  with  machine-gun  fire. 
One  of  the  interesting  outgrowths  of  increased 
air  activity  was  the  developing  of  the  "camou- 
flage" system.  This  means  the  covering  of 
trenches,  artillery  and  other  things  of  military 
value  with  trees,  painted  scenes,  etc.,  so  that 
they  could  not  be  distinguished  from  the  rest 
of  "the  landscape  from  tiie  air.  This  was  of 
particularly  great  value  because  aeroplanes  were 
compelled  to  stay  2  or  3  miles  in  the  air  as 
anti-aircraft  puns  \\ere  improved. 

England  was  the  scene  of  many  raids  during 
1917.  Only  the  more  important  will  be  noted 
liere.  Between  May  23  and  June  16,  five  air 
attacks  were  made.  In  almost  all  of  these  the 
Germans  used  aeroplanes  instead  of  Zeppelins. 
In  one  attack,  on  May  25,  76  were  killed  and 
174  wounded.  The  worst  raid  of  the  month 
was  on  June  13.  It  was  carried  out  in  broad 
daylight  over  London  and  resulted  in  the  death 
of  159  persons  and  the  wounding  of  424.  Lon- 
don was  again  attacked  by  a  fleet  of  24  ae'ro- 
planes which  penetrated  all  the  defenses  (July 
4)  ;  37  were  killed  and  141  injured.  On  Au- 
gust 22,  Yorkshire,  Dover,  RamHgate.  and  Mar- 
gate were  raided.  The  Germans  suffered  heav- 
ily in  this  raid,  losing  eight  Gotba  machines. 
On  the  moonlight  night  01  September  4,  nine 
were  killed  and  62  injured  in  a  raid  on  London. 
The  defenses  of  London  were  now  in  much  bet- 
ter shape  and  the  Germans  were  compelled  to 
give  up  their  daylight  attacks. 

Raids  were  made  on  England  on  September 
24,  25,  29,  30,  and  October  1.  As  a  result  of 
these,  52  were  killed  and  216  injured.  The 
Germans  carried  tlieiu  out  with  scarcely  any 
loss  to  themselves,  the  British  claiming  only  to 
have  destroyed  two  machines.  One  of  the  most 
disastrous  raids  from  the  German  point  of  view 
was  made  on  the  night  of  Oct.  19,  1917.  At 
least  11  Zeppelins  participated  and  on  their 
way  home,  four  were  lost  in  French  territory. 
One  was  captured  undamaged  at  Bourbonne-les- 
Bains.  On  December  6,  25  Gotha  planes  at- 
tacked London,  killing  10  and  injuring  31.  On 
December  18,  20  aeroplanes  raided  Kent,  Essex, 
and  London,  killing  10  and  wounding  70.  In 


these  last  two  raids,  three  planes  were  forced 
to  descend,  and  their  crews  were  taken  prisoner. 

The  consensus  of  opinion  among  the  Allied 
nations  was  that  these  raids  were  01  no  military 
value  and  were  merely  another  form  of  Ger- 
many's "frightfulness."  Public  opinion  in  Eng- 
land demanded  reprisals,  but  for  physical  rea- 
sons the  government  refused  to  heed  the  popu- 
lar clamor.  Instead  they  gave  their  attention 
to  the  air  bombardment  of  purely  military  cen- 
tres such  as  the  submarine  bases  at  Ostend  and 
Zeebrugge  and  the  Krupp  works  at  Essen. 
France  made  one  or  two  spasmodic  attempts  to 
retaliate  by  bombarding  towns  in  Alsace  and 
Lorraine,  but  met  with  comparatively  little 
success. 

Wfith  the  entrance  of  the  United  States  into 
the  War,  it  was  felt  that  as  soon  as  her  re- 
sources were  available  the  supremacy  of  the  air 
would  pass  once  and  for  all  to  the  Entente  Al- 
lies. She  devised  the  standardized  Liberty  mo- 
tor which  was  supposed  to  contain  in  one  en- 
gine all  the  best  points  secured  by  foreign 
designers. 

1018.  On  the  nights  of  Jan.  21  and  24,  1918, 
British  aviators  carried  out  successful  raids 
over  Belgium  and  in  German  Lorraine,  drop- 
ping bombs  on  Mannheim,  Treves,  Saarbriicken, 
and  Thionville.  During  the  month  of  January 
the  Germans  and  Austrians  were  particularly 
active  in  carrying  out  raids  over  the  Italian 
lines.  Treviso  and  Mestre  were  bombarded  on 
January  26;  Venice,  Padua,  Treviso,  and  Mes- 
tre, on  February  4  and  6,  and  on  the  latter  date 
Calliano  and  Bassano  were  also  bombed. 

London  was  attacked  on  the  night  of  January 
28  and  58  persons  were  killed  and  173  wounded 
Another  raid  the  next  night  killed  10  and  in- 
jured the  same  number.  On  the  30th,  Paris 
was  heavily  bombarded;  45  persons  wore  killed 
and  207  wounded.  During  a  raid  on  Venice  on 
February  26,  the  Churches  of  Santa  Giustina. 
San  Simeone,  Piccolo,  and  St.  John  Chrysostom 
were  badly  damaged.  Naples  was  attacked  on 
March  11.  This  resulted  in  the  killing  of  16 
and  the  injuring  of  40.  A  raid  on  Paris  on 
Mar.  8,  1918,  resulted  in  the  death  of  13  and 
the  injuring  of  50.  Another  raid  which  oc- 
curred on  March  11  caused  the  death  of  34  and 
the  injuring  of  79.  Four  German  machines 
were  brought  down  and  15  Germans  killed  or 
captured. 

Italian  aviators  cooperating  with  the  Allies 
on  the  Western  front  bombed  Metz  on  Mar.  17 
and  23,  1918,  and  raided  the  railway  station  at 
Thionville  on  the  night  of  March  24.  Paiis 
was  again  the  objective  on  April  12,  when  26 
were  killed  and  72  wounded.  Italians  raided 
Pola,  Trent,  and  Trieste  on  May  10,  and  British 
forces  cooperating  with  them  attacked  the  avia- 
tion grounds  at  Campo  Maggiore  (May  4)  and 
destroyed  14  machines. 

On  May  3,  1918,  the  British  bombarded  Karls- 
htitte  and  on  May  16  brought  down  five  Ger- 
man machines  during  an  attack  on  Saarbriick- 
en. British  seaplanes  attacked  Ostend,  West- 
en  de,  and  Zeebrugge  successfully  on  May  6. 
London  was  again  attacked  on  May  19,  with  a 
casualty  list  of  44  killed  and  179  wounded;  the 
British  succeeded  in  bringing  down  five  Ger- 
man ae'roplanes.  In  an  air  raid  over  Cologne 
on  May  18,  14  persons  were  killed  and  40  in- 
jured. Raids  were  carried  out  by  the  Allies 
over  railway  stations  in  Lorraine  and  on  a  fac- 
tory in  Mannheim  on  May  21  and  22.  The  rail- 


WABD 


1449 


WABNEB 


way  station  was  destroyed  and  26  persons  were 
killed  in  Liege  on  May  26. 

On  June  14,  1918,  the  first  American  bomb- 
ing squadron  to  operate  behind  the  German 
front  raided  the  Baroncourt  Railway  and  re- 
turned safely.  A  second  raid  was  carried  out 
the  same  day  when  Conflans  was  attacked.  On 
the  night  of  Oct.  0,  1918,  an  expedition  of  more 
than  350  planes  bombarded  many  towns  in  the 
American  sector,  with  the  loss  of  only  one  man. 
American  activity  in  the  Argonne  sector  was 
particularly  noticeable.  During  a  six-month 
period  before  the  signing  of  the  Armistice  it  is 
estimated  that  the  American  fliers  brought 
down  over  500  planes  with  a  loss  of  about  70. 

German  Zeppelins  again  appeared  in  the  role 
of  raiders  on  the  night  of  Aug.  5,  1918,  when 
they  made  an  attempt  to  raid  the  east  coast  of 
Kngland.  One  machine  was  brought  down  40 
miles  at  sea,  another  was  damaged,  and  the 
third  was  compelled  to  return.  On  the  12th,  a 
Zeppelin  was  destroyed  off  the  English  coast. 
It  fell  in  flames. 

During  the  War  the  air  raids  on  England 
caused  the  death  of  1413  people  and  the  injury 
of  3407.  The  vast  majority  of  these  uero  civil- 
ians. One  hundred  and  ten  raids  were  carried 
out  by  airships  and  aeroplanes.  For  a  general 
discussion  of  aeroplanes  and  airships  see  AEBO- 
NAVTICS. 

Political  and  diplomatic  aspects  of  the  War 
and  its  settlement  will  be  found  in  the  articles 
WAB,  DIPLOMACY  OF  THK;  PEACE  CONFKRENCE 
AND  TRLATIKS;  REPARATIONS;  WASHINGTON 
CONFERENCE;  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS;  RACIAL  MI- 
NORITES TREATIES;  LABOR  ORGANIZATION,  IN- 
TERNATIONAL; EL-ROPE.  Sec  abo  the  sections 
Hist  or  t/  under  the  articles  on  the  following 
countries-  UNITED  STATES;  AUSTRIA-HUNGA- 
RY; GERMANY;  FRANCE;  GREAT  BRITAIN;  ITA- 
LY; JAPAN;  CZECHOSLOVAKIA  ;  JUGO-SLAVIA  ; 
GREECE;  BULGARIA;  RUMANIA;  TURKEY;  RUS- 
SIA. 

WABD,  CABOT  (1876-  ).  An  American 
lawyer,  born  in  New  York  City,  and  educated 
at  Harvard  and  its  law  school.  He  practiced 
in  New  York  City  in  190.r>,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed auditor  general  of  Porto  Rico,  and  was 
Secretary  of  State  for  Porto  Rico  in  1908  and 
president  of  the  Executive  Council  in  1909, 
when  he  was  also  appointed  acting  governor. 
He  served  as  delegate  to  several  Pan-American 
conferences  and  was  a  member  of  the  United 
States  Commission  to  Chile.  From  1914  to  1917 
he  was  president  of  the  Park  Board  and  Com- 
missioner of  Parks  of  New  York  City.  In  1917 
he  was  a  member  of  tho  military  commission 
studying  anti-aircraft  defense  of  "cities  in  the 
war  zone  and  on  the  French  and  British  fronts. 
He  served  during  the  War  as  a  major  in  the 
aviation  section  of  the  Signal  Corps  and  was 
also  assistant  chief  of  staff  and  chief  of  the 
intelligence  section  on  the  line  of  communica- 
tions with  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces. 
He  was  a  member  of  many  historical  and  other 
societies  and  contributed  to  magazines  on 
Latin-American  subjects. 

WABD,  HENRY  BALDWIN  (1865-  ).  An 
American  zoologist,  born  at  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and 
educated  at  Williams  College  and  Harvard  Uni- 
versity and  at  Gottingen,  Freiburg,  and  Leipzig. 
After  teaching  science  in  Troy  (1885-88)  he 
was  instructor  in  zoology  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  (1893);  associate  professor  and  pro- 
fessor of  zoology  (1892-1909)  at  the  University 


of  Nebraska  and  dean  of  the  College  of  Medicine 
there  (1902-09);  and  professor  (1909-  )  at 
the  University  of  Illinois.  His  research  work 
was  in  connection  with  the  Michigan  Fish 
Commission,  the  biological  survey  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  the  Alaska  salmon  investigations,  and 
studies  on  parasites  of  man  and  the  lower  ani- 
mals. He  published  various  papers  on  these 
subjects  and  Fresh  Water  Biology,  with  Whip- 
pie  (1917).  He  also  did  editorial  work  for 
The  American  Naturalist  and  a  Reference 
Handbook  of  the  Medical  Sciences.  He  founded 
the  Journal  of  Pansitology. 

WABD,  JAMES  (1843-1025).  A  British 
philosopher  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  His  long- 
awaited  Psychological  Principles  was  published 
in  1918.  It  contains  a  systematic  exposition 
of  mental  life  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Act 
school.  The  mind  is  defined  as  a  "continuum 
of  presentations."  In  1922  Professor  Ward 
published  his  exhaustive  Study  of  Kant. 

WABD,  SIB  JOSEPH  GEORGE  (1857-  ). 
A  New  Zealand  statesman,  born  at  Melbourne, 
and  educated  privately.  At  30  he  was  elected 
to  Parliament  and  in  1891  became  Postmaster 
General.  He  held  this  office  continuously  until 
1912  and  assumed  it  again  in  1915;  this  sec- 
ond tenure  lasted  until  J919.  In  1900  he  was 
appointed  Minister  of  Public  Health ;  this  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  appointment  of  its  kind 
in  the  world.  Sir  Joseph  was  premier  of  New 
Zealand  from  1900  to  1912,  and  in  1915  he  be- 
came Finance  Minister.  At  the  Imperial  War 
Cabinet  and  War  Conference  meetings  of  1917 
and  1918  in  London  and  also  at  the  Peace  Con- 
ference in  Paris  he  represented  New  Zealand. 
He  disappeared  from  public  life  when  he  shaied 
the  defeat  of  his  party  in  the  election  of  1911) 

WABNE,  FRANK  JULIAN  (1874-  ).  An 
American  economist,  born  in  Parkersburg,  \\ . 
Va.,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania (Ph.D.,  1902).  From  1896  to  1902  he  was 
connected  with  the  Philadelphia  Public  Ledger, 
and  during  1903-06  he  was  editor  of  The  Rail- 
way World.  In  1908  he  became  secretary  of 
the  New  York  State  Immigration  Commission 
and  in  1910  was  special  expert  with  the  United 
States  Census;  then,  after  holding  various  rela- 
tions with  different  organi/ations,  he  became 
chief  statistician  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Cor- 
poration in  1916.  More  recently  he  devoted  at- 
tention to  the  publication  of  his  studies  on  eco- 
nomic topics.  In  addition  to  many  pamphlets 
and  special  articles  he  is  the  author  of  The  flfar 
Invasion  and  the  Mine  Workers  (1904);  The 
Coal  Mine  Workers  (1905);  The  Immigrant 
Invasion  (1913);  Railuay  Operation  and  Fi- 
nance (1914);  Intercorporate  Ownership  and 
Interlocking  Diicctoratcs  of  the  Railroads  of 
the  United  States  (1914);  The  Tide  of  Immi- 
gration (1916);  Warne's  Book  of  Charttt 
(1917);  Industrial  delations  (1919);  The 
Workers  at  War  (1920);  and  Train  Employ- 
ees' Keply  to  the  Railroads  (1921). 

WABNEB,  EDWARD  PEARSON  (1894-  ). 
An  American  aeronautical  engineer,  born  in 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  educated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. He  was  engaged  in  aeronautical  work 
continuously  after  1916.  He  did  much  of  the 
teaching  in  aeronautics  at  the  special  army  and 
navy  schools  in  aeronautical  engineering.  He 
was  aero  engineer  with  the  United  States  Armv 
and  did  wind  tunnel  work  and  made  miscel- 
laneous researches  in  stability  and  stress  analy- 


WARBEN 


1450 


WASHINGTON 


sis  (1917-18).  In  1918-20  he  was  chief  phys- 
icist with  the  National  Advisory  Committee  for 
Aeronautics.  He  was  in  charge  of  agronauti- 
cal  research  at  Langley  Field  and  after  1010 
was  secretary  of  the  committee  on  aerodyna- 
mics of  the  National  Advisory  Committee  for 
Aeronautics.  In  1920  he  became  associate  pro- 
fessor of  aeronautics  at  the  Massachusetts  In- 
stitute of  Technology.  He  has  written  many 
hooks,  reports,  and  technical  notes,  dealing 
chiefly  with  stability  stress  analysis  and  free- 
flight  testing. 

WARREN,  CHARLES  (1868-  ).  An 
American  lawyer,  born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  and 
educated  at  Harvard  University  and  its  law 
school.  Admitted  to  the  bar,  he  practiced  in 
Boston,  and  after  acting  as  private  secretary 
to  Gov.  William  E.  Russell  he  was  associated 
with  him  in  law  practice  until  the  latter's 
death  in  1806.  From  1914  to  1018  he  was  As- 
sistant Attorney  General  of  the  United  States. 
He  wrote  The  (Hrl  and  the  Governor,  History 
of  the  Harvard  Law  School  and  Early  Legal 
Conditions  of  America  (1909),  and  The 
Supreme  Court  in  United  States  History 
(1922). 

WARREN,  CHARLES  BEECIIER  (1870-  ). 
An  American  lawyer  and  diplomat,  born  at 
Bay  City,  Mich.,  and  educated  at  the  University 
of  Michigan.  He  began  the  practice  of  law  in 
Detroit  in  1893.  Tic  was  associate  counsel  for 
the  United  States  before  the  Joint  High  Com- 
mission on  the  Behring  Sea  claims  in  1896  and 
also  represented  the  United  States  in  the  North 
Atlantic  coast  fisheries  arbitration  with  Great 
Britain  before  The  Hague  tribunal  in  1910. 
During  the  War  he  served  on  the  fetaff  of  the 
Judge-Advocate-General.  Jn  1921  he  became 
United  States  ambassador  to  Japan,  and  the 
negotiations  which  he  carried  on  with  the 
Japanese  government  resulted,  in  March,  1923, 
in  the  cancelation  of  the  Ishii-Lansing  Agree- 
ment. He  resigned  from  this  post  in  December, 
1923,  and  was  appointed  United  States  ambas- 
sador to  Mexico  in  January,  1924. 

WARREN,  FRANCIS  EMROY  (1844-  ). 
An  American  legislator  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  He 
served  continuously  as  United  States  Senator 
from  Wyoming  from  1890  and  was  reflected  in 
1919  for  the  term  expiring  in  1925.  He  was 
chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Appropriations 
in  the  68th  Congress  and  was  also  a  member 
of  the  committees  on  education,  labor,  military 
affairs,  and  public  buildings  and  grounds.  He 
was  the  oldest  Senator  in  point  of  service. 

WARREN,  WHITNEY  (185?-  ).  An 
American  architect  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  Follow- 
ing the  bombardment  of  Reims  Cathedral  by 
the  Germans  during  the  War,  be  made  an  ex- 
amination of  the  damage  done  and  prepared  a 
report  on  restoration.  He  also  prepared  plans 
for  and  supervised  the  reconstruction  of  the 
University  of  Louvain  in  Belgium,  destroyed  by 
the  Germans  in  1914.  During  the  entire  period 
of  the  War  he  was  engaged  in  relief  work 
and  was  zealous  in  stimulating  sympathy  for 
France.  He  was  a  member  of  many  architec- 
tural societies  in  the  United  States  and  foreign 
countries. 

WAR  BISK  INSURANCE.  See  INSUR- 
ANCE. 

WARSHIP.  See  VESSEL,  NAVAL;  NAVIES  OF 
THE  WOULD. 

WAR  TAXES.  See  TAXATION  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES. 


WASHBUBN,  ALBERT  HENRY  (1866-  ). 
An  American  diplomat,  born  at  Middlebprough, 
Mass.,  and  educated  at  Cornell  University  and 
at  the  law  school  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 
At  Cornell  he  acted  as  secretary  to  Andrew 
D.  White.  From  1890  to  1893  he  was  United 
States  consul  at  Magdeburg,  Germany.  On  his 
return  to  America  he  held  various  public  of- 
fices and  was  prominent  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Republican  party.  He  was  president  of  the 
Association  of  the  Customs  Bar  (1917-22) 
and  became  professor  of  international  law  at 
Dartmouth  in  1919.  In  1922  he  was  appointed 
Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipoten- 
tiary to  Austria. 

WASHBURN,  EDWARD  WIGHT  (1881-  ). 
An  American  chemist,  born  in  Beatrice,  Neb., 
and  educated  at  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  where  during  1900-08  he 
was  a  research  associate  in  physical  chemistry. 
In  1908  ho  became  an  associate  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois,  where  during  1912-16  he  was 
professor  of  physical  chemistry  and  hincc  1910 
professor  of  ceramic  chemistry  and  head  of  the 
department  of  ceramic  engineering.  Dr.  Wash- 
burn  has  made  studies  in  physical  chemistry  on 
such  subjects  as  ionic  hydration  and  the  theory 
of  solutions,  but  more  recently  his  researches 
have  been  concerned  with  high-temperature 
chemistry  and  the  physics  of  ceramic  materials. 
In  addition  to  many  papers  on  chemical,  phys- 
ical, and  ceramic  matters,  he  is  the  author  of 
Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Physical 
Chemistry  (1915;  2d  ed.,  1921). 

WASHBURN,  STANLEY  (1878-  ).  An 
American  war  correspondent  and  author,  born 
at  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  and  educated  at  Wil- 
liams College  and  the  Harvard  University  law 
school.  He  was  reporter  and  correspondent 
with  the  Japanese  army,  for  Chicago  and  Min- 
neapolis papers,  during  the  Russo-Japanese 
War;  correspondent  for  Collier's  Weekly  in 
Russia  (1914)  ;  correspondent  of  the  London 
Times;  and  for  26  months  the  only  American 
correspondent  attached  to  the  Russian  army. 
He  was  also  with  the  French  at  Verdun  in 
1910  and  was  in  Rumania  in  the  same  year. 
His  published  writings  include:  The  Cable 
Game  (1911 ) ;  The  Spirit  of  the  Wilds  (1913)  ; 
Field  Notes  from  the  Russian  Front  (1915); 
Victory  in  Defeat  (1916);  The  Russian  Offen- 
sive (1917);  and  a  play,  The  Man  in  Hiding. 
In  1921  he  was  appointed  to  the  secretariat  of 
the  American  Delegation  at  the  Conference  for 
the  Limitation  of  Armament. 

WASHBURN  COLLEGE.  A  coeducational 
institution  founded  at  Topeka,  Kan.,  in  1865. 
The  student  enrollment  increased  from  831  in 
1915  to  1249  in  1923,  including  the  summer  ses- 
sion and  the  night  school.  The  endowment  rose 
from  $260,000  to  $950,893  and  the  value  of  the 
buildings  from  $274,708  to  $543,664.  Benton 
Hall,  a  dormitory  for  women,  was  built,  at  a 
cost  of  $170,000;  the  Mulvane  Art  Museum,  at 
a  cost  of  $60,000;  and  the  Larrick  Memorial 
Fountain.  Holbrook  Hall,  formerly  a  dormi- 
tory for  women,  was  completely  remodeled  and 
converted  into  a  classroom  building  for  the 
School  of  Law.  There  were  35,000  volumes  in 
the  library  in  1923.  President,  Parley  P. 
Womer,  Sc.D. 

WASHINGTON.  The  capital  of  the  United 
States.  The  population  increased  from  331,- 
069  in  1910  to  437,571  in  1920.  Between  1914 
and  1924  many  public  buildings  and  monu- 


VIEW   ACROSS   THE    LAGOON 


STATUE  IN  MAIN  HALL 

THE  LINCOLN  MEMORIAL  AT  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 


WASHINGTON 


1451 


WASHINGTON 


xnents  were  constructed.  During  the  War  con- 
crete office  buildings  were  built  for  the  Navy 
and  War  Departments,  a  stone  office  building 
for  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  and  12  tem- 
porary hotels  of  gray  stucco  for  women  war 
workers,  who  found  it  extremely  difficult  to  find 
quarters.  These  were  still  in  use  in  1924.  The 
Lincoln  Memorial,  finished  in  1921  at  a  cost  of 
$2,584,000,  was  a  finely  proportioned  building 
in  the  form  of  a  Greek  temple,  containing  a 
colossal  seated  figure  of  Lincoln,  carved  in  mar- 
ble by  Daniel  Chester  French  (q.v  ),  and  mural 
paintings  representing  emancipation  and  re- 
union. The  Grant  Memorial,  the  work  of  Hen- 
ry Merwin  Shrady,  was  dedicated  in  1922,  and 
George  Washington  Memorial  Hall,  containing 
a  large  auditorium  and  several  smaller  meeting- 
halls,  was  built  in  memory  of  heroes  of  the 
.Revolution  and  the  War  in  Europe.  The  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Sciences,  on  a  gift  of  $5,000,- 
000  from  the  Carnegie  Corporation  in  1919, 
erected  a  new  building  to  contain  its  library 
and  exhibition  rooms.  The  Freer  Museum  was 
erected  under  the  direction  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution  through  a  gift  from  Charles  L. 
Freer,  to  house  the  American  and  Oriental  art 
collections  of  the  capital.  The  National  Shrine 
of  tlie  Immaculate  Conception  was  begun  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  church,  and  work  on  the  Na- 
tional Cathedral  was  continued  by  the  Protes- 
tnnt  Episcopal  church.  A  new  library  was  un- 
der construction  in  1924,  on  funds  of  $200,000 
contributed  by  the  Carnegie  Corporation.  Fol- 
lowing the  passage  of  a  law  in  1920,  the  entire 
District  of  Columbia  was  zoned.  A  gas  tax  law 
was  enacted  in  1924.  In  1919  race  rioting 
in  Washington  resulted  in  death  to  seven  and 
injury  to  scores  of  others. 

WASHINGTON.  Washington  is  the  nine- 
teenth State  in  size  (69,127  square  miles),  and 
the  thirtieth  in  population;  capital,  Olympia. 
The  population  increased  from  1,141,990  in 
1910  to  1,356,021,  in  1920,  a  gain  of  18.8  per 
cent.  The  white  population  increased  from 
1,109,111  to  1.319,777.  The  number  of  Indians 
fell  from  10,997  to  9061,  and  the  number  of 
Chinese  from  2709  to  2363.  The  Japanese  in- 
creased from  12,929  to  17,387,  and  the  negroes 
from  6058  to  6883.  The  native  white  popula- 
tion rose  from  867,914  to  1,069,722;  the  foreign- 
born  white  from  241,197  to  250,055.  Both  ur- 
ban and  rural  populations  mounted,  the  former 
from  605,530  to  748,735,  the  latter  from  536,- 
460  to  607,886.  The  growth  of  the  principal 
cities  was  as  follows:  Seattle,  1910,  237,194; 
1920,  315,312;  Spokane,  104,402,  104,437;  Ta- 
coma,  83,743,  96,965.  See  articles  on  these 
cities. 

Agriculture.  As  in  most  of  the  western 
States,  agriculture  in  all  its  phases  showed 
a  considerable  increase  in  Washington  from 
1910  to  1920.  The  increase  in  number  of 
farms  (18  per  cent)  kept  pace  almost  exactly 
with  the  increase  in  population  (18.8  per  cent). 
The  acreage  of  land  in  farms  increa&ed  from 
11,712,235  in  1910  to  13,244,720  in  1920,  or 
13  1  per  cent;  the  number  of  farms  increased 
from  56,192  to  66,288;  and  improved  land  in 
farms  increased  from  6,373.311  to  7,129,343 
acres.  The  percentage  of  total  land  area  used 
for  agricultural  purposes  in  1910  was  27.4, 
and  in  1921,  31.  The  percentage  of  farm 
land  improved  decreased  from  54.4  to  53.8. 
The  total  value  of  farm  property  showed  an 
apparent  increase,  from  $637,543,411  to  $1,057,- 


429,848,  or  65.9  per  cent;  the  average  value  per 
farm,  $11,346  to  $15,952,  or  40.6  per  cent.  In 
interpreting  these  values  and  indeed  all  com- 
parative values  for  the  decade  1914-24,  the  in- 
flation of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration  The 
index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of 
farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104  in 
1910  and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  total  of  66,288 
farms  in  1920,  52,071  were  operated  by  owners, 
1168  by  managers,  and  12,419  by  tenants  The 
corresponding  figures  for  1910  were  47,505,  961, 
and  7726.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered 
65,022,  of  whom  45,265  were  native  and  19,757 
foreign-born.  There  were  1266  colored  farm- 
ers; 460  Indians  and  699  Japanese  White 
farmers  in  1910  numbered  55,067  (37,770  na- 
tive, and  17,297  foreign-born),  and  in  that  year 
there  were  673  Indian  and  316  Japanese  farm- 
ers. Farms  free  from  mortgage  in  1920  num- 
bered 25,012,  compared  with  30,970  in  1910. 
Ihose  under  mortgage  numbered  24,004,  com- 
pared with  16,026.  The  area  under  irrigation 
increased  from  334,378  acres  in  1909  to  529,- 
899  in  1919.  The  number  of  dairy  cows  in- 
creased from  186,233  in  1910  to  289,635  in 
1920;  "beef  cows"  from  58,140  to  88,969;  sheep, 
from  295,204  to  623,779.  The  estimated  pro- 
duction of  the  principal  farm  crops  in  1923  was 
as  follows:  corn,  2,959,000  bushels;  spring 
wheat,  21,147,000;  winter  wheat,  37,015,000; 
oats,  11,110,000;  barley,  3,295,000;  potatoes, 
8,467,000;  hay,  2,465,000  tons;  and  apples, 
30,668,000  bushels.  Comparative  figures  for 
1913  are:  corn,  952,000  bushels;  wheat,  53,300,- 
000;  oats,  14,250,000;  barley,  7,290,000;  pota- 
toes, 7,380,000;  and  hay,  1,794,000  tons. 

Mining.  The  mineral  resources  of  Washing- 
ton were  as  yet  largely  undeveloped.  The  chief 
mineral  is  coal,  although  cement,  clay  products, 
and  sand  and  gravel  also  are  produced  in  valu- 
able quantities.  The  coal  output  during  the 
decade  1914-24  was  as  follows:  1914,  3,064,820 
net  tons;  1915,  2,429,095;  1916,  3,038,588; 
1917,  4,009,902;  1918,  4,082,212;  1920,  3,757,- 
093;  1921,  2,428,722;  and  1922,  2,581,165.  The 
value  of  the  cement  produced  annually  was  be- 
tween $2,000,000  and  $4,000,000  during  this  pe- 
riod. The  State  produced  albo  a  small  amount 
of  copper,  gold,  and  iron  ore.  The  total  value 
of  the  mineral  production  in  1921  was  $17,605,- 
878,  compared  with  $26,677,191  in  1920;  $18,- 
267,938  in  1919;  $20,999,691  in  1918;  and  $13,- 
830,739  in  1914. 

Manufactures.  Washington  developed  great- 
ly in  industrial  importance  after  1909.  In 
1920  there  were  in  the  State  10  cities  having 
more  than  10,000  inhabitants.  These  formed 
63  8  per  cent  of  the  total  population,  and  in 
1919  reported  63.8  per  cent  of  the  total  value 
of  the  State's  manufactuied  products  There 
were  in  the  State,  in  1909,  3674  manufacturing 
establishments;  in  1914,  3829;  and  in  1919, 
4918.  Persons  engaged  in  manufacture  num- 
bered 80,118,  78,448,  and  150,479;  and  the  cap- 
ital invested  amounted  to  $222,261,229,  $277,- 
715,262,  and  $574,235,183,  in  those  years.  The 
value  of  the  manufactured  product  amounted 
to  $220,746,421  in  1909:  $245,326,456  in  1914; 
and  $809,622,984  in  1919  The  increase  in  val- 
ue of  products  between  1914  and  1919  was  due 
in  great  measure  to  changes  in  industrial  con- 
ditions brought  about  by  the  War  and  cannot 
be  properly  used  as  an  index  of  the  industrial 
expansion  during  the  census  period;  but  the  in- 


WASHINGTON 

crease  in  number  of  persons  employed  clearly 
indicates  decided  growth  in  the  manufacturing 
activities  of  the  State.  The  lumber  and  timber 
industry  is  chief  in  point  of  value  of  product, 
with  an  output  valued  at  $89,155,000  in  1909; 
$83,536,000  in  1914;  and  $234,881,000  in  1919. 
Shipbuilding  and  boatbuilding  ranks  second  in 
this  respect,  amounting  in  1909  to  $1,550,000; 
in  1914,  to  $3,101,000;  and  in  1919,  to  $166,- 
520,000;  the  phenomenal  increase  in  the  value 
of  this  product  from  1914  to  1919  was  due  to 
the  building  of  many  vessels  for  war  pur- 
poses. The  chief  manufacturing  cities  are  Seat- 
tle and  Tacoma.  There  were  in  Seattle,  in 
1009,  753  establishments,  with  a  product  val- 
ued at  $50,814,000;  in  1914,  1014  with  $64,475,- 
000;  and  in  1910,  1229  with  $274,431,000.  In 
1909,  Tacoma  had  277  establishments,  with 
a  product  valued  at  $24,462,000;  1914,  339 
with  $27,708,000;  and  1919,  348  with  $103,- 
172,000. 

Education.  Educational  progress  in  Wash- 
ington was  steady  and  consistent  in  the  decade 
1914-24.  The  Legislature  passed  important 
measures,  especially  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
period,  which  did  much  to  improve  the  admin- 
istration and  efficiency  of  the  schools.  Progress 
was  especially  notable  in  connection  with  the 
rural  school  work.  The  following  objects  had 
been  accomplished:  the  establishment  of  a 
State-wide  retirement  fund;  a  constructive  pro- 
gramme in  State-wide  consolidation ;  increased 
aid  for  high  schools;  establishment  of  the  ob- 
servation of  a  State-wide  temperance  and  good 
citizenship  day;  increased  direct  supervision  of 
rural  schools  through  the  eighth  grade;  exemp- 
tion law,  and  higher  professional  standards  for 
teachers.  Strong  efforts  were  being  made  for 
the  establishment  of  the  community  unit  sys- 
tem ;  i.e.  the  grouping  of  related  school  districts 
in  neighboring  units  sufficiently  large  to  sup- 
port community  high  schools;  and  while  the 
bill  failed  to  pass  the  Legislature,  keen  interest 
was  aroused  in  this  constructive  solution  for 
rural  education  in  State  school  administration. 
Vocational  education  had  been  carried  on  since 
1919,  and  the  Legislature  passed  an  act  provid- 
ing for  its  further  development  in  accordance 
with  the  Smith-Hughes  Act.  There  was  a  con- 
stant increase  from  year  to  year  in  the  number 
of  courses  offered  and  in  the  number  of  stu- 
dents. The  enrollment  in  public  schools  in- 
creased from  239,663  in  1914  to  301,800  in  1922. 
The  enrollment  in  high  schools  in  1921-22  was 
29,069.  Total  expenditure  for  educational 
purposes  in  1922  was  $29,983,084.  The  per- 
centage of  illiteracy  in  the  State  decreased 
from  32  in  1910  to  2.1  in  1920.  In  the  native 
white  population  it  remained  at  0.3  per  cent; 
in  the  foreign-born  white,  it  increased  from  4.7 
to  5  per  cent;  in  the  negro,  it  decreased  from 
4.8  to  4.6. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  There  were 
more  political  overturns  in  Washington  in 
1914-24  than  in  any  previous  decade.  The 
State,  for  the  most  part,  remained  in  Republi- 
can control.  Elections  were  held  in  1914  for 
United  States  Senator  and  for  Representatives 
in  Congress.  Senator  Jones  was  reflected.  In 
the  city  of  Seattle,  Hiram  C.  dill,  who  was  once 
recalled  as  mayor,  was  again  chosen  mayor  on 
a  Non partisan  ticket.  A  measure  providing 
for  State-wide  prohibition  was  carried  in  No- 
vember. In  1916  a  Democratic  governor,  Ern- 


WASHINOTON 

est  Lister,  was  reflected  and  the  electoral  vote 
went  to  Wilson  by  a  narrow  margin.  On  the 
other  hand,  Senator  Poindexter,  Republican, 
was  elected  to  the  Senate  by  the  largest  major- 
ity ever  given  a  candidate  for  that  office  in  the 
State,  and  the  entire  Republican  State  ticket  ex- 
cept the  governor  was  elected.  A  strike  in  the 
shipyards,  involving  25,000  workmen,  broke  out 
in  Seattle  in  February,  1919  It  was  said  to  he 
instigated  largely  by  the  I.  W.  W.  Mayor  Ole 
Hanson  took  action  by  increasing  the  police 
force  and  by  calling  for  troops  from  Camn 
Lewis.  These  measures  had  a  determinative  ef- 
fect on  the  strike.  There  were  no  State  elec- 
tions in  1918.  In  1920  the  Republicans  elected 
their  candidate  for  governor,  Louis  F.  Hart,  and 
Wesley  L.  Jones  was  reflected  to  the  Senate. 
In  the  presidential  voting  in  this  year,  W.  G. 
Harding  received  223,137  votes;  J.  M.  Cox,  84,- 
298.  In  1922  a  campaign  on  Poindexter's  rec- 
ord in  the  Senate  resulted  in  the  election  of 
C.  C.  Dill,  Democrat,  to  the  Senate.  On  Nov. 
12,  1923,  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  sus- 
tained the  State  laws  prohibiting  the  ownership 
of  agricultural  lands  by  Japanese  and  other 
aliens  ineligible  to  citizenship. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of  the 
Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted  be- 
low. The  Legislature  passed  a  minimum  wage 
act  which  went  into  effect  on  Fcb  20,  191.5  On 
Jan.  13,  1917,  the  Legislature  adopted  the  "bone 
dry"  prohibition  amendment.  It  also  passed 
measures  substituting  life  imprisonment  for  the 
death  penalty,  unless  the  jury  in  addition  to 
the  verdict  of  guilty  found  that  the  death  pen- 
alty should  be  inflicted.  The  Legi^latine  cre- 
ated a  State  Safety  Board  with  legal  aid  boards 
to  investigate  industrial  accidents.  It  also  en- 
acted measures  defining  and  punishing  criminal 
syndicalism  and  sabotage.  Jn  1921  a  measuie 
was  passed  extending  the  power  to  vote  for 
county  and  precinct,  as  well  as  for  Federal  and 
State  officers,  to  absent  voters.  In  1923,  the 
sale  of  narcotics  was  made  a  felony,  and  the 
possession  of  drugs  illegally  obtained  was  made 
a  crime. 

WASHINGTON,  STATE  COLLEGE  OF.  A  co- 
educational State  institution  founded  at  Pull- 
man, Wash.,  in  1890,  under  the  National  Land 
Grant  Act.  The  student  em  oilmen t  increased 
from  1184  in  1914  to  2250  in  1923-24  and  the 
total  yearly  income  from  $458,000  to  $1,082,19."). 
The  members  of  the  faculty  numbered  204  in 
1923-24,  and  the  library  contained  90,000  bound 
volumes  and  100,000  pamphlets.  Da\id  S.  Tiny 
Hall  for  the  dairy  department,  thiee  dormito- 
ries for  women,  one  for  men,  and  several  farm 
buildings  were  constructed  during  the  period. 
President,  Ernest  O.  Holland,  Ph.I). 

WASHINGTON,  UNIVKRSITY  OF.  A  coedu- 
cational State  institution  at  Seattle,  Wash., 
founded  in  1861.  The  university  increased  con- 
siderably in  size  between  1914  and  1924.  In 
1914  the  student  enrollment  stood  at  2888;  the 
faculty  numbered  194;  the  library  contained 
64,000  volumes.  In  1923,  the  total'  enrollment 
reached  7005,  and  the  enrollment  for  the  fust 
term  of  1923-24  was  5221;  the  faculty  was  in- 
creased to  275  members;  the  library  contained 
126,784  volumes.  The  thiee  Schools  of  Busi- 
ness Administration,  Library  Economy,  and 
Fisheries  were  opened  during  the  decade.  Ed- 
ucation Hall,  Home  Economics  Hall,  Commerce 
Hall,  Philosophy  Hall,  the  forest  products  lab- 
oratory, the  mines  laboratory,  and  a  stadium 


WASHINGTON  AND  JEFFEBSON       1453  WASHINGTON  CONFEBENCE 


seating  30,000  were  built.  Construction  was 
begun  on  a  new  library  building.  The  univer- 
sity received  a  gift  of  the  Boeing  Aerodynami- 
cal Laboratory  in  1919  and  a  gift  of  $250,000 
for  a  new  building  for  the  College  of  Forestry 
in  1923.  The  four  quarter  plan  was  adopted  in 
1917,  and  various  war  courses  were  offered. 
The  requirements  for  entrance  and  the  scholar- 
fillip  standards  were  materially  raised  in  1921. 
President,  Henry  Suzzallo,  Pli.D. 

WASHINGTON  AND  JEFFEBSON  COL- 
LEGE.  A  nonsectarian  institution  at  Wash- 
ington, Pa.,  founded  in  1802.  The  student  en- 
rollment in  1915  was  320  as  compared  with  464 
in  the  year  1923-24,  and  276  in  the  summer 
school  of  1923.  The  faculty  numbered  21  mem- 
bers in  1915  and  31  in  1923,  and  the  library 
was  increased  from  26,000  to  36,000  volumes. 
The  endowment  of  the  university  was  al>out  $1,- 
000,000  in  1923-24.  The  presidents  during  the 
decado  were  Frederick  W.  Hinett,  Ph.D.,  D.D., 
1914-18;  W.  E.  Slemmons,  D.D.,  acting  presi- 
dent, 1918-20;  Samuel  Charles  Black,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  1920-21;  S.  S.  Baker,  M.S.,  LL.D., 


WASHINGTON  AND  LEE  UNIVERSITY. 

A  nonsectarian  institution  for  men  at  Lexing- 
ton, Va.,  founded  in  1749,  maintaining  depart- 
ments of  liberal  arts,  commerce,  engineering, 
and  law.  The  student  enrollment  increased 
from  492  in  1914  to  801  in  1923-24  and  after 
1920  was  strictly  limited  in  number.  During 
the  same  period  the  size  of  the  faculty  was  in- 
creased from  26  to  57;  the  salaries  were  in- 
creased about  40  per  cent;  and  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  contributory  retiring  allowances  was  es- 
tablished. The  permanent  endowment  of  the 
university  was  increased  50  per  cent  between 
1014  and  1923-24;  the  number  of  volumes  in 
the  library  rose  from  50,000  to  55,000;  and  the 
income  was  more  than  doubled.  A  new  dormi- 
toiy,  witli  accommodations  for  116,  was  built 
in  1920,  and  a  chemical  laboratory,  to  cost 
about  $150,000,  was  under  construction  at  the 
close  of  1923.  Two  years  of  college  work  were 
made  requisite  for  entrance  to  the  Law  School, 
and  departments  of  education,  electrical  engi- 
neeiinjr,  and  public  speaking  were  opened.  A 
campaign  was  carried  on  in  the  South  during 
N)L»3-24  to  raise  $500,000  to  reestablish  the 
miirinal  School  of  Journalism  of  the  university, 
uhich  was  founded  in  1869  while  Hen.  "Robert 
E.  Lee  was  president  The  United  Daughters 
of  the  Confederacy  were  raising  $150,000  for 
building  a  Lee  Memorial  Chapel.  President, 
Henry  Louis  Smith. 

WASHINGTON  CONFERENCE.  The  pos- 
sibility of  the  nations'  disarming  has  been  a 
favorite  theme  of  prophets  and  poets.  The  He- 
brew prophets  told  of  a  time  when  nations 
Mould  "beat  their  swords  into  ploughshares  and 
their  spears  into  prun  ing-hooks."  Tennyson 
wang  of  the  day  when  "the  war  drum  throbs 
no  longer  and  the  battle  flags  are  furled."  But 
after  the  Paris  Conference  the  reduction  of  ex- 
penditures for  armaments  was  the  concern  of 
statesmen,  and  some  real  progress  was  made 
The  preat  naval  powers  actually  put  a  limit  on 
cupital  ships,  and  European  states  even  dis- 
curtw'd  a  treaty  to  limit  land  armaments. 

Previous  Attempts.  In  the  past  numerous 
proposals  were  made  to  limit  armaments,  but 
the  actual  results  were  extremely  meagre.  In 
1764  Prince  Kaunitz,  PHme  Minister  of  Aus- 
tria, suggested  to  Prussia  that  each  state  dis- 


miss three-fourths  of  its  army,  but  Prussia  de- 
clined. Five  years  later  the  suggestion  was  re- 
newed by  Joseph  II,  but  Frederick  the  Great 
again  declined.  In  1841  Sir  Robert  Peel  made 
a  disarmament  proposal  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  in  1862  Disraeli  suggested  the  pos 
sibility  of  an  agreement  with  France.  Winston 
Churchill  proposed  a  naval  holiday  (1013). 
Napoleon  "the  Little"  also  dreamed  of  cur- 
tailing his  military  expenditures.  In  1853  he 
expressed  his  intention  of  calling  a  European 
conference  to  reduce  armaments.  He  discussed 
the  matter  with  Czar  Alexander  II  and  William 
II  of  Prussia  and  received  some  encouragement, 
but  in  1870  an  informal  proposal  to  Prussia 
through  the  English  Secretary  of  State  for  ^or- 
eign  Affairs,  Lord  Clarendon,  was  rejected  by 
Bismarck.  The  Chancellor  was  responsible  for 
the  rejection  of  several  other  attempts  to  secure 
a  discussion  of  armament.  Resolutions  were  in- 
troduced into  the  Reichstag,  but  the  influence 
of  the  government  was  always  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent them  from  coming  to  a  vote.  Bismarck 
refused,  furthermore,  to  consider  the  matter 
with  Crispi,  then  President  of  the  Italian  Cham- 
ber. 

In  the  United  States  the  problem  of  arma- 
ment agreements  was  several  times  on  the  tapis 
of  Congressional  and  executive  policy.  Elihu 
Root,  as  a  member  of  the  American  delegation 
to  the  Second  Hague  Peace  Conference,  held 
that  he  and  his  colleagues  should  support  any 
European  power  which  desired  to  secure  consid- 
eration of  armaments.  In  1910  the  American 
Congress  authorized  the  appointment  of  a  com- 
mission to  inquire  into  the  possibility  of  secur- 
ing a  limitation  of  armaments  and  of  consti- 
tuting the  combined  navies  of  the  world  into  an 
international  police  force.  The  commission  was 
never  appointed,  and  no  action  was  taken  under 
a  similar  authorization  in  the  Naval  Appropri- 
ation Bill  of  1016.  Until  the  Washington  Con- 
ference only  two  attempts  to  check  war  expendi- 
tures had  not  proved  abortive;  in  1817  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  entered  into 
the  Rush-Bagot  agreement  for  the  limitation 
of  armaments  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  in  1002- 
03  Argentina  and  Chile  negotiated  a  treaty 
relating  to  naval  armaments.  "The  Christ  of 
the  Andes"  was  erected  to  commemorate  the 
signing  of  this  treaty.  During  the  War  both 
the  Allies  and  the  Central  Powers  professed 
their  willingness  to  discuss  armaments.  Wil- 
son's Fourth  Point  stipulated  that  "adequate 
guarantees  [be]  given  and  taken  that  national 
armaments  will  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  point 
consistent  with  domestic  safety."  The  Treaty 
of  Versailles  provided  for  a  thoroughgoing  dis- 
armament of  Germany,  and  the  Covenant  of  the 
League  of  Nations  declared  that  the  members 
recognized  "that  the  maintenance  of  peace  re- 
quires the  reduction  of  national  armaments  to 
the  lowest  point  consistent  with  national  safe- 
ty." The  Council  was  instructed  to  "formulate 
plans  for  such  reduction  for  the  consideration 
and  action  of  the  several  governments."  The 
members  agreed,  furthermore,  that  "the  manu- 
facture by  private  enterprise  of  munitions  and 
implements  of  war  is  open  to  grave  objections. 
The  Council  shall  advise  how  the  evil  effects 
attendant  upon  such  manufacture  can  be  pre- 
vented, due  regard  being  had  to  the  necessities 
of  those  members  of  the  League  which  are  not 
able  to  manufacture  the  munitions  and  imple- 
ments of  war  necessary  for  their  safety."  At 


WASHINGTON  CONFEBENCE 

Saint-Germain-en-Laye,  on  Sept.  10,  1919,  23 
powers  signed  a  convention  for  the  control  of 
the  trade  in  .arms  and  ammunition,  but  before 
this  could  go'  into  effect  and  before  any  action 
could  be  urged  by  the  League  of  Nations,  a 
conference  called  by  the  United  States  at  Wash- 
ington had  agreed  to  a  limit  on  capital  ships. 
The  Conference  at  Washington.  Senator 
William  E.  Borah  of  Idaho  was  more  than  any 
other  individual  responsible  for  the  calling  of 
the  Washington  Conference,  and  his  activities 
were  at  first  viewed  with  some  suspicion  by 
President  Harding  and  Secretary  Hughes.  On 
Dec.  14,  1920,  Senator  Borah  introduced  in  the 
Senate  a  resolution  which  became  part  of  the 
Naval  Appropriation  Bill  of  1921.  The  Presi- 
dent was  authorized  and  requested  "to  invite 
the  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Japan  to 
send  representatives  to  a  conference,  which  shall 
be  charged  with  the  duty  of  promptly  entering 
into  an  understanding  or  agreement  by  which 
the  naval  expenditures  and  building  pro- 
grammes of  each  of  said  governments  .  .  .  shall 
be  substantially  reduced  annually  during  the 
next  five  years  to  such  an  extent  and  upon  such 
terms  as  may  be  agreed  upon."  Executive  op- 
position could  not  keep  this  provision  out  of 
the  Naval  Bill,  but  how  far  the  agitation  in 
Congress  and  the  country  forced  the  executive 
to  reluctant  action  and  how  far  it  was  simply 
pressure  on  a  door  which  had  begun  to  swing 
open,  it  is  difficult  to  say.  On  July  10,  1921, 
the  State  Department  issued  a  proclamation  an- 
nouncing that  a  conference  was  to  be  called. 
Great  Britain,  Japan,  and  the  United  States 
were  the  principal  naval  powers,  but  before 
they  could  agree  on  limitation,  there  had  to  be 
a  full  discussion  and  agreement  on  the  political 
situation  in  the  Pacific.  Policy  and  armament 
go  hand  in  hand.  Preparedness  is  only  half- 
preparedness  if  not  measured  according  to  the 
demands  of  a  nation's  foreign  policy.  Presi- 
dent Harding  appointed  as  the  American  rep- 
resentatives Secretary  Hughes,  Elihu  Root,  Sen- 
ator Lodge,  leader  of  the  Republican  majority 
in  the  Senate,  and  Senator  Underwood,  leader 
of  the  Democratic  minority.  Apparently  Pres- 
ident Harding,  unlike  Wilson  in  the  case  of 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  was  ready  to  placate 
the  Senate  in  advance.  The  Conference  began 
on  Nov.  12,  1921,  and  lasted  until  February, 
1922.  Seven  treaties  were  adopted: 

(1)  A  treaty  between  the  United  States,  the  British 
Empire,  France,  Italy,  and  Japan  with  respect  to  the 
limitation   of   naval   armament 

(2)  A  treaty  between  the  same  powers  in  relation  to 
the  use  of  submarines  and  noxious  gases  in  warfare. 

(3)  A  treaty  between  the  United  States,  the  British 
Empire,    France,   and   Japan   relating   to   their   insular 
possessions  and  dominions  in  the  Pacific   Ocean. 

(4)  A   declaration   accompanying  this  treaty. 

(5)  A  treaty  between  the  same  four  powers  supple- 
mentary to  the  above. 

(6)  A   treaty  between   the    United   States,    Belgium, 
the   British   Empire,    China,   France,    Italy,   Japan,   the 
Netherlands,   and  Portugal  relating  to  policies  in  mat- 
ters concerning  China. 

(7)  A  treaty  between  the  same  nine  powers  relating 
to  the  Chinese  customs  tariff. 

In  addition,  12  resolutions  were  adopted  re- 
lating to  such  matters  as  proposals  for  the 
amendment  of  the  laws  of  war ;  extraterritorial- 
ity in  China;  reduction  of  Chinese  military 
forces;  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway;  and  radio 
stations  and  foreign  postal  agencies  in  China. 
The  most  spectacular  result  of  the  Conference 
was  the  Five-power  Naval  Treaty  which  estab- 
lished a  5-5-3  ratio  for  the  capital  ships  of  the 


1454 


WASHINGTON  CONFEBENCE 


United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Japan,  and 
maintained  the  status  quo  in  respect  to  Ameri- 
can and  Japanese  fortifications  in  the  Pacific. 
This  treaty  was  in  large  part  due  to  the  impor- 
tant speech  which  Secretary  Hughes  made  at 
the  opening  of  the  Conference.  He  not  only 
urged  disarmament  with  an  eloquence  which  re- 
called President  Wilson's  utterances,  but  ho  had 
a  definite  scheme  which  the  United  States  ap- 
proved and  which,  at  the  same  time,  was  not 
unfair  to  Great  Britain  and  Japan.  He  sug- 
gested the  following  four  principles: 

1.  All  capital  shipbuilding  programmes,  either  actual 
or  pro  jot  ted,  should  be  abandoned. 

2.  Fuithrr    reduction    should   be   made   through    the 
sciapiiing  of  the   older  ships. 

3.  In  general,  regard  should  be  had  to  the  existing 
naval  strength   of  the   powers   concerned. 

4.  The  capital   ship  tonnage  should   be   used   as   tho 
measurement    of    strength    for    navies,    and    a    propoi 
tionato   allowance   of   auxiliary   combatant  craft  should 
be   prescribed. 

This  scheme  entailed  the  scrapping  of  1,878,- 
073  tons,  or  60  capital  ships— 30  for  the  United 
Mates,  23  for  Gieat  Britain,  and  17  for  Japan. 
Some  modifications  of  detail  were  made,  largely 
because  of  Japanese  reluctance  to  agree  to  the 
ratio.  Japan  was  finally  permitted  to  retain 
the  1/MtoM,  one  of  the  most  powerful  ships 
afloat;  but  it  was  a  Pyrrhic  victory,  for  in  com- 
pensation Great  Britain  was  allo'wed  to  build 
two  superdreadrioughts,  and  the  United  States 
got  the  right  to  complete  two  battleships  of  the 
}Ycst  I  irginia  class.  This  bargain,  however, 
was  rather  costly  in  money  to  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States. 

Some  naval  strategists  maintained  that  the 
capital  ship  was  obsolete;  if  that  were  so,  its 
limitation  was  little  more  than  a  magnificent 
gesture.  The  limitation  of  capital  ships,  fur- 
thermore, it  was  contended,  would  really  cause 
an  increased  construction  of  smaller  vessels,  and 
these  the  Conference  failed  to  limit.  Indeed, 
the  naval  programmes  of  the  powers,  following 
1922,  already  began  to  compete  in  ship*,  which 
the  treaty  did  not  cover.  Archibald  Hurd,  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  naval  experts  of  Eng- 
land, declared  that  one  of  the  results  of  the 
Conference  would  be  to  "set  up  a  higher  stand- 
ard for  submarines,  placing  on  each  nation 
what  amounts  practically  to  an  obligation  to 
continue  building  submarines."  Here,  prob- 
ably, was  the  most  conspicuous  failure  of  the 
Conference.  The  submarine,  "the  criminal  ot 
the  seas,"  which  was  directly  responsible  for  the 
entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  War,  was 
turned  loose  with  a  certificate  of  good  conduct. 
Article  I  of  the  treaty  on  the  subject  authorized 
the  use  of  the  submarine  under  certain  specified 
conditions  as  a  commerce  destroyer.  Article 
IV,  however,  declared  that  the  signatory  powers 
recognized  the  practical  impossibility  of  using 
the  submarine  as  a  commerce  destroyer.  There 
were  ambiguities  in  the  treaty  which  seemed 
likely  to  cause  difficulty  in  tho  event  of  war, 
and  meanwhile  there  was  no  limitation.  Great 
Britain  was  anxious  to  act  drastically,  but 
France,  on  account  of  her  strategic  position, 
wished  to  retain  the  submarine  as  a  weapon. 
France  was  excluded  from  the  meetings  in 
which  England,  the  United  States,  and  Japan 
deliberated  on  the  naval  holiday;  and  she  was 
not  notified  of  the  decisions  until  they  were  ac- 
complished facts.  The  American  delegation 
might  have  been  more  diplomatic  in  this  re- 
spect, since  France's  cooperation  was  necessary 


WASHINGTON  OONVEBENCE 


if  submarines  were  to  be  successfully  dealt  with, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  interests  of  the  United 
States  in  having  France  agree  to  the  rehabili- 
tation of  Germany.  Aircraft,  also,  was  too  big 
a  problem  for  the  Conference,  although  in  this 
case  their  commercial  possibilities  -would  make 
any  form  of  limitation  extremely  difficult.  An- 
other lacuna  of  the  conference  was  its  failure 
to  define  a  merchant  ship  in  the  treaties  relat- 
ing to  this  subject. 

Of  the  other  treaties  one  deserves  special 
mention.  The  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Japan  agreed  "as  between  them- 
selves to  respect  their  rights  in  relation  to  their 
insular  possessions  and  insular  dominions  in 
the  region  of  the  Pacific  Ocean."  Article  II 
provided  that  "if  the  said  rights  are  threatened 
by  the  aggressive  action  of  any  other  power, 
the  high  contracting  parties  shall  communicate 
with  one  another  fully  and  frankly  in  order  to 
arrive  at  an  understanding  as  to  the  most  ef- 
ficient measures  to  be  taken,  jointly  or  sepa- 
rately, to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  particular 
situation."  This  was  the  so-called  Four-power 
Treaty.  It  gave  rise  to  a  lively  controversy  in 
the  United  States  Senate.  In  particular,  critics 
did  not  fail  to  point  out  the  similarity  of  this 
language  to  that  of  Article  X  of  the  League  of 
Nations  Covenant.  One  serious  question  raised 
by  the  treaty  was  whether  the  phrase  "insular 
dominions"  included  the  Japanese  mainland. 
If  it  did — and  this  was  the  interpretation  first 
given  the  treaty — the  United  States  would  be 
bound  to  confer  on  the  measures  necessary  to 
protect  Japan.  The  United  States  might  l>e 
forced  into  indirect  support  of  possible  Japanese 
imperialism.  There  was  a  difference  of  opinion 
between  President  Harding  and  Secretary 
Hughes  as  to  whether  Japan  proper  was  includ- 
ed, and  as  a  result  of  the  ensuing  public  dis- 
cussion, a  supplementary  treaty  was  drnwn  up, 
excluding  the  mainland  from  the  term  "insular 
possessions  and  insular  dominions/'  The  trea- 
ty probably  left  Japan  in  a  better  position  in 
the  Pacific  than  she  was  in  before,  for  Ameri- 
can diplomatic  freedom  of  action  was  limited. 
The  most  beneficial  result  was  that  the  Anglo- 
Japanese  Alliance  (q.v.)  was  canceled.  This 
was  one  of  the  principal  objectives  of  the  Amer- 
ican delegation  to  the  Conference.  But  if,  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  United  States,  the  Four- 
power  Treaty  was  considered  a  winding-sheet 
for  the  Anglo-Japanese  Alliance,  Japan  appar- 
ently thought  that  the  Alliance  was  extended. 
[Premier  Takahashi  declared  that  the  "Quad- 
ruple Entente,  which  for  Japan  replaces  the 
Anglo-Japanese  Alliance,  is  much  wider  in  its 
bearing  and  removes  all  chances  of  war."  But 
some  pledge  like  the  Four-power  Treaty  was 
necessary  to  provide  the  moral  disarmament 
which  must  be  secured  before  actual  disarma- 
ment could  be  achieved.  The  Four-power  Trea- 
ty was  bound  up  with  the  naval  pact. 

At  the  Conference,  China  met  with  both  suc- 
cesses and  reverses.  One  achievement  of  the 
Conference,  the  Shantung  (q.v.)  agreement,  was 
a  real  advance.  Direct  negotiations  had  failed. 
China  had  little  hope  of  securing  assistance 
from  the  League  of  Nations,  but  in  the  Wash- 
ington Conference  she  was  able  to  debate  the 
matter  with  Japan  and  to  receive  satisfaction. 
Two  important  treaties  relating  to  foreign 
rights  and  interests  in  China  and  the  Chinese 
tariff  failed  to  give  China  what  she  wanted. 
The  United  States  stood  back  of  China  on  occa- 


1455 


WASHINGTON  CONFEBSNOB 


sion,  but  the  matters  involved  were  quite  tech- 
nical.  The  country  was  much  more  interested 
in  the  naval  aspects  of  the  conference,  and 
there  was  no  strong  public  opinion  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  in  favor  of  going  to  her  aid  and  let- 
ting China  get  out  of  the  strait  jacket  in  which 
imperialistic  policies  had  succeeded  in  placing 
her.  See  CHINA;  SHANTUNG;  YAP  ISLAND;  NA- 
VIES OF  THE  WORLD. 

Land  Armaments.  One  other  matter  re- 
quires mention.  The  Washington  Conference 
failed  to  consider  land  armaments.  This  prob- 
lem, to  be  sure,  had  been  on  the  agenda  of  the 
Conference,  but  it  was  soon  seen  that  it  was 
too  closely  bound  up  with  the  situation  in  Eu- 
rope for  it  to  be  dealt  with  by  naval  powers 
meeting  in  Washington.  One  of  the  results  of 
the  Paris  Conference,  however,  was  the  Treaty 
of  St.  Germain  to  deal  with  the  traffic  in  arms 
and  munitions.  Its  purposes  were  two.  In  the 
first  place,  it  was  intended  to  prevent  shipments 
of  arms,  except  for  strictly  governmental  pur- 
poses, to  so-called  "backward  areas,"  e.g.  the 
African  colonies,  Persia,  Arabia,  etc.  The  sec- 
ond purpose  was  to  require  government  licenses 
for  all  shipments  of  arms  and  to  insure  public- 
ity for  licenses  that  were  granted.  States  rati- 
fying the  convention  promised  to  allow  no  ex- 
ports except  under  a  license  indicating  the  char- 
acter and  destination  of  the  shipment  and  to 
prohibit  shipments  if  the  state  of  destination 
were  not  a  party  to  the  convention.  In  other 
words,  shipments  to  revolutionaries  or  to  coun- 
tries not  signatory  to  the  convention  would  be 
forbidden.  Annual  reports  on  the  licenses  were 
to  be  made  to  an  office  under  the  control  of  the 
League  of  Nations.  The  first  two  Assemblies 
of  the  League  urged  ratification  of  this  conven- 
tion, and  the  desire  was  expressed  that  the  mat- 
ter be  taken  up  at  the  Washington  Conference; 
but  nothing  was  done. 

By  September,  1023,  the  convention  had  been 
ratified  by  a  number  of  unimportant  states. 
France,  Great  Britain,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Japan 
had  signified  their  willingness  to  ratify  on  con- 
dition that  all  the  principal  munitions-making 
powers  would  come  in.  The  United  States  re- 
mained indifferent  to  the  convention,  but  final- 
ly Secretary  Hughes  did  consent  to  state  some 
of  the  objections  of  the  United  States.  The 
principal  one  was  that  the  contracting  parties 
were  prohibited  from  selling  munitions  to  states 
not  parties  to  the  convention.  The  agreement 
of  the  United  States,  one  of  the  principal  man- 
ufacturing nations,  was  essential  if  the  matter 
was  to  be  dealt  with,  and  it  was  a  hopeful  sign 
when  early  in  1924  a  League  of  Nations  com- 
mittee began  consideration  of  the  St.  Germain 
convention  to  see  if  it  could  not  be  made  satis- 
factory to  the  United  States.  Joseph  C.  Grew, 
American  Minister  to  Switzerland,  was  present 
as  an  "observer"  for  the  State  Department. 

The  first  Assembly  of  the  League  of  Nations 
set  up  a  so-called  Temporary  Mixed  Commission 
on  Armaments.  To  make  possible  the  reduction 
of  land  armaments  in  Europe,  the  commission 
proposed  a  Draft  Treaty  of  Mutual  Assistance, 
the  work  of  Viscount  Cecil.  The  treaty  was 
based  on  the  theory  that  "a  certain  number  of 
states  are  not  in  a  position  to  contemplate  a 
reduction  of  their  armaments  without  receiving 
in  exchange  a  guarantee  of  their  security. 
The  treaty  provided  a  general  guarantee,  sup- 
plemented in  the  case  of  certain  countries  by 
special  treaties.  The  scheme  was  approved  by 


WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY 


1456 


WATER  POWER 


the  third  Assembly  of  the  League  (1923)  and 
was  sent  to  the  constituent  governments  for 
consideration.  No  doubt  there  would  be  objec- 
tions to  the  proposal  as  a  plan  encouraging  al- 
liances, but  at  least  it  showed  that  the  League 
was  seriously  at  work  on  the  problem  of  mili- 
tary expenditures  in  Europe^ 

WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY.  A  non- 
sectarian,  coeducational  institution  at  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  founded  in  185.3.  The  student  enrollment 
increased  from  1390  in  1914  to  4849  in  1923-24, 
the  faculty  from  208  to  395  members,  the  li- 
brary from  142,589  bound  volumes  and  00,000 
pamphlets  to  225,000  bound  volumes  and  83,000 
pamphlets,  and  the  productive  funds  from  $6,- 
156,223  to  $14,481,364.  The  Wilson  swimming 
pool  and  funds  for  Wilson  Memorial  Hall  for 
the  department  of  geology,  the  latter  in  memory 
of  her  husband,  were  given  by  Mrs.  Newton  K. 
Wilson;  and  the  Grace  Vallc  January  law 
school  building  and  funds  for  the  erection  of  a 
building  for  tne  School  of  Fine  Arts  were  re- 
ceived by  the  university  from  other  sources  in 
1922.  By  donation  of  private  persons  and  the 
General  Education  Board  the  projected  School 
of  Medicine  was  endowed  with  $1,600,000,  and 
$100,000  was  given  by  Robert  S.  Brookings  in 
1923  for  a  residence  foundation  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  in  connection  with  the  newly  established 
Graduate  School  of  Economics  and  (Government. 
A  chair  of  history  was  endowed  through  an 
anonymous  gift  of  $100.000  in  1922.  Frederic 
A.  Hall  was  acting  chancellor,  succeeding  David 
F.  Houston  on  his  resignation  in  1917,  and  was 
succeeded  in  turn  by  Herbert  S.  Hadley,  in 
1923. 

WASSERMANN,  JACOB  (1873-  ).  A 
German  novelist,  born  at  Furth.  He  has  lived 
much  in  Austria.  He  is  the  author  of  many 
works,  including:  Die  Juden  von  Zirndorf 
(1897);  Gesrhichte  der  Jungen  Renate  Fuchs 
(1901);  Der  Niegekusste  Afund  (1902);  Dcr 
Moloch  (1903);  Alexander  in  Babylon  (1905); 
Die  Schtrestern  (1906);  Caspar  Uauser,  oder 
die  Traghcit  des  Hersens  (1908);  Die  Masken 
Erucin  Keiners  (1910);  Der  (Soldene  Spiegel 
(1911)  ;  Der  Mann  von  Viersig  Jahren  (1913)  ; 
Das  Oanttemannchen  (1915);  Christian  Wahn- 
schaffe  (1917);  Der  Wendekrcis  (1920);  and 
several  prose  essays,  Die  Kunst  der  Erzahlinig ; 
Faustina,  oder  ein  Gespruch  vber  die  Liebe 
(1912),  and  Mein  Weg  als  Deutscher  und  Jude 
(1920).  In  1924,  Gold  was  published  in  Amer- 
ica. 

"WATCHFUL  WAITING."  See  MEXICO, 
History. 

WATER  METERS.  See  WATER  WORKS  AND 
WATER  PURIFICATION. 

WATEB  POWEB.  In  the  period  from  1914 
to  1924  there  was  no  more  important  movement 
for  the  development  of  natural  resources  than 
that  concerned  with  making  water  power  avail- 
able for  the  use  of  industry  in  an  economical, 
convenient,  and  efficient  manner.  Thin  was  par- 
ticularly evident  with  the  increased  cost  of  fuel, 
involved  especially  in  the  raising  arid  transpor- 
tation of  coal,  and  due  to  the  growing  demands 
of  industry  along  with  the  improved  standards 
of  living.  This  condition  held  good  the  world 
over,  and  the  development  of  water  power  in 
such  countries  as  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Scan- 
dinavia, not  to  mention  North  America,  was 
indeed  most  important.  Obviously  it  was  a 
subject  which  required  deep  interest  and  super- 
vision even  when  private  capital  was  employed, 


and  for  the  construction  of  dams,  power  plants, 
and  transmission  lines  considerable  outlay  was 
involved,  although  the  maintenance  costs  were 
comparatively  low.  Naturally  in  the  years  im- 
mediately succeeding  the  War  it  was  not  always 
easy  to  secure  such  capital  in  view  of  govern- 
ment indebtedness,  high  rates  for  loans,  and 
often  lack  of  private  capital.  Nevertheless,  in 
many  parts  of  the  world  there  were  important 
development H,  as,  for  example,  in  connection 
with  railway  electrification  in  France  and  in 
Switzerland,  for  industrial  purposes  in  Italy, 
and  for  general  power  development  in  America. 
In  most  instances  there  was  involved  the  con- 
struction of  dams  to  provide  suitable  reservoir 
and  adequate  heads  of  water  for  the  use  of  nat- 
ural waterfalls,  as  at  Niagara  and  other  places. 
See  DAMS. 

Although  North  America  contains  less  than 
15  per  cent  of  the  water-power  resources  of  the 
globe,  nevertheless  by  1924  it  had  developed 
more  water  power  than  all  the  rest  of  the 
world.  About  41  per  cent  of  the  world's  devel- 
oped water  power  was  in  the  United  States,  and 
even  at  that  it  was  estimated  that  only  about 
8  per  cent  of  the  water-power  resources  of  the 
United  States  had  been  developed.  European 
countries,  particularly  Germany,  the  territory 
comprised  in  the  former  Austria-Hungary,  Noi- 
>vay,  Sweden,  France,  Italy,  and  Switzerland, 
had  developed  a  relatively  larger  percentage  of 
their  water  power  but  had  not  in  any  way  ap- 
proached the  possible.  Many  of  these  countries 
had  little  or  no  natural  fuel,  and  consequently 
with  their  ever-increasing  industrial  demands 
for  power  they  were  forced  to  develop  their  wa- 
ter-power resources.  These  developments  were 
somewhat  restricted  by  economic  and  financial 
conditions  following  the  War,  but  by  1924  they 
had  progressed  steadily,  and  there  was  every 
indication  that  much  Ynore  would  be  done  in 
that  direction.  While  Asia,  Africa,  South 
America,  and  Central  America  all  possess  water 
power  in  varying  degrees,  much  of  the  territory 
of  these  countries  has  been  comparatively  un- 
explored, and  in  their  present  economic  condi- 
tion the  development  of  water  power  is  a  sub- 
ject of  little  interest. 

It  might  be  said  that  Northern  and  Southern 
Africa,  where  the  rainfall  is  low,  have  but  lim- 
ited water-power  resources,  while  tropical  Afri- 
ca, particularly  the  Congo  Basin,  with  a  heavy 
rainfall,  has  vast  possibilities  for  the  produc- 
tion of  water  power.  Asia  with  its  vast  area 
and  the  high  altitude  of  its  central  part  is  in- 
ferior in  water-power  resources  to  Africa,  on 
account  of  the  low  precipitation  through  North- 
ern, Western,  and  Central  Asia.  This  subject 
is  comprehensively  summarized  in  "Water  Pow- 
er of  the  World,'"  Part  II  of  the  World  Atlas 
of  Commercial  Geography,  published  by  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  (Washington, 
1921). 

Water  Power  in  the  United  States.  For 
many  years  there  had  been  considerable  discus- 
sion and  controversy  as  to  the-  Federal  water 
powers  on  streams  within  its  jurisdiction.  The 
matter,  however,  had  not  attained  important  di- 
mensions until  the  twentieth  century,  and  even 
then  laws  passed  in  1901  and  1910  on  the  ad- 
ministration of  water  power  hardly  took  into 
consideration  the  part  which  electrical  power 
was  destined  to  play  in  transportation  and  in- 
dustry, or  the  safeguards  which  the  State  in  the 
disposition  of  its  important  natural  resources 


WATER  POWEB  1457  WATER  POWER 

would  be  required  to  make  in  the  interest  of  power  Act.  These  were  the  Coosa  River  project 
the  investor  as  well  as  of  the  public.  In  fact,  in  Alabama,  the  Connecticut  River  project,  and 
the  rights  granted  at  first  were  so  insecure  and  the  Niagara  Falls  project,  all  of  which  were  ad- 

A I l«_l«lfjS •___. -V        _  X_»_         AT J.  • J.  _  J      .A  _        Jt.    _  .         j          A  m      <.  .  • 


the  liabilities  imposed  were  so  uncertain  that 
it  was  difficult  to  finance  water-power  develop- 
ments requiring  Federal  authority,  and  the  re- 
sult was  that  American  industry  was  unable  to 
utilize  the  large  water-power  resources  avail- 
able to  it.  The  Congress  of  the  United  States 
in  1924  had  control  over  the  disposition  of  some 
85  per  cent  of  the  potential  water  powers  of 
the  nation.  This  authority  depends  on  three 
fundamental  bases:  first,  that  the  United  States 
is  owner  of  the  public  lands,  which  may  be  used 
only  in  such  manner  and  for  such  purposes  as 
Congress  may  direct;  secondly,  that  jurisdiction 
over  all  navigable  waters  of  the  United  States 
is  given  to  Congress  through  its  power  to  regu- 
late commerce,  and  it  at  HO  has  authority  to 
determine  what  structures  may  be  erected  in 
or  over  them  and  under  what  conditions,  third- 
ly, the  manner  in  which  international  waters 
can  be  diverted  and  used,  which  of  course  must 
be  the  subject  of  treaty  between  the  nations  con- 
cerned, and  the  only  power  of  making  and  en- 
forcing treaties  in  the  United  States  belongs  to 
the  Federal  government. 

In  the  beginning,  Congress  left  the  regulation 
of  navigable  rivers,  and  in  a  large  measure  their 
improvement,  to  the  several  States  and  acqui- 
esced in  the  construction  on  such  streams  of 
whatever  structures  the  State  laws  might  au- 
thorize. The  use  of  public  lands  for  power 
pui poses  also  fell  under  a  condition  of  similar 
policy,  but  later  this  policy  was  modified 
through  legislation  seeking  to  preset \e  the  pub- 
lic interest  in  the  powei  resources  under  public 
control  Such  legislation,  however,  did  not  ap- 
preciate the  conditions  which  were  necessary  if 
these  resources  were  to  be  developed  for  public 
use.  Under  the  Act  of  1001  grants  on  public 
lands  and  icservations  were  made  by  the  Ex- 
ecutive Department ,  on  navigable  streams,  pow- 
er grants  demanded  a  special  act  of  Cong i  ess 
The*  Act  of  June  23,  1910,  superseding  a  similar 
act  approved  on  June  21,  190G,  merelv  fixed  the 
general  conditions  under  which  the  special 
grants  were  made.  These  acts  were  considered 
practical  failures,  and  in  order  to  meet  the  con- 
ditions which  had  arisen  and  to  provide  for  the 
proper  requirements  of  industry  as  well  as  to 
protect  the  nation  at  large,  the  Federal  Water- 
power  Act  was  passed  by  Congress  and  ap- 
proved June  10,  1920.  This  Act  created  the 
Federal  Power  Commission,  made  up  of  the  Sec- 
letary  of  War,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior, 
arid  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  together  with 
an  engineering,  technical,  legal,  and  adminis- 
trative staff  which  was  authorized  to  make  in- 
vestigations and  to  collect  and  report  data  con- 
cerning water  resources  and  the  water-power 
industry. 

The  Commission  was  also  empowered  to  issue 
permits  and  licenses  for  the  construction,  oper- 
ation, and  maintenance  of  dams,  water  conduits, 
reservoirs,  power  plants,  transmission  lines, 
and  like  projects,  such  licenses  being  issued  for 
a  period  not  exceeding  50  years,  and  prescrib- 
ing special  conditions  under  which  the  licensee 
should  operate,  including,  of  course,  those  that 
were  set  forth  in  some  detail  in  the  Federal 
Water-power  Act  itself.  After  the  passage  of 
this  Act  three  important  projects  affecting  nav- 
igable waters  where  power  development  had  al- 
ready taken  place  were  adjusted  to  the  Water- 


justed  to  the  new  statutes,  and  licenses  were  is- 
sued bringing  the  various  operating  companies 
into  line  with  the  new  order  of  control.  These 
of  course  were  not  the  only  projects  that  were 
brought  before  the  attention  of  the  Federal 
Power  Commission,  as  many  applications  were 
made  for  licenses  in  cases  where  there  was  no 
question  of  policy  or  controversy  involved,  as 
well  as  for  projects  which  involved  political 
or  other  complications.  At  the  close  of  the  fis- 
cal year  ending  June  30,  1923,  the  Federal 
Power  Commission  reported  that  it  had  received 
applications  involving  an  estimated  installation 
of  21,500,000  horse  power  and  had  issued  per- 
mits and  licenses  for  an  aggregate  installation 
of  7,500,000  horse  power,  and  that  there  were 
built  or  were  building  2,400,000  horse  power 
under  license  of  the  Commission.  Previous  to 
the  passage  of  the  Power  Act  only  1,400,000 
horse  power  had  been  made  available  under 
Federal  authority,  while  at  the  time  of  the  pas- 
sage of  the  Water-power  Act  the  aggregate  in- 
stallation in  all  water-power  plants  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  amounted  to  only  9,000,000  horse 
power. 

From  this  summary  it  will  be  apparent  that 
the  legislation  of  1920  not  only  was  needed  but 
was  the  forerunner  of  improved  and  substantial 
developments.  This  does  not  mean  that  the 
Federal  Power  Commission  was  not  involved  in 
controversy  or  that  there  was  a  uniform  accept- 
ance by  the  various  States  of  attempts  to  exert 
Federal  authority  over  sti  earns  more  or  less 
navigable  This  gave  rise  to  legislation  and  to 
litigation  which  up  to  the  autumn  of  1924  was 
far  from  settled.  For  example,  the  water-power 
developments  proposed  for  the  Colorado,  Colum- 
bia, and  St.  Lawrence  Rivers  and  at  Muscle 
Shoals,  representing  some  13,000,000  horse  pow- 
er, were  far  from  settled  in  the  summer  of  1924. 
The  State  of  Arizona  refused  to  ratify  the  trea- 
ty negotiated  among  seven  States  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  Colorado,  while  the  method  of 
utilizing  the  Wilson  Dam  and  Power  House, 
constructed  by  the  Federal  government,  was 
long  a  subject  of  controversy.  (See  DAMS  and 
MUSCLE  SIIOAIS.)  Likewise  over  the  Columbia 
River  project  a  controversy  arose  between  the 
reclamation  and  power  interests,  and  until  these 
and  other  matters  could  be  settled  it  was  not 
possible  to  proceed  with  such  projects  as  the 
Priest  rapid  development  which  would  involve 
750,000  horse  power  developed  by  a  dam  two 
and  a  half  miles  in  length,  situated  about  half- 
way between  Spokane  and  Portland.  In  1924 
the  development  of  power  along  the  St.  Law- 
rence River  was  awaiting  international  agree- 
ment before  either  United  States  or  Canadian 
interests  could  proceed  with  it.  In  1923  the 
Federal  Power  Commission  issued  a  permit  in- 
volving 360,000  horse  power  on  the  Susque- 
hanna  River,  and  also  a  permit  to  the  West 
Virginia  Power  and  Transmission  Company  on 
the  Chesapeake  River,  where  an  installed  capac- 
ity of  000,000  horse  power  was  considered  pos- 
sible. 

In  1923  in  the  electric  public-utility  power 
plants  in  the  United  States,  about  19,333,000,- 
000  kilowatt  hours  of  elect licity  was  produced 
by  the  use  of  water  power.  To  produce  this 
quantity  of  power  by  the  use  of  fuel  would  have 
required  23,250,000  tons  of  coal,  representing  a 


WATER  POWER 

coat  considerably  over  $100,000,000.  The  elec- 
tricity produced  by  the  use  of  water  power  for 
public-utility  power  plants  in  1023  was  34.8 
per  cent  of  the  total,  a  decline  from  the  37.5 
per  cent  of  1919;  but  it  was  believed  that  in 
a  year  of  more  than  normal  water  supplies 
throughout  the  United  States,  the  quantity  of 


WATER  POWER 

electricity  so  produced  would  increase  materi- 
ally, California  ranked  first  in  the  use  of  wa- 
ter power  for  the  production  of  electricity,  21 
to  22  per  cent  of  the  total  production  for  the 
entire  United  States  being  generated  within  its 
limits.  In  this  respect  it  exceeded  New  York, 
which  ranked  first  in  1920  and  produced  in 


DEVELOPED  WATER  POWER  IN   THE  UNITED  STATES,  IN  1924 
(Capacity  of  water  wheels  installed  in  plants  of  100  horse  power  or  more) 


Total 

Public  utility  and 

Manufacturing  and 

municipal 

miscellaneous 

Division  and  State 

Number  of 

Capacity  in 

Number  of 

Capacity  in 

Number  of 

Capacity  in 

plants 

horse  power 

plants 

horse  power 

plants 

horse  power 

United  States     

.  ..     3,211 

9,086,958 

1,390 

7,348,197 

1,821 

1,738  761 

New  England        

.  .     1,228 

1,387,364 

249 

644,831 

979 

742  533 

Middle  Atlantic         

607 

1,731,881 

228 

1,408,173 

379 

323,703 

East  North  Central   

342 

829,854 

212 

625,826 

130 

204,028 

West  North  Central   

183 

459,736 

117 

376,864 

66 

82,872 

South  Atlantic        

259 

1,295,978 

129 

1,045,728 

130 

250,250 

East  South  Central   .... 

50 

345.584 

32 

323.816 

18 

21,768 

West  South  Central  .... 

27 

16.727 

12 

12,515 

15 

4,212 

Mountain     

226 

880,783 

178 

860,937 

48 

19,846 

Pacific       

289 

2,139,051 

233 

2,049,507 

56 

89,545 

New  England 

Maine         

251 

473,188 

73 

171,223 

178 

301,965 

242 

235,810 

59 

112,240 

183 

123,570 

206 

167,816 

60 

114,701 

146 

53,115 

347 

343,939 

32 

161,977 

315 

181,962 

Rhode  Island   

59 

30,188 

5 

3,285 

54 

26,903 

123 

136,423 

20 

81,405 

103 

55.018 

Middle  Atlantic 

New    York    , 

525 

1,542,983 

177 

1,234,460 

848 

308.523 

New  Jersey  

34 

18,902 

10 

8,658 

24 

10,244 

48 

169,996 

41 

165,055 

7 

4,941 

East  North  Central 

Ohio     

24 

29,753 

16 

24,486 

8 

5,267 

Indiana     

20 

29,199 

13 

25,489 

7 

3.710 

Illinois   

41 

85,002 

15 

73,591 

26 

11,411 

100 

281,  G18 

88 

242,052 

18 

39,r><»r» 

Wisconsin      , 

151 

404,282 

80 

260,208 

71 

144,074 

West   North   Central 

Minnesota    

58 

211,850 

37 

151,917 

21 

59,933 

Iowa    

49 

177,280 

36 

175,010 

18 

2,270 

Missouri    

7 

17.970 

5 

17,670 

2 

300 

North  Dakota  

1 

245 

0 

0 

1 

245 

South  Dakota   

8 

18,171 

4 

6,050 

4 

12.121 

Nebraska     

40 

19,716 

25 

16,316 

15 

3,400 

Kansas       

20 

14,504 

10 

9,901 

10 

4,603 

South    Atlantic 

9 

3,133 

0 

0 

9 

3,133 

Maryland     

19 

7,230 

6 

2,120 

13 

5,110 

D.    0     

4 

666 

0 

0 

4 

666 

Virginia          

69 

109,798 

33 

82,656 

86 

27.142 

West  Virginia    

11 

14,711 

6 

8,446 

5 

6,2()5 

70  • 

431,500 

30 

246,400 

40 

185,100 

South  Carolina  , 

22 

357,510 

17 

348,750 

5 

8,760 

Georgia      

52 

364,394 

34 

350,320 

18 

14,074 

Florida       

3 

7,036 

3 

7,036 

0 

0 

East    South    Central 

5 

1,256 

2 

352 

8 

904 

25 

128,465 

18 

127,439 

7 

1,026 

20 

215,863 

12 

196,025 

8 

19,888 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

West  South  Central 

2 

1,189 

1 

720 

1 

469 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

4 

1,718 

4 

1,718 

0 

0 

21 

13,820 

7 

10,077 

14 

3,743 

Mountain 

29 

345,040 

27 

343,100 

2 

1,940 

Idaho       

46 

270,918 

42 

269,021 

4 

1,897 

10 

7,886 

9 

7,560 

1 

826 

Colorado       

52 

87,978 

28 

77,880 

24 

10,098 

5 

1,322 

5 

1,322 

0 

0 

8 

88,760 

8 

38,760 

0 

0 

Utah    

66 

115,329 

51 

110,344 

15 

4,985 

Nevada    

10 

13,550 

8 

12,950 

2 

600 

Pacific 

74 

480,356 
206,865 

63 
52 

469,139 
147,620 

7 
22 

11,217 
69,245 

145 

1,451,830 

118 

1,432,748 

27 

19,082 

Outlying  Possessions 


Alaska  ... 
Hawaii 
Porto  Rico 


Developed  Water  Power 

(In  Horse  Power) 

40,000 

25,000 

15,000 


•  Approximate 


WATBB  FOWBB 


1459 


WATEB  POWEB 


POTENTIAL  WATER  POWEB  RESOURCES  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES 


State  and  division 


Available  90  per  cent 


able  90  per  < 
of  the  time 


Available  50  per  cent 
time 


liable  50  jper 
of  the  time 


Horse  power 


Per  cent 


Horse  power 


Per  cent 


United  States 84,818,000 

New  England 998,000 

Middle    Atlantic         4,317,000 

East  North  Central   737,000 

West  North  Central 871,000 

South  Atlantic    2,476,000 

East  South  Central   1,011,000 

West   South   Central        434,000 

Mountain     10,736,000 

Pacific   13,238,000 

New  England 

Maine    536,000 

New  Hampshire 186,000 

Vermont    80,000 

Massachusetts   106,000 

Rhode  Island   25,000 

Connecticut 65,000 

Middle  Atlantic  — — 

New  York 4,010,000 

New   Jersey    50,000 

Pennsylvania    257,000 

East  North  Central 

Ohio   55,000 

Indiana   40,000 

Illinois     189,000 

Michigan   1 68,000 

Wisconsin    285,000 

West  North  Central 

Minnesota    203,000 

Iowa    169,000 

Missouri     67,000 

North  Dakota 82,000 

South  Dakota 63,000 

Nebraska 183,000 

Kansas 104.000 

South  Atlantic 

Delaware     5,000 

Man  land  and  District  of  Columbia  .  .  106,000 

Virginia            459,000 

West   Virginia 355,000 

North  Carolina 540,000 

South  Carolina   429,000 

Georgia    572,000 

Florida     10,000 

East  South   Central 

Kentucky 77,000 

Tennessee    432,000 

Alabama    472,000 

Mississippi     30,000 

West   South   Central 

Arkansas     125,000 

Louisiana    1,000 

Oklahoma    70,000 

Texas     238,000 

Mountain 

Montana    2,550,000 

Idaho     2,122,000 

Wyoming 704,000 

Colorado    765,000 

New  Mexico    116,000 

Arizona    2,759,000 

Utah    1,420,000 

Nevada    300.000 

Pacific 

Washington 4,970,000 

Oregon     3,665,000 

California    4,603,000 

Outlying   Possessions 

Alaska  1,000,000 

Porto  Rico 19,000 

Hawaii  100,000 


100.00 

2.87 

12.40 

2.12 

2.50 

7.11 

2.90 

1.25 

30.83 

38.02 


1.54 
.53 
.23 
.31 
.07 
.19 


11.52 
.14 
.74 


16 
.12 
54 
48 

.82 


.58 
.49 
.19 
.23 
.18 
53 
.30 


.01 

.30 

132 

1  02 

1  55 

1.23 

1.65 

03 


.22 

1.24 

1.35 

09 


.36 
.00 
.20 
69 


732 
6  10 
2  02 
220 

.33 
7.92 
4.08 

.86 


14.27 
1053 
13,22 


55,030,000 

1,978,000 

5,688,000 

1,391,000 

1,844,000 

4,464,000 

2,004,000 

888,000 

15,513,000 

21,260,000 


1,074,000 
350,000 
169,000 
235,000 
40.000 
110,000 


4,960,000 

90,000 

638,000 


166,000 
110,000 
361,000 
274,000 
480,000 


401,000 
395,000 
152,000 
193,000 
110,000 
342,000 
251,000 


10,000 
238,000 
812,000 
980,000 
816,000 
632,000 
958,000 

18,000 


184,000 

710,000 

1,050,000 

60,000 


178,000 

2,000 

194,000 

514,000 


3,700,000 
4,032,000 
1,182,000 
1,570,000 

186,000 
2,887,000 
1,586,000 

370,000 


7,871,000 
6.715,000 
6,674,000 


2,500,000 

28,000 

200,000 


10000 

3.60 

10.35 

2.53 

3.35 

8.11 

3.64 

1.61 

28.19 

38.63 


1.95 
.64 
.31 
.43 
.07 
20 


903 

16 

1.16 


.30 
.20 
.66 
.50 

.87 


.73 
.72 
.27 
.35 
20 
62 
.46 


.02 

.43 

1.48 

1.78 

148 

115 

1.74 

.03 


33 


191 
11 


32 
.00 
.35 
.94 


672 

7  33 

215 

2  85 

.34 

5.25 

2  88 

67 


14.30 
1220 
12.13 


1923   about   18   per  cent  of  the   total   for  the 
United  States. 

Developed  and  Potential  Water  Power  of 
the  United  States  (1924).  Early  in  1924  the 
United  States  Geological  Survey  published  a 
summary  of  developed  water  power  in  the 


United  States  which  showed  that  there  were 
then  about  3200  water-power  plants  of  100 
horse  power  or  more,  having  a  total  capacity  of 
installed  water  wheels  of  9,086,958  horse  power, 
an  increase  of  about  1,160,000  horse  power,  or 
nearly  15  per  cent  over  the  total  in  1921,  which 


WATSBS 


1460     WATEB  WHEELS  AND  TTJBBINES 


was  7,926,958  hone  power.  Of  the  1924  to- 
tal 81  per  cent  was  in  public-utility  -plants 
and  19  per  cent  in  manufacturing  plants. 
The  corresponding  percentages  in  1921  were 
78  and  22.  New  York,  with  1,542,983  horse 
power,  was  the  leading  State  in  developed 
water  power;  California,  with  1,431,830,  was 
a  close  second;  Washington,  with  480,350, 
was  third;  Maine,  with  473,188,  was  fourth; 
and  North  Carolina,  with  431,500,  was  fifth, 
displacing  Montana,  which  ranked  fifth  in 
lf)21.  Water-power  development  in  the  New 
England,  east  north  central,  west  north  cen- 
tral, and  mountain  States  had  not  kept  pace 
with  that  in  the  other  parts  of  the  United 
States,  as  the  following  table  shows. 

DEVELOPED    WATER     POWER     IN     SPECIFIED 

DIVISIONS    OP   THE    UNITED    STATES, 

IN   1921    AND   19^4 

Percentage  of  total 
Division  in  U.  8.  Difference 


1921 
.        16.5 

1924 
15.3 

—1.2 

Middle  Atlantic  

18.7 

19  1 

+  .* 

East  North  Central  . 
West  North  Central 
South  Atlantic  .    ... 
East  South  Central  . 
West  South  Central  . 

9.3 
5.6 
13.6 
31 
.2 
10.4 

9.1 
5  1 
148 
3.8 
.2 
9  7 

-  .2 
-  .5 

+  •? 

*o7 

—  .7 

Pacific    

22.6 

23.5 

+  .9 

•Plus  flign  indicates  increase;  minus  sign,  decrease. 

WATEBS,  HENBY  JACKSON  ( 1865-  ) .  An 
American  educator  and  editor  born  at  Center, 
Mo.,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Missouri 
and  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  He  was  con- 
nected with  the  Missouri  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  and  from  1802  to  1895  was  pro- 
fessor of  agriculture  at  the  Pennsylvania  State 
College.  Professor  Waters  was  director  of  the 
Missouri  State  Agricultural  Exhibition  at  the 
St.  Louis  Exposition  in  1904,  and  from  1895  to 
1909  he  was  director  of  the  Experiment  Station 
and  professor  of  agricultuie  at  the  University 
of  Missouii.  From  1909  to  1917  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College 
and  in  1918  became  managing  editor  of  the 
Kansas  City  Weekly  Star.  He  was  commis- 
Hioner  to  the  Philippines  to  report  on  agricul- 
tural and  educational  development  and  was  a 
member  of  several  State  agricultural  hoards. 
During  the  War  he  was  Federal  Food  Adminis- 
trator. He  wrote  The  Essential*  of  Agricul- 
ture (1915);  The  Development  of  the,  Philip- 
pine Islands  (1915),  and  Laboratory  Manual  of 
Agriculture,  with  J.  D.  Elliff  (1918). 

WATEB  SUPPLY.  See  WATEB  WOBKS  AND 
WATER  PURIFICATION. 

WATEBWAYS.     See  CANALS. 

WATER  WHEELS  AND  TURBINES.  In 
the  interval  between  1914  and  1924  many  im- 
I»ortant  improvements  were  made  in  water 
wheels  and  turbines  so  that  more  efficient  types 
were  developed  and  greater  capacities  secured 
which  were  needed  with  the  large  power  plants 
which  were  being  built.  By  1924  there  were 
3200  water-power  plant*  of  100  horse  power  or 
more  in  the  United  States  with  a  total  capaci- 
ty of  installed  water  wheels  of  all  types  of  0,- 
080,958  horse  power,  an  increase  of  some  1,160,- 
000  horse  power,  or  nearly  15  per  cent  over  the 
total  in  1921.  Of  the  1924  total,  81  per  cent 
was  in  public-utility  plants  and  10  per  cent  in 
manufacturing  plants.  The  year  1923  was  one 
of  unprecedented  activity  in  hydroelectric  de- 
velopment in  the  United  States  an<f  Canada.  It 


was  stated  in  Power  (New  York)  that  con- 
tracts for  over  2,000,000  horse  power  of  hy- 
draulic turbines  were  placed  in  the  two  coun- 
tries. One  company  alone  had  contracted  to 
manufacture  some  01  units  for  31  plants  to  ag- 
gregate over  500,000  horse  power,  while  another 
manufacturing  corporation  had  contracts  for 
more  than  380,000  horse  pouer.  Of  the  new 
business  of  the  year,  nearly  1,000,000  horse  pow- 
er of  hydraulic  turbines  were  manufactured  for 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  750,000  horse  pow- 
er was  to  be  installed  in  the  provinces  of  On- 
tario and  Quebec.  Actual  construction  of  hy- 
droelectric plants  either  completed  or  in  prog- 
ress in  the  United  States  totaled  over  2,000,000 
in  1923.  Both  new  plants  and  extensions  to  old 
installations  were  included  in  this  total. 

Hydraulic  turbines  are  roughly  divided  into 
two  main,  groups,  reaction  and  impulse  turbines. 
The  reaction  turbines  are  those  in  which  the 
water  enters  the  turbine  runner  when  only  a 
part  of  its  energy  has  been  converted  into  ve- 
locity; in  the  impulse  turbines,  the  water 
strikes  under  atmospheric  pressure  when  all  its 
energy  has  been  converted  into  velocity.  The 
former  type  is  the  most  used;  both  kinds  arc 
built  in  ever-increasing  sizes.  Thus  in  1923  a 
70,000  horse  power  turbine  was  placed  in  serv- 
ice at  the  No.  3  Plant  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company,  and  while  this  was  the  largest 
single  unit  to  be  installed  up  to  1924,  it  was 
typical  of  the  tendency  of  the  larger  hydroelec- 
tric plants  to  provide  as  much  capacity  as  pos- 
sible in  a  single  unit  of  large  capacity. 

The  increase  in  the  capacity  of  water  wheels 
and  their  improvement  was  a  natural  result  of 
the  incentive  to  make  every  possible  use  of  wa- 
ter power  wherever  available  which  came  with 
the  increased  costs  of  fuel.  (See  WATER  POW- 
ER.) For  this  reason  not  only  were  new  instal- 
lations made,  but  in  many  of  the  older  plants 
new  working  parts  were  installed  with  the  ob- 
ject of  modernizing  the  equipment  and  securing 
larger  power  output  and  greater  operating  ef- 
ficiency. The  use  of  large  single  units  prac- 
tically* began  during  the  period  under  considera- 
tion, 'especially  in  the  United  States.  Thus  in 
1910  the  Tallahassee  Power  Company  installed 
at  its  Yadkin  River  development  in  North  Caro- 
lina three  turbines  which  gave  31,000  horse 
power  under  an  effective  head  of  180  feet  and 
at  154  revolutions  per  minute.  These  were  the 
largest  units  of  the  single-runner  Francis  typo 
that  had  been  built  up  to  this  time.  Greater 
heads  were  used,  as  in  1918  at  the  White  River 
generating  station  of  the  Puget  Sound  Traction 
Light  and  Power  Company,  where  an  output  of 
25,000  horse  power  was  secured  in  a  unit  work- 
ing under  a  head  of  440  feet.  This  was  part  of 
an  installation  which  numbered  among  its  con- 
sumers of  electric  power  the  Coast  Division  of 
the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul  Railway 
This  head  was  exceeded  in  1921  at  the  Kern 
River  Plant  No.  3  of  the  Southern  California 
Edison  Company,  where  two  vertical-shaft  22,- 
£00-horse  power  Francis-type  turbines  were  put 
into  operation  under  an  effective  head  of  800 
feet.  At  this  time  were  designed  a  group  of 
5  5.5,000-horse  power  reaction  turbines,  to  work 
with  an  effective  head  of  305  feet,  for  the 
Qneenston  development  of  the  Hydroelectric 
Power  Commission  of  Ontario.  By  1924  this 
installation  had  been  increased  to  8  units  In 
1921  there  were  installed  at  the  new  Caribou 
station  o!  the  Great  Western  Power  Company 


WATER    POWER 


COURTESY    WCSTlNQHOUSt    ELECTRIC    AND    MANUFACTURING    COMPANY 


HYDRO-ELECTRIC    INSTALLATION    AT   THE    NIAGARA    FALLS    POWER    CO.  PLANT 

Diagrammatic  view  of  No.  3  A  unit  including  (above)  a  32,000  Kv-a,  3-phase,  12,000  volts,  vertical  Westinghoute 
Waterwheel  Generator  operating  at  150  revolutions  per  minute,  and  (below)  a  Morris  Turbine 


WATEB  WHEELS  AND  TTJBBINES     1461 


WATEB  WOEKS 


at  Belden,  Cal.,  two  very  large  impulse  wheel 
units  rated  at  30,000  horse  power  each;  each 
unit  consisted  of  two  independent  wheels 
mounted  on  each  side  of  the  generator  and 
operating  under  a  head  of  1008  feet  at  171  revo- 
lutions per  minute.  The  high-head  impulse 
wheels  found  favor  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  and 
among  the  important  units  of  this  type  in- 
stalled in  1024  were  four  25,000-horse  power 
units  in  the  Moccasin  Creek  plant  of  the  San 
Francisco  development  of  the  Hetch  Hetchy  pro- 
ject with  a  head  of  1200  feet,  a  new  unit  for  the 
Caribou  station  already  mentioned,  and  a  22,- 
500-horse  power  unit  of  the  Southern  Califor- 
nia Edison  Company  operating  on  a  head  of 
1900  feet. 

As  distinct  from  these  high-head  impulse 
wheels,  other  modern  developments  were  those 
with  propeller  type  runners  such  as  the  two  28,- 
000-horse  power  units  in  the  Great  Falls  plant 
of  the  Manitoba  Power  Company,  which  in 
1023  were  working  under  a  head  of  some  22 
feet,  but  which  with  the  completion  of  the  rock- 
fill  section  of  the  dam  would  run  with  a  head  of 
50  feet.  A  novel  form  of  propeller-type  runner 
was  in  use  in  Sweden;  its  blades  were  adjusta- 
ble, BO  as  to  take  care  of  variation  in  load. 
One  particular  unit  of  this  type  had  its  runner 
19  feet  in  diameter  and  operated  under  a  head 
of  21.25  feet.  It  was  of  11,500-horse  power  ca- 
pacity. In  the  La  Gabelle  development  of  the 
Shawinigan  Water  and  Power  Company  on  the 
St.  Maurice  River  in  Quebec,  four  30,000-horse 
power  propeller-type  turbines  were  designed  to 
operate  under  a  *GO-foot  head.  These  not  only 
were  the  largest  units  of  this  type  built  up  to 
1924  but  were  designed  to  operate  under  a 
higher  head  than  had  been  previously  attempted 
with  machines  of  this  class. 

In  1924  there  was  built  for  the  Oak  Grove 
plant  of  the  Portland  Railway,  Light,  and  Pow- 
er Company  in  Oregon,  a  35,000-horse  power 
Francis-type  turbine  to  operate  under  a  head 
of  850  feet  and  to  run  at  a  speed  of  514  revo- 
lutions per  minute.  Previously,  two  25,000-horse 
power  turbines  had  boon  built  to  operate  with 
a  head  of  810  feet,  so  that  the  new  unit  had 
the  record  in  this  respect.  It  was  one  of  a 
group  of  three  ultimately  to  lie  installed  in  the 
power  plant  mentioned.  \At  the  Pitt  River  No.  3 
hydroelectric  plant  of  the  Pacific  Gas  and  Elec- 
tric Company,  three  33,000-horfie  power  vertical 
Francis  turbines  were  installed  to  operate  un- 
der an  effective  head  of  280  feet.  At  the  No.  3 
plant  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company,  its 
first  70,000-horse  power  turbine,  referred  to 
above,  designed  to  operate  under  a  head  of  214 
feet  and  to  run  at  107  revolutions  per  minute, 
was  put  into  service  on  Dec.  18,  1923.  and  the 
other  two  new  units  in  this  extension  were  com- 
pleted in  1924.  These  turbines  were  the  larg- 
est in  capacity  up  to  the  time  of  their  installa- 
tion. Another  large  hydroelectric  plant  where 
new  units  were  installed  in  1923  was  that  of 
the  Ontario  Hvdroelectric  Power  Commission  at 
Queenston  Here  eight  units  of  00,000  horse 
power  each  had  been  provided  for,  and  Nos.  5 
and  6  were  installed  during  1923,  while  founda- 
tions for  Nos.  7  and  8  had  been  completed  so 
that  these  units  could  be  placed  and  put  into 
operation  in  1924. 

One  of  the  important  developments  in  con- 
nection with  water-power  plants  was  the  in- 
creased use  of  automatic  and  remotely  con- 
trolled hydroelectric  stations.  For  example,  at 


the  Searsbury  station  of  the  New  England  Pow- 
er Company,  a  7500-horse  power  Francis  tur- 
bine was  directly  connected  to  a  5000-kilovolt- 
ampere  generator,  which  from  a  stationary  con- 
dition could  be  put  into  operation,  so  as  to  sup- 
ply current  to  the  line  in  35  seconds.  Likewise 
a  smaller  unit  with  a  generator  of  1500-kilo- 
yoltampcre  capacity  with  automatic  control  was 
installed  by  the  Adirondack  Power  and  Light 
Corporation,  while  at  another  plant,  two  4000- 
kilovoltampere  waterwheel  generators  were  em- 
ployed with  full  automatic  and  supervisory  con- 
trol. It  was  believed  that  stations  with  larger 
installations  than  any  attempted  were  econo- 
mically possible  under  these  conditions  and  that 
such  plants  would  continue  to  be  built  in  in- 
creased numbers. 

Bibliography.  Among  the  more  notable  new 
books  dealing  with  turbines  and  hydraulic  ma- 
chinery generally  were:  Church,  Hydraulic 
Motors;  Mead,  Water  Power  Engineering,  2d 
ed.  (New  York,  1915);  Lof  and  Rushmore, 
Hydroelectric  Power  Motions,  2d  ed.  (New 
York,  1924);  Camerer,  Wasserkraft  Maschinen. 
Also,  for  convenient  reference,  consult  Kent, 
Mechanical  Engineers'  Handbook,  10th  ed.  (New 
York,  1923). 

WATEB  WORKS  AND  WATEB  PURIFI- 
CATION. In  number  of  places  and  number  of 
population  supplied,  as  well  as  in  general  effici- 
ency and  vital  relations  to  the  health  and  safe- 
ty of  the  public,  water  works  lead  among  the 
municipal  enterprises  of  the  United  States. 
The  number  of  municipalities  actually  served 
with  public  water  supplies  in  1924  'was  un- 
known, but  taking  into  account  the  rate  of 
growth  indicated  by  the  various  issues  of  The 
Manual  of  American  Water  Works  (1897,  the 
latest)  and  The  McOraw  Water  Works  Direc- 
tory (1915),  it  may  be  assumed  that  some  10,- 
000  places  enjoyed  public  water  supplies. 
Many  of  these  places  were  supplied  from  works 
outside  their  boundaries  and  several  by  private 
companies.  In  number  of  separate  municipali- 
ties supplied,  the  Hackensack  Water  Company 
held  the  lead;  it  supplied  some  50  different 
municipalities  in  northeastern  New  Jersey.  A 
much  larger  population,  although  fewer  sepa- 
rate municipalities,  was  supplied  by  State-built 
works  in  the  Boston  metropolitan  district,  oper- 
ated under  the  direction  of  the  Metropolitan 
District  Commission.  Both  the  first  cost  and 
operating  expenses  of  these  works  are  met  by 
the  municipalities,  to  which  the  water  is  de- 
livered wholesale  by  meter  measurement. 

By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  entire  water 
supply  in  all  countries  of  the  world  is  drawn 
from  'surface  sources,  but  considerable  areas  are 
favored  with  underground  water  drawn  from 
springs  and  wells,  some  of  the  latter  tapping 
artesian  sources.  Broadly  speaking,  water  sup- 
plies drawn  from  surface  sources  are  subjected 
to  some  degree  of  purification — filtration  in 
Europe  and  largely  also  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  with  chlorination  widely  used  in 
the  two  latter  countries  and  gradually  being  in- 
troduced in  England  as  a  finishing  process  or 
insurance  against  stray  disease-producing  bac- 
teria that  may  have  escaped  the  filters.  Chlor- 
ination is  also  extensively  used  in  the  United 
States  where  filtration  has  not  been  introduced. 
The  chlorinating  plants  are  relatively  inexpen- 
sive in  both  first  and  operating  cost.  More 
than  50  of  these  were  installed  on  the  New  York 
water  supply;  they  ranged  from  capacities  of 


WATSON 


1463 


WATTGH 


hundreds  of  millions  of  gallons  a  day  on  the 
Catskill  Aqueduct  supply  down  to  small  plants 
in  other  parts  of  the  water-works  system.  New 
York  City,  Boston,  San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles, 
Portland,  and  Seattle  are  exceptional  among 
larger  American  cities  in  not  having  filtration 
plants  for  their  surface  water  supplies  drawn 
from  streams,  and  so  are  Chicago  and  Milwau- 
kee among  the  cities  on  the  Great  X-akes.  Near- 
ly all  the  filtration  plants  of  later  construction 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada  have  been  of 
the  rapid  or  mechanical  type  as  compared  with 
the  alow  sand  filters  most  commonly  used  in 
England  and  introduced  quite  largely  in  the 
United  States  from  the  early  1890's  onward  for 
some  10  or  15  years.  Water  softening,  long 
common  in  England,  was  introduced  somewhat 
sparingly  in  the  United  States  but  was  adopted 
in  connection  with  a  number  of  the  mechanical 
filtration  plants  in  the  later  years  of  the  decade 
1914-24.  In  the  case  of  some  underground  wa- 
ter supplies,  aeration  and  filtration  plants  were 
built  for  the  removal  of  iron  and  manganese;  a 
notable  instance  was  recorded  by  Lowell,  Mass., 
which  in  1914  let  a  contract  for  a  plant  of  this 
kind  with  a  capacity  of  10,000,000  gallons  per 
day.  An  iion  removal  plant  at  Berlin,  Ger- 
many, was  described  in  The  Engineering  News- 
Record  (Sept.  13,  1923). 

Aside  from  the  rapid  introduction  of  chlorina- 
tion  and  the  increase  in  filtration  plants,  the 
most  notable  change  in  water-works  systems 
during  the  decade  was  the  substitution  of  cen- 
trifugal for  reciprocating  pumps.  The  centri- 
fugal pumps,  except  in  the  rare  cases  where  wa- 
ter power  is  directly  available,  are  most  fre- 
quently driven  by  steam  turbines;  but  many  of 
the  later  installations  of  centrifugal  pumps  are 
electric-driven.  Cast  iron  remained  by  far  the 
most  widely  used  material  for  water  pipe  dis- 
tribution systems.  To  keep  down  waste  and  to 
distribute  justly  the  cost  of  the  service  accord- 
ing to  the  volume  of  water  wasted  and  used, 
meters  were  becoming  more  and  more  common; 
many  cities  had  practically  all  consumers  met- 
ered.  Meter  rates  or  charges  were  being  sim- 
plified by  the  elimination  of  the  many  slides  in 
the  old  sliding  scales.  After  careful  commit- 
tee work,  both  the  American  and  the  New  Eng- 
land Water  Works  Associations  adopted  stand- 
ard specifications  for  water  meters  and  a  stand- 
ard basis  of  charging  for  water  supplied 
through  meters.  Under  the  standard  meter 
charge  plan  there  is  first  of  all  a  yearly,  quar- 
terly, or  monthly  stand-by  charge,  regardless  of 
the  quantity  of  water  used.  This  is  designed 
to  take  care  of  the  large  capital  expense  re- 
quired to  make  a  water -works  system  available 
regardless  of  how  much  or  little  water  is  used 
by  a  given  consumer.  For  water  actually  con- 
sumed, there  is  a  higher  charge  for  relatively 
small  quantities  between  a  stated  range,  a  low 
charge  for  large  volumes,  and  also  an  interme- 
diate charge. 

Bibliography.  Consult  Flinn,  Weston,  and 
Bogert,  Water  Works  Handbook  (New  York); 
Wegraann,  Conveyance  and  Distribution  of  Wa- 
ter (New  York) ;  Hazen,  Meter  Rates  for  Water 
Works.  See  also  AQUEDUCTS;  MUNICIPAL  OWN- 
ERSHIP; SEWERAGE  AND  SEWAGE  TREATMENT. 

WATSON,  JAMES  E.  (1864-  ).  An 
American  public  official,  born  at  Winchester, 
Ind.,  and  educated  at  De  Pauw  University.  He 
began  the  practice  of  law  in  1886  in  his  father's 
office.  He  was  elected  a  member  of  the  fifty- 


fourth,  fifty-sixth,  and  sixtieth  Congresses  and 
was  a  candidate  for  the  governship  of  Indiana 
in  1908.  In  1916  he  was  elected  United  States 
Senator  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  of  Benjamin 
F.  Shively,  deceased,  and  was  reflected  for  the 
term  1921-27. 

WATSON,  JOHN  (1847-  ).  A  Canadian 
professor  of  philosophy  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  He 
published  a  volume  of  political  philosophy,  The 
State  in  Peace  and  War  (1019),  and  in  1922 
was  honored  by  a  collection  of  testimonial  es- 
says written  by  his  former  students. 

WATSON,  JOHN  BROADUS  (1878-  ).  An 
American  psychologist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  He 
resigned  from  the  faculty  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University  in  1920  and  became  consulting  psy- 
chologist for  a  prominent  advertising  agency. 
In  1921  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  New  School 
for  Social  Research  (New  York  City),  and  lec- 
tured on  behaviorist  psychology.  His  work  on 
Psychology  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  Behavior- 
ist (1919)  was  instrumental  in  directing  a 
movement  on  the  part  of  American  psycholog- 
ists away  from  introspection  to  the  empirical 
observation  of  external  behavior.  See  BEHAV- 
IORISM. 

WATSON,  THOMAS  EDWARD  (1856-  ). 
An  American  politician  and  writer  (see  VOL. 
XXIII).  In  191G  he  was  for  the  third  time 
tried  for  the  publication  of  three  chapters  in  his 
book,  The  Jfoman  Catholic  Hierarchy,  and  was 
finally  acquitted.  In  1917  he  opposed  conscript- 
ing soldiers  for  service  abroad,  and  his  maga- 
zines were  barred  from  the  mails. 

WATSON,  THOMAS  LEONARD  (1871-  ). 
An  American  geologist,  born  in  Chatham,  Va., 
and  educated  at  the  Virginia  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College  and  later  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity. During  1890-03  he  was  assistant  chem- 
ist at  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station  and 
during  1891-93  he  was  instructor  in  geology  at 
his  alma  mater  and  during  1904-07  professor 
there.  Meanwhile  (1901-04)  he  held  the  chair 
of  geology  at  Denison  University  and  (1907- 
10)  that  of  economic  geology  at  the  University 
of  Virginia,  where  since  1910  he  has  also  been 
head  professor  of  the  school  of  geology.  In 
addition  to  many  articles  on  geological  subjects 
contributed  to  various  journals  and  reports  of 
surveys  with  which  he  has  been  connected,  he 
was  associated  with  H.  Hies  in  the  authorship 
of  Engineering  Geology  (1914)  and  Elements 
of  Engineering  Geology  (1921). 

WATTS,  MARY  &TANRERY  (MRS.  MILES 
TAYLOR  WATTS)  (1808-  ).  An  American 
novelist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  Her  later  works 
include:  Three  Short  Plays  (1917)  ;  The 
Boardman  Family  (1918);  From  Father  to 
fton  (1919);  The  Noon  Mark  (1920);  and  TJie 
Ilouae  of  Rimmon  (1922). 

WATJOH,  FRANK  ALBERT  (1869-  ).  An 
American  horticulturist,  born  at  Sheboygan 
Falls,  Wis.,  and  educated  at  the  Kansas  Agri- 
cultural College  and  at  Cornell  University  and 
in  Germany.  For  several  years  he  was  engaged 
in  newspaper  work  and  from  1902  was  profes- 
sor of  horticulture  and  landscape  gardening  at 
the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  rro- 
fessor  Waugh  was  a  member  of  several  agricul- 
tural societies  and  wrote:  Landscape  Garden- 
ing (1898);  The  Landscape  Beautiful  (1910); 
Beginner's  Guide  to  Fruit  Growing  (1912); 
Rural  Improvement  (1914);  Outdoor  Theatres 
(1917);  and  Doubling's  Landscape  Gardening 
(1921).  He  was  also  landscape  engineer  col- 


WEATHE& 


1463 


WELLS  COLLEGE 


laborating  with  the  United  States  Forest  Serv- 
ice and  in  1918-19  captain  in  the  Sanitary 
Corps  of  the  United  States  Army. 

WEATHER  AND  WEATHER  FORE- 
CASTING. Sec  METEOBOLOGY. 

WEBB,  BEATRICE  (1858-  ).  An  English 
economist  and  author  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  She 
was  a  member  of  several  important  committees 
during  and  after  the  War,  including  the  Recon- 
struction Committee  in  1017-18,  the  war  cabi- 
net committee  on  women  in  industry  in  1918- 
19,  and  the  Lord  Chancellor's  advisory  commit- 
tee for  women  justices  in  1919-20.  In  1919  she 
wrote  Men's  and  Women's  Wages:  Should  They 
BeKoualf 

WEBB,  SIDNEY  (1859-  ).  An  English 
economist  and  Socialist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  His 
later  works  include  Toward  Social  Democra- 
cy (1916)  ,  The  Works  Manager  To-day  (1917)  ; 
Mtory  of  the  Durham  Miners  ( 1921 )  ;  Fabian 
Essays,  Edition  of  1920.  He  edited  Bow  to 
Pay  for  the  War  (1910).  In  collaboration 
with  his  wife,  Beatrice  Webb  (q.v.),  he  also 
published  A  Constitution  for  the  Socialist  Com- 
monwealth of  Great  Britain  (1920)  and  Eng- 
lish Prisons  under  Local  Government  (1922). 
In  1924  he  became  a  member  of  the  Macdonald 
government  with  the  portfolio  of  President  of 
the  Board  of  Trade. 

WEBB-POMERENE    ACT.     See   TRUSTS. 

WEEKS,  JOHN  WINGATE  (lS(»)-192(i).  An 
American  banker  and  legislator  (sec  VOL. 
XXIII).  He  succeeded  Winthrop  Murray  Crane 
as  United  States  Senator  in  1913  but  failed  of 
reelection  in  1919.  During  the  War  he  assisted 
in  investigations  which  resulted  in  the  reorgan- 
ization of  the  ordnance  and  quai  tertuaster  de- 
partments and  also  of  the  aircraft  production 
board.  President  Harding  appointed  him  Secre- 
tary of  War  in  1!>21. 

WEINGARTNER,  FELIX  (18G3-  ).  An 
Austrian  musical  conductor  (see  VOL.  XXIII). 
From  1919  to  1924  lie  was  chief  conductor  and 
geneial  director  of  the  Volksoper  at  Vienna. 
In  the  fall  of  1924  he  entered  on  his  duties  as 
general  director  of  the  Deutsches  Opernhaus  in 
Charlottenburg  (Berlin).  His  recent  works  in- 
clude two  operas,  Mcisicr  Andrea  and  Terokayn 
(both  produced  in  Vienna,  1920);  an  overture, 
Aus  Rchuerer  Zeit;  and  a  second  violin  con- 
certo. 

WEINMAN,  ADOLF  ALEXANDER  (1870-  ). 
An  Ameiican  sculptor  (see  VOL.  XXIII). 
Among  his  recent  works  arc  a  bron/e  statue  of 
Lincoln  in  the  Capitol  at  Frankfort,  Ky.;  the 
pediment  group  of  the  Capitol  at  Madison,  Wis., 
and  several  war  memorials.  His  most  impor- 
tant recent  decorative  works  were  the  sculp- 
tures for  the  Pennsylvania  Station  in  New 
York  City,  culminating  in  the  bronze  statue  of 
Alexander  J.  Cassatt  (192.3),  and  the  sculptures 
for  the  Municipal  Building,  New  York  City. 
He  recently  became  well-known  as  a  medalist, 
having  designed  besides  others  the  medals  of 
the  National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  the 
American  Numismatic  Society  (1920),  and  the 
dime  and  half-dollar  of  the  national  currency. 

WEISMANN,  THEORIES  OF.    See  HEREDITY. 

WELCH,  WILLIAM  HENRY  (1850-  ).  An 
American  pathologist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  Pro- 
fessor Welch  has  collected  and  published  many 
individual  contributions  with  the  title  Papers 
and  Addresses  (1920)  and  assumed  the  editor- 
ship of  the  American  Journal  of  Hygiene 
(1921). 


WELDING,  ELECTRIC.  See  ELECTRIC  WELD- 
ING. 

WELFABE  LEGISLATION.  See  CHILD 
LABOR. 

WELLEB,  STUART  (1870-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can geologist,  born  in  Maine,  N.  Y.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Cornell  and  Yale  Universities.  In 
1895  he  became  connected  with  the  University 
of  Chicago,  where  since  1915  he  has  been  profes- 
sor of  palueontological  geology.  In  addition  to 
his  professional  work  he  has  had  wide  experi- 
ence on  State  geological  surveys.  He  was  also 
assistant  geologist  on  the  United  States  Geolog- 
ical Survey  during  1901-OG  and  since  then  has 
been  geologist.  His  specialty  is  palaeozoic  pal- 
aeontology, particularly  in  its  relation  to  geolog- 
ic problems.  In  addition  to  papers  on  geolog- 
ical subjects  he  is  the  author  of  many  reports 
on  palaeontology  contributed  to  the  publications 
of  ihe  national  and  State  geological  surveys 
with  which  he  has  been  connected. 

WELLESLEY  COLLEGE.  An  institution 
for  women  at  Wellesley,  Mass.,  founded  in 
1875.  The  enrollment  of  students  in  1914  was 
1452  as  compared  with  1630  in  1923-24,  the 
faculty  numbered  140  in  the  earlier  year  as 
compared  with  145  in  the  latter,  and  the  library 
was  increased  from  80,000  to  109,444  volumes. 
In  1914  the  main  building  of  the  college  burned, 
and  in  the  following  years  two  dormitories, 
Tower  Court,  given  by  Mrs.  Ellen  Stebbins 
James,  and  Claflin  Hall,  named  in  memory  of 
Governor  and  Mrs.  Claflin;  Founder's  Hall,  a 
recitation  hall;  the  student  alumna?  building, 
and  two  facultv  residence  buildings  were  con- 
structed. A  $2,000,000  endowment  fund  was 
raised,  to  which  the  Rockefeller  Foundation 
gave  $750,000;  the  General  Education  Board, 
$200,000;  two  anonymous  donors,  $100,000 
each;  and  Andrew  Carnegie,  $05,000.  Tlie  to- 
tal endowment  in  1923  amounted  to  $4,283.224. 
President,  Miss  Ellen  Fitz  Pendleton,  M.A., 
LL.D. 

WELLESZ,  EQON  (1885-  ).  An  Austrian 
composer  and  musicologist,  born  at  Vienna.  He 
studied  there  under  Arnold  Schonberg  (counter- 
point) and  Bruno  Walter  (composition),  at  the 
same  time  taking  courses  in  musicology  at  the 
university  under  Professor  Adler.  In  1911  he 
became  professor  of  the  history  of  music  at  the 
Neues  Konservatorium  in  Vienna.  His  liter- 
ary essays,  contributed  to  various  important 
musical  journals,  deal  mainly  with  Byzantine 
and  Oriental  music.  As  a  composer  he  is  a  fol- 
lower of  his  teacher,  Schonberg,  and  an  extreme 
futuriHt.  His  compositions  consist  of  an  opera, 
Primessin  Gimara  (Frankfort,  1921);  the  bal- 
lets Diana,  Persisches,  Achilles  auf  Slcyros;  a 
symphonic  poem,  Vorfruhling ;  four  string  quar- 
tets; piano  pieces;  and  many  songs. 

WELLS,  FREDERIC  LYM AN  (1884-  ).  An 
American  psychiatrist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  He 
was  attached  to  the  McLean  Hospital  at  Wav- 
erley,  Mass.,  from  1918  to  1921,  and  in  1921  he 
became  consulting  psychologist  at  the  Boston 
Psychopathic  Hospital  and  instructor  at  the 
Harvard  Medical  School.  His  works  after  the 
War  include  Mental  Adjustments  (1917)  and 
Pleasure  and  Beharior  (1923). 

WELLS  COLLEGE.  An  institution  for 
women  founded  in  1868  at  Aurora,  N.  Y.  As 
the  number  of  students  was  limited,  the  student 
body  increased  only  slightly,  from  194  in  1913 
to  219  in  1023,  and  the  faculty  from  34  to  39 
members.  The  number  of  volumes  in  the  li- 


WELLS 


1464 


WEST 


1»i  ary  rose  from  25,100  to  44,601.  Largely 
through  two  endowment  drives,  one  for  $600,- 
000  and  one  for  $1,000,000,  the  funds  of  the  col- 
lege were  increased  from  $301,800  to  $1,153,- 
290;  of  this  sum  the  General  Education  Board 
contributed  $300,000.  The  comprehensive  exam- 
ination system  for  matriculation  was  adopted, 
honors  courses  instituted,  and  a  modification  of 
the  group  system  put  in  force  A  wing  was 
added  to  Glen  Park,  six  cottages  were  bought, 
and  an  athletic  club  house  was  received  from 
K.  L.  Zabriskie.  The  campus  was  increased 
from  76  to  280  acres.  President,  Kerr  D.  Mac- 
millan,  S.T.D. 

WELLS,  H(ERBERT)  G(EOBGE)  (1866-  ). 
An  English  novelist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  Dur- 
ing the  War  and  after,  he  wrote  several  serious 
works  which  achieved  wide  circulation  and 
added  considerably  to  his  already  high  reputa- 
tion. These  included:  Mr.  Bntling  Sees  It 
Through  (1916);  The  Elements  o/  Reconstruc- 
tion, under  the  pseudonym  D.  P.  (1916);  War 
and  the  Future;  God,  the  Invisible  King;  The 
Soul  of  a  Bishop  (1917)  ;  In  the  Fourth  Year, 
on  the  League  of  Nations;  Joan  and  Peter 
(1918)  ;  The  Undying  Fire  (1919) ;  The  Outline 
of  History;  Russia  in  the  Shadows  (1920); 
The  Salvaging  of  Civilization  (1921);  The 
Secret  Places  of  the  Heart;  Washington  and  the 
Hope  of  Peace;  A  Short  History  of  the  World 
(1922);  Men  like  Gods  (1923);  The  Dream 
(1924) 

WENCKEBACH,  KABL  FRIEOBICH  (1864- 
).  An  Austrian  physician,  known  chiefly  as 
a  prominent  member  of  the  later  school  of  cardi- 
ac specialists  which  came  into  being  as  the  re- 
sult of  improved  methods  of  diagnosis.  He  re- 
ceived his  medical  degree  from  the  University  of 
Vienna  and  was  made  a  professor  of  internal 
medicine  there.  His  first  work  on  the  heart  was 
Die  Arrhythmic  als  Bestimmter  Funktionssto- 
rungen  des  Herzens  (1903),  which  appeared  in 
English  translation;  and  in  1914  he  added  Die 
Unregelmassige  Herzthatigkeit.  Dr.  Wencke- 
bach  lectured  in  the  United  States  after  the 
War. 

WEBFEL,  FRANZ  (1890-  ).  An  Aus- 
trian poet  and  dramatist,  born  at  Prague,  and 
educated  there  and  in  Leipzig.  He  became  a 
reader  for  the  publishing  house  of  Kurt  Wolff 
in  Munich.  He  is  the  author  of  Der  Weltfreund 
(1911);  Wir  Mwl  (1913);  Einander  (1915); 
Die  Troerinnen  (1915)  ,  Oesange  aus  den  Drei 
Keichen  (1917);  Der  Oerichtstag  (1919);  Be- 
such  aus  dem  Elysium  (1919)  ;  Nicht  der  If  or- 
der, der  Ermordete  1st  Schuldig  (1920);  and 
tiie  dramas,  tipiegelmensch  (1920),  and  Bocks- 
(fcsang  (1922),  which  have  had  a  sensational 
success.  See  GERMAN  LITERATURE. 

WEBBENBATH,  KEINALD  (1883-  ). 
An  American  concert  baritone,  born  in  New 
York  City.  He  studied  first  with  his  father, 
then  with  C.  Dufft,  A.  Mees,  and  Percy  Rector 
Stephens,  and  made  his  d£but  at  the  Worcester 
Festival  of  1907.  He  then  made  several  trans- 
continental tours  and  everywhere  met  with 
enormous  success.  In  1918-19  he  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Metropolitan  Opera  Company.  He  is 
especially  fine  in  oratorio.  He  has  written 
some  male  choruses  and  edited  a  collection  of 
modern  Scandinavian  songs. 

WEBTHEIMER,  MAX  (1880-  ).  A 
German  psychologist,  born  at  Prague,  and  edu- 
cated in  philosophy  and  psychology  at  the  Uni- 
versities of  Prague  and  Berlin.  He  performed 


experiments  at  the  Psychological  Institutes  of 
Berlin  and  WUrzburg.  He  was  professor  at  the 
University  of  Berlin  and  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  review,  Psychologische  Forschung.  His 
published  monographs  deal  largely  with  the  per- 
ception of  movement,  which  he  investigated 
from  a  new  point  of  view.  He  was  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  school  of  Cestaltpaijchologie,  or 
psychology  of  forms.  His  works  include:  "Ex- 
perimentelle  Rtudien  uler  das  Nchen  ron  Beiceg- 
unf?"  (Zeitschnft  fur  Psi/choloyie,  1912);  "E7w- 
tersuchungen  zur  Lehre  von  der  Uestalt"  (Psi/- 
chologische  Forschung,  1022)  ;  and  a  doctoral 
dissertation,  Experiment  elle  Untersuchungen 
eur  Tatbestandsdiagnostik. 

WESLETAN  METHODIST  CHUBCH  OB 
CONNECTION  OF  AMEBICA.  An  outgrowth 
of  a  society  formed  in  Michigan  in  1841,  this 
denomination  was  established  in  1843  at  Utica, 
N.  Y.  In  doctrine  it  is  in  accord  with  Method- 
ist bodies  generally  throughout  the  world.  The 
membership  of  the  church  increased  slightly 
from  20,000  in  1914  to  20,939  in  1923,  while  the 
number  of  pastors  declined  from  840  to  628, 
and  the  number  of  societies  from  075  in  1915 
to  580  in  1923.  The  number  of  pupils  in  the 
Sunday  schools  increased  from  29,038  in  1017 
to  35,254  in  1923.  In  1914  the  denomination 
maintained  three  colleges  and  one  theological 
seminary,  in  1923,  four  colleges  and  the  semi- 
nary. Home  mission  work  was  carried  on 
throughout  the  decade  in  Alabama  and  the  Blue 
Ridge  Mountains,  and  foreign  missions  in  Afri- 
ca, India,  and  South  America,  and  in  Japan  aft- 
er 1919.  Steps  were  taken  at  the  1923  General 
Conference  toward  the  union  of  the  Mennonite 
Brethren  in  Christ  and  the  Pilgrim  Holiness 
Church  with  the  Wesleyan  Connection. 

WESLETAN  TJNIVEBSITY.  A  nonsec- 
tarian  institution  for  the  higher  education  of 
men  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  founded  in  1831.  A 
sudden  increase  in  the  enrollment  to  nearly  000 
men  in  1919  demonstrated  that  without  large 
additions  to  physical  equipment  and  teaching 
staff  the  college  could  not  give  high-grade  in- 
struction to  so  large  a  number.  The  trustees 
therefore  voted  to  limit  the  enrollment  to  500 
During  the  decade  1914-24  the  number  of  mem- 
bers in  the  faculty  was  increased  from  42  to  55, 
with  9  assistants,  and  the  library  was  increased 
from  100,000  to  140,000  volumes.  The  Van 
Vleck  Observatory,  largely  the  gift  of  Joseph 
Van  Vleck  in  memory  of  his  brother,  Prof.  John 
Monroe  Van  Vleck,  was  opened  in  1910;  in  the 
same  year  Mrs.  Gardner  Hall,  Jr.,  gave  $150,- 
000  to  build  a  chemistry  laboratory  in  memory 
of  her  husband.  Ralph  Ensign  and  his  son, 
Joseph  R.  Ensign,  gave  $30,000  to  remodel  the 
chapel,  John  Gribbel  gave  $10,000  for  an  or- 
gan; and  the  class  of  1803  gave  a  set  of  chimes. 
The  university  received  in  1923  from  Mrs.  Dex- 
ter Smith  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  $175,000  to- 
ward the  new  library  building.  In  the  spring 
of  1922,  William  Arnold  Shanklin,  president  of 
the  university  since  1909,  successfully  completed 
the  campaign  for  adding  $3,000,000  to  the  pro- 
ductive endowment.  Dr.  Shanklin  was  on  leave 
of  absence  during  the  year  1922-23.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1923,  he  resigned  the  presidency  and 
wag  made  president  emeritus.  Stephen  Henry 
Olin  was  acting  president  in  1922-23  and  Leroy 
Albert  Howland  in  1923-24. 

WEST,  REBECCA  (1892-  ).  An  English 
author,  educated  at  George  Watson's  Ladies' 
College  in  Edinburgh.  In  1911  she  became  a 


WEST  AFRICA 


1465 


WESTMINSTER  COLLEGE 


reviewer  on  the  staff  of  the  Freewoman  and  in 
1012  began  writing  political  articles  for  The 
Clarion.  Later  she  wrote  many  articles  for 
magazines  and  newspapers  in  England  and 
America.  Her  books  include:  Henry  James 
(1916);  The  Return  of  the  Soldier  (1918); 
The  Judge  (1922). 

WEST  AFBICA.    See  ASHANTI. 

WESTEBMANN,  WILLIAM  LINN  (1873- 
).  An  American  educator,  born  at  Belle- 
ville, 111.,  and  educated  at  the  University 
of  Nebraska  and  in  Berlin.  For  several  years 
lie  was  aswintant  at  the  University  of  Nebraska 
and  taught  in  several  schools  in  Illinois.  He 
was  instructor  in  Latin  and  Greek  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Missouri  (1904-06),  assistant  profes- 
sor of  history  at  the  University  of  Minnesota 
(1900-08),  assistant  professor  of  history  at  the 
University  of  Wisconsin  (1908-20),  and  pro- 
fessor of  ancient  history  at  Cornell  University 
(1920-  ).  Later  he  came  to  Columbia.  At 
the  Peace  Conference  in  Paris,  he  acted  as  ad- 
viser on  Turkish  matters  and  as  chief  of  the 
division  of  western  Asia.  Professor  Wester- 
niann  wrote  Story  of  the  Ancient  Nations 
(1912)  and  contributed  to  American  historical 
and  philological  journals.  He  was  also  the  au- 
thor of  Westermann's  Classical  and  Historical 
Map  8 cries. 

WESTERMARCK,  EDWARD  ALEXANDER 
(18G2-  ).  A  Finnish  anthropologist  (see 
VOL.  XXIII).  His  recent  works  are  Marriage 
Ceremonies  in  Morocco  (1917)  ;  The  Origin  and 
Development  of  Moral  Ideas  (1917);  and  The 
Relief  in  Spirits  in  Morocco  (1920). 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA.  A  state  of  the 
Australian  Commonwealth,  occupying  the  en- 
tire western  third  of  the  continent'.  Area,  975,- 
920  square  miles;  population  in  1911,  284,114; 
in  1922,  339,501.  Perth,  the  largest  city,  in- 
cluding: its  suburbs,  had  154,860  inhabitants  in 

1921  (85,945  in  1911).     Cultivation  was  spread- 
ing, there  being  1,901,677  acres  under  crops  in 

1922  (1,537,922    acres    in    1914).    The    wheat 
acreage   continued   to   increase.     Other   agricul- 
tural   products    were    oats,    hay,    barley,    and 
fruits.     The    government,   after   the    War,    con- 
tinued to  apply  itself  to  aiding  settlers.     Sol- 
diers in  particular  were  singled  out  for  loans. 
Pastoral  activities  remained  important.     Sheep 
increased   from   4,421,375   in    1913   to  6,506,177 
in  1922.     In  1921-22,  58,000,000  pounds  of  wool 
wore    exported.     Gold    production    showed    de- 
creases over  the  period;  the  output  of  1921  was 
valued  at  £2,352,098  a«  compared  with  £5,237,- 
3,11   in   1914.     There  was  a  falling  off  in  total 
mineral  production:  total  value  in  1913,  £6,036,- 
265;   in    1921,  £2,880,169.     Value  of  production 
for    1920:     agricultural,    £8,733,000;     pastoral, 
14,380,000;    dairying,    £1,033,000;    forestry   and 
fisheries,  £1,850,000;   mining,  £3,259,000;   value 
added  by  manufacture,  £3,718,000;   total,  £22,- 
973,000.     Imports    and    exports    for    1914   were 
£8,960,397    and   £8,406,182;    for    1921-22,    £12,- 
037,779  and  £13,628,883.     Government  accounts 
showed:  revenues  and  expenditures  for  1913-14, 
£5,205,343  and  £5,340,754;  for  1921-22,  £6,907,- 
107   and  £7,639,242.     The   public   debt   of  £30,- 
728,078    in     1914    mounted    to    £58,485,854    in 
1923.     Railroad    construction    continued.    Rail- 
way  lines    in    1922    totaled   3539    miles    (2967 
miles  in   1914). 

WESTERN  COLLEGE  FOR  WOMEN.  An 
institution  at  Oxford,  Ohio,  founded  in  1855. 
The  student  enrollment  increased  from  260  in 


1914  to  330  in  1923-24,  the  faculty  was  in- 
creased from  28  to  36  members,  and  the  num- 
ber of  volumes  in  the  library  from  20,000  to 
30,000.  The  productive  endowment  grew  from 
$250,000  to  $700,000.  A  new  dormitory  and  a 
stone  chapel  were  built  during  the  period. 
President,  William  W  Boyd,  A.B.,  A.M.,  Ped.D. 

WESTERN  RESERVE  UNIVERSITY. 
A  nonsectarian  institution  at  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
founded  m  1826.  It  included  two  colleges  of 
liberal  arts  and  sciences,  Adelbert  College  for 
men  and  the  College  for  Women,  with  815  un- 
dergraduates in  1914,  and  MOO  in  1923-24;  and 
five  professional  schools  with  544  students  en- 
rolled in  1914,  and  seven  professional  schools, 
with  841  enrolled  in  1923-24.  The  summer 
school  in  1923  enrolled  1242  students,  in  asso- 
ciation with  the  Cleveland  School  of  Education. 
Under  the  same  joint  jurisdiction,  92  teachers 
in  service  were  taking  courses  in  1923-24,  and 
343  students  were  enrolled  in  evening  courses  in 
business  administration  and  chemistry.  Dur- 
ing the  decade  the  faculty  was  increased  from 
228  to  478  in  the  regular  staff,  and  the  libraries 
from  82,000  to  163,000  volumes.  The  endow- 
ment in  1914  was  $3,521,081.22,  as  compared 
with  $4,403,282.07  in  1922-23,  and  the  income 
was  $269,006  10  in  the  earlier  year  as  compared 
with  $967,423.58  in  the  later.  Twelve  acres  ad- 
joining the  main  campus  were  bought  for  the 
School  of  Medicine  in  1915,  and  in  1921  Samuel 
Mather  gave  $500,000  to  assure  the  removal  of 
the  school  to  the  new  site.  In  the  following 
year  he  pledged  himself  for  the  entire  cost  of 
the  new  buildings,  which  were  expected  to  be 
completed  early  in  1924.  The  plans  for  the  new 
campus  included  a  hospital  group  consisting  of 
Lakeside  Hospital,  the  Babies'  Dispensary  and 
Hospital,  and  the  Maternity  Hospital;  build- 
ing of  the  two  last  mentioned  was  begun  in 
1923.  New  buildings  constructed  since  1914  in- 
clude Flora  Mather  House,  a  dormitory  for 
women;  a  gymnasium  for  men;  and  laboratories 
for  the  School  of  Pharmacy  and  for  the  depart- 
ment of  household  administration  of  the  College 
for  Women.  The  entrance  requirements  of  the 
undergraduate  colleges  were  broadened  in  1919 
by  an  increase  in  the  number  of  electives  which 
might  be  offered,  and  a  diminution  in  the  num- 
ber of  prescribed  subjects.  In  1922  the  Dental 
School  increased  its  entrance  requirements  to 
include  a  year  of  college  work,  the  School  of 
Pharmacy  instituted  a  four-year  course  leading 
to  the  B  S.  degree,  and  a  department  of  nursing 
education  was  added,  to  the  College  for  Women. 
In  1922  a  course  in  business  administration  was 
added  to  the  liberal  arts  curriculum,  leading  to 
the  B.A.  degree,  and  in  1923  the  department  of 
nursing  education  was  organized  as  a  separate 
school  of  the  university  with  an  initial  endow- 
ment of  $500,000,  the  gift  of  Mrs.  Chester  C. 
Bolton.  On  the  retirement  of  Charles  Franklin 
Thwing  after  31  years'  service  as  president, 
James  D.  Williamson  became  acting  president 
in  1021  and  continued  in  office  until  1923,  when 
Robert  E.  Vinson,  until  that  time  president  of 
the  University  of  Texas,  was  elected  president. 

WEST  INDIES.  See  the  articles  on  the  is- 
land groups  and  the  separate  islands:  BA- 
HAMAS; BARBADOS;  CUBA;  JAMAICA;  HAITI; 
PORTO  Rico;  LEEWARD  ISLANDS;  WINDWARD  IS- 
LANDS; TRINIDAD;  VIRGIN  ISLANDS;  GUADE- 
LOUPE; MARTINIQUE. 

WESTMINSTER  COLLEGE.  A  coeduca- 
tional United  Presbyterian  institution  at  New 


WEST  POINT 


1466 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


Wilmington,  Pa.,  founded  in  1852.  The  student 
enrollment  increased  from  206  in  1914  to  340 
in  1024,  the  faculty  from  18  to  25,  and  the 
library  from  12,000  to  13,300  volumes.  The  en- 
dowment rose  from  $150,000  to  $500,000,  and  a 
Bible  Chair  fund  of  $40,000  was  raised.  The 
gymnasium  was  built  in  1921.  President,  W. 
Charles  Wallace,  D.D. 

WEST  POINT.  See  UNITED  STATES  MILI- 
TABY  ACADEMY. 

WEST  VIRGINIA.  West  Virginia  is  the 
fortieth  State  in  size  (24,170  square  miles), 
and  the  twenty-seventh  in  population;  capital, 
Charleston.  The  population  increased  from  1,- 
221,119  in  1910  to  1,403,701  in  1920,  a  gain  of 
19.9  per  cent.  The  white  population  increased 
from  1,150,817  to  1,377,235;  negro,  from  04,173 
to  86,345;  native  white,  from  1,099,745  to  1,- 
315,329;  foreign-born  white,  from  67,072  to  61,- 
906.  The  urban  population  rose  from  228,242 
to  369,007;  the  rural,  from  992,877  to  1,094,- 
694.  The  growth  of  the  principal  cities  was  as 
follows:  Wheeling,  1910,  41,641;  1920,  56,208; 
Huntington,  31,161  to  50,177;  Charleston,  22,- 
996  to  39,608. 

Agriculture.  Agriculture  in  West  Virginia, 
between  1910  and  1920,  showed  a  considerable 
decline  in  some  of  its  phases  Thus,  while  the 
population  increased  19  9  per  cent,  the  number 
of  farms  decreased  9.7  per  cent  (from  96,985 
to  87,289 ) ;  and  the  total  area  in  farms  de- 
creased 4.6  per  cent,  from  10,026,442  to  9,569,- 
790  acres.  The  improved  land  in  farms  re- 
mained practically  unchanged:  5,521,757  acres 
in  1910  and  5,520,308  in  1920.  The  percentage 
of  total  land  area  in  farms  decreased  from  65.2 
to  62.2;  while  the  proportion  of  improved  land 
to  total  land  area  remained  constant  at  35.9 
per  cent.  The  total  value  of  farm  property 
showed  an  apparent  increase  of  57.7  per  cent, 
from  $314,738,540  to  $496,439,617;  the  average 
value  per  farm,  from  $3255  to  $5687.  In  in- 
terpreting these  values,  however,  and,  indeed, 
all  comparative  values  in  the  decade  1914-24, 
the  inflation  of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part 
of  that  period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers 
of  farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104 
in  1910  and  216  in  1920.  Of  the  total  of  87,289 
farms  in  1920,  72,101  were  operated  by  owners, 
1090  by  managers,  and  14,098  by  tenants.  The 
corresponding  figures  for  1910  were  75,978,  872, 
and  19,835.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered 
86,785  and  colored  farmers  604.  In  1910  white 
farmers  numbered  95,977;  colored,  708.  In 
1920,  52,617  farms  were  free  from  mortgage, 
10,274  under  mortgage;  in  1910,  66,093  were 
free  from  mortgage,  9525  mortgaged.  Cattle  in 
1920  numbered  587,462  (255,021  dairy  cattle); 
in  1910,  620,288  (239,539  dairy  cattle).  Sheep 
numbered,  in  1920,  509,831,  compared  with  910,- 
360  in  1910;  hogs,  305,211,  compared  with  328,- 
188.  The  estimated  production  of  the  principal 
farm  products  in  1923  was  as  follows:  corn,  20,- 
152,000  bushels;  wheat,  2,964,000;  oats,  4,553,- 
000,  potatoes,  5,040,000;  sweet  potatoes,  362,- 
000;  tobacco,  7,529,000  pounds;  and  hay,  807,- 
000  tons.  Comparative  figures,  for  1913,  are: 
corn,  22,692,000  bushels;  wheat,  3,055,000;  oats, 
2,760,000;  potatoes,  3,984,000;  hay,  925,000 
tons;  and  tobacco,  10,200,000  pounds. 

Mining.  West  Virginia  is  second  among  the 
States  in  the  value  of  its  mineral  products  and 
second  in  the  production  of  coal.  Coal  is  by 
far  its  most  valuable  mineral  although  the  out- 


put of  natural  gas,  petroleum,  and  clay  prod- 
ucts is  also  of  great  importance.  The  progress 
of  coal  mining  during  the  decade  1914-24  is  in- 
dicated by  the  following  production  figures: 
1914,  71,707,626  net  tons,  valued  at  $71,391,- 
408;  1915,  77,184,069,  $74,561,349;  1916,  86,- 
460,127,  $102,366,092;  1917,  86,441,667,  $200,- 
659,368;  1918,  89,935,839,  $230,508,846;  1920, 
89,970,707,  $390,046,000;  1921,  72,786,996,  $200,- 
661,500;  and  1922,  80,488,192  net  tons.  The 
greatly  increased  value  of  the  coal  produced  in 
1917  was  due  chiefly  to  conditions  in  the  coal 
mining  field  which  resulted  in  a  greater  demand 
for  coal,  and  partly  to  the  inflation  of  the  cur- 
rency which  reduced  the  buying  power  of  mon- 
ey and  thereby  increased  prices.  The  produc- 
tion of  natural  gas,  in  which  West  Virginia 
ranks  first,  in  1914  was  236,489,175  thousand 
cubic  feet;  1916,  299,318,907;  1918,  265,100,- 
917;  1920,  239,718,800;  and  1921,  174,920,800. 
In  later  years  the  production  of  natural  gas 
gasoline  was  large  and  valuable:  in  1920,  68,- 
941,488  gallons;  in  1921,  54,646,053.  The  pro- 
duction of  petroleum  was  as  follows:  1914,  9,- 
680,033  barrels;  1916,  8,731,184;  1918,  7,866,- 
628;  1920,  8,249,000;  1921,  7,822,000;  and 
1922,  7,021,000.  Clay  products  increased  from 
a  value  of  $5,761,411  in  1914  to  $7,634,321  in 
1910;  $10,988,677  in  1918;  and  $17,167,843  in 
1920.  In  addition  to  the  minerals  mentioned 
above,  the  State  produces  also  salt,  sand  and 
gravel,  and  stone.  The  total  value  of  the  min- 
eral production  in  1921  was  $316,180,647,  com- 
pared with  $547,872,937  in  1920;  $298,168,194 
in  1919;  $327,962,620  in  1918,  and  $133,633,229 
in  1914. 

Manufactures.  West  Virginia  has  many  im- 
portant industries.  These  had  a  steady  growth 
from  1909.  There  were  in  the  State,  in  1920, 
10  cities  with  more  than  10,000  inhabitants, 
which  contained  17.9  per  cent  of  the  total  popu- 
lation and  reported,  in  1919,  41.2  per  cent  of 
the  value  of  the  State's  manufactured  products. 
There  were  in  the  State,  in  1909,  2586  manu- 
facturing establishments;  in  1914,  2749;  and 
in  1919,  2785.  Persons  engaged  in  manufacture 
numbered  71,463,  79,353,  and  93,688;  and  the 
capital  invested  amounted  to  $150,922,586, 
$175,995,011,  and  $339,189,678,  in  those  years. 
Ihe  value  of  products  in  1909  amounted  to 
$161,949,526;  in  1914,  $193,511,782;  and  in 
1919,  $471,970,877.  The  increase  in  value  of 
products  was,  however,  in  great  measure  due  to 
the  change  in  industrial  conditions  brought 
about  by  the  War  and  cannot  be  taken  to  indi- 
cate a  proportionate  increase  in  the  manufac- 
tures during  1914-19;  but  the  increase  in  num- 
ber of  persons  employed  clearly  indicates  a 
growth  in  the  State's  manufacturing  activities. 
The  principal  industry  in  point  of  value  of  its 
product  is  the  iron  and  steel  and  rolling  mill, 
with  an  output  valued  in  1909  at  $22,435,000; 
in  1914,  $21,186,000;  and  in  1919,  $85,036,000. 
Lumber  and  timber  products  rank  second  in 
point  of  value,  amounting  to  $28,758,000  in 
1909;  $28,994,000  in  1914;  and  $46,314,000  in 
1919.  The  manufacture  of  glass,  third  in  val- 
ue, had  a  product  valued  at  $7,779,000  in  1909; 
$14,631,000  in  1914;  and  $42,730,000  in  1919. 
Wheeling  and  Huntington  were  the  leading 
manufacturing  centres.  There  were  in  Wheel- 
ing, in  1909,  176  manufacturing  establishments, 
with  a  product  valued  at  $27,077,000;  in  1914, 
201  with  $27,879,000;  and  in  1919,  243  with 
$72,640,000.  Parkersburg  had,  in  1909,  75  with 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


1467        WEST  VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY 


$5,498,000;  in  1914,  83  with  $7,143,000';  and  in 
1919,  73  with  $24,056,000. 

Education.  Much  progress  was  made  in  the 
decade  1913-23,  especially  during  its  latter 
part,  in  the  development  and  improvement  of 
education.  Among  the  notable  features  was  the 
addition  to  the  Department  of  Education  of  a 
supervisor  of  teacher  training,  a  supervisor  of 
health  and  sanitation,  and  a  supervisor  of  phys- 
ical education.  A  high  school  assistant  super- 
visor and  two  rural  professors  were  also  added 
as  part  of  the  organization.  The  Legislature  of 
1919  passed  three  important  measures:  the 
teachers'  salary  law;  a  measure  providing  for 
the  standardization  of  rural  schools;  and  a  law 
increasing  the  general  school  fund  by  $1,000,- 
000  for  each  of  the  next  two  years.  A  high 
school  movement  in  the  State  was  increasing 
from  year  to  year;  the  number  of  classified  high 
schools  rising  from  171  in  1919-20  to  205  in 
1922.  The  negro  schools  of  the  State  made 
splendid  progress  during  the  decade.  There 
were,  in  1922,  10  recognized  negro  high  schools, 
6  of  which  were  high  schools  of  the  first  class. 
The  enrollment  in  these  schools  had  increased 
from  484  in  1919  to  903  in  1922.  The  develop- 
ment of  vocational  education  kept  pace  with 
that  of  other  branches.  There  was  a  very  con- 
siderable enrollment  in  home  economics,  trades 
and  industries,  and  mining  and  vocational  agri- 
culture. The  Legislature  of  1921  took  an  ad- 
vanced step  by  passing  what  is  known  as  the 
compulsory  part-time  law,  requiring  all  cities 
with  a  population  of  10,000  or  more,  and  other 
industrial  centres  where  as  many  as  50  young 
people  are  working  under  labor  permits,  to  es- 
tablish part-time  schools  or  classes.  In  cooper- 
ation with  the  Federal  government,  the  State 
Board  of  Education  organized  a  civilian  rehabil- 
itation service,  which  was  proving  very  effective 
in  its  operation.  The  total  enrollment  in  the 
high  and  elementary  schools  in  1912  was  435,- 
(111;  in  1922-23  it' was  452,029.  In  the  high 
schools,  in  the  latter  year,  there  were  enrolled 
29,334.  The  total  colored  enrollment  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  in  1921  was  18,979;  in  the 
high  schools,  610.  The  total  disbursements  for 
public  schools  in  1922-23  amounted  to  $19,944,- 
710.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  State 
decreased  from  10.2  in  1910  to  8.2  in  1920:  in 
the  native  white  population,  from  8.4  to  6.1 ; 
in  the  colored,  from  24.2  to  18.9.  In  the  for- 
eign-bom white  population  it  increased  from 
23.9  to  24.5. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  The  Demo- 
cratic and  Republican  parties  shared  control  in 
West  Virginia  in  the  decade  1914-24.  On  July 
1,  1914,  a  drastic  prohibition  law  went  into  ef- 
fect, as  a  result  of  a  State-wide  prohibition 
amendment  passed  in  1912.  The  explosion  at 
the  New  River  Colliery  Company's  mines  at 
Echo  on  Apr.  28,  1914,  resulted  in  the  death  of 
some  180  miners,  who  were  buried  in  the  mine. 
In  1915  a  report  was  made  on  the  long-standing 
controversy  between  Virginia  and  West  Virgin- 
ia as  to  the  liability  of  the  latter  in  the  State 
debt  of  Virginia  before  the  separation  of  the 
two  States.  Charles  D.  Littlefield  acted  as  spe- 
cial arbitrator  and  decided  that  West  Virginia 
should  pay  between  $12,000,000  and  $18,000,000 
as  its  snare  of  the  debt.  He  also  declared  that 
West  Virginia  should  share  in  the  assets,  which 
he  valued  at  $14,000,000.  The  Supreme  Court, 
on  June  14,  1915,  decided  the  case  by  declaring 


that  West  Virginia  should  pay  $12,393,929  as 
its  net  share  of  the  debt  at  the  time  of  the 
division  of  the  States.  In  1916,  at  the  quad- 
rennial elections  for  State  officers,  the  Dem- 
ocrats, for  the  first  time  in  two  decades, 
elected  their  candidate  for  governor,  John  J. 
Cornwell.  The  Republicans  elected  their  candi- 
date for  the  United  States  Senate,  Howard 
Sutherland.  In  the  presidential  voting  of 
this  year,  Charles  E.  Hughes  received  141,432 
votes;  President  Wilson,  139,013.  On  Aug.  9, 
1916,  a  cloudburst  near  Charleston  destroyed 
many  villages  and  caused  a  loss  of  50  lives, 
with  a  property  loss  over  $2,000,000.  In  1918, 
Davis  Elkins,  Republican,  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate.  Elections  for  governor 
and  other  State  officers  were  again  held  in  1920. 
E.  F.  Morgan,  the  Republican  candidate,  was 
elected  governor.  In  the  presidential  voting 
of  this  year,  W.  G.  Harding  received  282,007 
votes;  J.  M.  Cox,  220,789.  In  May,  1921,  as 
a  result  of  disorders  arising  from  strikes  in  the 
coal  mines,  Mingo  County  was  placed  under 
martial  law  by  Governor  Morgan.  The  strike 
was  the  result  of  an  attempt  to  unionize  the 
mines  in  this  part  of  the  State.  The  trouble 
continued  until  September,  when  the  armed 
miners  surrendered  to  Federal  troops,  who  took 
charge  of  the  situation.  In  1922,  M.  M.  Neely, 
Democratic  candidate  for  Senator,  was  elected, 
defeating  Senator  Sutherland.  The  Democratic 
State  committee,  in  May,  1924,  endorsed  John 
W.  Davis  as  Democratic  candidate  for  the  presi- 
dency. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of 
the  Legislature  in  the  decade  1914-24  are  noted 
below.  In  1915  the  Legislature  enacted  an 
amendment  to  the  prohibition  law  and  voted  to 
submit  to  the  people  an  amendment  providing 
for  woman  suffrage.  The  Legislature  of  1917 
amended  the  election  laws  and  passed  a  measure 
providing  for  the  better  protection  of  judges 
against  personal  violence.  This  Legislature  re- 
fused to  make  provisions  for  the  payment  of 
the  State's  portion  of  the  Civil  War  debt.  The 
Legislature  of  1919  provided  for  a  constitutional 
amendment  dividing  the  legislative  session  into 
two  parts,  the  first,  lasting  15  days,  to  be  de- 
voted to  the  introduction  of  bills;  the  second, 
after  a  recess,  to  be  given  to  their  consideration 
and  final  action.  This  Legislature  authorized 
the  creation  of  a  State  police  force  and  en- 
acted measures  forbidding  child  labor.  It  also 
passed  a  measure  providing  for  the  compulsory 
school  attendance  of  children  under  14  years  of 
age.  A  special  session  of  the  Legislature  was 
held  in  1920  to  ratify  the  woman  suffrage 
amendment.  By  virtue  of  a  constitutional 
amendment  ratified  by  the  people  in  1920,  the 
Legislature  of  1921  authorized  the  governor  to 
issue  $50,000,000  in  bonds  for  permanent  road 
improvement.  

WEST  VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY.  A  co- 
educational State  institution  at  Morgantown, 
W.  Va.,  founded  in  1867.  The  student  en- 
rollment increased  greatly  during  the  dec- 
ade between  1914  and  1924,  with  775  regis- 
tered in  the  first  year  and  2712  in  the  latter. 
The  faculty  membership  was  correspondingly 
increased  from  80  to  216  and  the  number  of 
volumes  in  the  library  from  47,000  to  70,000. 
Woman's  Hall,  Oglebay  Hall,  the  medical  build- 
ing, and  the  Law  School  building  were  con- 
structed during  the  period.  A  gift  of  valuable 
coal  lands  was  received  from  Dr.  I.  0.  White 


WHABTOH 


1468 


and  a  farm  and  live  stock  from  the  estate  of 
Lawrence  A.  Reymann.  President,  Frank  But- 
ler Trotter,  LL.D. 

WHABTON,  EDITH  (1862-  ).  An 
American  novelist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  Her  lat- 
er books  are:  Summer  (1917);  The  Mame 
(1918);  French  Ways  and  Their  Meaning 
(1919) ;  The  Age  of  Innocence  (1920)  ;  Glimpses 
of  the  Moon  (1922);  A  Son  at  the  Front 
(1923). 

WHEAT.  For  the  countries  reporting  their 
yields  every  year  the  production  of  wheat  in- 
creased from  an  annual  average  of  1,500,000,000 
bushels  for  the  three  years  1891-93  to  2,500,- 
000,000  bushels  for  the  three  years  1910-21. 
In  the  United  States  production  rose  rapidly 
during  the  World  War.  For  the  years  1014-24 
the  average  annual  production  was  837,404,000 
bushels  as  com  pa  reel  with  081,308,000  bushels 
for  1904-13.  The  largest  crop  ever  grown,  1,- 
025,801,000  bushels,  was  produced  in  1915  and 
the  highest  acreage,  73,099,421  acres,  an  in- 
crease of  20  per  cent  over  any  previous  year, 
was  harvested  in  1919.  The  average  annual 
yield  of  the  leading  States  for  1914-23  was  115,- 
968,000  bushels  for  Kansas,  83,703,000  bushels 
for  North  Dakota,  and  50,595,000  bushels  for 
Nebraska.  The  general  effect  of  the  war  was 
to  increase  production  and  to  limit  consump- 
tion. The  principal  governments  of  the  world 
passed  laws  requiring  a  maximum  percentage 
of  Hour  in  grinding,  prescribing  minimum  per- 
centages of  wheat  flour  substitutes  in  baking, 
placing  wheat  Hour  consumption  on  a  rationing 
basis,  regulating  the  trade  in  wheat  and  fixing 
the  price.  In  the  United  States,  wheat  prices, 
beginning  to  rise  with  the  outbreak  of  the  War, 
had  reached  $1.40  per  bushel  by  May,  1915.  In 
W17  the  United  States  Food  Administration 
fixed  the  price  of  Number  One  Northern  Spring 
\\Theat  at  $2.20  per  bushel  at  Chicago  with  dif- 
ferentials for  grades  and  other  terminal  mar- 
kets. The  price  had  reached  $2.58  per  hubhel 
on  June  1,  1920,  a  month  before  price  fixation 
by  the  government  terminated,  and  a  down- 
ward movement  began  which,  by  December, 
1921,  had  reduced  the  price  to  $.90  per  bushel. 
In  purchasing  pov.  or  the  price  cf  $.94  on  Dec.  1, 
1921,  was  below  that  of  the  low  price  of  $.49 
on  Dec.  1,  1894. 

The  low  prices  for  wheat  and  other  farm 
products  prevailing  for  a  series  of  years  while 
the  things  farmers  had  to  buy  remained  prac- 
tically at  war-time  price  levels  brought  about 
a  critical  economic  situation,  especially  in  the 
spring  wheat  States,  to  the  solution  of  which 
much  thought  and  discussion  were  given.  Con- 
gress revived  the  War  Finance  Corporation  to 
assist  in  financing  exportation,  an  Export  Cred- 
it Corporation  was  launched,  and  other  similar 
mea'ns  were  applied  or  proposed  to  alleviate  the 
critical  conditions.  During  this  period  cooper- 
ative marketing  of  products  and  purchasing  of 
supplies  was  entered  into  by  farmers  more  ex- 
tensively than  ever  before.  In  Australia  a  sys- 
tem of  selling  wheat  through  state-controlled 
pools,  inaugurated  during  the  War,  was  contin- 
ued after  the  War, 

Standards  and  Grading.  The  United  States 
Grain  Standards  Act  of  Aug.  11,  1910,  author- 
ized the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  to  investigate 
the  handling  and  grading  of  grain,  establish  of- 
ficial standards  and  license  grain  inspectors. 
Under  this  law  all  wheat  in  inter-State  and  for- 
eign commerce  is  graded  by  the  licensed  inspec- 


tors according  to  the  official  wheat  standards  of 
the  United  States  as  revised  and  effective  July 
17,  1922.  These  standards,  based  on  color  and 
texture  of  kernels  as  indicating  quality,  com- 
prise the  following  classes  and  subclasses: — 
Class  I,  hard  red  spring  wheat,  with  subclasses 
(a)  dark  northern  spring,  (b)  northern  spring, 
and  (c)  red  spring;  Class  II,  durum  wheat, 
with  subclasses  (a)  amber  durum,  (b)  durum, 
and  (c)  red  durum;  Class  III,  hard  red  winter 
wheat,  including  subclasses  (a)  dark  hard  win- 
ter, (b)  hard  winter,  and  (c)  yellow  hard  win- 
ter; Class  IV,  soft  red  winter  wheat,  including 
subclasses  (a)  red  winter,  and  (b)  western  red; 
and  Class  V,  white  wheat,  with  subclasses  (a) 
hard  white,  (b)  soft  white,  and  (c)  western 
white.  Each  subclass  is  divided  into  five 
grades,  determined  by  test  weight  per  bushel, 
moisture  content,  percentage  of  damaged  ker- 
nels, purity,  cleanliness  and  condition.  Wheat 
failing  to  meet  the  specifications  for  any  one 
of  these  giades  is  designated  "sample  grade." 
An  extensive  campaign  to  eradicate  the  common 
barberry,  on  which  the  spring  stage  of  black 
stem  rust  of  wheat  occurs,  wan  begun  in  1918, 
and  several  million  bushels  of  this  plant  were 
located  and  destroyed  in  the  wheat-growing 
States  of  the  northern  Mississippi  Valley.  Con- 
sult Lmted  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
Year  Book,  1921.  See  AGRICULTURE. 

WHEATON  COLLEGE.  A  college  for 
women  at  Norton,  Mass.,  founded  as  a  seminary 
in  1834,  and  chartered  as  a  college  in  1912. 
Between  that  year  and  1924  the  number  of  stu- 
dents entering  for  college  work  increased  from 
15  to  400.  College  COUIHCS  replaced  seminary 
courses;  they  were  organized  into  departments 
and  arranged  in  a  group  system;  an  entirely 
new  faculty  corn  posed  of  35  men  arid  women 
was  built  up.  The  college  had  in  1924  about 
$1,000,000  in  productive  funds  and  $1,000,000 
in  buildings  and  equipment.  During  the  dec- 
ade 1914-24,  the  plant  was  enlarged  by  the  con- 
struction of  six  brick  buildings,  including  Sci- 
ence Hall,  Cragin  and  Stanton  Halls  (dormito- 
ries), the  chapel,  the  observatory,  and  the  li- 
brary; and  by  the  purchase  of  two  dwellings 
adjacent  to  the  campus  for  faculty  houses 
and  three  others  for  student  dormitories.  Pres- 
ident, Samuel  Valentine  Cole,  A.M.,  D.D., 
LL.D. 

WHEAT  BUST.  See  PLANTS,  DISEASES  OF. 
WHEELER,  BUBTON  KENDALL  (1882-  ). 
An  American  public  official,  born  at  Hudson, 
Mass.  He  began  his  career  as  a  stenographer 
in  Boston,  but  later  became  a  lawyer  in  Butte, 
Mont.,  and  attracted  much  attention  by  his 
success  in  winning  damage  suits  for  the  miners 
against  the  big  copper  companies.  The  liberal 
political  element  in  Montana  sent  him  to  the 
State  Senate,  and  he  was  appointed  Federal 
District  Attorney  in  Montana  in  1913.  During 
the  War,  Wheeler  was  accused  of  being  too 
lenient  with  the  miners  and  their  leaders,  and 
in  1918  President  Wilson  refused  to  reappoint 
him  as  District  Attorney.  In  1920  he  was 
nominated  for  the  governorship  of  Montana 
but  was  defeated.  In  1922  he  was  elected  to 
the  United  States  Senate  by  a  large  majority. 
While  in  charge  of  the  investigation  of  former 
Attorney  General  Daugherty,  he  was  indicted  in 
Montana  on  a  charge  of  accepting  a  fee  illegal- 
ly. Although  he  was  exonerated  by  a  special 
Senate  committee,  the  indictment  remained 
against  him.  In  1924  he  was  nominated  for  the 


?LB 


1469 


WHITHOBNE 


office  of  Vice  President  of  the  United  States  on 
La  Follette'g  progressive  ticket. 

WHIPPLE,  GUY  MONTROSE  (1876-  ). 
An  American  psychologist,  born  at  Danvers, 
Mass.,  and  educated  at  Brown  and  Cornell 
Universities.  He  began  teaching  in  1902  at 
Cornell  and  went  to  the  University  of  Illinois 
in  1914.  The  Carnegie  Institute  of  Technology 
employed  him  from  1917  to  1919  as  acting  di- 
rector of  its  bureau  of  salesmanship  and  as 
professor  of  applied  psychology.  In  1919  he 
became  professor  of  experimental  education  in 
the  University  of  Michigan.  During  the  War 
he  was  a  member  of  the  committee  on  mental 
examination  of  army  recruits.  His  writings 
include:  Questions  in  School  Hygiene  (1909); 
Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Tests,  2d  ed. 
(1914);  How  to  Study  Effectively  (1910); 
Classes  for  Gifted  Children  (1919). 

WHITAKER,  MILTON  C.  (1870-  ).  An 
American  chemist,  born  in  Frazeysburg,  Ohio, 
and  educated  at  the  University  of  Colorado. 
In  1903  he  became  chemist  and  general  super- 
intendent of  the  Welsbach  Company  but  re- 
signed in  1911  to  accept  the  professorship  of 
chemical  engineering  at  Columbia  University. 
Tills  chair  he  held  until  J917,  when  he  was 
made  vice  president  of  the  United  States  Indus- 
trial Alcohol  Company  and  president  of  the 
United  States  Industrial  Chemical  Company. 
In  1923  he  received  the  Perkin  medal  of  the 
American  section  of  the  Society  of  Chemical 
Industry  for  his  original  work  on  the  chemistry 
and  production  of  alcohol  and  its  derivatives. 
In  1911-10  hr  was  editor  of  the  Journal  of  In- 
dustrial and  Engineering  Chemistry. 

WHITE,  JAMES  (1803-  ).  A  Canadian 
geographer  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  Ho  was  chair- 
man of  the  Advisory  Board  on  Wild  Life  Pro- 
tection in  1917  and  in  the  same  year  won  the 
Alejandro  Roquette  prize.  In  1921  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  Labrador  boundary  case  and  in 
1922  became  technical  adviser  to  the  Minister 
of  Justice. 

WHITE,  JOHN  ELLINGTON  (1868-  ). 
An  American  Baptist  clergyman  and  educator, 
born  at  Clayton,  N.  C.,  and  educated  at  the 
Wake  Forest  College.  Ordained  to  the  Baptist 
ministry  in  1892,  he  served  as  pastor  in  several 
churches  in  North  and  South  Carolina.  In 
1916  he  became  president  of  Anderson  College. 
He  was  the  founder  of  a  system  of  Baptist 
schools  for  the  mountaineers  and  president  of 
the  Clifton  Conference  for  negro  schools.  From 
1914  to  1910  he  was  preacher  and  lecturer  at 
the  University  of  Chicago.  He  is  the  author  of 
The  tiilent  Southerners  (1906);  The  New  Task 
and  Opportunity  of  the  South  (1908)  ;  Southern 
Highlanders  (1913);  and  A  Yielded  Pacifist 
(1917). 

WHITE,  WILLIAM  ALANSON  (1868-  ). 
An  American  neurologist  and  alienist  (see  VOL. 
XXITI).  Since  1914  Dr.  White  has  produced 
several  major  works,  beginning  with  the  trea- 
tise on  neurology  written  in  collaboration  with 
Jelliffe,  Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System  (1915). 
The  ninth  edition  of  his  Outlines  'of  Psychiatry 
appeared  in  1923.  The  following  monographs 
also  came  from  his  pen:  Mechanisms  of  Char- 
acter Formation  (1916);  The  Principles  of 
Mental  Hygiene  (1917);  The  Mental  Hygiene 
of  Childhood  (1919);  Thoughts  of  a  Psycholo- 
gist on  the  War  and  After  (1919)  ;  Foundations 
of  Psychiatry  (1921),  and  Insanity  and  the 
Criminal  Law  (1923). 


WHITE,  WILLIAM  ALLEN  (1868-  ).  An 
American  journalist  and  author  (see  VOL. 
XXIII).  During  the  War  the  American  Red 
Cross  sent  him  to  Russia  as  an  observer,  and 
he  was  appointed  a  delegate  to  the  Russian  Con- 
ference at  Prinkipo  in  1919.  His  later  publi- 
cations include:  Goffis  Puppets  (1910);  In  the 
Heart  of  a  Fool  (1918);  The  Martial  Adven- 
tures of  Henry  and  Me  (1918) ;  The  Editor  and 
His  People,  a  collection  of  editorials  (1924). 

WHITEHEAD,  ALFRED  NORTH  (1861-  ). 
A  British  mathematician  and  philosopher  (see 
VOL.  XXIII).  After  terminating  his  joint  in- 
quiry with  Bertrand  Russell  into  the  founda- 
tions of  mathematics  and  logic,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  elaboration  of  a  philosophy  of  physi- 
cal science.  This  philosophy,  although  conduct- 
ed on  realistic  presuppositions,  was  free  from 
the  deterministic  dogmatism  characterizing  so 
many  realistic  philosophies.  In  The  Principle 
of  Relativity,  he  presented  what  he  regarded  as 
an  alternative  rendering  of  the  theory  of  rela- 
tivity. He  retained  the  metrical  formula  of 
Einstein's  special  theory  but  discarded  the  gen- 
eral theory  and  so  reframed  the  equations  as  to 
maintain  the  traditional  distinction  between 
physics  and  geometry.  His  other  works  since 
1914  include  Principles  of  Natural  Knowledge 
(1919)  and  The  Concept  of  Nature  (1920). 
In  1924  he  was  called  to  the  faculty  of  Harvard 
University. 

WHITEHEAD,  JOHN  BOSWELL  (1872-  ). 
An  American  electrical  engineer,  born  in  Nor- 
folk, Va.,  and  educated  at  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity. During  1893-96  he  was  an  electrician 
with  the  Westinghouse  Electric  and  Manufac- 
turing Company,  and  during  1896-97  he  was 
similarly  associated  with  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company.  In  1897  he  returned  to  Johns 
Hopkins  as  instructor  in  applied  electricity, 
and  in  1910  he  was  advanced  to  a  professorship. 
Since  1919  he  has  also  been  dean  of  the  faculty 
of  engineering  there.  His  original  researches 
have  had  to,  do  with  such  subjects  as  magnetic 
effect  of  electric  displacement,  single-phase 
railway  system,  and  submarine  detection.  Dur- 
ing 1917-19  he  was  a  major  in  the  Engineers 
Corps.  Besides  many  papers  on  engineering 
and  physical  topicH,  he  wrote  Electric  Operation 
of  Steam  Railuxiys  (1909). 

WHITEHOUSE,  VIE  A  BOABMAN  (MRS.  NOR- 
MAN DK  R.  WHITEHOUSE)  (1875-  ).  An 
American  publicist,  born  in  Virginia,  and  edu- 
cated at  Newcomb  College  in  New  Orleans.  In 
1898  she  married  Norman  de  R.  Whitehouse  of 
New  York  City.  From  1913  she  was  an  active 
worker  and  speaker  in  behalf  of  woman  suffrage 
and  in  1916  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  New 
York  State  Woman  Suffrage  party.  Mrs. 
Whitehouse  played  an  important  part  in  secur- 
ing woman  suffrage  for  that  State  at  the  State 
election  on  Nov.  6,  1917.  In  1918  she  was  sent 
to  Europe  by  the  United  States  government  to 
organize  publicity  to  combat  German  propa- 
ganda and  to  make  plain  the  aim  of  the  Ameri- 
can people.  In  1920  she  became  president  of 
the  Whitehouse  Leather  Products  Company. 
She  wrote  A  Year  as  a  Government  Agent 
(1920). 

WHITE  RUSSIAN  SOCIALIST  SOVIET 
REPUBLIC.  See  RUSSIA. 

WHITE  SLAVERY.  See  LEAGUE  OF  NA- 
TIONS. 

WHITHOBNE,  EMEBSON  (1884-  ).  An 
American  composer,  born  at  Cleveland,  Ohio. 


WHITLBY  BEPOBT 


1470 


He  studied  there  with  J.  Hartmann  (piano  and 
harmony)  and  J.  Rogers  (composition).  From 
1U04  to  1906  he  continued  his  studies  in  Vienna 
under  Leachetizky  (piano)  and  R.  Fuchs  (com- 
position) and  spent  the  following  year  in  Ber- 
lin with  Artur  Schnabel  (piano).  In  1907-14 
he  lived  in  London  as  a  teacher  and  writer  on 
musical  subjects  and  served  as  critic  of  the 
Pall  Mall  Gazette  (1913*14).  In  1915  he  set- 
tled in  St.  Louis  as  editor  for  the  Art  Publica- 
tion Society.  In  1907  he  married  the  pianist 
Ethel  Leginaka,  but  separated  from  her  in  1909. 
His  works  include  the  symphonic  poems,  Ranga, 
The  City  of  Ys,  and  In  the  Court  of  the  Pome- 
granates; the  orchestral  suites,  Japanese,  Ad- 
ventures of  a  Samurai,  and  Neio  York  Days  and 
Nights  (also  arranged  for  piano)  ;  several  mi- 
nor works  for  orchestra;  three  string  quartets; 
a  song  cycle  for  vocal  quartet,  Songs  of  Sappho; 
piano  pieces,  and  songs.  He  is  the  author  of 
Instruments  of  the  Modern  Symphony  Orchestra 
(1921).  y 

WHITLEY  BEPOBT.  See  GREAT  BRITAIN, 
gigfory. 

WHITLOCK,  BRAND  (1869-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican author  and  diplomat  (see  VOL.  XXI II). 
As  United  States  Minister  to  Belgium  during 
the  War  he  opposed  German  aggression  with 
great  boldness  and  considerable  success  and 
on  many  occasions  saved  the  Belgians  from  the 
effects  of  drastic  edicts.  In  11)1 8  he  wrote 
Memories  of  Belgium  Under  the  German  Occu- 
pation. He  published  J.  JUardin  and  Son,  a 
novel,  in  1923. 

WHITMAN  COLLEGE.  An  institution 
founded  in  1859  at  Walla  Walla,  Wash.  The 
student  enrollment  doubled  in  the  10  years  be- 
tween 1914  and  1924,  increasing  from  250  to 
504;  the  faculty  grew  from  28  to  40  members, 
and  the  library  from  25,000  volumes  to  34,500 
bound  volumes  and  50,000  pamphlets.  The  en- 
dowment increased  from  $663,403  to  $882,924 
and  the  annual  income  from  $70,504  to  $170,- 
150.  A  major  examination  system,  instituted 
during  the  period,  required  that  a  student  must, 
before  receiving  his  degree,  pass  an  oral  exam- 
ination before  a  committee  of  the  faculty  on  the 
entire  work  done  in  his  major  subject  over 
three  or  four  years  of  study.  The  honor  system 
was  also  adopted  for  examinations  and  tests, 
and  a  chapter  of  Phi  Beta  Kappa  was  estab- 
lished. A  campaign  for  $1,500,000  for  build- 
ings was  inaugurated  early  in  1924,  to  be  com- 
pleted in  June  of  that  year.  President,  Stephen 
B.  L.  Penrose,  D.D.,  LLJX 

WHITNEY,  GERTBUDE  VANDEBBILT  ( T-  ) . 
An  American  sculptress.  During  the  War  she 
founded  a  hospital  in  France  and  labored  unre- 
mittingly among  the  soldiers.  Her  war  sculp- 
tures are  unique  in  their  quality  of  distinctly 
feminine  sympathy  and  tenderneHg  for  the  young 
soldiers.  Among  the  beat  of  them  are  "Found," 
"Engineers,"  and  "Not  Yet  Discharged."  These 
are  all  figures  and  groups  of  young  American 
soldiers. 

WICKEBSHAM,  GEORGE  WOODWARD 
(1858-  ).  An  American  lawyer  and  public 
official  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  In  1915  he  was  dele- 
gate-at-large  and  chairman  of  the  judiciary  com- 
mittee of  the  New  York  Constitutional  Conven- 
tion. From  1914  to  1917  he  was  president  of 
the  Association  of  the  Bar  of  the  City  of  New 
York.  He  was  a  member  and  later  vice  chair- 
man of  the  District  Board  of  the  City  of  New 
York  under  the  United  States  Selective  Service 


Law  in  1917-18.  In  1920  he  was  president  of 
the  American  Prison  Association  and  chairman 
of  the  executive  committee  of  the  New  York 
Prison  Association. 

WIDAL,  (GEOBOES)  FEBNAND  ISIDORE 
(1802-  ).  A  French  bacteriologist  (see  VOL. 
XXIII).  In  the  decade  since  1914  he  added  to 
the  laurels  which  he  had  won  in  serodiagnosis 
and  in  the  salt-poor  diet  for  renal  dropsy,  by 
innovations  in  the  prognosis  of  chronic  kidney 
disease  by  determining  the  amount  of  residual 
blood  nitrogen.  In  collaboration  with  Roger 
and  Teissier  he  produced  Nouveau  Traite*  de 
Medicine  (1920),  and  with  Teissier  and  others, 
Rhumatismes  (1924). 

WIDDEMEB,  MARGARET  (Mas.  ROBERT  HA- 
VEN SCHAUFFLEB)  ( ?-  ) .  An  American 
author,  born  at  Doylestown,  Pa.,  and  graduated 
from  the  Drexcl  Institute  Library  School  in 
1909.  She  wrote  poems  when  a  child.  A  child- 
labor  poem  entitled  The  Factories,  her  first 
published  work,  attracted  wide  attention. 
Among  her  writings  are:  The  Rose-Garden 
Husband  (1915);  \Vinona  of  the  Camp  Fire 
(1915);  Why  ftott  (1915);  The  Wishing-Rim/ 
Man  (1917);  Winona's  War  Farm  (1918). 
The  Old  Road  to  Paradise  (1918),  which  gained 
her  a  share  of  the  Pulitzer  prize  for  the  best 
book  of  poems,  in  the  year  1019;  Graven  Image 
(1923). 

WIEGAND,  KARL  McKAY  (1873-  ).  An 
American  botanist,  born  at  Truxton,  N.  Y.,  and 
educated  at  Cornell  University.  He  was  as- 
sistant and  instructor  in  botany  at  Cornell  until 
1907,  and  from  then  to  1013  he  was  associate 
professor  of  botany  at  VYellesley  College.  From 
the  latter  year  he  was  professor  of  botany  and 
head  of  the  department  at  the  New  York  State 
College  of  Agriculture  at  Cornell  University. 
Professor  Wiegand  was  the  author  of  over  80 
papers  on  botanical  subjects. 

WIESBADEN  AGREEMENT.  See  REPA- 
RATIONS. 

WIGGIN,  KATE  DOUGLAS  (MRS.  GEORGE  C 
RIGGS)  (1859-1923).  An  American  author  (see 
VOL.  XXIII),  who  died  in  London  in  1923. 
Among  her  later  stories  were:  Bluebeard,  a 
musical  fantasy  (1914);  Penelope's  Postscripts 
(1916)  ;  Ladies  in  Waiting  (1918)  ;  and  tfome- 
spun  Tales  (1920).  Her  reminiscences  were 
published  posthumously  as  My  Garden  of  Mem- 
ories (1924). 

WILAMOWITZ-M6LLENDOBF,  ULHICII 
VON  (1848-  ).  A  German  philologist  (see 
VOL.  XXIII).  He  translated  and  edited  many 
Greek  classics.  His  most  recent  works  are  An- 
tike  Metrik  (1922)  and  Pindar  (1923). 

WILBUR,  CURTIS  DWIGHT  (1807-  ).  An 
American  lawyer  and  public  official,  born  at 
Boonesville,  Iowa.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  in  1888,  resigned 
from  the  navy  in  the  same  year,  and  in  1890 
began  the  practice  of  law  in  Los  Angeles.  He 
was  judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Los  Angeles 
County  from  1903  to  1918  and  became  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  California  in  1919.  He 
organized  the  Juvenile  Court  of  Los  Angeles 
and  drew  up  several  of  the  juvenile  court  laws 
of  California.  On  the  resignation  of  Edwin 
Denby,  Judge  Wilbur  wa&  appointed  Secretary 
of  the  Navy  by  President  Coolidge  and  took 
office  on  Mar.  25,  1924. 

WILBUB,  HAT  LYMAN  (1875-  ).  An 
American  physician  and  president  of  Stanford 
University  (see  VOL.  XXfil).  In  1917  he  was 


WXLCZ  Y  JN  BILL 


1471 


WILLIAM  II 


chief  of  the  conservation  division  of  the  United 
States  Food  Administration  and  a  member  of 
the  California  State  Council  of  Defense.  In 
1018  he  was  a  regional  director  of  the  Students' 
Array  Training  Corps  and  in  1919  president  of 
the  California  State  Conference  of  Social  Agen- 
cies. 

WILCZYNSKI,  ERNEST  JULIUS  (1870-  ). 
An  American  mathematician,  born  in  Hamburg 
in  Germany,  and  educated  at  the  University  of 
Berlin.  Coming  to  the  United  States  in  1897,  he 
became  a  computer  in  the  office  of  the  United 
States  Nautical  Almanac  in  1H98.  In  1898  he 
was  appointed  instructor  in  mathematics  at  the 
University  of  California,  where  he  remained 
until  1907  and  became  associate  professor  in 
1906  He  then  transferred  his  allegiance  to  the 
University  of  Illinois  but  resigned  in  1910  to  ac- 
cept the  chair  of  mathematics  at  the  University 
of  Chicago,  where  he  lias  since  remained.  He  is 
the  author  of  Protective  Differential  (jeometry 
of  Curves  and  Ruled  Surfaces  (1900)  ;  The  New 
Haven  Colloquium,  with  E.  H.  Moore  and  M. 
Mason  (1910);  Plane  Trigonometry  and  Appli- 
cations (1913),  and  College  Algebra  with  Appli- 
cations (1910). 

WILDER,  HARRIS  HAWTHORNE  (1804-  ). 
An  American  zoologist,  born  at  Bangor,  Me., 
and  educated  at  Amherat  College  and  at  Frei- 
burg. He  taught  at  the  Jefferson  High  School 
in  Chicago  (18KG-89),  and  at  the  Lake  View 
High  School  (1891-92)  and  later  became  pro- 
fcflwor  of  zoology  (185)2-  )  at  Smith  College. 
His  most  important  researches  were  on  the  ern- 
hryology  and  anatomy  of  vertebrates,  the  epi- 
dermic markings  of  the  palms  and  soles  of  the 
primates,  and  the  teratology  of  vertebrates.  He 
published  Iniei  tebrnte  Zoology  (1894);  History 
of  the  Human  llody  (1910)  ;  Personal  Identifica- 
tion (1902);  and  Manual  of  Anthropometry 
(1920). 

WILDMAN,  EDWIN  (1807-  ).  An 
American  editor  and  author,  born  at  Corning, 
N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  the  General  Wesleyan 
Seminary,  Phillips  Exeter  Academy,  and  Har- 
vard University.  For  several  years  he  was  ed- 
itor and  proprietor  of  newspapers  in  Georgia 
and  New  York  and  was  a  writer  and  war  corre- 
upondent  for  Lathe's  Weekly  (1897-98).  He 
served  as  special  war  correspondent  in  the 
Philippines  fiom  1898  to  1900  and  was  special 
commissioner  with  the  allied  troops  in  the  war 
in  China  (1900-01).  From  1918  to  1920  he  was 
president  and  editor  of  The  Forum  He  wrote 
Writing  to  Nell  (1915)-  America's  Attitude  to- 
ward the  War  (1917)  ;  American  Leaders  of  In- 
dustry (1919,  1921). 

WILES,  IRVINO  RAMSEY  (1801-  ).  An 
American  portrait  painter  (see  VOL.  XXITI). 
His  recent  portraits,  particularly  those  of  wom- 
en, continue  his  able,  academic  manner.  In  1919 
he  received  the  Maynard  Portrait  Prize  from  the 
National  Academy  of  Design,  New  York  City, 
and  the  Lippincott  Prize  from  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy,  Philadelphia. 

WILEY,  HUGH  (1884-  ).  An  American 
writer,  born  at  Zariesville,  Ohio,  and  educated 
in  the  public  schools.  From  1902  to  1917  he 
was  an  engineer  and  contractor  During  the 
War  he  served  in  the  Engineers  Corps  as  a  cap- 
tain. Besides  contributing  many  short  stories 
to  magazines,  he  wrote  The  Wildcat  (1920); 
Jade  (1921)  ;  and  Lady  Luck  (1921). 

WILLARD,  DANIEL  (1801-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican railway  president,  born  at  North  Hart- 


land,  Vt.,  and  educated  at  the  Massachusetts 
Agricultural  College.  He  entered  the  railway 
service  in  1879  and  became  assistant  general 
manager  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
in  1899  and  its  president  on  Jan.  15,  1910.  In 
1917  he  became  chairman  of  the  Advisory  Com- 
mission of  the  Council  of  National  Defense 
and  in  the  next  year  was  made  chairman  of  the 
War  Industries  Board.  He  was  commanding 
colonel  of  engineers  in  the  United  States  Army 
in  1918. 

WILLCOX,  WILLIAM  RUSSELL  (1803-  ). 
An  American  lawyer  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  From 
1910  to  1920  he  was  chairman  of  the  Republican 
national  committee.  In  1918  he  was  appointed  a 
member  of  the  Railway  Wage  Commission. 

WILLEBRANDT,  MABEL  WALKER  (1889- 
).  An  American  lawyer,  born  at  Woods- 
dale,  Kan.  She  graduated  from  the  Tempe 
Normal  School  in  1911  and  from  the  law  de- 
partment of  the  University  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia in  1910  After  teaching  law  for  several 
years  she  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and  practiced 
in  Los  Angeles.  She  acted  as  public  defender 
of  women  and  was  attorney  in  some  2000  cases. 
In  1902  she  was  appointed  Assistant  Attorney 
General  of  the  United  States,  the  first  woman  to 
fill  that  office.  She  was  placed  in  charge  of  pro- 
hibition law  enforcement. 

WILLETT,  HERBERT  L.OCKWOOD  ( 1 804-  ) . 
An  American  theologian,  born  at  Ionia,  Mich., 
and  educated  at  Bethany  College,  W.  Va.,  and 
Yale,  Chicago,  Berlin  Universities.  In  1890  he 
was  ordained  to  the  ministry  of  the  Christian 
Church  and  for  several  years  was  a  pastor  at 
Dayton,  Ohio.  He  became  associate  professor 
(1890)  and  later  professor  of  Semitic  languages 
and  literature  at  the  University  of  Chicago 
The  latter  post  he  held  from  1915.  From  1908 
to  1920  he  was  minister  of  the  Memorial  Church 
of  Christ  of  Chicago.  He  was  well-known  as  a 
lecturer  and  wrote:  Life  and  Teachings  of  Jesus 
(1898);  Prophets  of  Israel  (1899);  The  Moral 
Leaders  of  Israel  (1910);  and  Our  Bible— UK 
Origin^  Character -,  and  Value  (1917).  From 
1910  to  1920  he  was  president  of  the  Chicago 
Church  Federation,  and  in  the  latter  year  be- 
came Chicago  representative  of  the  Federal 
Council  of  Churches  of  Christ  in  America. 

WILLIAM  (  FBIEDBICII  WILHELM  VICTOR  AU- 
GUST) (1882-  ).  Ex-Crown  Prince  of  Prus- 
sia and  Germany  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  War  he  was  put  in  command 
of  the  5th  Army  on  the  west  which  won  the 
battles  of  Longwy  and  Longuyon  on  Aug.  22 
and  24,  1914.  Later  he  was  nominally  in 
charge  of  the  unsuccessful  operations  against 
Verdun.  In  November,  1918,  he  followed  his 
father  to  Holland  and  took  refuge  on  the  is- 
land of  Wieringen  in  the  Zuyder  Zee.  On  Dec. 
1,  1918,  he  formally  renounced  his  rights  of 
succession  to  the  crowns  of  Prussia  and  the 
German  Empire 

WILLIAM  II  (FRiEDRicii  WILHELM  VICTOR 
ALBERT)  (1859-  ).  Ex-Emperor  of  Germany 
and  ex-King  of  Prussia  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  At 
the  opening  of  the  War,  although  professing  a 
desire  for  peace,  he  insisted  on  impossible  con- 
ditions: Austria  must  be  allowed  to  deal  with 
Serbia  alone,  England  must  observe  neutrality, 
etc.  At  the  opening  session  of  the  last 
Reichstag  of  his  reign,  when  his  armies  were 
already  devastating  Belgium,  his  speech 
breathed  fire  and  slaughter  against  his  enemies, 
and  at  its  conclusion  he  shook  hands  with 


WILLIAM  AND  MABY 

each  deputy  and  announced:  "Now  we  will  give 
them  a  good  thrashing."  The  High  Command, 
however,  kept  him  away  from  the  front,  and 
his  part  in  the  War  consisted  of  occasional 
inflammatory  speeches  to  troops  and  such  ut- 
erances  as  that  in  which  he  urged  the  complete 
annihilation  of  Great  Britain's  "contemptible 
little  army."  He  was  never  under  fire,  unless 
accidentally  from  airplanes,  and  his  influence 
with  his  people  constantly  diminished  until, 
at  the  time  of  Germany's  collapse,  the  nation 
broke  ^out  in  a  revolution  which  had  as  one  of 
its  objects  his  abdication  and  the  'abjuring  of 
his  dynasty.  Under  pressure  of  his  entourage, 
complying  with  this  demand,  he  said  on  Nov. 
10,  1918:  "To  facilitate  peace  for  the  nation 
1  will  go  to  Holland."  With  a  few  companions 
in  motor  cars  he  fled  across  the  border  and  took 
up  his  residence  first  at  the  castle  of  Amer- 
ongen,  where  he  was  the  guest  of  Count  God- 
ard  Bentinck,  and  afterward  at  Doom  Castle 
(June  1920),  which  the  ex-Kaiser  purchased. 
Here  he  saw  few  visitors  and  occupied  him- 
self with  sawing  wood  and  writing  his  memoirs. 
Here  his  wife  died,  after  a  lingering  illness, 
and  in  1922  he  married  Princess  Herminie. 

WILLIAM  AND  MARY,  COLLEOE  OF.  A 
coeducational  State  institution  at  Williamsburg, 
Va.,  founded  in  1693.  The  enrollment  of  students 
increased  248  per  cent,  from  242  in  191(5  to  845 
in  the  year  1923-24  and  697  in  the  summer  of 
1923.  The  faculty  likewise  increased  from  21 
to  46  members  and  the  library  from  15,000  to 
35,000  volumes.  In  1918  women  were  admitted 
to  the  college  for  the  first  time,  and  a  doi  mitory 
was  built  for  them  in  1921.  Construction  was 
begun  in  1923-24  on  a  new  men's  dormitory 
also,  to  cost  about  $200,000,  and  a  gift  was 
received  by  the  college  of  a  $160,000  gymnasium. 
Courses  in  commerce,  accounting,  and  other  busi- 
ness subjects  were  offered  in  1919.  J.  A.  C. 
Chandler,  LL.D.,  succeeded  Lyon  G.  Tyler  as 
president  in  1919. 

WILLIAM  JEWELL  COLLEGE.  A  col- 
lege for  men  at  Liberty,  Mo.,  founded  in  1849. 
The  student  enrollment  increased  from  224  in 
1914  to  403  in  1923-24,  the  faculty  from  14  to  16, 
and  the  number  of  bound  volumes  in  the  library 
from  24,000  to  30,000.  The  endowment  in  1914 
was  $258,000,  as  compared  with  $700,000  in  De- 
cember, 1923,  plus  $400,000  additional  that  was 
due  to  be  paid  in  1924;  and  the  income  in  the 
former  year  was  $50,000,  aa  compared  with  $85,- 
000  in  the  latter.  President,  Harry  Clifford 
Wayman,  A.M.,  Th.D.,  D.Litt.,  D.D. 

WILLIAMS,  A.  J.  (V-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can naval  lieutenant  who  made  three  world  rec- 
ords. They  were  for  the  fastest  aerial  speeds: 
266.59  miles  an  hour,  for  3  kilometers;  243.81 
miles  an  hour,  for  100  kilometers;  and  243.67 
miles  an  hour,  for  200  kilometers.  The  last  two 
were  made  in  the  Pulitzer  race  at  St.  Louis, 
Oct.  6,  1923. 

WILLIAMS,  CHARLES  TURNER  (1874-  ). 
An  American  banker  and  Red  Cross  official,  born 
at  Warrenton,  N.  C.,  and  educated  in  the  public 
schools.  He  began  as  a  stenographer,  then  be- 
came a  newspaper  reporter,  and  in  1904  entered 
the  private  banking  business  in  Richmond,  Va. 
Tn  1917  he  was  appointed  captain  in  the  Red 
Cross  Mission  to  Rumania  and  crossed  Siberia 
into  Russia,  thence  to  Archangel,  and  carried 
the  first  supplies  from  the  United  States  south 
to  Rumania.  In  1918  he  was  promoted  major. 
In  order  to  take  supplies  to  Archangel,  he  trav- 


WILLOTTGHBY 

eled  1500  miles  by  sled,  mostly  within  the  Arctic 
Circle.  He  assisted  in  the  Liberty  Loan  cam- 
paigns and  other  war  activities. 

WILLIAMS,  RALPH  VAUOHAN  (1872-  ). 
An  English  composer,  born  at  Down  Ampney  in 
Wiltshire.  He  received  his  musical  education 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Music  under  H.  Sharpe 
and  G.  Moore  ( piano ) ,  W.  Parratt  ( organ ) ,  and 
Hubert  Parry  and  Charles  Villiers  Stanford  (com- 
position). In  1897-98  he  was  in  Berlin  with 
Max  Bruch,  and  later,  developing  a  strong  lean- 
ing toward  impressionism,  he  spent  some  time 
with  Ravel  in  Paris.  With  the  exception  of  a 
short  period  as  organist  at  South  Lambeth 
Church  (1896-99)  and  extension  lecturer  at  Ox- 
ford University,  he  held  no  oflicial  positions  but 
devoted  his  entire  time  to  composition.  He 
wrote  for  orchestra  A  London  Symphony,  Pas- 
toral Symphony,  The  Solent,  Bucolic  Suite,  He- 
roic Elegy,  three  Norfolk  Rhapsodies,  Harnham 
Down,  and  Boldrewood,  a  Fantasia  for  piano  and 
orchestra;  the  choral  works  with  orchestra, 
Toward  the  Unknown  Region,  Willow~uood>  A 
Sea  SympJiony,  The  Garden  of  Proserpine,  Five 
Mystical  Songs;  incidental  music  to  Aristo- 
phanes's  The  Wasps  and  Ben  Jonson's  Pans 
Anniversary;  a  Mass  in  G  minor;  two  piano 
quintets;  two  string  quartets;  many  part-songa; 
and  songs. 

WILLIAMS,  SIDNEY  CLARK  (1878-  ) 
An  American  editor,  born  at  Wells,  Me.,  and 
educated  in  the  public  schools  and  privately. 
For  several  years  he  was  on  the  staff  of  papuis 
in  Maine  and  in  Boston.  From  1912  to  1914  he 
was  literary  editor  and  dramatic  eiitic  of  the 
Boston  Daily  Advertiser,  and  from  1914  to  191 () 
literary  editor  of  the  Boston  Herald.  In  1920 
he  occupied  the  same  post  on  the  Philadelphia 
North  American.  lie  wrote  A  Reluctant  Adam 
(1915);  The  Eastern  Window  (1918);  and  The 
Body  in  the  Blue  Room  (1922). 

WILLIAMS  COLLEGE.  A  non  sectarian 
institution  for  men  at  Williamstown,  Mass., 
founded  in  1793.  The  student  enrollment  in- 
creased from  499  in  1914  to  694  in  1023-24,  the 
faculty  was  increased  in  the  same  decade  from 
59  to  05  members,  the  library  from  78,000  to 
115,000  volumes,  and  the  productive  funds  from 
$1,842,243  to  $4,069,415.  The  Institute  of  Poli- 
tics, which  holds  its  meetings  during  the  sum- 
mer, was  authorized  by  vote  of  the  trustees  of 
the  college  in  1913,  but  the  members  of  the 
board  of  advisers  were  not  chosen  until  1919,  and 
the  first  session  was  held  in  1921.  See  POLI- 
TICS, INSTITUTE  OF.  During  the  War  the  presi- 
dent,  Harry  A.  Gar  field,  LL.D.,  was  made  fuel 
administrator  of  the  United  States. 

WILLIS,  HUGH  EVANDEB  (1875-  ).  An 
American  lawyer  and  educator,  born  at  Stratton, 
Vt.,  and  educated  at  Yankton  (S.  D.)  College 
and  the  law  department  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota.  He  was  instructor,  assistant  pro- 
fessor, and  professor  of  law  at  the  University  of 
Minnesota  from  1902  to  1913,  and  from  that 
year  to  1915  dean  and  professor  of  law  at  the 
Northwestern  University  Law  School.  In  1917 
he  became  professor  of  law  and  in  1920  dean  of 
the  law  school  of  the  University  of  North  Da- 
kota. He  wrote  several  books  on  legal  subjects, 
including  Law  of  Social  Justice  (1918). 

WILLOTJGHBY,  WILLIAM  FBANKLIN 
(1867-  ).  An  American  economist,  born  in 
Alexandria,  Va.,  and  educated  at  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  During  1901  he  lectured  on  eco- 
nomics at  Johns  Hopkins  and  Harvard  Uni- 


WILLS 


1473 


WILSON 


versities,  and  during  1901-07  he  was  treasurer 
of  Porto  Rico.  He  was  president  of  the  execu- 
tive council  of  the  Porto  Rico  Legislative  As- 
sembly during  1907-09,  when  he  was  appointed 
assistant  director  of  the  United  States  Census. 
Two  years  later  he  became  a  member  of  the 
President's  Commission  on  Economy  and  Effi- 
ciency. He  was  called  to  the  chair  of  juris- 
prudence and  politics  at  Princeton  University 
in  1911  but  resigned  in  1916  to  become  director 
of  the  Institute  for  Government  Research.  In 
addition  to  many  reports  and  special  articles  he 
is  the  author  of  Workingmen*s  Insurance  (1898), 
Territories  and  Dependencies  of  the  United 
Mates  (1905),  The  Problem  of  a  National  Budg- 
et (1918),  The  Government  of  Modern  States 
(1919),  and  Government  Organisation  in  War 
Time  and  After  (1919). 

WILLS,  ALBERT  POTTER  (1873-  ).  An 
American  physicist,  born  in  Waltham,  Mass., 
and  educated  at  Tufts  College  and  Clark  Uni- 
versity, as  well  as  in  Gottingen  and  Berlin. 
During  1899-1902  he  was  an  associate  in  ap- 
plied mathematics  and  physics  at  Bryn  Mawr 
College,  after  which,  during  1902-03,  he  was 
physicist  at  the  Cooper  Hewitt  Laboratory  in 
New  York  City.  He  then  became  instructor  in 
mechanics  at  Columbia  University,  where  since 
1009  he  has  been  professor  of  mathematical 
physics.  His  original  investigations  have  in- 
cluded studies  on  magnetic  permeability,  mag- 
netic shielding,  magneto-striction,  magnetic  prop- 
nties  of  gases,  hydrodynamic  analogy  to  electric 
and  magnetic  fields,  and  other  subjects  related 
to  magnetism. 

WILLSIE,  MRS.  HONORE  (  ?-  ).  An 
American  editor  and  writer,  born  at  Ottumwa, 
Iowa,  and  educated  at  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin. She  was  editor  of  The  Delineator  in 
New  York  City  from  1914  to  1919.  Her  novels 
portray  western  life.  Heart  of  the  Desert 
(1913)  was  her  first  published  novel,  and  won 
immediate  recognition.  Others  were:  Still  Jim 
(1915);  Lydia  of  the  Pines  (1916);  Benefits 
Forgot  (1917);  The  Forbidden  Trail  (1919); 
The  Enchanted  Canyon  (1921);  and  Judith  of 
the  Godless  Valley/  (1922). 

WILMINGTON.  The  largest  city  of  Dela- 
ware. Its  population  increased  from  87,411  in 
1910  to  110,108  in  1920,  and  to  119,828  in  1924 
by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census.  In 
1921-22  a  deep-water  terminal  costing  $3,410,- 
000  was  built  on  the  Delaware  and  Christiana 
Hivers.  It  was  fully  equipped  with  loading  and 
unloading  facilities,  railroad  sidings,  transit  and 
storage  sheds,  and  other  facilities  for  both  coast- 
wise and  foreign  shipping.  The  value  of  Wil- 
mington's manufactured  products  increased  from 
$39,358,000  in  1914  to  approximately  $100,000,- 
000  in  1923;  her  building  activities  rose  from 
$1,731,129  in  1914  to  $3,876,950  in  1924;  and 
her  bank  clearings  increased  from  $91,997,925  in 
1014  to  $140,627,235  in  1924.  A  new  public  li- 
brary was  built  in  1923  costing  approximately 
$535,224.  As  a  memorial  of  the  veterans  of  the 
War,  a  reinforced  concrete  bridge  was  opened 
in  1923  over  Brandywine  Creek.  It  was  720 
feet  long  and  72  feet  wide  and  was  supported  by 
three  arches,  the  longest  of  which  had  a  span  of 
250  feet. 

WILSON,  CHARLES  STETSON  (1875-  ). 
An  American  diplomat,  born  at  Bangor, 
Maine.  He  began  his  diplomatic  career  as  secre- 
tary of  legation  to  Greece,  Rumania,  and  Ser- 
bia in  1901.  After  serving  in  the  legations  in 


many  capitals,  among  them  Buenos  Aires,  Rome, 
and  Havana,  he  was  secretary  of  the  embassy 
at  Madrid  (1916-18),  and  later  counselor  there 
end  charge"  d'affaires  at  Sofia  in  Bulgaria 
(1018-21).  He  was  named  Envoy  Extraor- 
dinary and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  Sofia 
in  October,  1921. 

WILSON,  EDWIN  BIDWELL  (1879-  ). 
An  American  mathematician,  born  in  Hartford, 
Conn.,  and  educated  at  Harvard,  and  Yale  Uni- 
versities, and  in  Paris.  He  became  instructor  in 
mathematics  at  Yale  in  1900  and  assistant  pro- 
fessor in  1906;  a  year  later  he  accepted  a  call 
to  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology, 
where  he  was  professor  of  mathematical  physics 
and  head  of  the  department  of  physics  in  1917- 
22.  Since  1922  he  has  been  professor  of  vital 
statistics  at  the  Harvard  School  of  Public 
Health.  His  original  investigations  include 
studies  of  vector  analysis,  multiple  algebra, 
geometry,  mechanics,  and  relativity.  His  pub- 
lications include  Gibbs  Vector  Analysis  (1910), 
Advanced  Calculus  (1912),  and  Aeronautics, 
Lowell  lectures  (1920). 

WILSON,  SIB  HENRY  HUGHES  (1864-1922). 
A  British  field  marshal,  born  in  Ireland.  He 
joined  the  army  in  1884  and  served  in  Burma 
and  South  Africa.  Promoted  to  the  rank  of 
colonel  in  1904,  he  later  became  commandant  of 
the  staff  college.  In  1910  he  was  appointed  di- 
rector of  military  operations  and  in  1914  deputy 
chief  of  the  general  staff  and  liaison  officer 
between  the  French  and  British  forces.  He 
commanded  the  4th  Army  Corps  in  1915  and 
in  1917  went  to  Russia  at  the  head  of  a  military 
mission.  At  Versailles  he  served  as  British 
military  representative  on  the  new  Supreme 
War  Council  In  February,  1918,  he  became 
chief  of  the  Imperial  General  Staff.  He  be- 
came a  general  and  finally  a  field  marshal,  but 
in  December,  1921,  he  resigned  from  the  War 
Office  and  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Northern 
Irish  Parliament  in  Ulster. 

WILSON,  (THOMAS)  WOODROW  (1856-1924). 
The  twenty-eighth  President  of  the  United  States 
(see  VOL.  XXIII).  The  first  two  years  of  Presi- 
dent Wilson's  administration  were  marked  by 
noteworthy  achievements;  the  reduction  of  the 
tariff,  the  establishment  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
Bank  System  (1913),  the  Clayton  Antitrust  Act 
and  the  Federal  Trade  Commission  (1914),  were 
in  large  part  due  to  his  personal  leadership  of 
the  Democratic  party.  The  "new  freedom  '  of 
domestic  policy  was  marked  by  the  keynotes  of 
democracy  and  justice  in  foreign  affairs.  He 
withdrew  from  the  Chinese  financial  consortium, 
deprecated  economic  imperialism  and  territorial 
aggrandizement  in  Latin  America,  tried  to  make 
amends  to  Colombia  for  the  Panama  Canal  seiz- 
ure, and  pursued  his  course  of  "watchful  wait- 
ing" with  respect  to  Mexico,  intervening  only 
reluctantly  when  popular  opinion  demanded  bold 
action  to  satisfy  the  outraged  national  honor. 
The  outbreak  of  the  War  elicited  from  him  an 
appeal  to  his  fellow-countrymen  to  "be  impartial 
in  thought  as  well  as  in  action."  From  the  be- 
ginning, he  believed  it  would  be  the  mission  of 
the  United  States  to  step  forward,  at  the  proper 
moment,  as  disinterested  peace-maker.  At  times 
this  hope  was  imperilled;  the  Lusitania  and 
Sussex  notes  brought  the  United  States  to  the 
verge  of  a  break  with  Germany.  But  he  could 
go  to  the  country,  in  the  election  of  1916,  on  the 
issue  that  *'he  kept  us  out  of  war,"  and  his  re- 
election in  November,  1916,  by  a  popular  plural- 


WILSON  BAH 


X474 


WISCONSIN 


ity  of  nearly  000,000,  seemed  to  express  the  na- 
tion's approval  of  his  course. 

The  events  of  1917  clearly  indicated  that  the 
lot  of  the  United  States  could  not  remain  that 
of  a  disinterested  spectator.  Germany's  an- 
nounced policy  of  unrestricted  submarine  war- 
fare, the  failure  of  her  leaders  to  realize  that 
President  Wilson's  severance  of  diplomatic  re- 
lations threatened  war,  the  continuance  of  sub- 
marine outrages,  compelled  him  to  ask  Congress 
on  Apr.  2,  1917,  for  a  war  declaration.  Only 
then  did  he  give  full  utterance  to  his  belief  that 
German  autocracy  must  be  crushed  and  the 
uorld  "made  safe  for  democracy."  The  War 
was  prosecuted  to  the  fullest  extent  of  American 
resources.  The  United  States  under  President 
Wilson  gained  a  material  leadership  first  and 
then  a  spiritual  one.  Wilson's  historic  "Four- 
teen Points"  speech  of  Jan.  8,  1018,  and  his  ad- 
dress of  Sept.  27,  1918,  promising  justice  even 
to  "those  to  whom  we  do  not  wish  to  be  just," 
won  him  so  commanding  a  position  as  spokes- 
man of  the  Allies  that  to  him  Germany's  peace 
overtures  were  directed.  The  calling  of  the 
Peace  Conference  found  him  ready  to  attend  in 
person,  and  the  extraordinary  enthusiasm  with 
which  the  peoples  of  Europe  greeted  him,  as  the 
prophet  of  justice  and  the  hope  of  the  world, 
convinced  him  of  the  wisdom  of  his  decision. 
The  story  of  his  courageous  fight  for  a  just 
peace  and  a  League  of  Nations,  of  his  departure 
for  the  United  States  in  February,  1919,  with 
the  draft  of  the  covenant,  of  his  return  to  Paris 
in  March,  his  conflicts  with  the  Italians  regard- 
ing Fiume,  with  the  French  concerning  the 
Rhine,  and  the  Japanese  regarding  Shantung, 
and  his  voyage  home  at  the  end  of  June  with  the 
completed  Peare  Treaty,  is  told  in  the  article 
PEACE  CONFERENCE  AND  TREATIES.  The  making 
of  the  peace  had  estranged  him  from  Colonel 
House  and  Secretary  Lansing;  the  opposition  of 
the  Republican  Senate  to  the  Treaty  strength- 
ened his  resolve  to  make  plain  to  the  country 
the  nature  of  his  achievement.  On  Sept.  3, 

1919,  he  began  his  coast -to-coast  tour,  but  the 
great  strain  placed  on  him  compelled  him  to  re- 
tire to  Washington,  a  very  sick  man.     The  dis- 
appointment of  the  rejection  of  the  Treaty  by 
the  Senate  in  March,   1920,  was  tempered   for 
him  somewhat  by  knowledge  of  the  instrument's 
ratification  by  the  European  powers  and  the  es- 
tablishment  of   the   League   itself    in   January, 

1920.  The  last  blow  showed  him  how  unsym- 
pathetic   public   opinion    was:    the   presidential 
elections  of  November,   1920,  to  which   ho  had 
looked  for  a  "solemn  referendum"  on  the  League, 
gave  an  overwhelming  majority  to  tho  Republi- 
can candidate,  Warren  O.  Harding,  who  opposed 
the  League. 

On  Mar.  4,  1921,  he  retired  to  private  life  and 
continued  his  residence  in  Washington.  He  lived 
to  see  the  League  of  Nations  firmly  established, 
and  he  continued  to  deplore  America's  "sullen 
and  selfish  isolation"  (speech  of  Nov.  11,  1923). 
He  died  on  Feb.  3,  1924.  He  WEB  survived  by 
three  daughters,  Miss  Margaret  Wilson,  Mrs. 
Francis  B.  Sayre,  and  Mrs.  William  G.  McAdoo, 
children  of  his  first  marriage,  and  by  his  second 
wife,  the  former  Mrs.  Edith  Boiling  Qalt,  whom 
he  had  married  on  Dec.  18,  1915.  See  WAR, 
DIPLOMACY  OF  THE;  UNITED  STATES,  History. 

WILSON  DAM.     See  DAMS. 

WINDS.    See  METEOROLOGY. 

WINDWABD  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  is- 
lands in  the  British  West  Indies,  consisting  of 


Grenada,  St.  Vincent,  the  Grenadines  (half  un- 
der St,  Vincent  and  half  under  Grenada),  and 
St  Lucia.  These  constitute  three  separate  colo- 
nies but  are  administered  by  a  single  governor 
Total  area,  524  squaie  miles;  total  population 
in  1911,  157,204;  in  1921,  170,581.  Tho  leading 
products  were  cocoa,  lime  juice,  sugar,  turn, 
cotton.  Commercial  and  financial  statistics  for 
1921  follow  (1913  figures  in  parentheses):  im- 
ports, £020,761  (£094,219);  exports,  £011,107 
(£750,809);  revenue,  £225914  (£193,121);  ex- 
penditure,  £290,118  (£192,353);  public  debt, 
£391,350. 

WINTER,  GEOBO  (1850-  ).  A  German 
gynecologist  and  obstetrician,  distinguished  for 
his  efforts  in  the  prevention  of  cancer  and  the 
falling  birth  rate.  Born  in  lioatock,  he  received 
his  medical  education  at  the  University  of  Heid- 
elberg, and  in  1897  was  made  professor  of  ob- 
stetrics and  diseases  of  women  in  the  University 
of  Konigsberg  and  director  of  the  female  clinic-. 
In  1890,  in  collaboration  with  Mge,  he  pub- 
lished his  important  work,  Lehrbuch  der  Uynu- 
kologische  Diagnostik,  which  was  tianslated 
into  Russian  and  English.  His  small  work,  Die 
Bekumpfung  des  Uteruskrels,  appeared  in  1904. 
His  prolonged  study  of  the  subject  of  falling 
birth  rates  led  to  the  publication  of  two  com- 
panion books,  Die  Jndikationen  ztir  Kuntttlichen 
Untcrbrechvng  der  Sohwnngerschaft  (1918)  and 
Die  Indikationen  zur  Kunsthchen  Sterilisation 
der  Frau  (1920).  In  1922  a  Festschrift  volume 
was  publ  tailed. 

WINTER  GBIPPE.     See  INFLUENZA. 

WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY.  See  RADIO 
TELEGRAPHY. 

WIRELESS  TELEPHONY.  See  RADIO 
TELEPHONY. 

WIRTH,  KABL  JOSEPH  (1879-  ).  A  Ger- 
man statesman,  born  in  Baden,  and  educated 
at  the  University  of  Freiburg.  He  became  a 
teacher  of  economies  at  the  Technical  College 
in  Freiburg  in  1908.  AH  a  member  of  the 
Catholic  Centre  party  he  sat  in  the  Diet  of 
Baden  in  1913  and  was  appointed  Minister  of 
Finance  in  1918.  He  was  elected  to  the  Con- 
stituent AsRembly  by  the  Reich  at  Weimar 
in  1919  and  received  the  portfolio  of  finance 
in  March,  1920.  When  the  ultimatum  on  repa- 
rations was  presented  by  the  Allies  in  May, 
1921,  Dr.  W7irth  was  asked  to  form  a  new 
cabinet.  He  secured  the  cooperation  of  Demo- 
crats, Catholics,  and  Socialists.  The  new  min- 
istry then  accepted  the  Allies'  reparation  terms, 
and  by  Aug.  31,  1921,  the  first  half-yearly  in- 
stalment had  been  paid.  Dr.  Wirth  stood  his 
ground  solidly  against  various  attempts  to 
overturn  the  German  "Republic  but  it  did  not 
conceal  his  fear  that  the  partition  of  Upper 
Silesia  would  render  it  impossible  for  Germany 
to  fulfill  her  obligations. 

WISCONSIN.  Wisconsin  is  the  twenty- 
fifth  State  in  size  (56,066  square  miles),  and 
the  thirteenth  in  population;  capital,  Madison. 
The  population  was  2,333,800  in  1910  and  2,- 
632,067  in  1920,  an  increase  of  12.8  per  cent. 
The  white  population  increased  from  2,320,555 
to  2,616,938;  negro,  from  2900  to  5201;  native 
white,  from  1,807,986  to  2,156,810.  The  foreign- 
born  white  population,  on  the  other  hand,  de- 
creased from  512,569  to  460,128.  Both  urban 
and  rural  populations  mounted,  the  former  from 
1,004,320  to  1,244,568;  the  latter  from  1,329,540 
to  1,387,499.  The  growth  of  the  principal  cities 
was  as  follows:  Milwaukee  (q.v.),  1910,  373,- 


COPYRIGHT     BY    HARRIS    &     CWINQ 


WOODROW   WILSON 


WISCONSIN 


1475 


857,  1020,  457,147;  Racine,  38,002  to  58,503; 
Kenosha,  21,371  to  40,472.  Superior's  popula- 
tion in  1010  was  40,384;  in  1020,  30,071  (a  de- 
crease). 

Agriculture.  As  Wisconsin  is  one  of  the 
important  grain-growing  States,  agricultural 
conditions  in  the  decade  1010-20  were  affected 
largely  by  the  fluctuations  in  price  and  produc- 
tion of  grain  products  during  the  war  and 
post-war  periods.  This  general  situation  is  dis- 
cussed fully  in  the  article  AGRICULTURE  and  in 
the  articles  on  various  grains,  WHEAT,  COBN, 
and  others.  While  the  population  of  the  State 
increased  12.8  per  cent  in  the  decade,  the  number 
of  farms  increased  6.0  per  cent  (from  177,127  in 
1910  to  189,295  in  1920)  ;  the  total  area  of  land 
in  farms  increased  5.2  per  cent  (from  21,060,066 
to  22,148,223  acres)  ;  the  improved  land  in  farms, 
4.0  per  cent  (from  11,907,606  acres  to  12,452,- 
216).  TUe  percentage  of  the  total  area  in  farms 
increased  from  59.6  per  cent  in  1910  to  62.6  in 
1020;  the  proportion  of  improved  land  to  the 
total  area  from  33.7  to  35.2.  The  total  value  of 
farm  property  showed  an  apparent  increase  of 
89.5  per  cent,  from  $1,413,118,785  to  $2,677,282,- 
997,  the  average  value  per  farm,  from  $7978  to 
$14,143.  In  interpreting  these  values,  however, 
and,  indeed,  all  comparative  values  in  the  decade 
1914-24,  the  inflation  of  the  currency  in  the 
latter  part  of  that  period  is  to  be  taken  into 
consideration.  The  index  number  of  prices  paid 
to  producers  of  farm  products  in  the  United 
States  was  104  in  1910  and  216  in  1920.  Of 
the  total  of  189,295  farms  in  1920,  159,610  were 
operated  by  owners,  2427  by  managers,  and  27,- 
258  by  tenants.  The  comparative  figures  for 
1910  were  151,022,  1451,  and  24,654.  White 
farmers  in  1020  numbered  188,632;  colored  farm- 
ers, 663.  In  1910  white  fanners  numbered  176,- 
530,  colored,  591.  The  number  of  farms  free 
from  mortgage  in  1920  was  57,773;  under  mort- 
gage, 94,258.  In  1910  farms  free  from  mort- 
gage numbered  72,941;  mortgaged,  77,129.  The 
total  number  of  cattle  in  1920  was  3,050,829 
(2,763,483  dairy  cattle);  in  1910,  2,680,074 
(dairy  cattle,  1,473,505).  This  reflects  the  large 
growth  of  the  dairy  industry,  which  has  made 
Wisconsin  the  leading  dairy  State.  Sheep  in 
1920  numtered  479,991,  compared  with  929,783 
in  1910;  hogs,  1,596,419,  compared  with  1,809,- 
331.  The  estimated  production  of  the  principal 
farm  crops  in  1923  was  as  follows:  corn,  90,- 
326,000  bushels;  spring  wheat,  928,000;  winter 
wheat,  1,122,000;  oats,  93,574,000;  barley,  13,- 
484,000;  rye,  5,062,000;  potatoes,  27,287,000; 
hay,  3,926,000  tons;  tobacco,  48,092,000  pounds; 
and  sugar  beets,  129,000  short  tons.  Compara- 
tive figures  for  1913  are:  corn,  66,825,000  bush- 
els; wheat,  3,065,000;  oats,  83,038,000;  barley, 
18,125,000;  rye,  7,438,000;  potatoes,  32,155,000; 
hay,  3,848,000  tons;  and  tobacco,  50,740,000 
pounds. 

Iffining.  Wisconsin  is  not  among  the  States 
most  important  in  mineral  production.  Its 
chief  minerals  in  the  order  of  their  value  are 
stone,  sand  and  gravel,  mineral  waters,  and 
lime.  Iron  ore  also  is  produced.  The  iron 
shipped  from  mines  in  1914  was  591,505  long 
tons,  valued  at  $1,178,610;  1916,  1,529,459,  $3,- 
644,542;  1918,  1,167,640,  $3,706,408;  1020,  1,- 
067,159,  $4,333,307;  1921,  117,755,  $300,954;  and 
1922,  794,673,  $2,455,660.  The  value  of  clay 
products  is  about  $1,000,000  annually.  The 
total  value  of  the  mineral  production  in  1021 
was  $9,990,961,  compared  with  $10,630,114  in 


1020;  $18,772,601  in  1910;  $20,001,146  in  1018; 
and  $11,140,365  in  1014. 

Manufactures.  Wisconsin  is  an  important 
industrial  State  and  its  development  was  steady 
after  1000.  In  1020  it  had  21  cities  with  more 
than  10,000  inhabitants.  These  contained  36.6 
per  cent  of  the  total  population  and  in  1910  re- 
ported 63.9  per  cent  of  the  State's  manufactured 
products.  There  were  in  the  State,  in  1000, 
0721  manufacturing  establishments;  1914,  0104; 
and  1919,  10,393.  Persons  engaged  in  manu- 
facture numbered  213,426,  230,273,  and  317,- 
800;  and  the  capital  invested  amounted  to  $605,- 
657,324,  $754,287,116,  and  $1,361,729,196,  in 
those  years.  The  Value  of  products  in  1909  was 
$590,305,538;  1914,  $095,172,002;  and  1919,  $1,- 
846,984,307.  The  large  increase  in  value  of 
products  from  1914  to  1919  was,  however,  in 
great  measure  due  to  changes  in  industrial  con- 
ditions brought  about  by  the  WTar  and  cannot 
properly  be  used  to  measure  the  expansion  of 
manufactures  during  the  period;  but  the  in- 
crease in  the  average  number  of  persons  em- 
ployed and  in  the  number  of  establishments 
clearljr  indicates  a  derided  growth  in  the  manu- 
facturing activities  of  the  State.  The  principal 
industry  in  point  of  value  of  products  is  the 
manufacture  of  automobiles  and  parts.  The 
value  of  these,  in  1909,  was  $11,440,000;  1914, 
$18,478,000;  and  1919,  $119  181,000.  Slaughter- 
ing and  meat  packing  ranks  second  in  value, 
with  $27,217,000  in  1900;  $34,098,000  in  1914; 
and  $106,207,000  in  1919.  The  leather  indus- 
tries, third  in  this  respect,  in  1909  had  a  prod- 
uct valued  at  $44,668,000;  1914,  $42,204,000: 
and  1919,  $94,762.000.  The  chief  manufacturing 
cities  are  Milwaukee,  Racine,  and  Kenoaha. 
There  were  in  Milwaukee,  in  1909,  1764  manu- 
facturing establishments,  with  a  product  valued 
at  $208,324,000;  1914,  1728  with  $223,555,000; 
and  1919,  2093  with  $376,161,000.  Racine  had, 
in  1909,  142  establishments,  with  a  product 
valued  at  $24,673,000;  1914,  189  with  $43,632,- 
000;  and  1919,  230  with  $120,027,000.  Similar 
figures  for  Kenosha  are:  in  1909,  62  with  $23,- 
182,000;  1914,  75  with  $28,341,000;  and  1919, 
84  with  $103,726,000.  Other  important  manu- 
facturing cities  are  Green  Bay,  Beloit,  La  Crosse, 
Sheboygan,  Superior,  and  Appleton. 

Education.  Education  in  Wisconsin  has  al- 
ways been  maintained  at  a  high  degree  of  ex- 
cellence, and  great  progress  was  made  in  the 
decade  1014-24.  Special  attention  was  given 
to  improvement  in  the  administration  of  ele- 
mentary schools.  Results  are  shown  by  the 
fact  that  while  49  out  of  every  100  pupils 
finished  the  eighth  grade  in  1914-16,  60  out  of 
every  100  finished  in  1918-20.  This  increase, 
indicating  an  upward  trend  in  the  holding  pow- 
er of  the  elementary  school  in  the  State,  may 
be  attributed  in  part  to  an  awakened  interest 
in  education  on  the  part  of  parents,  to  the  en- 
forcement of  the  compulsory  education  law,  and 
to  changes  gradually  taking  place  in  the  school 
organization.  Special  attention  was  also  given 
during  the  period  to  the  increased  efficiency  of 
the  high  schools.  There  are  in  the  State  four 
types  of  secondary  schools,  the  State  graded 
schools,  four-year  high  schools,  junior  high 
schools,  and  senior  high  schools.  The  number 
of  high  schools  in  the  State  increased  from  318 
in  1913  to  407  in  1920.  State  supervision  of 
the  public  high  schools  was  in  charge  of  five 
supervisors;  the  primary  purpose  of  such 
supervision  was  to  assist  local  school  authorities 


WISCONSIN 


1476 


WODEHOU8E 


and  teachers  in  the  improvement  of  their  schools. 
The  junior  high  school  law,  enacted  in  1010, 
provided  for  the  establishment  of  such  schools 
under  the  required  conditions.  The  State 
graded  schools,  created  by  a  legislative  act  in 
1001,  had  been  a  feature  of  the  Wisconsin  edu- 
cational system  for  20  years.  In  1021-22  there 
were  226  State  graded  schools  of  the  first  class, 
which  means  schools  of  three  or  more  depart- 
ments; and  352  graded  schools  of  the  second 
class,  each  of  two  departments.  Every  county 
contained  at  least  one  graded  school.  Voca- 
tional work  had  been  carried  on  since  1013, 
when  the  Legislature  gave  high  schools  special 
financial  aid  to  further  the  introduction  and 
maintenance  of  certain  so-called  "vocational 
training  courses,"  including  courses  in  manual 
training,  domestic  science,  agriculture,  and 
commercial  science;  the  system  was  being  de- 
veloped to  a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  The  total 
enrollment  in  the  schools  in  1021-22  was  408,- 
308;  with  283,880  in  the  country  schools  and 
214,500  in  city  schools.  The  enrollment  in  rural 
schools  was  26,465  and  in  city  high  schools  46,- 
608.  The  public  school  enrollment  in  1023  was 
506,071,  compared  with  440,103  in  1014.  Total 
disbursements  for  educational  purposes  in  1021- 
22  were  $23,182,162.  The  percentage  of  illiter- 
acy in  the  State  decreased  from  4.2  in  1010  to 
3.2  in  1020:  in  the  native  white  population, 
from  0.0  to  0.6;  in  the  foreign-born  white,  from 
8.0  to  8.8;  and  in  the  negro,  from  5.3  to  4.8. 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  During  the 
decade  1014-24,  Senator  La  Follette  remained 
the  conspicuous  Republican  leader  of  the  State, 
lie  was,  however,  opposed  with  success  both 
by  Governor  Philipp,  who  was  three  times 
elected  during  the  decade,  and  by  Senator  Len- 
root,  who  was  twice  elected  to  the  Senate. 
The  formation  by  Senator  La  Follette  of 
a  new  party  in  1024  practically  removed 
him  from  the  Republican  party  in  the 
State.  In  the  elections  held  in  1014  for 
governor,  other  State  officers,  United  States 
Senator,  and  Congressmen,  the  Republican  can- 
didate for  governor,  E.  L.  Philipp,  was  elected, 
vshile  the  Democrats  elected  their  candidate, 
Paul  O.  Husting,  as  Senator.  Senator  La  Fol- 
lette was  reflected  in  1016,  and  so  was  Gov- 
einor  Philipp,  together  with  all  the  Republican 
State  candidates  for  office.  In  the  presidential 
Anting  of  this  year,  Charles  E.  Hughes  received 
221,323  votes;  President  Wilson,  103,042.  The 
stand  taken  by  Senator  La  Follette  on  govern- 
ment war  measures  aroused  bitter  feeling  in 
the  State  in  1017,  and  a  movement  was  begun 
to  have  him  expelled  from  the  Senate.  No 
action  was  taken.  Senator  Husting  was  ac- 
c*idently  killed  while  hunting,  in  1017,  and  in 
1018  Irvine  L.  Lenroot  was  chosen  to  succeed 
him.  Governor  Philipp  was  reflected  in  1018. 
In  1020  the  Republicans  elected  their  candidate 
for  governor,  John  J.  Blaine.  Irvine  L.  Lenroot 
was  reflected  to  the  Senate.  In  the  presidential 
voting  of  this  year,  W.  G.  Harding  received 
408,576  votes;  J.  M.  Cox,  113,422.  Governor 
Blaine  was  reflected  in  1022.  Senator  La  Fol- 
lette was  also  reflected.  The  Democratic  can- 
didate for  the  Senate  at  this  election  was  a 
woman,  Mrs.  Ben  C.  Hooper.  The  presidential 
primary  elections  were  held  in  May,  1024.  The 
Republican  majority  was  given  to  Senator  La 
Follette  and  the  Democratic  to  Gov.  Alfred  E. 
Smith  of  New  York. 


Legislation.  The  eugenic  marriage  law 
passed  by  the  Legislature  in  1013  was  upheld 
by  the  Supreme  Court  in  1014.  The  Legislature 
of  1015  defeated  measures  providing  for  the 
submission  of  a  \\oman  suffrage  amendment  to 
the  people.  In  1017  the  laws  relating  to  crim- 
inal procedure  were  amended,  and  provision  was 
made  for  absentee  voting.  The  banking  and  in- 
surance laws  of  the  State  were  also  amended. 
Two  sessions  of  the  Legislature  were  held  in 
1010.  A  special  session  was  called,  chiefly  for 
the  purpose  of  passing  the  soldiers'  bonus  law. 
This  provided  for  a  payment  of  $10  a  month  for 
each  month  of  service.  The  act  was  submitted 
to  the  people  at  a  special  election  and  was 
adopted.  The  labor  laws  were  amended,  and  a 
State  Board  of  Conciliation  was  created.  The 
Legislature  of  1021  provided  for  a  juvenile  de- 
partment for  the  care  of  dependent,  defective, 
and  delinquent  children.  The  school  laws  were 
also  amended  in  other  particulars,  and  equal 
rights  were  given  to  women  in  respect  to  suf- 
frage, jury  service,  holding  office,  and  the  care 
and  custody  of  Children.  In  1023  the  Legisla- 
ture made  the  sale  of  narcotics  a  felony  and  the 
possession  of  drugs  illegally  obtained  a  crime. 
The  labor  laws  \\ere  amended  by  extending  a 
measure  limiting  in  junctions  to  labor  disputes, 
to  apply  to  any  dispute  whatsoever  concerning 
employment. 

WISCONSIN,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A  coeduca- 
tional State  institution  at  Madison,  Wis., 
founded  in  1848.  The  student  enrollment  in- 
creased from  4874  in  the  fall  of  1014  to  7G32 
in  the  fall  of  1023,  and  from  2500  in  the  summer 
of  1014  to  4710  in  1023.  In  the  same  period 
the  teaching  faculty  was  inci eased  from  6!)4  to 
878  and  the  library  from  483,000  volumes  to 
667,000  bound  volumes  and  304,000  pamphlets. 
The  income  in  1014  was  $2,758,118;  in  1023, 
$5,905,608.  A  physics  building  was  constructed 
in  1016,  and  the  student  infirmary  and  Bradley 
Memorial  Hospital  were  built  in  1020.  In  1021 
work  was  begun  on  the  Wisconsin  State  Hos- 
pital, for  which  the  Legislature  appropriated 
$1,350,000.  A  new  degree  of  Ph  B.  was  estab- 
lished in  1018,  with  stress  on  scientific  and 
without  foreign  language  requirements.  In  101 7- 
18  a  standing  university  research  committee  was 
formed  to  cooperate  with  the  National  Research 
Council.  Charles  R.  Van  Hise,  Ph.D.,  the  presi- 
dent, died  in  1018,  and  was  succeeded  in  office 
by  Edward  A.  Birge,  Ph.D.,  Sc.D. 

WISSLER,  CLARK  (1870-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can anthropologist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  His  most 
recent  works  are:  Riding  Gear  of  the  'North 
American  Indian  (1014);  Costumes  of  the 
Plains  Indiana  (1014)  ;  Harpoons  and  DartK  of 
the  8tefansson  Collection  (1016);  General  Dis- 
cussion of  the  Shamanistic  and  Dancing  Societies 
(1016);  The  Sun  Dance  of  the  Blaclcfoot  In- 
dian (1017);  The  American  Indian  (1017); 
Archaeology  of  the  Arctic  Eskimo  (1018);  In- 
dian Bead  Work  (1010);  The  American  In- 
dian: An  Introduction  to  the  Anthropology  of 
the  New  "World  (1022);  Man  and  Culture 
(1023). 

WODEHOUSE,  PELIIAM  GRENVILLE  (1881- 
).  An  American  author,  born  at  Guildford, 
England,  and  educated  at  Dulwich  College.  Ho 
began  his  career  as  a  writer  of  a  humorous 
column  in  the  London  Glove^.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1000.  His  publications  in- 
clude: The  Prince  and  Betty  (1011);  The 
Little  Nugget  (1013);  Uneasy  Money  (1016); 


WOBVBE  PLAINS 


X477 


WOMAN  SUM-BAGE 


Piccadilly  Jim  (1017) ;  The  Damsel  in  Distress 
(1010) ;  Their  Mutual  Child  (1910) ;  The  Little 
Warrior  (1920);  Indiscretions  of  Archie 
(1921) ;  Three  Men  and  a  Maid  (1022)  ;  Jeeves 
(1923);  Leave  it  to  P smith  (1924).  He  has 
also  written  many  musical  comedy  lyrics  and 
has  collaborated  in  several  plays,  among  the 
best  known  being  Kissing  Time,  The  Golden 
Moth  (1921),  The  Cabaret  Girl  (1922),  and 
the  Princess  Theatre  musical  comedy  series  with 
Guy  Bolton  and  Jerome  Kern. 

WOEVBE  PLAINS.  See  WAR  IN  EUROPE, 
Western  Front. 

WOJXECHOWSKI,  STANISLAS  (1869-  ). 
A  president  of  Poland.  Exiled  as  a  young  man 
for  protesting  against  Kusnian  oppression,  he 
went  to  Geneva,  Paris,  and  London.  When  ho 
returned  to  Poland  in  1904,  he  definitely  broke 
with  international  socialism  and  threw  all  his 
efforts  into  the  cooperative  movement.  When 
the  War  began,  he  made  a  trip  through  Poland 
to  urge  a  united  stand  against  Germany.  Driv- 
en from  Warsaw  by  the  Austro-German  invasion, 
he  helped  form  the  Polish  legion  in  France.  In 
1919  he  returned  to  Poland  and  was  made  secre- 
tary of  state  under  Paderewski.  On  Dec.  22, 
1922,  he  was  elected  president  of  Poland. 

WOLCOTT,  JOSIATI  OLIVKR  (1877-  ). 
An  American  jurist  and  legislator,  born  at 
Dover,  Del.,  and  educated  at  Wesleyan  Univer- 
sity. In  1904  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He 
served  successively  as  Deputy  Attorney  General 
of  Newcastle  County  and  as  Attorney  General  of 
the  State.  In  1917  he  was  elected  to  the  Unit- 
ed States  Senate  but  resigned  in  1921  to  accept 
the  appointment  of  Chancellor  of  Delaware. 

WOLFF,  ALBERT  (1884-  ).  A  French 
conductor  and  composer,  born  at  Paris.  In 
18!)8  he  entered  the  Conservatoire,  where  his 
teachers  were  Leroux,  Vidal,  and  Ge"dalge.  He 
be^un  his  career  as  organist  at  St.  Thomas 
d'Aquin  (1907-11).  In  1911  he  was  appointed 
second  conductor  at  the  Opera  Coniique  and  of 
the  Concerts  Rouges  and  in  the  following  year 
also  conducted  the  orchestra  of  the  Cercle  In- 
teinationale  at  Vichy.  Until  the  outbreak  of 
the  War  he  appeared  as  guest  conductor  in  sev- 
eral cities  of  France  and  in  Buenos  Aires.  Dur- 
ing the  War  he  served  in  the  French  army. 
After  the  Armistice  he  returned  to  his  post  at 
the  Opera  Comique.  From  1910  to  192,3  he  was 
conductor  of  the  French  repertoire  at  the  Metro- 
politan Opera  House,  from  which  he  resigned 
because  of  the  demands  made  on  his  time  by 
his  duties  at  the  Opera  Comique,  where,  in 
1920,  he  had  been  appointed  Messager's  suc- 
cessor as  first  conductor  and  general  musical 
director,  lie  wrote  the  operas  Le  Alarchand  dc 
Mawjucs  (Nice,  1904),  VQvseau  Bleu  (New  York, 
1919),  and  Recur  Beatrice  (not  produced);  a 
ballet,  Kihdja;  a  symphonic  poem;  and  a  violin 
sonata. 

WOMAN'S  BELIEF  COUPS,  NATIONAL. 
An  auxiliary  to  the  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic. 
During  the  War  the  Corps  did  efficient  service. 
It  was  estimated  that  150,000  members  were  af- 
filiated with  the  American  Ked  Cross  in  1918. 
During  that  year  13  ambulances  were  pur- 
chased, equipped  and  sent  to  France,  and  35  beds 
and  all  their  furnishings  were  given  to  the  Unit- 
ed States  government  for  use  in  reconstruc- 
tion hospitals.  It  was  voted  at  the  national 
convention  to  raise  a  war  work  fund  of  not  less 
than  $50,000,  to  be  used  exclusively  in  war  re- 
lief. This  work  still  continues.  During  the 


year  1023-24  over  $62,000  was  spent  in  patriotic 
work  and  additional  sump  in  war  relief  and  for 
other  purposes.  In  1920  was  inaugurated  the 
ceremony  at  naturalization  proceedings  of  pin- 
ning on  the  lapel  of  the  coat  of  the  newly  cre- 
ated citizen  a  small  American  flag  and  of  pre- 
senting him  with  a  somewhat  larger  flag  for  his 
home.  Committees  on  Americanization  and 
child  welfare  and  thrift  were  established  in 
1920-21.  The  convention  of  1924  was  held  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  and  was  attended  by  593  dele- 
gates. The  reports  of  the  committees  indicated 
active  work  throughout  the  year.  The  conven- 
tion held  in  Boston  in  1924  was  the  largest  in 
the  history  of  the  Corps.  In  1924  the  Corps 
included  36  departments  and  3  provisional  de- 
partments, with  a  total  membership  of  nearly 
200,000.  Since  its  foundation,  it  expended  a 
total  of  more  than  $6,600,000  for  relief  purposes. 
The  president  for  1924-25  was  Mrs.  Grace  B. 
Willard. 

WOMAN  SUFFRAGE.  In  almost  no  other 
movement  was  the  influence  of  the  War  so  de- 
cisively effective  as  in  the  struggle  for  woman 
suffrage.  There  was  a  striking  advance  be- 
tween 1914,  when  the  political  franchise  was 
exercised  by  women  in  only  four  countries,  and 
1918,  when  full  suffrage  had  been  granted  them 
in  Austria,  Canada,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Denmark, 
Finland,  Germany,  Holland,  Hungary,  Iceland, 
Ireland,  Norway,  Poland,  Serbia,  Sweden,  and 
the  United  Kingdom.  In  general,  the  new  coun- 
tries created  by  the  War  incorporated  woman 
suffrage  in  their  constitutions,  as  in  Palestine 
and  the  Ukraine  and  the  Baltic  states.  In  the 
covenant  of  the  League  of  Nations  there  was  a 
clause,  by  no  means  a  dead  letter,  making  wom- 
en eligible  for  all  appointments  under  it.  By 
1922  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  138,000,- 
000  enfranchised  women  in  the  world.  Practical- 
ly every  European  country,  with  the  exception 
of  Portugal,  Greece,  Turkey,  and  notably 
France,  Italy,  and  Spain,  had  established  the 
principle,  in  1924.  There  was  full  suffrage  in 
all  the  larger  self-governing  British  dominions, 
with  the  exception  of  South  Africa.  In  India 
the  question  had  been  considered  and  left  with 
the  provinces.  Women  were  voting  in  one  of 
the  provinces  of  China.  In  Spain  the  move- 
ment, after  1918,  took  on  new  impetus;  Egyp- 
tian women  were  active  politically  in  the  strug- 
gle with  Great  Britain;  the  idea  was  growing 
in  Japan.  There  had  been  a  sudden  and  sweep- 
ing triumph  of  the  principle  of  full  political 
equality  between  1914  and  1924,  which,  while 
due  in  some  countries  to  the  general  advance  of 
all  democratic  movements,  was  the  outcome 
chiefly  of  the  part  played  by  women  in  the  war- 
time emergency,  and  the  realization  of  their 
importance  as  an  economic  factor,  then,  for  the 
first  time. 

United  States.  Although  presumably  the 
first  expression  of  the  desire  of  women  for  the 
franchise  was  made  in  the  United  States,  this 
country  was  among  the  last  to  grant  woman 
suffrage,  in  1920,  after  70  years'  agitation 
The  campaign  for  the  ballot  for  women  had 
latterly  been  carried  on  along  two  linear  one 
aiming  to  secure  State  action,  the  other  to  put 
through  a  Federal  amendment.  By  1914,  full 
suffrage  had  been  granted  by  12  States  and  Ter- 
ritories: Wyoming,  1869;  Colorado,  1893;  Utah 
and  Idaho,  1896;  Washington,  1910;  Califor- 
nia, 1911;  Arizona,  Kansas,  and  Oregon,  1912; 
Alaska,  1913;  Montana  and  Nevada,  1914.  In 


WOMAN  STTFFBAOE 


1478 


WOMAN  SUFFRAGE 


1015,  it  was  estimated  that  about  4,000,000 
women  in  the  United  States  were  eligible  to 
vote.  By  1920,  at  the  time  the  Federal  amend- 
ment passed,  full  suffrage  had  already  been 
won  in  15  States  (New  York,  1917;  Michigan, 
Oklahoma,  and  South  Dakota,  1918),  presiden- 
tial suffrage  in  13,  the  vote  in  primary  elections 
in  2,  and  municipal  suffrage  in  a  few  others. 
The  effort  to  secure  Federal  action  had  met  with 
lesn  encouragement  In  1913  a  national  woman 
suffrage  amendment  resolution  was  defeated  on 
the  ground  that  the  question  was  a  State,  not 
a  national,  issue.  This  was  followed  by  mass 
meetings  and  parades  in  protest,  petitions  to 
Congress,  delegations  to  the  President,  and 
a  nation-wide  demonstration.  The  movement 
made  evident  progress  in  the  next  few  years. 
Whereas  in  1912  Roosevelt  had  been  the  first 
important  presidential  candidate  to  support  it, 
by  1910  all  the  presidential  candidates  had  de- 
clared for  woman  suffrage,  although  the  Dem- 
ocratic party  did  not  favor  Federal  action  in 
the  matter.  In  1918,  the  same  Federal  amend- 
ment which,  in  substance,  had  been  12  times  be- 
fore Congress  since  1878  and  four  times  since 
1913,  came  within  two  votes  of  passage  by  the 
Senate;  but  even  President  Wilson's  plea  for 
it  as  a  war  measure  could  not  bring  about  the 
necessary  two-thirds  vote.  In  1919,  however, 
its  passage  was  finally  achieved;  by  March  22, 
1920,  35  States  had  ratified;  and  the  amend- 
ment, now  being  hastened  by  both  Republican 
and  Democratic  parties,  came  into  force,  witli 
the  ratification  of  Tennessee  in  August,  in  time 
for  women  to  take  part  in  the  presidential  elec- 
tion of  that  fall. 

The  results  of  this  extension  of  the  franchise 
up  to  1924  were  not  easily  to  be  estimated.  Aa 
a  rule  the  proportion  of  eligible  women  who 
voted  was  smaller  than  that  of  the  eligible  men. 
The  women's  vote  was  recognized  as  an  active 
menace  to  vice  and  liquor  interests;  it  was 
given  credit  in  large  measure  for  such  achieve- 
ments as  the  Fedeial  bill  giving  equal  rights 
of  citizenship  to  married  women;  and  its  in- 
fluence was  felt  in  the  increasing  volume  of 
welfare  legislation  throughout  the  States,  such 
as  mothers'  pension  and  child  lalwr  laws,  ille- 
gitimacy and  age  of  consent  measures,  prison 
reform  and  protection  of  women  in  industry. 
It  seemed  evident,  however,  that  little  effort 
was  being  made  to  exert  influence  directly 
through  women  legislators  or  administrators. 
Although  women  had  had  the  right  to  sit  in 
Congress  since  Wyoming  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  in  1890,  and  Jeannette  Rankin  had  been 
elected  to  that  body  from  Montana  in  1910,  up 
to  1924  no  other  women  had  been  seated,  with 
the  exception  of  two  who  were  elected  to  com- 
plete unexpired  terms,  and  Mrs.  Felton,  ap- 
pointed to  fill  an  unexpired  term  in  the  Senate 
and  holding  her  seat  for  only  a  few  hours.  In 
1923,  among  the  5000  or  6000  legislators  in  the 
40  State  Legislatures  which  were  in  session, 
there  were  only  76  women,  not  more  than  10  of 
them  senators.  A  few  women  were  finding  of- 
fice— in  the  Federal  Department  of  State,  one 
on  the  Ohio  supreme  bench,  in  the  "cabinet"  of 
the  Governor  of  Pennsylvania,  as  Assistant  At- 
torney General,  and  occasionally  in  municipal 
affairs;  but  for  the  most  part  their  activities 
were  confined  to  agitations  for  welfare  or  equal- 
ity laws  through  support  of  the  regular  party 
male  candidates  or  by  lobbying.  An  effort  in 
1921-22  to  establish  a  distinct  woman's  party 


was  without  success.  In  1924  women  partici- 
pated in  both  Republican  and  Democratic  na- 
tional conventions;  and  Mrs.  LeHoy  Springs  of 
South  Carolina  was  placed  in  nomination  for 
the  Democratic  candidacy  for  the  vice  presi- 
dency. A  conference  of  the  Woman's  party  was 
being  called  in  the  latter  year  to  launch  a  drive 
to  elect  more  women  to  Congress. 

The  question  of  equal  rights  had  lately 
achieved  prominence.  Taking  the  stand  that 
the  Nineteenth  Amendment,  while  granting  en- 
franchisement, did  not  grant  women  the  full 
civil  and  legal  equality  of  citizens,  such  as  that 
given  to  the  negro  in  the  Fourteenth  and  Fif- 
teenth Amendments,  the  National  Woman's  par- 
ty was  concentrating  its  efforts  on  an  equal 
rights  amendment  to  the  Federal  constitution 
and  was  meantime  working  for  blanket  equal 
rights  bills  before  State  Legislatures.  The 
equal  rights  law  passed  by  Wisconsin  in  1921 
illustrates  their  aim.  It  provides  that  "women 
shall  have  the  same  rights  and  privileges  under 
the  law  as  men,  in  the  exercise  of  suffrage,  free- 
dom of  contract,  choice  of  residence  for  voting 
purposes,  jury  service,  holding  office,  holding 
and  conveying  of  property,  care  and  custody  of 
children,  and  in  all  other  respects.  The  various 
courts,  executive  and  administrative  officers 
shall  construe  the  statutes  where  the  masculine 
gender  is  used  to  include  the  feminine  gender 
unless  such  construction  shall  deny  to  females 
the  special  protection  and  privileges  they  now 
enjoy  for  the  general  welfare."  The  National 
League  of  Women  Voters,  on  the  other  hand, 
was  opposed  to  the  equal  rights  principle  on 
the  ground  that  such  blanket  measures  would 
endanger  the  existing  special  rights  of  women 
in  civil  law  and  endanger  present  and  future 
legislation  protecting  women  in  industry  (see 
WOMEN  IN  INDUSTRY),  and  it  was  directing  its 
activities  toward  a  programme  of  specific  State 
legislation  to  remove  discriminations  against 
women  and  to  advance  the  general  welfare. 

Other  Countries.  In  England,  after  the  suc- 
cession of  the  unsympathetic  Premier  Asquith 
in  1908,  sensational  violence  and  vandalism  had 
beer)  resorted  to  by  the  militant  wing  of  the 
woman  suffrage  movement,  in  an  effort  to  over- 
come public  apathy.  After  1913,  the  nonmili- 
tant  suffragists  had  thrown  their  influence  sol- 
idly to  the  sympathetic  Labor  party,  in  an  en- 
deavor to  undermine  the  Asquith  government. 
Between  the  two  forces,  the  woman  suffrage  is- 
sue had  achieved  great  prominence.  On  the- 
outbreak  of  the  War,  however,  all  obstruction- 
ist tactics  were  immediately  forsworn  by  the 
women  of  both  followings,  in  favor  of  prompt 
and  full  cooperation  with  the  government. 
This  action  and  the  part  that  women  subse- 
quently played  in  both  administration  and  in- 
dustry, during  the  emergency,  quickly  converted 
even  those  most  hostile  to  the  cause  of  political 
equality.  It  was  not,  however,  until  1918  that 
the  Representation  of  People  Act  was  passed; 
and  then,  in  order  to  preserve  a  majority  of 
male  voters,  the  franchise  was  granted  only  to 
women  at  least  30  years  of  age.  Some  accel- 
eration in  welfare  legislation  became  evident 
thereafter,  and  through  the  Women's  Freedom 
League  efforts  were  pledged  to  gain  certain  le- 
gal equalities;  but  it  soon  became  apparent 
that  British  women,  without  attempting  to 
form  a  separate  party,  were  concentrating  their 
efforts  on  electing  representatives  from  among 
themselves.  The  right  to  sit  in  Parliament 


WOMEN  IN  INDUSTRY 

having  been  granted  in  1018,  Lady  Astor  was 
returned  from  Plymouth  in  the  following  year; 
in  1021  the  widow  of  a  previous  member  was  re- 
turned from  Louth;  in  1023,  ergbt  women  were 
seated,  after  a  vigorous  campaign,  representing 
all  three  parties.  One  woman  was  given  min- 
isterial rank  in  the  government  of  Bam- 
say  Macdonald.  The  petition  of  Viscountess 
Khondda  to  be  allowed  to  sit  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  although  unsuccessful  in  1022,  had  not 
been  abandoned  in  1024.  Recognizing  that 
town  and  county  offices  were  steps  toward  seats 
in  Parliament,  women  were  seeking  these,  suc- 
cessfully, in  increasing  numbers  In  1023  a 
bill  proposing  to  enfranchise  all  women  over  21 
passed  its  second  reading  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. In  Canada,  where  there  had  already 
been  some  extension  of  the  privilege,  except  in 
Quebec,  and  full  suffrage  in  the  three  prairie 
provinces  from  1016,  the  Dominion  government 
granted  the  full  franchise  in  1017  to  women 
who  had  near  relatives  at  the  front;  then,  in 
1018,  to  all  women  who  had  reached  the  age 
of  21.  A  woman  was  returned  to  the  Dominion 
Parliament  from  Alberta  in  1018;  another  was 
in  the  cabinet  of  British  Columbia  in  1021.  No 
woman,  however,  could  become  a  senator  with- 
out amendment  of  the  British  North  America 
Act.  In  Australia,  where  full  parliamentary 
suffrage  was  granted  by  the  federal  government 
in  1002,  there  were  1,100,000  women  voters  in 
101G;  but  although  eligible  to  both  federal 
houtes,  women  were  entitled  to  sit  in  the  state 
houses  of  only  South  Australia  and  Queensland. 
In  New  Zealand,  where  full  suffrage  dated  from 
1S03,  ahout  300,000  women  possessed  the  bal- 
lot in  101 C  and  used  it  in  nearly  the  same  rela- 
tive proportion  as  men;  they  were  eligible  to 
all  offices  except  seats  in  Parliament  Statis- 
tics for  Australia  and  New  Zealand  indicated 
that  the  female  vote  had  noticeably  stimulated 
the  percentage  of  eligible  men  voting.  Finland, 
the  fiist  division  in  Europe  to  grant  actual  full 
political  enfranchisement  to  women  (100G),  had 
24  women  in  its  Diet  in  1017.  Norway  estab- 
lished full  suffrage  and  eligibility  in  1013 
Iceland  in  1014  granted  the  suffrage  to  women 
40  years  of  age  and  over;  in  1024  suffrage  was 
universal  at  25  years.  The  limited  female 
franchise  in  Denmark  was  extended  in  1015  to 
equal  suffrage;  in  1018  there  were  nine  women 
in  her  parliament  The  women  of  Holland,  en- 
franchised in  1010  and  voting  for  the  first  time 
in  1022,  sent  seven  women  to  a  parliament  of 
100  members.  After  the  provisional  govern- 
ment established  in  Germany  in  101S  granted 
universal  suffrage  at  the  age  of  20  years,  40 
women  were  elected  to  the  national  assembly, 
\\hioh  incorporated  adult  suffrage  in  the  new 
constitution.  In  1022  there  were  35  women  in 
the  fteichstag  and  equally  strong  representa- 
tions in  the  vaiious  state  diets.  In  Italy,  a 
suffrage  bill  passed  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in 
1023  but  was  opposed  by  Mussolini,  who,  how- 
ever, approved  a  bill  granting  women  municipal 
suffrage.  With  the  defeat  of  a  woman  suffrage 
bill  in  the  Senate  in  1022,  the  issue  was  shelved 
in  Prance  for  another  three  years. 

WOMEN  IN  INDTJSTBY.  In  an  analysis 
of  the  status  of  women  in  industry  in  the  decade 
1014-24  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  account  the 
labor  conditions  accompanying  the  War,  which 
for  a  few  years  exerted  an  almost  revolutionary 
influence  on  the  position  of  wage-earning  women 
and  which  were  responsible  for  some  permanent 


WOMEN  IN  INDTJSTBY 

changes  in  their  industrial  status.  The  aug- 
mented demand  for  labor  in  war  industries  and 
the  holes  eaten  into  the  ranks  of  workingmen 
combined  to  draw  women  into  work  in  unusual 
numbers  and  often  in  unusual  capacities.  And 
while  the  War  thus  widened  her  field  and  made 
the  woman  in  industry  a  factor  of  great  import- 
ance, it  brought  her  problems  into  unprecedent- 
ed prominence. 

In  the  United  States  in  1010  the  number  of 
women  10  years  of  age  and  over  engaged  for 
pay  in  all  occupations  was  8,075,772;  in  1016 
the  number  was  placed  at  10,000,000;  and  in 
1018  at  11,000,000  or  about  30  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  of  the  gainfully  employed.  While 
the  fact  that  some  4,000,000  women  were  em- 
ployed in  war  industries  gave  rise  to  an  impres- 
sion that  vast  numbers  of  women  were  taking 
up  gainful  labor  for  the  first  time,  it  should  not 
be  overlooked  that  a  great  number  of  those  in 
war  industries  were  drawn  from  other  occupa- 
tions, such  as  domestic  service,  laundrying, 
clerking,  office  work,  and  various  types  of  manu- 
facturing; many  were  married  women  who  be- 
fore marriage  had  been  industrial  workers  and 
who  took  up  their  former  occupations  or  even 
new  types  of  work  in  response  to  the  emergency 
call.  Moreover,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  so-called  war  industries  included  such  trades 
as  textile,  tobacco,  garment,  and  food  manu- 
facturing, which  in  time  of  peace  employ  large 
numbers  of  women  and  which  during  the  War 
manufactured  extensively  products  needed  in 
the  maintenance  of  armies.  The  employment 
and  substitution  of  women  for  men  was  most 
marked  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry,  in  the 
manufacture  of  various  vehicles,  agricultural 
inplements,  airplanes,  and  lumber  products,  and 
in  shipbuilding  and  transportation.  According 
to  census  figures,  in  1014  women  constituted 
0.5  per  cent  of  the  workers  in  leading  war  agent 
and  implement  industries.  Moreover,  it  was 
estimated  that  in  10 1C  77  per  cent  of  the  work- 
ers in  such  industries  were  women,  in  1018,  af- 
ter the  first  draft,  10.G  per  cent;  later  in  that 
year,  after  the  second  diaft,  13.0  per  cent.  The 
520,003  v\omen  revealed  by  census  figures  as 
engaged  in  such  work  on  Dee.  15,  1910,  made  up 
8.2  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  employees  in 
these  industries.  Proved  efficiency  was  beyond 
doubt  one  reason  for  the  permanence  of  women 
in  the  newer  fields;  but  in  many  cases  their 
lower  wage  rate  and  lack  of  organization  influ- 
enced employers  to  retain  them.  The  cessation  of 
war  manufacturing  and  the  business  depression 
in  the  succeeding  years,  however,  effected  a  con- 
siderable decrease  in  the  number  of  women 
workers.  The  census  of  1020  showing  8,540,511 
women  10  years  of  age  and  over  as  gainfully 
employed  represented  some  actual  increase  in 
numbers  over  8,075,772  in  1010;  but  if  the  in- 
crease in  population  is  taken  into  account,  the 
proportion  of  all  women  10  years  old  and  over  in 
gainful  employment  decreased  fiom  23.4  per  cent 
in  1010  to  21.1  per  cent  in  1020.  On  the  whole 
the  great  change  brought  about  by  the  War 
seemed  to  have  been  not  a  vast  increase  in  the 
number  of  women  workers  nor  the  invasion  of 
entirely  new  fields,  but  a  decided  shift  in  the 
distribution  of  women  among  the  various  gain- 
ful occupations  in  which  they  had  already  been 
employed  for  some  years.  In  agriculture,  for- 
estry, and  animal  husbandry  and  in  domestic 
service,  the  number  of  women  workers  showed  a 
striking  decrease,  although  the  decrease  in  agri- 


WOMEN  IN 


1480 


WOMEN  IK  INDTTSTBY 


«»«»«  "»•  due  in  part  to  changes  in  date  and  ed  to  restrictions,  and  definite  improvements 
methods  of  enumeration.  The  nonagricultural  were  made  in  the  regulation  of  working VondSons 
pursuits,  as  a  whole,  showed  a  proportional  in-  Beginning  in  1911,  some  safeguarding  of  mother: 

hood  was  ensured  by  law  in  five  States  by  for- 
bidding employment  of  women  in  specified  oc- 
cupations within  two  weeks  before  and  four 
weeks  after  childbirth.  (See  MATERNITY  PBO- 
TECTION.)  Mothers'  pensions  (q.v.)  continued 
to  grow  in  favor,  to  eliminate  the  need  for  many 
self-supporting  mothers  to  enter  industry. 

Latterly  an  interesting  phase  of  public  senti- 
ment became  observable.  A  group  of  women 
active  in  the  equal  rights  movement  in  American 
history  and  objecting  to  certain  existing  legal 
discriminations  against  women  because  of  sex 
advocated  a  constitutional  amendment  to  take 
the  following  form:  "Men  and  women  shall 
have  equal  rights  throughout  the  United  States 

Rnrl      pvprv     rtlnna     au'Kiant     4r\     14-a     ^.•.~;n.i:~i.:_~ 


—      —  —  -•—••—»»•••        ^«w      «\«uajc i  Av;uibui  ell 

pursuits,  as  a  whole,  showed  a  proportional  in- 
crease of  19  per  cent  in  the  number  of  women 
employees  in  1920  as  compared  with  1910.    The 
changes  within   the  group   indicated   a  definite 
contravention  of  traditions.     In  1910  there  were 
203  occupations  in  which  1000  or  more  women 
were  employed;  in  1920  the  occupations  in  this 
group  had  increased  in  number  to  232,  and  a 
very  large  part  of  this  increase  was  in  occcupa- 
tions  in  manufacturing  and  mechanical  indus- 
tries and  professional  service.     Increases  of  50,- 
000  or  more  occurred  among  women  who  were 
clerks  in  offices,  stenographers  and  typists,  book- 
keepers arid  cashiers,  teachers,  saleswomen,  tele- 
phone operators,  trained  nurses,  and  clerks  in 
stores.     Decreases  of   50,000   or   more  occurred 
among  farm  laborers   (at  home),  farm  laborers 
(working  out),   cooks,   general    servants,   laun- 
dresses, dressmakers,  and  seamstresses    (not  in 
factory),   and   milliners   and   millinery   dealers. 
Within  the  manufacturing  and   mechanical   in- 
dustries, increases  of  more  than  10,000  women 
since   1910  were  found  among  semiskilled  oper- 
atives in  the  food,  iron  and  steel,  and  clothing 
industries,   in   silk   and  knitting  mills,   and   in 
electrical  supply,  shoe,  and  cigar  and  tobacco 
factories;   among  laborers  in  cotton  mills;  and 
among  forewomen  and  overseers  in  manufactur- 
ing.    The  changes  in  rate  of  increase  or  decrease 
for  the  two  sexes  were  entirely  disproportionate, 
and    in   far   the   greater   number   of   cases   the 
women  took  the  lead  in  the  rate  of  increase.     It 
was  significant  that  while  women  operatives  in 
automobile    factories    increased    1408    per    cent 
(from  848  in  1910  to  12,788  in  1920),  the  largest 
percentage  increase  for  women  in  any  one  in- 
dustry, men  operatives   in   automobile  factories 
increased  only  4,'J5.4  per  cent,  from  20,243   in 
1910  to  108,370  in  1920.     Although  the  number 
of  married  women,  lf>  years  of  ape  and  over,  at 
work,  rose  from   1,890,6(>1   in    1910  to   1,920,281 
in    1920,   this   group   constituted    in   the   latter 
year  only   9   per   cent  of  the  total   number  of 
women  arid  23  per  cent  of  the  number  of  women 
in  this  age  group  at  work  as  compared  with  10.7 
per  cent  and  24.7  ppr  cent,  respectively,  in  1910. 
The  problems  presented  by  the  employment  of 
women  in  industry  were  so  greatly  accentuated 
by    war    conditions    that    progressive    measures 
were  given  extraordinary  impetus.    The  futility 
of  long  hours  for  women  had  been  demonstrated 
in  England,  and  while  many  attempts  were  made 
during   the   emergency    to    weaken    restrictions, 
these  were  not  successful  on  the  whole.     In  the 
United    States   a   definite   trend   toward   the   8- 
hour  day  and  48-hour  week  was  noticeable   in 
legislation  (see  WAGES).     Studies  of  wage  rates 
indicated  that  women's  wages  were  consistently 
lower  than  those  of  men,  without  regard  for  pro- 
duction   or   efficiency;    even    on    piecework   the 
guarantee  for  women  was  less.    The  question  of 
a  minimum  wage  for  women  came  to  great  prom- 
inence, minimum  wage  laws  were  passed  in  sev- 
eral States  and  the  District  of  Columbia;  wage 
orders  were  issued  in  increasing  numbers  by  the 
various  State  boards;   the  decision  of  the  Su- 
preme  Court  -in    1923   declaring  the   minimum 
wage  law  of  the  District  of  Columbia  unconsti- 
tutional incited  a  strong  movement  for  a  consti- 
tutional amendment  to  permit  such  State  legis- 
lation (see  MINIMUM  WAGE).    The  employment 
of  women  at  night,  in  home  work,  and  in  un- 
suitable and  dangerous  occupations  was  subject- 


and  every  place  subject  to  its  jurisdiction. 
Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article 
by  appropriate  legislation."  On  the  other 
hand,  another  largo  group  of  women,  compris- 
ing almost  every  organization  of  workingwomen 
and  of  women  concerned  with  improving  indus- 
trial conditions  in  the  United  States,  although 
they  were  deeply  interested  in  the  question  of 
equal  rights  and  recognized  the  need  of  abolish- 
ing unjust  legal  discriminations  against  women, 
objected  to  the  proposed  amendment  on  the  score 
that  it  was  ambiguous  and  likely  to  jeopardize 
those  labor  laws  for  women  ensicted  during  the 
preceding  70  years  in  the  various  States  and 
regulating  to  some  extent  conditions  of  employ- 
ment for  approximately  4,000,000  women.  The 
proponents  of  the  amendment  argued  that  spe- 
cial labor  laws  for  women  curtailed  their  op- 
portunities, but  the  opponents  maintained  that 
actual  information  concerning  women  in  indus- 
try disproved  such  a  theory  and  that  special 
legislation  to  control  standards  of  women's  em- 
ployment was  essential  in  the  interest  of  the 
race,  because  they  had  always  been  in  a  weaker 
position  economically  than  men. 

An  important  outgrowth  of  the  War  was  the 
Women's  Bureau  of  the  Department  of  Labor, 
created  as  the  Woman  in  Industry  Service  in 
1918  and  made  permanent  in  1920.  This  Bu- 
reau, which  represents  and  advises  the  Secretary 
of  Labor  in  all  matters  concerning  women  in  in- 
dustry, did  much  to  clarify  the  situation  and  to 
organize  efforts  toward  improvement.  It  con- 
ducted various  general  investigations  of  women's 
hours,  working  conditions,  and  prevailing  wages, 
of  women  as  an  economic  factor  in  the  home,  and 
of  the  social  bearing  of  the  "living  wage"; 
carried  on  research  work;  made  special  studies 
of  the  census,  of  domestic  service,  of  industrial 
accidents  among  women,  and  of  special  indus- 
tries; and  through  monthly  bulletins  or  corre- 
spondence developed  as  a  clearing  house  for 
ideas  and  experiences  in  regard  to  wage-earninc 
women.  H 

Other  Countries.  In  Great  Britain,  the  num- 
ber of  women  gainfully  employed  increased  from 
3,307,000  in  July,  1914,  to  4,845,000  in  Novem- 
ber, 1P18;  in  July  of  the  latter  year  1,82(5,000 
were  in  government  work  and  1,521,500  re- 
placed men.  The  situation  was  marked  by  a  no- 
ticeable shifting  of  women  from  occupations  such 
as  dressmaking,  domestic  service,  and  the  tex- 
tile, paper  and  printing,  and  clothing  indus- 
tries, commerce,  agriculture,  transportation, 
war  industries,  and  government  establishments; 
this  change,  as  well  as  the  actual  numerical  in- 
crease, was  in  some  measure  brought  about  by 
organized  government  effort  to  dilute  the  labor 


W.  C.  T.  IT. 


1481 


WOMEN'S  CLUBS 


supply.  In  1920,  from  July  to  November,  the 
employment  figure  fell  from  4,051,000  to  3,871,- 
000;  but  as  compared  with  the  1914  figures,  the 
number  of  women  workers  still  showed  an  in- 
crease much  larger  in  proportion  than  the 
increase  among  men.  Moreover,  the  decrease  in 
1920  seemed  due  to  more  or  less  temporary 
causes;  legal  compulsion  and  trade  agreements 
to  reinstate  men  and  boys  after  the  War,  public 
sentiment  on  behalf  of  returning  troops,  and  the 
attitude  of  male  workers;  while  causes  tending 
to  the  increased  employment  of  women,  such  as 
realization  of  their  wider  abilities  and  efficiency 
and  the  cheapness  of  their  labor,  were  perma- 
nent forces.  Government  regulation  of  women's 
wages  broadened  during  the  period  (see  MINI- 
MUM WAGE)  ;  the  same  piece  and  overtime  rates 
were  being  paid  women  on  men's  work  in  war 
industries;  minimum  wages  were  set  in  many 
kinds  of  women's  work;  in  some  trades  women 
were  receiving,  roughly,  equivalent  wages  for 
equivalent  work.  Although  in  the  early  months 
of  the  War  women  frequently  worked  over  70 
hours  a  week,  experience  showed  that  shorter 
hours  increased  efficiency,  and  by  1921  the  move- 
ment for  a  48-hour  week  was  assuming  definite 
legislative  form.  The  Health  of  Munition  Work- 
cts'  Committee,  appointed  in  1915,  had  a 
far-reaching  influence  on  women's  working  con- 
ditions. Reports  from  all  parts  of  Europe  dur- 
ing the  War  indicated  that  there  remained 
scarcely  any  branch  of  industrial  effort  into 
which  women  had  not  entered  This  was  true, 
also  in  Canada  and  Australia.  This  virtual 
i  evolution  was  reflected  in  every  industrial 
nation,  including  Japan,  and  in  many  which 
A\ore  still  predominantly  agricultural,  such  as 
Russia  and  the  South  American  republics. 
There  was  generally  observable  a  tendency  under 
war-time  stress  to  relax  restiictions.  In  Ger- 
many, rather  eaily  in  the  War,  various  establish- 
ments were  exempted  from  regulations,  on 
permit,  and  the  factory  inspection  system  was 
allowed  to  deteriorate.  Following  this  period  in 
which  the  problems  of  women  in  industry  be- 
came accentuated,  there  was  everywhere  a  not- 
able extension  of  regulation.  An  order  of  the 
French  Minister  of  Munitions  in  1917  was  par- 
ticularly comprehensive,  fixing  an  age  limit  of 
13  and  a  10-hour  day  with  a  rest  period,  re- 
stricting work  at  night  and  in  dangerous  oc- 
cupations, safeguarding  pregnancy  and  child- 
birth, and  setting  detailed  sanitary  standards. 
Peru  passed  a  progressive  women's  and  child 
labor  law  in  1918.  Among  efforts  to  ease  labor 
readjustment,  after  the  return  of  the  troops,  and 
the  consequent  increase  of  unemployment  among 
women  workers,  the  German  plan  was  note- 
worthy. Provision  was  made  fp  train  women 
for  peace  work,  courses  being  given  in  general 
housework,  children's  nursing,  dressmaking,  typ- 
ing, secretaryship,  and  similar  occupations;  all 
women  in  receipt  of  unemployment  allowances 
were  obliged  to  take  up  some  course.  A  some- 
what similar  plan  was  followed  in  England  for 
unemployed  women  between  the  ages  of  18  and 
35.  See  LABOR  ORGANIZATION,  INTERNATIONAL; 
LABOR  LEGISLATION;  HOURS  OF  LABOR. 

WOMEN'S  CHBISTIAN  TEMPERANCE 
UNION,  NATIONAL.  This  body  was  organized 
in  1874  for  the  purpose  of  abolishing  the  legal- 
ized liquor  traffic;  ever  since  it  has  continued  to 
"agitate,  educate,  and  organize."  During  the 
decade  1914-24  it  was  especially  active.  In 
1914  definite  plans  were  made  for  an  active  cam- 
paign for  a  national  constitutional  prohibition 


amendment;  one  of  its  spectacular  features  wag 
the  presentation  to  Congress  of  a  huge  petition. 
When  in  1917  Congress  passed  a  resolution  for 
the  submission  of  a  prohibition  amendment  to 
the  States  for  ratification,  and  when  later  45  of 
the  States  or  nine  more  than  the  necessary  num- 
ber ratified,  it  was  generally  conceded  by  the 
press  and  public  that  great  credit  for  the 
achievement  was  due  to  the  Woman's  Christian 
Temperance  Union.  The  National  W.  C.  T.  U. 
was  also  instrumental  during  these  years  in 
creating  sentiment  for  the  passage  of  a  prohi- 
bition law  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  the 
anti-advertising  and  war-time  prohibition  laws 
In  1918  a  memorial  promoted  by  the  W.  C.  T.  U. 
was  sent  to  President  Wilson;  signed  by  6,000,- 
000  of  the  nation's  most  distinguished  women, 
it  asked  that  the  use  of  foodstuffs  in  the  manu- 
facture of  alcoholic  liquors  be  prohibited 

In  1917,  the  National  W.  C.  T.  U.,  in  common 
with  other  patriotic  societies,  organized  for  war 
work.  It  adopted  3000  French  war  orphans  and 
furnished  ambulances  and  diet  kitchens.  It 
made  thousands  of  comfort  kits  for  soldiers  and 
sailors  and  knitted  innumerable  socks,  scarfs, 
and  sweaters;  it  maintained  resident  hospital- 
mothers  in  reconstruction  hospitals,  invested 
liberally  in  Liberty  Bonds  arid  War  Savings 
Stamps,  and  was  diligent  in  conserving  food  and 
cultivating  and  canning  fruits  and  vegetables. 
In  1919,  it  began  a  drive  for  1,000,000  members 
and  $1,000,000.  The  $1,000,000  fund  was  to  be 
used  for  the  promotion  of  special  departments  of 
the  organization's  work,  the  Americanization 
of  the  foreign -speaking  women;  the  promotion 
of  child  welfare,  social  morality,  general  health; 
the  education  of  the  people  and  especially  the 
children  in  the  schools  on  the  truths  of  science 
concerning  alcohol;  the  protection  of  women  in 
industry,  and  the  furtherance  of  world  sobriety. 
In  the  interests  of  the  world  movement,  Anna 
A.  Gordon,  national  president,  was  commissioned 
to  visit  and  make  a  survey  of  European  coun- 
tries in  1920,  following  the  World's  W.  C.  T.  U. 
convention  in  London,  England;  in  1921,  she 
was  sent  for  the  same  purpose  to  South  Amer- 
ica, and  in  1922,  to  Mexico.  Special  work  was 
done  during  the  decade,  among  the  young  peo- 
ple and  children,  by  the  Young  People's  Branch 
and  Loyal  Temperance  Legion  respectively. 
The  headquarters  of  the  National  W.  C.  T.  U. 
is  at  Evanston,  111.,  on  the  same  lot  with  the 
historic  cottage  which  was  for  many  years 
the  home  of  Frances  E.  Willard.  The  officers 
are:  president,  Anna  A.  Gordon;  vice  presi- 
dent, Mrs.  Ella  A.  Boole;  corresponding  sec- 
retary, Mrs  Frances  P.  Parks;  recording 
secretary,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  P.  Anderson ;  assist- 
ant recording  secretary,  Mrs.  Sara  H.  Hoge; 
treasurer,  Mrs.  Margaret  C.  Munns.  The  offi- 
cial paper  of  the  National  W.  C.  T.  U.  is  The 
Union  Signal.  The  organization  also  publishes 
The  Young  Crusader,  a  periodical  for  boys  and 
girls.  In  its  commodious  publishing  house  at 
headquarters  it  has  a  large  stock  of  literature 
which  is  widely  used  in  its  educational  cam- 
paigns. The  National  W.  C.  T.  U.  celebrated  its 
fiftieth  anniversary  in  1924  and  held  its  jubilee 
convention  in  Chicago  in  November,  1924. 

WOMEN'S  CLUBS,  GENERAL  FEDERATION  OF. 
An  organization  established  in  1889.  Its  mem- 
bership includes  women's  clubs,  State  federa- 
tions, Territorial  federations,  and  kindred  or- 
ganizations. Conventions  are  held  biennially. 
Much  valuable  work  was  done  by  the  women's 
clubs  of  the  country  in  connection  with  the 


WOOD 


1482 


WOODBUFF 


War  Aid  was  given  to  the  Red  Cross,  Liberty 
Loan  committees,  and  other  organizations  for 
war  relief.  In  1918  The  General  Federation 
Magazine  was  purchased  by  the  Federation 
and  made  its  official  organ.  Special  divisions 
of  Americanization,  community  service,  and 
thrift  were  established  in  1019.  At  the  fif- 
teenth biennial  convention,  held  in  Des  Moines 
in  1920,  many  resolutions  were  adopted,  for  the 
most  part  reaffirming  previous  measures  deemed 
necessary  to  the  future  welfare  of  the  country. 
These  measures  took  the  form  of  urging  legis- 
lation on  the  government.  At  this  convention 
the  departments  of  the  Federation  were  reor- 
ganized. In  1921  a  Committee  on  Internation- 
al Relations  was  created  Mrs  Thomas  G. 
Winter,  president  of  the  General  Federation, 
was  appointed  by  President  Harding  one  of  the 
four  women  on  the  Advisory  Committee  of  the 
Washington  Conference  for  the  Limitation  of 
Armaments.  A  Committee  on  Friendly  Rela- 
tions with  the  Ex-Soldier  did  excellent  work 
during  1921.  In  this  year  the  Federation  pur- 
chased the  home  of  Gen.  Nelson  A.  Miles  in 
Washington  for  permanent  headquarters,  and 
in  1922  this  became  the  executive  headquarters 
of  the  Federation.  The  sixteenth  biennial  con- 
vention was  held  at  Chautauqua,  N  Y.  in  1922. 
There  was  discussion  on  immigration,  law  en- 
forcement, the  arms  conference,  Pan-American 
relations,  and  other  subjects  of  current  inter- 
est. The  Council  of  the  General  Federation 
met  at  Atlanta,  Ga.,  in  May,  1923.  The  bien- 
nial convention  was  held  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
in  1924.  The  membership  of  the  Federation  is 
approximately  2,500,000.  The  president  in 
1923  was  Mrs.  T.  G.  Winter. 

WOOD,  CLEMENT  (1888-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can author,  born  at  Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  and  edu- 
cated at  the  University  of  Alabama  and  Yale 
University.  He  began  the  practice  of  law  at 
Birmingham,  Ala.,  in  1911.  After  holding  the 
offices  of  assistant  city  attorney  and  recorder  of 
Birmingham,  he  came  to  New  York  City  and 
taught  in  the  Barnard  School  for  Boys  from  1915 
to  1920  and  became  vice  principal  of  the  D wight 
School  in  1920.  His  writings  include:  Glad  of 
Earth,  poems  (1917);  The  Earth  Turns  South 
(1919);  Jehovah  (1920);  Mountain,  a  novel 
(1920);  The  Laugher  (1922);  Nigger  (1922); 
Poets  of  America  (1924).  He  received  the  first 
prize  of  the  Newark  (N.  J.)  Committee  of  100 
in  1916  for  his  poem  The  Smithy  of  God  and  a 
prize  for  his  Jehovah  in  1919. 

WOOD,  ERIC  FISHER  (1889-  ).  An 
American  author  and  architect,  born  in  New 
York  City,  and  educated  at  Yale  and  Colum- 
bia Universities  and  in  Paris.  In  1914  he  was 
civil  attache  at  the  American  Embassy  in  Paris 
and  in  1915  served  as  an  officer  in  the  American 
Ambulance  Corps  in  France.  He  was  commis- 
sioned major  in  the  British  Army  in  1917  and 
major  in  the  United  States  National  Army  in 
August  of  the  same  year.  He  acted  as  assistant 
chief  of  staff  for  the  83rd  Division  and  as  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel and  assistant  chief  of  staff  in 
the  88th  Division.  He  was  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  the  Meuse-Argonne.  He  is  the  author 
of  Notebook  of  an  Attache" t  The  Writing  on  the 
Wall  (191  ft).  Notebook  of  an  Intelligence  Of- 
ficer and  Biography  of  Leonard  Wood  (1920). 
He  also  contributed  articles  to  magazines. 

WOOD,  LEONARD  (1860-1927).  An  American 
soldier  and  administrator  (see  VOL.  XXIII). 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  War  he  was  given  com- 


mand of  the  department  of  the  East,  which  he 
held  till  1917,  and  was  later  transferred  to  the 
Southeastern  Department.  He  organized  and 
trained  the  89th  National  Army  Division,  the 
10th  Division  of  the  Regular  Army,  and  many 
special  regiments  and  battalions  during  1918 
and  1919,  and  commanded  the  Central  Depart- 
ment headquarters  in  Chicago  from  1919  to 
1921.  He  was  appointed  governor  general  of  the 
Philippine  Islands  in  1921.  He  wrote:  The 
Military  Obligation  of  Citizenship  (1915)  ;  Uni- 
versal Military  Training  (1917);  Our  Military 
History,  Its  Facts  and  Fallacies  (1921). 

WOODBUBY,  HELEN  SUMNER  (1876-  ). 
An  American  writer,  born  at  Sheboygan,  Wis., 
and  educated  at  Wellesley  College.  For  more 
than  20  years  she  has  worked  with  the  American 
Bureau  of  Industrial  Research.  During  1900 
and  1907  she  investigated  equal  suffrage  in 
Colorado  and  in  1913  entered  the  Children's 
Bureau  of  the  Department  of  Labor  as  an  in- 
dustrial expert;  she  was  assistant  chief  from 
101. -5  to  1918.  She  visited  New  Zealand  and 
Australia  during  1919-20.  Her  writings  in- 
clude: The  White  Slave  (1896);  Labor  Prob- 
lems, with  Thomas  S.  Adams  (1905);  Equal 
Suffrage  (1909);  History  of  Women  in  Indus- 
try, vol.  ix;  Report  on  Women  and  Children  in 
Industry,  United  States  Labor  Bureau  (1911); 
Child  Labor  Legislation  in  the  United  States, 
with  Ella  A.  Merritt  (1915)  ;  Administration  of 
Child  Labor  J,ans  in  Connecticut  and  in  New 
York,  with  Ethel  E.  Hanks  (1915;  1916);  His- 
tory of  Labor  in  the  United  States,  with  John 
R.  Commons  and  others  (1918);  The  Working 
Children  of  Boston  (1922). 

WOODHOUSE,  HENRY  (1884-  )  An 
American  aviation  expert,  born  at  Turin,  Italy. 
He  arrived  in  the  United  States  in  1904,  became 
contributing  editor  of  The  Air  Scout  in  1910, 
and  later  founded  the  aeronautical  periodicals, 
<f 'lying  and  The  Aerial  Age.  His  contributions 
to  the  literature  of  flying  and  the  enthusiastic 
pioneer  spirit  which  led  him  to  found  the  Aero- 
nautical Library  in  1914,  to  build  at  Atlantic 
City  the  first  airport  in  the  world,  to  finance 
expert  research  work  in  aeronautics,  to  plan 
and  direct  the  making  of  the  first  aeronautic 
maps  in  1913,  and  to  draft  the  first  regulations 
of  aerial  navigation,  place  him  among  the  most 
notable  figures  in  this  new  field.  Mr.  Wood- 
liouse  did  much  toward  the  organization  of  aero- 
nautics during  the  War,  prepared  the  first  re- 
port on  the  aircraft  situation  for  the  Secre- 
tary of  War,  and  assisted  the  government  in  in- 
\estigating  war  profiteering.  His  publications 
include:  The  Struggle  for  World  Resources; 
Textbook  of  Naval  Aeronautics;  Textbook  of 
Military  Aeronautics;  Textbook  of  Applied  Aero- 
nautic Engineering;  Textbook  of  Aerial  Navi- 
gation; Aero  Blue  Book. 

WOOD  PULP.  See  PAPER  AND  WOOD  PULP. 
WOODRUFF,  EDWIN  HAMLIN  (1862-  ). 
An  American  lawyer  and  educator,  born  in 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and  educated  at  Cornell  Univer- 
sity and  its  law  department.  He  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1888,  and  was  instructor  in  Eng- 
lish at  Cornell  from  1888  to  1890.  He  was  li- 
brarian at  the  Fiske  Library  in  Florence,  Italy, 
in  1890-91.  From  1893  to  1896  he  was  on  the 
law  faculty  of  Stanford  University  and  from 
the  latter  date  professor  of  law  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. From  1914  to  1921  he  was  dean  of  the 
College  of  Law  at  Cornell.  He  wrote  several 
books  on  legal  subjects. 


WOODRUFF 

WOODRUFF,  HELEN  S.  (1880-  ).  An 
American  author,  born  at  Selma,  Ala.,  and  edu- 
cated privately.  She  first  became  known  by 
her  book,  The  Lady  of  the  Lighthouse,  which  was 
a  "best  seller"  in  1913.  She  gave  all  the  royal- 
ties from  this  story  to  the  New  York  Associa- 
tion for  the  Blind;  the  proceeds  from  all  her 
books  go  to  charity.  She  has  written  several 
plays,  among  them:  Hurrah  for  the  Oirls 
(1918),  produced  at  the  Forty-fourth  Street 
Roof  Garden,  New  York  City;  Kitty,  Kitty, 
Kitty  (1919);  By  Love's  Speedometer  (1919). 
Her  stories  include:  Mis9  Beauty  (1912); 
Rcally-Truly  Nature  Stories  (1913);  The  Little 
House  (1914);  Iteally-Truly  Fairy  Stories 
(1915);  Mr.  Doctor-Man  (1915). 

WOODRUFF,  LORANDE  Loss  (1879-  ). 
An  American  zoologist,  born  in  New  York  City, 
and  educated  at  Columbia  University.  He  was 
assistant  in  biology  (1903-04)  and  instructor 
(1904-07)  at  Williams  College;  and  instructor 
(1907-09),  assistant  professor  (1909-15),  and 
professor  (1915-  )  at  Yale  University.  Pro- 
lessor  Woodruff's  researches  were  mainly  on  the 
protozoa,  in  connection  with  which  he  studied 
especially  the  reproductive  rhythms  and  the 
phenomena  of  endomixis.  He  published,  in  col- 
laboration, Origin  and  Evolution  of  the  Earth 
and  Its  Inhabitants  (1918),  and  Foundations  of 
Jiwhgy  (1920).  He  was  also  the  author  of  nu- 
merous articles  in  zoological  journals  on  the 
reproductive  processes  in  the  protozoa. 

WOODS,  ALBERT  FRED  (1800-  ).  An 
American  educator  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  From 
1917  to  19*20  he  uas  executive  officer  of  the 
Maryland  State  Board  of  Agriculture  and  pres- 
ident of  the  Maryland  State  College  of  Agri- 
culture. Ho  \\as  chosen  president  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Maryland  in  July,  1920. 

WOODS,  Cvkrs  E  (1801-  ).  An  Ameri- 
can diplomat,  born  at  Clearfield,  Pa.,  and  edu- 
cated at  Lafayette  College.  He  began  the  prac- 
tice of  law  in  Philadelphia  in  1889.  He  was 
president  of  the  Pennsylvania  State  Senate 
(1905-08),  minister  to  Portugal  (1912-15),  and 
Secretary  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  (1915- 
23),  but  resigned  in  June,  1921,  on  his  nomina- 
tion by  President  Harding  as  ambassador  to 
Spain.  On  Mar.  4,  1923,  he  was  appointed  am- 
bassador to  Japan. 

WOODWARD,  FREDERICK  CAMPBELL  (1874- 
).  An  American  law\er  and  educator, 
born  at  Middletown,  N.  Y..  and  educated  in 
law  at  Cornell  University  In  1895  he  be- 
gan the  practice  of  law  in  New  York  City. 
From  1898  to  1902  he  was  professor  of  law  at 
Dickinson  College,  and  from  the  latter  date  to 
1907  he  filled  the  same  chair  in  Northwestern 
University.  From  1907  to  1010  he  was  professor 
of  law  and  dean  of  the  law  school  of  Leland 
Stanford  University  and  in  the  latter  year  be- 
came dean  of  the  law  school  of  the  University 
of  Chicago.  He  was  the  author  of  several  books 
on  legal  subjects.  During  the  War  he  served 
as  major  and  judge-advocate-general  in  the  Unit- 
ed States  Army. 

WOODWORTH,  ROKERT  SESSIONS  (1869- 
).  An  American  psychologist  (see  VOL. 
XXIII).  His  books  published  after  1914  show 
an  attempt  to  profit  by  the  emphasis  of  the 
behavior istic  school  on  external  observation, 
without,  however,  accepting  their  metaphysi- 
cal position  These  works  include  Dynamic 
Psychology  (1917)  and  Psychology  a  Study 
of  Mental  Life  (1921). 


WORK 

WOOLEN  AND  WORSTED.  See  TEXTILE 
MANUFACTURING. 

WOOLLCOTT,  ALEXANDER  (1887-  ).  An 
American  dramatic  critic,  born  at  Phalanx, 
N.  J.,  and  educated  at  Hamilton  College  and  Co- 
lumbia University.  He  joined  the  staff  of  the 
New  York  Times  in  1909,  becoming  dramatic 
critic  in  1914.  He  was  also  on  the  editorial 
staff  of  The  Home  Sector.  He  enlisted  in  the 
United  States  Army  in  1917  and  served  in 
France  till  May  1,  1919.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  editorial  council  of  The  Stars  and  Stripes 
and  correspondent  for  that  paper  at  the  Ameri- 
can front  and  with  the  army  of  occupation  in 
Germany.  His  writings  include:  Mrs.  Fiske — 
Tier  Views  on  Acting,  Actors,  and  the  Problem* 
of  the  Stage  (1917)  ;  The  Command  Is  Forward 
(1919),  and  articles  in  many  magazines. 

WOOSTER,  COLLEGE  OF.  A  coeducational 
institution  founded  at  Wooster,  Ohio,  in  1870. 
The  size  of  the  student  body  increased  from 
433  in  1914  to  808  in  1924,  the  faculty  from  29 
to  43  members,  and  the  library  from  37,000  to 
51,500  volumes.  The  endowment  rose  from  $1,- 
174,780  in  1913  to  $1,813,886  in  1923  and  the 
annual  income  from  $104,335  to  $202,562.  The 
preparatory  school  connected  with  the  college 
was  discontinued,  and  the  building  it  had  oc- 
cupied was  given  over  to  the  departments  of 
mathematics  and  physics.  A  girls'  dormitory 
was  built,  and  two  private  houses  were  con- 
verted into  cottage  dormitories.  In  1924  funds 
were  being  made  available  for  a  large  boys' 
dormitory  and  for  a  social  hall.  The  Rev. 
Charles  F.  Wishart,  LL.D.,  succeeded  the  Rev. 
Lewis  E.  Holden,  LL.D.,  as  president. 

WORCESTER.  The  second  city  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. The  population  increased  from  145,- 
986  in  1910  to  179,754  in  1920,  and  to  191,927 
by  estimate  of  the  Bureau  of  the  Census  for 
1923.  A  new  reinforced  concrete  bridge  was 
built  between  1916  and  1919  over  Lake  Quin- 
sipamond  at  a  cost  of  $325,000.  It  was  60  feet 
wide  and  had  6  arches  and  a  100-foot  viaduct. 
The  park  svstem  of  the  city  was  expanded.  A 
comprehensive  city  plan  was  developed  at  a 
cost  to  the  citv  of'  $50,000. 

WORCESTER  MUSIC  FESTIVAL.  See 
Music,  Festivals. 

WORCESTER  POLYTECHNIC  INSTI- 
TUTE. A  nonsectnrian  institution  at  Worces- 
ter, Mass.,  for  the  education  of  men  in  the  pro- 
fessions of  engineering  and  chemistry,  founded 
in  1865.  The  student  enrollment  in*  1915  was 
543,  as  compared  with  520  in  1923-24;  the  fac- 
ulty numbered  54  in  the  former  year,  as  com- 
pared with  64  in  the  latter.  In  the  same  period 
the  library  v*as  increased  from  14,544  to  18,- 
000  volumes  and  the  productive  funds  from 
$900,000  to  $2,450,000.  A  new  gymnasium  was 
opened  in  1916,  and  some  courses  in  business 
were  offered  in  1922.  President,  Ira  Nelson 
Hollis. 

WORK,  HUBERT  (1860-  ).  An  American 
public  official,  born  at  Marion  Centre,  Pa.,  and 
educated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
He  began  the  practice  of  medicine  at  (rreeley, 
Colo.,  in  1883.  In  1896  he  founded  the  Wood- 
croft  Hospital  for  mental  and  nervous  diseases. 
In  1912  he  was  chairman  of  the  Colorado  Repub- 
lican State  Central  Committee  and  Colorado 
member  of  the  Republican  National  Committee. 
During  1921-22  be  was  first  assistant  post- 
master general  of  the  United  States,  and  in 
March,  1922,  he  became  postmaster  general.  lie 


WORKERS'  PARTY 


14*4 


WORLD  LEAGUE 


received  the  appointment  of  lieutenant-colonel 
in  the  Medical  Corps  of  the  United  States  Army 
during  the  War.  He  has  held  offices  in  various 
medical  societies. 

WORKERS'  PABTY.    See  COMMUNISM. 

WORKMEN'S  COMPENSATION.  At  the 
end  of  the  year  1023,  compensation  laws  had 
been  enacted  in  all  the  States  and  Territories 
of  the  United  States,  with  the  exception  of  Ar- 
kansas, Florida,  Mississippi,  Missouri,  North 
Carolina,  and  South  Carolina.  There  was  a 
Federal  law  covering  employees  of  the  United 
States  government  but  no  law  covering  private 
employments  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  Most 
foreign  countries  likewise  had  adopted  the  com- 
pensation principle. 

While  workmen's  compensation  had  been  so 
generally  adopted  and  was  so  generally  approved 
that  it  might  be  considered  an  accepted  part  of 
the  fabric  of  social  legislation,  the  fact  that  a 
compensation  law  was  in  force  in  a  given  juris- 
diction did  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  com- 
pensation principle  was  completely  applied.  The 
various  laws  which  were  on  the  statute  books 
were  in  large  measure  the  result  of  compromise 
and  embodied  limitations  which  seriously  im- 
paired their  efficacy.  There  was  a  wide  Varia- 
tion in  the  extent  to  which  workingmen  were 
covered.  It  was  estimated  in  1920  by  Carl 
Hookstadt  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  that  approximately  70  per  cent  of  the 
employees  in  jurisdictions  subject  to  compensa- 
tion actually  came  within  the  terms  of  the  com- 
pensation acts.  The  percentage  of  such  em- 
plovees  varied  from  approximately  20  per  cent 
in  Porto  Rico  to  almost  100  per  cent  in  New 
Jersey.  There  was  also  great  variation  in  the 
liberality  of  the  benefits  provided  in  the  vari- 
ous laws,  both  in  the  basic  percentages  of  wages 
which  were  paid  in  case  of  disability  and  in  the 
limitations  on  periodical  and  total  payments. 
In  fact,  compensation  legislation  was  so  diverse 
in  all  its  parts  that  any  general  statement  must 
be  so  qualified  in  its  application  to  particular 
cases  as  to  leave  some  doubt  of  what  actually 
constituted  the  compensation  principle. 

An  analysis  of  the  laws  of  the  States  and 
Territories  of  the  United  States  (Digest  of 
Workmen's  Compensation  Laus  in  the  United 
States  and  Territories,  w\th  Annotations,  8th 
ed.,  revised  to  Dec.  1,  1923;  Workmen's  Com- 
pensation Publicity  Bureau,  New  York  City) 
shows  that  12  States  and  2  Territories  had 
enacted  compulsory  laws,  while  30  States  and 
1  Territory  had  enacted  elective  laws.  Elect- 
ive laws,  while  ostensibly  permitting  choice  on 
the  part  of  the  employer  or  employee,  in  effect 
made  election  not  to  adopt  the  pro\isions  of 
the  law  so  disadvantageous  that  they  were  in 
practical  effect  compulsory.  In  most  jurisdic- 
tions it  was  recognized  by  requiring  insurance 
deposit  of  security  or  proof  of  financial  respon- 
sibility that  a  compensation  law  should  not 
only  provide  for  payment  of  compensation  to 
workmen  by  employers  but  should  in  addition 
require  that  the  employer  give  evidence  of  secu- 
rity for  such  payment.  There  were,  however,  5 
jurisdictions  in  which  no  such  security  was  re- 
quired: Alabama,  Arizona,  Kansas,  Louisiana, 
and  Alaska. 

The  point  of  greatest  controversy  in  the  draft- 
ing of  compensation  legislation  was  the  method 
of  insurance  to  be  furnished  employers.  In  7 
States  and  1  Territory  monopolistic  State-man- 
aged funds  had  been  established  as  exclusive  in- 
surers of  the  workmen's  compensation  obliga- 


tion. In  9  States,  State-managed  funds  com- 
peted with  private  insurance  carriers,  and  em- 
ployers were  permitted  to  select  either  agency 
for  the  insurance  of  their  compensation  obliga- 
tions. In  26  States  and  2  Territories  the  gov- 
ernment confined  itself  to  the  regulation  of  pri- 
vate carriers. 

The  administration  of  the  compensation  prin- 
ciple is  a  specialized  problem  calling  for  a  high 
degree  of  professional  ability.  This  was  recog- 
nized by  34  States  and  2  Territories  as  well  as 
by  the  Federal  government  by  the  appointment 
of  special  administrative  officials  for  this  work. 
Administration  of  compensation  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  business  of  the  court  was  generally 
admitted  to  be  impractical.  There  were  still, 
however,  8  States  and  1  Territory  which  had 
provided  no  special  administrative  facilities. 
While  the  principle  of  compensation  was  by 
1924  accepted  practically  without  question,  the 
problems  incident  to  its  application  bad  been 
solved  only  to  a  limited  extent.  Much  remained 
to  be  done  in  the  development  of  statutory  pro- 
visions and  of  administrative  practice  to  tho 
end  that  the  application  of  compensation  might 
be  consonant  with  its  underlying  theory.  De- 
velopment in  the  future  was* expected  to  take 
the  form  of  increased  liberality  to  workmen  and 
of  perfection  of  details  of  legislation  and  of 
practice  which  would  eliminate  to  a  consider- 
able decree  the  existing  illogical  and  unsound 
discriminations  and  variations.  See  LABOR  LEG- 
ISLATION, Supreme  Court  Decisions;  SOCIAL  IN- 
SURANCE. 

WOULD  COURT.     See  LEAGUE  OF  NATIONS. 

WORLD  LEAGUE  AGAINST  ALCOHOL- 
ISM. A  world-wide  movement  against  the  liq- 
uor traffic,  embracing  10  national  organizations 
in  12  countries.  It  was  established  in  Wash- 
ington 1).  C.,  in  June,  li)10.  By  M)23  it  in- 
cluded 48  national  organizations  representing  31 
countries.  Triennial  conventions  aie  held.  The 
first  of  these  was  in  Toronto  in  1J)22.  Over  11(W 
delegates  representing  (>f>  countries  were  present. 
The  League  cooperates  with  national  temperance 
organizations  through  speakers,  literature,  post- 
ers, pamphlets,  books,  etc.  Under  its  auspices 
representatives  have  been  sent  to  the  British 
Isles,  and,  with  a  few  minor  exceptions,  to  every 
country  of  continental  Europe,  Iceland,  China, 
Japan,  the  Philippine  Islands,  India,  Ceylon, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  Fiji  Islands,  South 
Africa,  Rhodesia,  Mozambique,  Zanzibar,  Egypt, 
Tunis,  Algeria,  Morocco,  several  points  in  West 
Africa,  Chile,  Porto  Rico,  Cuba,  and  Mexico.  A 
social  research  office  is  maintained  in  New 
York  City,  a  scientific  research  department  in 
Boston,  a  students'  department  in  Washington, 
D.  C.;  a  Canadian  office  in  Toronto,  Mexican 
and  Pan-Ameriran  offices  in  Mexico  City,  a 
Scandinavian  office  in  Christiania,  No'rway;  a 
scientific  and  information  department  at  Lau- 
sanne, Switzerland,  and  an  international  pub- 
licity office  at  London.  The  Anti-Saloon  league 
of  America  is  a  constituent  member  of  the 
World  League.  Its  temporary  headquarters  are 
at  Westerville,  Ohio.  There  were,  in  1023,  four 
joint  presidents:  Anna  A.  Gordon,  for  the 
United  States;  Robert  Hercod,  Ph.D.,  Switzer- 
land; Rt.  Hon.  Lief  Jones,  England;  and 
Howard  H.  Russell,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  United  States. 
In  1023  the  American  Bishop  James  Cannon  Jr. 
was  chairman  of  the  executive  committee,  and 
Ernest  II.  Cherrington,  LL.D.,  Litt.D.,  also  an 
American,  was  general  secretary. 


WORLD  WAB 

WORLD  WAR.    See  WAB  iy  EUBOPE. 

WOUNDS,  TREATMENT  OF.  The  experience 
of  the  War  presumably  made  some  changes  in 
the  treatment  of  wounds  in  civil  and  industrial 
surgery,  which  were  summed  up  by  a  Viennese 
surgeon,  Professor  Albert,  as  follows.  Mere 
asepsis  or  surgical  cleanliness  was  found  to  be 
quite  insufficient  to  control  war  wounds  after 
these  had  had  time  to  become  infected.  In 
other  words  the  original  Listerian  doctrine  of 
antiseptic  treatment,  once  sidetracked,  again 
took  tne  lead.  It  was  learned  that  while  chem- 
ical agencies  are  unable  to  arrest  infection  by 
destruction  of  bacterial  life,  they  are  still  able 
to  antagonize  the  latter  by  stimulating  the  nat- 
ural defensive  forces  of  the  body.  As  for  tis- 
sues hopelessly  infected,  they  may  be  cut  away 
bodily  to  a  certain  extent.  Ultraviolet  ligh't 
and  tincture  of  iodine  are  able  to  destroy  a 
certain  number  of  bacteria.  Mechanical  re- 
sources such  as  proper  drainage  and  irrigation 
are  incidentally  of  benefit;  gauze  dressings  exert 
a  suction  on  the  wound  surfaces  and  thus  rein- 
force irrigation.  Any  wound  over  eight  hours 
old  is  regarded  as  already  infected.  Wounds 
which  have  failed  to  unite  and  so  become  known 
technically  as  granulating  surfaces  may  be 
treated  by  ointments.  In  other  words,  from 
military  experience  it  was  learned  that  the  best 
treatment  of  wounds  is  one  which  encourages  the 
tissues  to  fight  their  own  battles.  The  Carrell- 
Dakin  treatment  of  wounds  by  irrigation  with  a 
weak  sodium  hyposulphite  irrigation  should 
be  one  of  the  best  resources  for  this  purpose, 
although  it  does  not  seem  to  be  adapted  to  cases 
in  \\hich  crippling  is  threatened,  for  under  such 
circumstances  immobilization  is  desirable,  and 
this  can  hardly  be  obtained  if  the  dressings  have 
to  be  changed  frequently. 

WRANGEL,  PETKR  NICHOLAIEVITCH  (1879- 
) .  A  Russian  general,  born  at  Petrograd, 
the  oldest  son  of  a  Baltic  nobleman  of  Swedish 
descent.  lie  finished  a  brilliant  academic  career 
at  the  mining  institute  of  Petrograd  hut  later 
turned  to  the  army,  became  a  private  soldier, 
and  rose  by  merit  until  in  1915  he  commanded 
a  Cossack  regiment  and  later  a  Cossack  division. 
From  its  beginning  he  resisted  the  Bolshevik 
resolution.  With  a  volunteer  army  operating 
in  the  Crimea,  he  severely  defeated  the  Soviet 
forces,  and  when  finally  overwhelmed  by  supe- 
rior numbers  in  1920,  he  managed  to  retreat  in 
good  older.  After  the  collapse  of  the  counter- 
revolution, General  Wrangel  and  a  remnant  of 
his  men  found  refuge  in  Jugo-Slavia  and  Bul- 
garia. 

WBANGELL  ISLAND.  Named  after  the 
Russian  explorer,  Ferdinand  Wrangell,  this  is- 
land is  about  71°  north  latitude  and  180°  west 
longitude,  some  80  miles  from  the  Siberian 
mainland.  It  is  a  desolate,  valueless  island, 
and  is  rarely  visited  because  of  the  impassable 
ice-pack  which  usually  encompasses  it.  Sighted 
by  Long  and  other  American  whalers  in  1867, 
it  was  believed  by  the  learned  German  geograph- 
er Petermami  to  be  of  continental  proportions 
extending  across  the  Arctic  zone.  This  accept- 
ed theory  was  exploded  by  the  drift  of  the 
Jeannettc  to  the  North.  The  area  of  the  island 
is  about  2500  square  miles,  according  to  Berry, 
who  explored  it  in  1881,  as  did  Hooper,  who 
named  it  New  Columbia  and  claimed  it  for  the 
United  States.  Wrangell  Island  remained  un- 
occupied until  a  private  expedition  of  four  men 
and  an  Eskimo  woman  was  sent  to  it  in  1921 
by  Stefansson.  Ice  conditions  prevented  their 


wtn 


relief  in  1922,  when  local  resources  also  failed. 
In  1923  the  visiting  ship  found  only  the  Eskimo 
woman  still  alive.  One  white  man,  Wells,  and 
12  Eskimos  from  Alaska  occupied 'the  island  in 
the  summer  of  1923.  They  were  equipped  with 
supplies  for  2  years.  Furs  and  an  airplane 
base  were  their  objects.  Meantime  the  Rus- 
sians, who  never  even  visited  Wrangell  Island, 
claimed  it  as  an  island  possession. 

WRESTLING.     See  SPORTS. 

WEIGHT,  SIR  ALMROTII  (1861-  ).  A 
British  physician  (see  VOL.  XXITI).  During 
the  War,  Wright  was  consulting  physician  to 
the  Allied  Armies  in  matters  relating  to  infec- 
tion, preventive  vaccination,  etc.  In  1915  ap- 
peared his  monograph  Wound  Infection.  In  col- 
laboration with  Colebrook  he  published  Technique 
of  the  Teat  and  Capillary  Glass  Tube  (1921). 

WEIGHT,  OHVILLE  (1871-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican inventor  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  He  won  the 
Elliot  Cresson  Medal  of  Franklin  Institute 
(1914)  and  the  John  Fritz  Medal,  and  the  bronze 
medal  of  the  International  Peace  Society  (1920). 
He  was  appointed  chairman  of  the  Contest  Com- 
mittee of  the  National  Aeronautic  Association, 
succeeding  Col.  F.  P.  Lahm,  in  1924.  He  was 
made  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1924. 

WUNDT,  WILHELM  (1832-1920).  A  leading 
German  philosopher  of  the  last  generation  (see 
VOL.  XXIII).  During  his  last  years  he  ter- 
minated his  10-volume  Volkerpsychologie  (1901- 
20).  During  the  War,  he  used  his  pen  to  defend 
his  fatherland  against  what  he  considered  the 
unjust  accusations  of  western  writers.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  articles,  notably  in  Scicntia, 
and  also  a  volume  in  which  he  dissected  the 
national  psychologies  of  the  warring  groups 
(LHe  Xationen  und  Ihre  Philosophic,  ein  Kapitcl 
zum  Weltkrieg  (1915).  Wundt's  death  was  in- 
ternationally mourned.  In  the  United  States  a 
large  group  of  psychologists  who  had  been 
trained  in  his  Leipzig  laboratory  published  tes 
timoriials  in  honor  of  their  master. 

WtfRTTEMBERG.  Wurttemberg,  always 
one  of  the  most  democratic  states  of  Germany, 
possessed  a  fairly  liberal  constitution.  The 
Weizshcker  ministry,  in  office  during  the  War, 
pursued  on  the  whole  a  rather  democratic  policy, 
but  was  opposed  to  the  demands  of  the  Demo- 
cratic party  for  far-reaching  parliamentary  re- 
forms. Under  the  influence  of  the  disastrous 
events  in  the  fall  of  1918  this  ministry  gave 
way  in  October  to  a  more  democratic  govern- 
ment, which  in  turn  was  shortly  afterward  super- 
seded by  the  Socialist  provisional  government 
of  the  November  revolution.  King  William  II, 
a  man  of  rather  democratic  tendencies,  re- 
nounced his  throne  but  continued  to  reside  un- 
molested within  the  confines  of  his  former  realm. 
On  Nov.  11,  1918,  the  bourgeois  parties,  exclusive 
of  the  Nationalists,  entered  the  provisional  gov- 
ernment, from  which  the  Independent  Socialists 
resigned  in  January,  1919.  The  Wtlrttemberg 
government  which  was  formed  by  a  coalition  of 
Majority  Socialists,  Centrists,  Democrats,  and 
members  of  the  German  People's  party  was  per- 
haps of  all  the  German  governments  the  most 
thoroughly  republican  and  democratic.  In  the 
succeeding  years,  thanks  to  democratic  tradi- 
tions and  the  existence  of  a  large  middle  class, 
this  small  state  was  comparatively  free  from  the 
violent  disturbances  created  in  other  sections  by 
the  monarchist  Right  and  the  revolutionary  Left. 
It  was  for  this  reason  that  the  republican  gov- 
ernment of  the  Reich  sought  refuge  in  Wttrttem- 


WYEB 


1486 


WYOMING 


berg  during  the  critical  days  of  the  Kapp  Putsch 
in  March,  1920. 

The  elections  for  the  Constituent  Assembly  in 
January,  1919,  returned  52  Majority  Socialists, 
38  Democrats,  31  Centrists,  25  Conservatives, 
and  4  Independent  Socialists.  On  Apr.  26,  1919, 
the  Assembly  adopted  a  provisional  constitution, 
Wtirttemberg  being  second  only  to  democratic 
Baden  in  the  drafting  of  a  fundamental  law. 
Since  the  later  promulgation  of  the  constitution 
of  the  Reich  necessitated  many  changes,  the  Anal 
constitution  was  not  completed  till  Sept.  25. 
1919.  The  chief  provisions,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  fundamental  laws  of  all  other  German  states, 
were  strictly  circumscribed  by  the  Constitution 
of  the  Reich.  The  supreme  power  was  vested  in 
the  people.  The  people  delegated  this  power  to 
the  Diet,  which  transferred  the  executive  power 
to  the  ministry.  The  government  was  empow- 
ered to  refer  the  question  of  the  dissolution  of 
the  Diet  to  a  referendum  of  the  people  whenever 
it  saw  fit  to  take  such  action.  A  singular  fea- 
ture was  the  provision  for  the  formation  of  a 
new  ministry  after  each  election  of  the  Diet. 
Although  the  ministry  was  dependent  on  the 
legislative  body  in  any  event,  this  provision  was 
made  to  prevent  any  unnecessary  delay  and  dila- 
tory tactics.  The  minister-president  had  the  title 
of  President  of  the  State  and  was  elected  by  the 
Diet.  It  was  his  duty  to  appoint  the  members 
of  the  cabinet  in  conformity  with  the  wishes  of 
the  Diet.  The  administration  of  the  state  was, 
however,  conducted  by  the  ministers  individually. 
Noteworthy  also  was  the  provision  for  the  at- 
tachment to  the  ministry  of  councils  represent- 
ing the  various  classes  in  the  population.  Wtirt- 
temberg's  constitution  was  drafted  with  careful 
regard  for  the  practical  application  of  demo- 
cratic theories,  and  for  this  reason,  as  well  as 
for  others,  democratic  government  in  Wilrttem- 
berg  worked  more  smoothly  than  it  did  in  other 
German  states.  The  first  elections  for  the  Diet 
under  the  new  constitution  were  held  in  June, 
1020,  and  resulted  in  an  increase  of  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  Left  and  the  Right  The  losses 
suffered  by  the  republican  middle  parties  were 
largely  due  to  the  unsatisfactory  conditions  pre- 
vailing in  the  Reich.  Tn  consequence  thereof 
the  government  resigned,  and  a  new  ministry 
was  formed  by  the  Centrists  and  the  Democrats, 
which  received  the  support  of  the  German  Peo- 

?le's   party   and   the    Social   Democrats.     From 
920  to   1924  no  outstanding  developments  ap- 
peared,  except   that  Wlirttemberg,   like  the  re- 
mainder of  the  Reich,  experienced  further  swings 
to  the  Right  and  the  Left.    See  GERMANY. 

WYEB,  RAYMOND  (  ?-  )  A  critic  and 
art  director,  born  in  London,  and  educated  in 
Edinburgh,  London,  Brussels,  and  Paris.  He 
became  the  director  of  the  Hackley  Art  Gallery 
at  Muskegon,  Mich  ,  and  continued  in  that  office 
during  1912-16.  He  organized  exhibits  of 
American  and  European  artists  and  lectured  on 
art  in  various  cities  of  the  United  States  He  is 
the  author  of  Art  and  the  Man,  An  Art  Museum, 
Its  Concept  and  Conduct,  Art  and  Discrimina- 
tion, and  an  Inaugural  Catalogue  of  Hackley 
Art  Gallery.  He  also  wrote  a  war  play  in  two 
acts,  entitled  The  Goal,  and  several  articles  on 
Armenia. 

WYNN,  EDWABD  ( 1886-  ) .  An  American 
comedian,  born  at  Philadelphia  He  ran  away 
from  home  at  15  and  went  into  vaudeville.  Dur- 
ing 1914-15  he  acted  in  Ziegfleld's  Follies  and  in 
the  next  year  appeared  at  the  Winter  Garden 


in  New  York  City.  He  became  a  star  in  1918. 
He  wrote  the  music,  lyrics,  and  book  of  the 
Ed  Wynn  Carnival  (1919)  and  The  Perfect 
Fool  (1921). 

WYOMING.  Wyoming  is  the  eighth  State 
in  size  (97,914  square  miles),  and  the  forty- 
seventh  in  population;  capital,  Cheyenne.  The 
population  increased  from  145,965  in  1910  to 
.194,402  in  1920,  a  gain  of  33.2  per  cent  The 
white  population  increased  from  140,318  to  190,- 
146;  the  number  of  Indians  decreased  from  1486 
to  1343,  and  negroes,  from  2235  to  1375.  The 
native  white  population  rose  from  113,200  to 
164,891;  the  foreign-born  white  decreased  from 
27,118  to  25,255.  Both  urban  and  rural  popu- 
lations mounted,  the  former  from  4,3,221  to  57,- 
348;  the  latter  from  102,744  to  137,054.  There 
are  only  two  important  cities  in  the  State,  Chey- 
enne and  Casper.  The  former  increased  from 
11,320  in  1910  to  13,829  in  1920,  and  the  latter 
from  2639  to  11,447. 

Agriculture.  Wyoming,  in  common  with 
most  of  the  far  western  States,  showed  an  in- 
crease in  all  agricultural  activities  in  the  dec- 
ade. While  the  population  of  the  State  in- 
creased 33.2  per  cent,  the  number  of  farms  in- 
creased 43.3  per  cent  (from  10,987  in  1910  to 
15,748  in  1920)  ;  the  acreage  of  farms  increased 
38.2  per  cent  (from  8,543,010  to  11,800,351); 
and  the  improved  land  in  farms  67.3  per  cent 
(from  1,256,100  acres  to  2,102,003).  The  per- 
centage of  total  land  area  used  for  agricultural 
purposes  increased  from  13.7  in  1910  to  189  in 
1920;  the  proportion  of  improved  farm  land 
from  14.7  to  178  per  cent.  The  total  value  of 
farm  property  showed  an  apparent  increase  from 
$167,189,081  to  $334,410,590,  or  100  per  cent; 
the  average  value  per  farm,  from  $15,217  to  $21,- 
235.  In  interpreting  these  values  and  indeed  all 
compaiative  values  in  the  decade  1014-24,  the 
inflation  of  the  currency  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  period  is  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  index  number  of  prices  paid  to  producers  of 
farm  products  in  the  United  States  was  104  in 
1010  and  216  in  1020.  Of  the  total  of  15,748 
farms  in  1920,  13,403  were  operated  by  owners, 
377  by  managers,  and  1968  by  tenants.  The 
corresponding  figures  for  1910  were  0770,  311, 
and  897.  White  farmers  in  1920  numbered  15,- 
579 .  13,306  native,  and  2273  foreign-born.  There 
were  169  colored  farmers,  of  whom  134  were 
Indians.  In  1010  the  white  farmers  numbered 
10,022  (9019  native  and  1903  foreign-born )  ; 
and  in  that  year,  44  of  the  65  colored  farmers 
were  Indians.  Farms  free  from  mortgage  in 
1920  numbered  6816,  compared  with  7815  in 
1910;  those  under  mortgage,  5513,  compared 
with  1023.  The  acreage  under  irrigation  in- 
creased from  1,133,302  in  1009  to  1,207,082  in 
1019.  The  number  of  dairy  cows  increased  from 
32,699  to  41,615;  and  "beef  cows"  from  307,189 
to  392  367 ;  sheep  decreased  in  number  from  4,- 
826,565  to  1,850,775  The  estimated  production 
of  the  principal  farm  crops  in  1920  was  as  fol- 
lows- corn,  2,316,000  bushels;  spring  wheat,  2,- 
384,000,  winter  wheat,  225,000;  oats,  6,612,000; 
barley,  363,000;  potatoes,  2,107,000,  and  hay, 
1,444,000  tons.  Comparative  figures  for  1913 
are-  corn,  493,000  bushels;  wheat,  2,250,000; 
oats,  8,360,000;  barley,  396,000;  potatoes,  1,680,- 
000;  and  hay,  012,000  tons. 

Mining.  Wyoming  has  very  valuable  mineral 
resources  which  have  not  yet  been  fully  devel- 
oped. The  most  important  products  in  point  of 
value  are  petroleum,  coal,  natural  gas,  and  nat- 


WYOMING 


1487 


X  BAYS 


ural  gas  gasoline.  The  growth  of  the  petroleum 
industry,  1014-24,  is  indicated  by  the  following 
production  figures:  1014,  3,660,375  barrels;  1015, 
4,245,525;  1010,  0,234,137;  1017,8,078,080,  1018; 
12,500,287;  1020,  10,831,000;  1021,  10,332,800; 
and  1022,  20,715,000  The  output  of  coal  also 
increased  during  the  decade,  in  1014  it  uas  0,- 
475,203  net  tons;  1015,  0,554,028;  1016,  7,010,- 
647;  1017,  8,575,010;  1018,  0,438,688;  1020,  0,- 
630,271;  1021,  7,200,000;  and  1022,  5,071,724 
The  State  produced  also  a  large  amount  of  nat- 
ural gas  gasoline:  in  1020,  8,711,037;  1021,  14,- 
557,084  gallons  Among  other  mineral  products 
are  gypsum,  iron  ore,  sand  and  gravel,  and 
stone  The  total  value  of  the  mineral  produc- 
tion in  1021  was  $51,305,150,  compared  with  $83,- 
034,307  in  1020;  $41,007,200  in  1010;  $42,505,- 
812  in  1018;  and  $12,417,752  in  1014. 

Education.  The  immense  area  and  largo 
rural  population  of  Wyoming  bring  with  them 
the  educational  problems  associated  with  these 
conditions  Steady  progress  was  made  from  1013 
on.  In  1013  the  ^Superintendent  of  Education 
was  directed  to  prepare  a  course  of  study  for  the 
elementary  schools  In  1015  a  law  was  passed 
requiring"  physical  examination  of  school  chil- 
dren; a  State  Institute  wan  established ,  and 
a  law  was  enacted  providing  for  a  school  code 
committee  to  arrange  for  a  survey  by  the  Fed- 
eral Bureau  of  Education.  The  report  of  this 
survey  was  rendered  in  1010.  In  the  following 
year  the  Legislature  adopted  a  school  code,  pro- 
viding for  a  State  Hoard  of  Education,  and 
gieatly  enlarging  the  duties  and  powers  of  the 
department,  this  code  \\as  amended  in  1018  A 
director  of  special  classes  devoted  special  atten- 
tion to  the  elementary,  rural,  and  high  schools 
of  the  State  and  examined  children,  conducted 
mental  surveys,  and  reorpuii/ed  iiual  schools. 
The  director  of  vocational  education  had  general 
charge  of  this  work.  The  eifoits  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education  were  centred  in  later  years 
largely  on  the  rural  schools.  In  July.  1018, 
a  movement  was  launched  for  so-called  standard 
rural  schools,  this  resulted  in  greatly  improved 
conditions.  In  seconclarv  education  the  Depart- 
ment of  Education  aimed  at  the  maintenance  of 
accredited  four-year  high  schools  wherever  the 
niimbrt  of  sliid'entfl  and  the  financial  support 
available  made  it  possible.  In  1022  there  were 
38  such  schools  Vocational  education,  including 
courses  in  agriculture,  industrial  occupations, 
and  home  economics,  was  carried  on  with  success 
in  spite  of  great  difficulties.  It  was  the  desire 
of  the  Department  of  Education  to  extend  voca- 
tional education  to  every  young  person  desiring 
to  enter  agriculture,  business,  or  home-making 
without  university  training  Work  was  also  be- 
ing carried  on  under  the  Federal  Vocational  Re- 
habilitation Law  of  1020;  a  State  enactment 
provided  cooperation  The  total  enrollment  in 
all  the  schools  of  the  State  in  1012  was  26,502; 
1021-22,  47,088  The  high  school  enrollment  in 
the  latter  year  was  5763  The  total  disburse- 
ment for  schools  in  1022  was  $0,404,045  Illit- 
eracy in  the  State  decreased  from  3.8  per  cent 
in  1010  to  2.5  in  1020.  In  the  native  white 
population  it  lemained  at  04  per  cent;  among 
the  foreign -born,  it  decreased  from  0.5  to  0.2  per 
cent;  among  the  negro,  it  increased  from  5.3  per 
cent  to  0  1 

Finance.     For  finance,  see  STATE  FINANCES. 

Political  and  Other  Events.  The  political 
history  of  Wyoming  in  the  decade  1014-24  was 
not  especially  eventful.  Elections  were  held  in 


1014  for  governor  and  Congressmen.  The  Demo- 
cratic candidate  for  governor,  John  B.  Kendrick, 
was  elected,  while  the  Republicans  elected  their 
Representative  and  the  majority  in  both  houses 
of  the  Legislature  In  1010  the  State,  up  to 
that  time  normally  Republican,  gave  its  vote  to 
President  Wilson,  while  Governor  Kendrick, 
Democratic  nominee,  defeated  Clarence  D.  Clarke 
for  the  Senate  The  Republicans,  however,  car- 
ried both  branches  of  the  Legislature  In  the 
voting  for  president  in  that  year,  President  Wil- 
son received  28,316  votes;  Charles  E.  Hughes, 
21,608.  The  Republicans,  in  1018,  elected  their 
candidate  for  governor,  Robert  D.  Carey,  while 
Senator  Warren,  Republican,  was  reflected  to 
the  Senate.  In  the  presidential  voting  in  1020, 
W.  O.  Harding  received  35001  votes,  J.  M.  (ox, 
17,420  Elections  were  held  in  1022  for  United 
States  Senator  and  for  State  officers  The  Demo- 
crats were  in  the  main  successful,  electing  their 
candidate  for  governor.  W.  B  Ross.  Senator 
Kendrick  was  reflected  to  the  Senate.  On  Aug. 
14,  1023,  an  explosion  in  the  coal  mine  at  Kam- 
merer  resulted  in  the  death  of  100  miners  The 
leasing  of  oil  reserves  in  the  Teapot  Dome  naval 
reserve  to  II.  F.  Sinclair,  by  Albert  E.  Fall, 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  in  1922,  gave  rise,  in 
1024,  to  the  investigation  into  alleged  oil  scan- 
dals, by  a  committee  of  the  Senate. 

Legislation.  The  most  important  acts  of 
the  Legislature  in  the  decade  1014-24  are  noted 
below.  The  Legislature  in  1017  amended  the 
laws  relating  to  elections  and  passed  measures 
providing  for  the  regulation  and  inspection  of  the 
sale  of  gasoline  and  similar  products.  The  Leg- 
islature in  1010  passed  a  measure  providing  for 
a  budget  and  made  provisions  for  the  eight -hour 
day  on  public  work.  On  Jan.  16,  1010,  the 
Federal  prohibition  amendment  was  adopted 
In  1021  the  Legislature  created  the  State  Farm 
Board  and  the  State  Game  Commission.  It  au- 
thorized the  Board  of  Education  to  promote 
Americanism  as  defined  by  law,  and  it  created 
the  office  of  Inheritance  Tax  Commissioner. 
Measures  passed  in  1023  aimed  to  extend  the 
taxing  power  of  the  State  to  mineral,  oil,  arid 
natural  gas  mines  Activities  relating  to  agri- 
culture were  assembled  into  a  single  department 
under  a  board  The  hours  of  labor  for  women 
were  limited,  and  child  labor  laws  were  amended. 

WYOMING,  UNIVERSITY  OF.  A  State  insti- 
tution at  Laramie.  Wyo ,  founded  in  1880.  The 
student  enrollment  increased  from  508  in  1014 
to  2061  in  the  year  1023-24,  the  faculty  from 
60  to  85  members,  and  the  library  from  35,000 
to  00,000  volumes  The  income  during  the  same 
period  was  increased  from  $102,534  to  $804,000 
In  1017  the  music  department  building  and  a 
small  model  country  school  were  built.  In  1021 
additional  dormitory  facilities  for  women  stu- 
dents were  provided  by  the  completion  of  the  last 
units  of  Iloyt  Hall  A  central  heating  plant 
for  the  campus  was  also  completed  in  this  year. 
In  1023  was  completed  a  $200,000  library,  start- 
ed in  1022  At  the  close  of  1023,  a  $500,000 
gymnasium-armory  was  in  process  of  construc- 
tion. Aven  Nelson,  Ph.D.,  succeeded  Clyde  Au- 
gustus Duniway,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  as  president  in 
1017,  and  was  succeeded  in  turn  by  Arthur  Gria- 
wold  Crane,  Ph.D.,  in  1023. 


X  BAYS.  See  CHEMISTRY;  PHYSICS;  CHEM- 
ISTRY, PHYSICAL;  ALBERS-SCHONBEBG,  HEINRICU 
ERNST. 


YACHTING.  See  SPOBTS. 
YAKUTSK  AUTONOMOUS  SO- 
CIALIST SOVIET  REPUBLIC. 
See  SIBERIA  AND  FAB  EASTEBN  RE- 
PUBLIC. 
YALE  UNIVERSITY.  A  non- 
sectarian  institution  at  New  Haven,  Conn., 
founded  in  1701.  With  the  exception  of  the  war 
years,  when  it  dropped  to  approximately  2000, 
the  student  enrollment  increased  steadily  from 
3289  in  1914  to  48C9  in  1923-24.  During  the 
same  period  the  number  of  faculty  members  in- 
creased from  4CO  to  045,  the  library  from  1,000,- 
000  to  1,500,000  volumes,  and  the  productive 
funds  from  $15,379,363  to  $35,704,883.  Certain 
reorgani/ations  in  administration  were  adopted 
All  graduate  work  not  given  under  the  profes- 
sional schools  was  concentrated  in  the  Graduate 
School  under  four  groups  of  faculties.  A  com- 
mon freshman  year  for  both  the  College  and 
Sheffield  Scientific  School  was  established,  under 
a  special  dean  and  faculty,  and  the  Sheffield 
course  was  lengthened  from  three  to  four  years 
and  became  purely  scientific.  During  the  War 
the  only  college  artillery  school  in  the  country 
was  established  at  Yale,  and  the  largest  college 
naval  unit  was  organi/ed.  Important  building 
operations  went  on  during  the  decade.  The  Me- 
morial Quadrangle  of  dormitories  for  upper 
classmen,  which  covers  an  entire  city  square  and 
is  one  of  the  finest  of  such  groups  in  the  coun- 
try, was  given  by  Mrs.  Stephen  V.  Harkness  in 
memory  of  her  son.  The  Sterling  Chemistry 
Laboratory  ($2,000,000)  and  the  Sterling  Hall 
of  Medicine  ($1,500,000)  were  completed  in 
1922  and  1923.  The  laboratory  has  a  saw-tooth 
factory-construction  glass  roof  over  the  central 
part,  in  which  are  located  the  class  laboratories 
where  instruction  is  given  in  elementary,  physi- 
cal, organic,  qualitative,  and  quantitative  chem- 
istry. The  industrial  chemistry  laboratory  is 
two  stories  high.  There  are  35  separate  research 
laboratories,  accommodating  two  men  each;  12 
classrooms;  two  lecture  theatres,  seating  150  and 
250  respectively;  administrative  and  individual 
offices:  receiving  and  storage  rooms;  and  a  libra- 
ry. The  Hall  of  Medicine,  a  four-story  building 
extending  along  two  sides  of  a  city  block,  con- 
tains, besides  offices  of  administration,  an  audi- 
torium and  a  library,  the  departments  of 
anatomy,  physiological  chemistry,  physiology, 
pharmacology,  and  toxicology.  These  buildings 
were  erected  with  part  of  the  large  trust  fund 
left  by  John  W.  Sterling  in  1919  to  be  used  for 
buildings,  scholarships,  fellowships,  and  lecture- 
ships, and  for  the  endowment  of  professorships 
and  the  establishment  of  special  funds  for  prizes. 
Sage  Hall,  containing  offices  and  lecture  rooms 
for  the  School  of  Forestry,  was  opened  in  1923, 
and  at  the  close  of  1923  the  Lapham  Field 
House  was  under  construction.  President  Ar- 
thur Twining  Hadley  was  succeeded  in  1921  by 
James  Rowland  Angell,  Litt.D.,  LL.D. 
YAMANOTO,  COUNT  GOMBEI  ( ?-  ).  A 


1488 


Japanese  naval  officer,  a  member  of  the  Satsuma 
clan.  He  was  minister  of  the  navy  from  1898 
till  1906,  and  premier  during  1913-14.  The 
naval  scandals  coming  to  light  at  that  time 
caused  the  fall  of  his  cabinet.  On  the  death  of 
Baron  Kato,  in  August,  1923,  the  Prince  Regent 
instructed  Count  Yamanoto  to  form  a  ministry. 
Its  first  meeting  took  place  in  the  open  air,  in 
the  midst  of  the  smoking  ruins  made  by  the 
earthquake  of  September  1,  and  the  new  govern- 
ment had  to  take  immediate  measures  to  relieve 
the  unprecedented  situation.  In  December,  1923, 
Yamanoto  and  his  cabinet  resigned  because  of 
the  attempt  on  the  life  of  Prince  Hirohito. 

YAP  ISLAND.  One  of  the  Caroline  group 
of  islands,  situated  in  the  Pacific  north  of  the 
equator,  and  before  the  War  belonging  to  Ger- 
many. In  1916,  by  a  secret  agreement  with 
Great  Britain,  Japan  laid  claim,  in  the  event 
of  Germany's  defeat,  to  all  of  Germany's  islands 
north  of  the  equator,  while  recogni/ing  the 
British  claims  to  those  south  of  it.  On  this 
basis,  the  Supreme  Council  on  May  7,  1919,  allo- 
cated the  islands  north  of  the  equator,  including 
Yap,  to  Japan  as  mandatory  power,  although 
not  without  President  Wilson's  disapproval. 
The  American  interest  was  plain:  Yap  was 
nearer  the  Philippines  than  any  other  of  the 
islands;  it  was,  too,  an  integral  point  in  the 
American  system  of  communications  in  the  Pa- 
cific, for  here  were  to  be  found  stations  of  the 
Pacific  cable  of  the  Commercial  Cable  Company 
from  Hawaii,  of  an  American-British  cable  ex- 
tending north  to  the  Bonin  Islands,  and  of  Brit- 
ish lines  to  the  Chinese  coast,  as  well  as  a  wire- 
less station.  During  1920  and  1921  the  Amei  i- 
can  point  of  view  was  repeatedly  stressed,  to  the 
discomfiture  of  Japan  and  Great  Britain  and  to 
the  greater  straining  of  the  bonds  of  the  Allied 
unity.  The  American  contentions  centred  in  the 
facts  that  the  United  States  government  had 
served  notice  during  the  Peace  Conference  that  it 
reserved  the  right  to  object  to  exclusive  Japanese 
control  of  the  cable  landings,  that  as  the  German 
islands  had  been  ceded  to  the  Allies  by  the  Peace 
Conference  their  disposition  was  a  concern  of  the 
United  States,  and  that  in  view  of  the  property 
interests  of  other  nations,  Yap,  as  far  as  it  was 
a  cable  landing  station,  ought  to  be  internation- 
alized. The  Japanese  insisted  that  Yap  was 
theirs  by  the  edict  of  the  Supreme  Council  and 
that  therefore  the  administration  of  the  island 
was  their  exclusive  concern.  On  Feb.  21,  1921, 
the  American  government  dispatched  to  the 
Council  of  the  League  of  Nations  a  note  outlin- 
ing its  position  and  request! ing  a  reopening  of 
the  question.  On  March  2,  the  Council  admitted 
the  claims  of  the  United  States  but  declared  its 
inability  to  act,  on  the  ground  of  the  previous 
decision  of  the  Supreme  Council.  This,  too, 
represented  the  opinion  of  Great  Britain  and 
France.  The  solution  of  the  difficulty  rested  on 
the  meeting  of  the  Washington  Conference.  On 
Dec.  12,  1921,  finally,  representatives  of  Japan 


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1489 


YOUNG 


and  the  United  States  signed  an  agreement  by 
which  the  Japanese  mandate  was  recognized 
by  the  United  States.  Japan,  on  the  other  hand, 
accorded  the  United  States  free  access,  on  an 
equal  footing  with  Japanese  and  other  nationals, 
to  the  present  cable  between  Yap  and  Guam  and 
to  any  other  cables  which  might  be  laid  by 
Americans;  the  right  to  use  the  Japanese  wire- 
less service,  and  in  case  of  suspension  of  this 
right,  to  build  American  stations,  and  freedom 
of  entry  and  exit  for  persons  and  property.  On 
Mar.  1,  1922,  the  United  States  Senate  ratified 
the  treaty  affecting  Yap,  and  the  matter  was 
formally  closed.  The  island  had  an  estimated 
population  of  7155.  See  JAPAN;  WASHINGTON 
CONFERENCE. 

YEATS,  WILLIAM  BUTLER  (1805-  ).  An 
Irish  writer  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  He  was  a  fer- 
vid nationalist  and  wrote  much  topical  verse, 
as  well  an  Responsibilities  (1914)  and  Reveries 
over  Childhood  and  Youth  (1915).  In  his  poet- 
ry he  tried  to  carry  out  Synge's  idea  of  the  poet 
as  one  who  "uses  the  whole  of  his  personal  life 
as  his  material "  His  poems  are  therefore  very 
imaginative  and  individual.  His  The  Wild 
tfuanx  at  Coole  (1917)  reveals  his  interest  in 
esoteric  doctrine;  Michael  Robartes  and  the 
Dancer  deals  with  the  Ireland  of  1916.  Fie  was 
one  of  the  first  in  England  to  appreciate  the 
poems  of  Rabindranath  Tagore.  Another  Orien- 
tal preoccupation  was  the  "Noli"  drama  of 
Japan  Under  Japanese  influence  he  wrote  At 
the  Hawk's  Well  (1917)  and  Tuo  Plays  for 
Dancers  (1919).  He  was  deeply  interested  in 
the  little  theatre  movement  in  Dublin,  and 
worked  for  an  aristocratic  theatre  for  a  small 
audience  modeled  somewhat  on  the  "Noli"  drama 
of  Japan 

YELLOW  FEVER.  Knowledge  and  control 
of  this  affection  were  much  advanced  during  the 
decade  1914-24.  In  1918  the  foci  of  the  disease 
\vcre  limited  to  Ecuador  and  Guatemala.  The 
outbreak  in  Guatemala  was  serious,  with  550 
cases  and  200  deaths,  but  the  disease  was  soon 
stamped  out  by  the  local  health  authorities  in  co- 
operation with  the  United  States  Public  Health 
Service.  At  the  same  time  the  Rockefeller  Foun- 
dation sent  Dr.  Noguehi  to  study  the  cases  of 
the  disease  at  Guayaquil  in  Ecuador;  in  1917 
this  was  the  only  active  focus  of  the  disease  in 
the  entire  world,  prior  to  the  Central  American 
outbreak.  In  1920  the  Rockefeller  Foundation 
formally  announced  that  Dr.  Noguehi's  discovery 
of  the  exciting  cause  of  the  disease,  a  spiro- 
cha'te,  the  leptospira  icteroides,  had  led  to  the 
preparation  of  a  preventive  and  curative  serum. 
Already  people  going  into  yellow  fever  districts 
were  being  immunized  in  the  Broad  Street  Hos- 
pital in  New  York  City.  The  disease  was 
stamped  out  in  South  America,  and  in  1919 
the  world  was  for  a  time  entirely  free  from  it. 
In  1920  it  broke  out  anew  in  Yucatan,  and  Dr. 
Noguehi  was  sent  to  the  infected  area.  Several 
shipments  of  the  Rockefeller  vaccine  were  also 
forwarded.  Specimens  of  the  spirillum  culture 
were  sent  from  Yucatan  to  Havana  for  study, 
and  it  was  ascertained  that  the  dog  can  be  in- 
oculated with  a  disease  which  closely  resembles 
human  yellow  fever.  In  1921  Dr  Howard  Cross, 
who  was  to  have  taken  charge  of  the  bacterio- 
logical lalwratory  at  Vera  Cruz,  fell  a  victim  to 
the  disease. 

YEMEN.     See  ARABIA. 

YERKES,  ROBERT  MEARNS  (1876-  ).  An 
American  experimental  psychologist  (see  VOL. 


XXIII).  He  was  the  organizer  of  the  psycho- 
logical tests  for  the  United  States  Army  during 
the  War.  In  1915  he  had  prepared  a  point  scale 
for  mental  ability,  and  it  was  this  scale  rather 
than  the  Binet  mental-age  tests  which  was  found 
practicable  for  the  stupendous  task  of  catalogu- 
ing the  abilities  of  more  than  1,000,000  men. 
Major  Yerkes  edited  the  publication  of  the  test 
results  under  the  titles,  Army  Mental  Tests 
(1920)  and  Psychological  Examining  in  the 
United  States  Army  (1921).  He  also  edited  a 
volume  on  The  War  and  Science  (1920).  In 
1919  he  became  chairman  of  the  Research  In- 
formation Service  of  the  National  Research 
Council,  an  endowed  organization  for  the  promo- 
tion of  scientific  studies.  See  MENTAL  MEAS- 
UREMENT. 

YON,  PIETBO  ALESSANDRO  (1886-  ).  An 
American  organist  and  composer,  born  at  Set- 
timo  Vittone  in  Piedmont.  At  the  age  of  six 
he  began  bis  musical  studies  with  A.  Burbatti  at 
Ivrea.  Tn  1900  be  entered  the  Conservatory  at 
Milan,  but  winning  a  scholarship  in  the  follow- 
ing year  at  the  Conservatory  in  Turin,  he  con- 
tinued his  studies  there  under  da  Venezia 
(piano),  Redmondi  (organ),  and  Bolzori  (com- 
position). He  then  attended  for  one  year  the 
Accademia  Santa  Cecilia  in  Rome,  where  his 
teachers  were  Bustini  and  Sgambati  (piano), 
Renzi  (organ),  and  de  Sanctis  (composition). 
He  graduated  in  1905  as  winner  of  the  first 
pri/e  and  of  a  medal  awarded  by  the  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction.  From  1905  to  1907  he  was 
assistant  to  his  teacher  Ren/i,  organist  at  St. 
Peter's,  and  even  then  his  recitals  began  to  at- 
tract attention.  In  1907  he  settled  in  New  York 
as  organist  at  St.  Francis  Xavier's.  Frequent 
and  extensive  tours  of  the  country  soon  estab- 
lished his  reputation  as  one  of  the  greatest  liv- 
ing organists.  In  1921  he  was  honored  by  the 
appointment  of  honorary  organist  at  St.  Peter's 
in  Rome.  This  was  the  first  time  that  this  dis- 
tinction had  been  conferred.  His  works  consist 
of  17  masses;  Concerto  Oreaortano  for  organ 
and  orchestra;  a  concerto  for  oboe  and  orches- 
tra: brilliant  organ  compositions,  mostly  in 
larger  forms;  motets  (ft  cappella  and  with 
organ)  ;  piano  pieces;  and  songs. 

YOUNG,  ALI.YN  ABBOTT  (1876-  ).  An 
American  economist,  born  in  Kenton,  Ohio,  and 
educated  at  Hiram  College  and  Wisconsin  Uni- 
versity. During  1902-00  lie  taught  economics  at 
Wisconsin,  Western  Reserve,  and  Dartmouth 
Universities  and  then  became  professor  of  eco- 
nomics at  Stanford.  In  1911  he  accepted  a  call 
to  a  similar  chair  at  the  University  of  Washing- 
ton and  two  years  later  went  to  Cornell,  where 
he  remained  until  1920,  when  he  was  called  to 
Harvard.  During  the  War  he  was  director  of 
the  bureau  of  research  of  the  War  Trade  Board 
and  then  was  chief  of  the  division  of  economics 
and  statistics  of  the  American  Commission  to 
Negotiate  Peace.  In  addition  to  many  articles 
and  papers  on  economic  subjects,  he  was  one  of 
the  authors  of  Outlines  of  Economics  (1908, 
1916). 

YOUNG,  JOHN  WESLEY  (1879-  ).  An 
American  mathematician,  born  in  Columbus, 
Ohio,  and  educated  at  Ohio  State  University  and 
at  Cornell  During  1902-03  he  was  an  assistant 
at  Cornell;  during  1903-05  he  was  at  North- 
western University,  after  which  he  served  at 
Princeton  (1905-08).  During  1908-1910  he  was 
head  of  the  department  of  mathematics  at  Kan- 
sas University;  he  was  then  called  to  Dartmouth, 


YOUNG 


1490 


T.  M.  0.  A. 


where  lie  has  since  remained.  Algebra  and  geom- 
etry have  been  the  subjects  of  his  special  studies. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Bulletin  of  the  American 
Mathematical  Society,  on  whose  council  he  has 
served  since  1911,  and  in  1918  he  was  vice  presi- 
dent of  the  Mathematical  Association  of  Amer- 
ica. In  addition  to  many  papers  on  his  special- 
ties he  is  the  author  with  O.  Veblen  of  Pro- 
jective  Geometry  (1910);  Lectures  on  Funda- 
mental Concepts  of  Algebra-  and  Geometry 
(1911);  with  A.  J.  Schwartz,  Plane  Geometry 
(1915) ;  with  F.  M.  Morgan,  Elementary  Mathe- 
matical Analysis  (1917);  and  Plane  Trigonom- 
etry (1919). 

YOUNG,  LEVI  EDGAB  (1874-  ).  An 
American  educator,  born  at  Salt  Lake  City, 
Utah,  and  educated  at  Utah,  Harvard,  Strass- 
burg,  and  Columbia  Universities.  From  1900  he 
was  professor  and  head  of  the  department  of 
western  history  at  the  University  of  Utah.  Pro- 
fessor Young  lectured  widely  in  American  uni- 
versities on  the  history  of  that  State.  He  was 
a  member  of  many  historical  and  scientific  so- 
cieties and  of  the  First  Council  of  70  of  the 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-Day  Saints. 
He  wrote  History  of  the  Mormon  Tabernacle 
(1918)  and  The  Story  of  Vtah  (1920). 

YOUNG,  MAIIONRI  (1877-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican sculptor  and  etcher,  born  at  Salt  Lake 
City,  Utah.  He  is  a  grandson  of  Brigham 
Young.  He  studied  at  the  Art  Students'  League, 
New  York  City,  and  the  Julien  Academy,  Paris. 
He  was  for  some  years  instructor  in  drawing  at 
the  Art  Students'  League  and  more  recently  at 
the  American  School  of  Sculpture.  He  is  known 
chiefly  for  his  figures  of  laborers,  usually  small 
in  size,  but  depicted  in  an  inteiesting  and  virile 
manner.  Among  his  best  known  works  are 
"Man  with  Pick"  (Metropolitan  Museum,  New 
York )  ;  Hopi  and  Apache  groups,  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History,  New  York;  "A  Laborer"  and 
"The  Rigger,"  Free  Public  Library,  Newark,  N. 
J.,  and  the  sea  gull  monument  in  Salt  Lake 
City.  He  is  a  National  Academician  (1923) 
and  a  member  of  the  National  Sculpture  Society. 

YOUNG,  OWEN  P.  (1874-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican lawyer,  born  at  Van  Hornesville.  N.  Y.,  and 
educated  at  St.  Lawrence  University  and  the 
law  department  of  New  York  University.  In 
1896  he  began  the  practice  of  law.  He  was  di- 
rector and  official  of  many  important  corpora- 
tions. In  1924  he  was  appointed  by  the  "Repa- 
ration Commission  as  one  of  the  members  of  the 
American  delegation  to  investigate  the  financial 
condition  of  Germany.  He  was  credited  with 
having  been  largely  responsible  for  the  Dawes 
Report. 

YOUNG,  STARK  (1881-  ).  An  American 
author,  born  at  Coino,  Miss.,  and  educated  at 
the  University  of  Mississippi,  where  he  taught 
English  from  1904  to  1907.  He  afterward 
taught  English  at  the  University  of  Texas  and 
at  Amherst  College.  His  writings  include: 
The  Blind  Man  at  the  Window,  verse  (1906)-, 
duenevere,  a  play  in  verse  (1906);  Madretta 
Addio,  The  Twdight  Saint,  The  Seven  Kin  a  ft  and 
the  Wind,  The  Queen  of  Sheba,  The  Dead  Poet, 
and  The  Star  in  the  Trees,  one-act  plays  in 
prose  and  verse  (1911);  Three  Plays  (1919); 
and  The  Three  Fountains  (1924),  a  book  of 
colorful  sketches  with  American  and  European 
Bettings. 

YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIA- 
TION. This  movement,  having  national  organi- 
zations in  30  countries,  showed  extraordinary 


growth  and  activity  during  the  decade  1014-24. 
It  received  great  impetus  abroad,  particularly 
in  Europe,  mainly  as  a  result  of  the  war  work  of 
the  North  American  Associations.  The  work  of 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  was  extended  to  the  new  states 
of  Poland,  Czecho-Slovakia,  Latvia,  and  Es- 
thonia,  as  well  as  to  Greece,  Rumania,  and  Por- 
tugal. Europe  gained  nearly  400  local  associ- 
ations in  the  postwar  period  up  to  1924. 
Others  were  established  in  Turkey,  Palestine, 
and  Egypt  The  world  total  in  1924  was  nearly 
9000  associations,  with  more  than  1,500,000 
members.  The  Association  conducted  nine-tenths 
of  the  welfare  work  among  the  American  forces 
in  Europe  during  the  War.  Alone  among  Amer- 
ican welfare  societies,  this  organization  admin- 
istered to  not  less  than  19,000,000  of  the  soldiers 
of  the  Allies'  armies  and  extended  its  help  to 
more  than  5,000,000  prisoners  of  war.  The 
American  Y.  M.  C.  A.  service  in  the  \Var  actu- 
ally began  in  1914,  with  work  in  the  prison 
camps  of  the  opposing  forces  and  \vith  the  Al- 
lies' armies  in  France  and  the  Near  East.  With 
America  in  the  conflict,  work  was  started  in 
home  training  camps,  all  army  and  navy  sta- 
tions, on  troop  trains,  at  ports,  and  on  trans- 
ports Twelve  hundred  army  and  49  navy  as- 
sociations were  operated  in  the  United  States. 
Over  $01,000,000  was  expended  for  free  welfare 
service  for  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces 
alone.  A  total  of  25,923  men  and  women  served 
with  the  American  Y.  M  C.  A.  in  various  phases 
of  war  work  abroad  and  at  home.  In  1917  there 
were  gathered  in  officers'  training  camps  those 
who  were  to  be  junior  officers  To  these  camps 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  sent  some  of  its  foremost  phys- 
ical directors  for  athletics  and  games  After 
the  Armistice  athletics  proved  of  extraordinary 
service,  and  the  interest  in  them  led  to  the 
building  of  the  Pershing  Stadium  and  the  hold 
ing  there  of  the  inter-Allied  games  The-  As- 
sociation conducted  an  immense  bunking  busi- 
ness for  the  fighting  men  overseas  who  placed 
$21,558,339  with  L  for  transmission  home.  Of 
the  351,408  remittances  sent  through  it  from 
overseas,  only  41  remained  undelivered. 

The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  operated  1397  stations  in 
France  before  the  Armistice  and  2009  in  the  fol- 
lowing winter  during  the  period  when  the  sol- 
diers were  waiting  to  go  home  Leave  aicas  and 
recreation  centres  at  47  towns  in  France,  Ger- 
many, and  England  were  also  operated.  The  op- 
oration  of  the  post  exchange  or  canteen  uas  un- 
dertaken by  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  at  General  Pcrsh- 
ing's  request  so  that  the  army  would  be  freer  for 
training  and  fighting.  The  work  was  carried 
forward  on  the  basis  laid  down  in  official  orders, 
except  that  the  Association  did  not  include  op- 
erating costs  in  the  expenses.  The  total  tuin- 
over  uas  $37,800  000.  A  remission  by  the  Amer- 
ican and  French  governments  on  transportation 
charges  enabled  the  Association  to  hand  $500,- 
000  to  the  American  Legion  to  be  used  at  its 
disci etion.  The  Community  Motion  Picture  Bu- 
reau, maintained  and  operated  by  the  Y.  M.  C 
A.,  suppMed  all  American  welfare  organizations 
overseas  with  films.  The  funds  and  management 
of  the  Over  There  Theatre  League,  for  which 
1500  professional  men  and  women  entertainers 
were  recruited,  were  furnished  by  the  Y.  M.  C. 
A.,  and  four  "play  factories"  were  set  up.  At 
the  height  of  its  activities  there  were  700  sol- 
dier shows  and  200  soldier  actors  in  the  organ- 
ization. For  the  Army  of  Occupation  in  Ger- 
many, the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  opened  425  centres,  with 


T.  H.  C.  A. 


1491 


Y.  W.  C.  A. 


service  by  rolling  canteens  at  83  out-stations. 
This  work  brought  from  Major-General  Allen, 
commanding  the  Army  of  Occupation,  the  state- 
ment that  "soldier  welfare  service  never  before 
reached  the  high  standard  maintained  here." 
The  service  from  1917  to  1920  was  directed  by 
the  National  War  Work  Council,  composed  of 
some  200  business  and  professional  men.  Its 
chairman  was  William  Sloane,  and  its  budget 
and  finance  committees  were  headed  by  Cyrus  H. 
McCormick  and  George  W.  Perkins.  1*0  this 
Council  the  American  people  committed  about 
$107,000,000.  Expenditures  of  $15.5,000,000 
were  reported  when  the  Council  disbanded,  and 
the  remaining  funds  were  distributed  for  work 
with  the  army  and  navy,  scholarships  for  ex- 
service  men,  work  with  the  armieH  of  the  Allies, 
prisoners  of  war,  and  refugees,  and  a  reserve 
for  needs  of  soldiers  and  sailors  in  a  national 
emergency. 

From  the  end  of  the  War  to  1924,  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  furnished  educational  assistance  to  more 
than  100,000  ex-service  men  studying  in  colleges, 
technical,  and  correspondence  schools.  Under 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Educational  Commission,  900,- 
000  soldiers  studied  in  army  schools,  0300  at 
French  universities,  and  1956  at  British  uni- 
versities. The  Ahsociation  worked  among  the 
('/echo-Slovak  troops  who  fought  their  way 
across  Russia  and  Siberia  to  Vladivostok  to 
their  homeland.  It  cared  for  thousands  of 
prisoners  gathered  in  Siberia  awaiting  transport. 
It  aided  Russian  prisoners  to  get  back  into  Rus- 
Hia  from  (Germany  and  France,  and  later  it  car- 
ried on  refugee  work  among  those  who  fled  be- 
fore the  Bolshevist  advance.  It  opened  associa- 
tions, at  governmental  request,  for  the  soldiers 
of  Portugal,  Poland,  Rumania,  Czecho-Slovakia 
and  Greece.  The  Student  Relief  movement, 
growing  out  of  economic  distress  in  Europe,  has 
enlisted  the  activity  of  the  Y.  M  C.  A.  in  many 
lands.  In  1923  was  published  a  two-volume  his- 
tory of  the  war  work  of  the  Association,  called 
Sen  ice  with  Fighting  Men,  with  Ex-President 
Taft  as  editor-in-chief.  In  the  same  year  the 
World's  Conference  for  Y.  M  C.  A.  Workers 
Among  Boys  was  held  at  Portschaeh  in  Austria, 
with  delegates  fioni  53  countries  present.  In 
1923  also,  the  associations  in  America,  all  of 
which  are  self-governed,  and  which  cooperate 
for  national  and  international  service  through 
the  agency  of  the  International  Committee, 
formulated  a  constitution  which  was  ratified  by 
leferendum  vote  in  1924.  It  provided  for  an 
elective  National  Council,  with  legislative  and 
elective  powers,  to  supervise  their  joint  activi- 
ties, and  to  take  over  most  of  the  functions  dis- 
charged by  the  International  Committee  since 
1857.  State  committees  and  agencies  are  inte- 
grated with  national  under  the  new  plan,  which 
was  to  become  effective  in  1925.  The  national 
agency  under  this  plan  would  continue  to  assist 
the  local  associations  with  research  and  advice. 

The  Association's  year  in  1923-24  revealed  an 
appreciable  gain  in  nearly  every  department  of 
its  work.  Official  data  available  on  1693  Y.  M. 
C.  A.'s  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  show 
the  year  to  take  rank  with,  and  in  several  impor- 
tant directions  to  exceed,  the  record  year  of 
1921.  The  total  membership  of  the  reporting 
associations  is  988,522,  a  gain  of  9.5  per  cent 
over  1922-23.  Marked  increases  were  also  re- 
ported in  the  number  attending  Bible  classes 
and  camps.  The  Building  Bureau  of  the  Inter- 
national Committee  is  retained  on  some  75 


building  projects.  Both  railroad  work  and  in- 
dustrial work  were  broadened.  Endowment 
funds  increased  by  8.3  per  cent,  to  $17,308,000, 
while  the  property  debt  increased  only  6.0  per 
cent.  An  increase  of  net  Association  property 
to  $159,521,000  (8.1  per  cent  in  the  year)  in- 
dicates the  volume  of  property  additions  and  is 
believed  to  mark  the  end  of  the  deflation  period 
of  1922-23.  There  were  359  student  associa- 
tions operating  in  professional  schools  and  col- 
leges, with  a  total  membership  of  76,413.  In- 
dustrial associations  in  2086  plants  had  176,- 
767  members.  The  34  army,  navy,  and  army 
and  navy  stations  located  at  various  points  in 
the  United  States,  Hawaii,  the  Philippines,  and 
China  had  an  average  daily  attendance  of  1117. 
Service  to  boys  from  12  to  18  years  of  age  was 
greatly  extended.  These  boys  constituted 
25  per  cent  of  the  entire  Association  member- 
ship in  1924.  Hi-Y  clubs,  formed  in  High 
schools,  numbered  2064  and  had  a  total  mem- 
bership of  59,000.  In  foreign  countries  other 
than  in  Europe  service  was  being  carried  on  by 
384  associations  related  to  the  American  move- 
ment. These  associations  had  a  total  member- 
ship of  125,000. 

YOUNGSTOWN.  A  city  of  Ohio,  the  sec- 
ond largest  steel  centre  in  the  United  States. 
The  population  increased  approximately  60  per 
cent,  from  83,044  in  1910  to  132,358  in  1920, 
and  to  155,000  by  local  estimate  in  1924.  The 
city  government  was  changed  in  1924  to  the 
federal  form  under  home  rule.  A  city  planning 
and  zoning  system  was  inaugurated,  controlling 
the  height  of  buildings,  parking  districts,  build- 
ing lines,  etc.  The  Butler  Art  Institute  was 
built  at  a  cost  of  $'2,000,000,  additional  libraries 
and  high  schools  and  the  Youngstown  School 
of  Technology  were  opened,  and  the  Stam- 
baugh  Memorial  Auditorium,  to  cost  $5,000:000, 
was  under  way  in  1924.  Three  and  a  half  miles 
of  railroads,  pro\iding  facilities  for  the  place- 
ment of  ,500  additional  industries,  and  new  rail- 
road terminals  were  constructed ;  the  city  transit 
system  came  under  municipal  control  on  a  serv- 
ice-at-cost  franchise.  The  capital  invested  in 
manufacturing  increased  from  $123,000,000  in 
1915  to  $350,000,000  in  1923,  and  manufactured 
products  rose  in  value  from  $92,111,000  in  1914 
to  more  than  $300,000,000.  Bank  clearings, 
from  $76,422,340,  became  $221,883,443. 

YOUNG  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSO- 
CIATION. The  branches  of  the  Young  Wom- 
en's Christian  Association  of  the  United  States 
are  united  under  a  national  board,  with  head- 
quarters at  600  Lexington  Avenue,  New  York 
City.  Its  work,  during  the  decade  1914-24, 
was  of  the  gieatest  importance.  In  1916  the 
Association  had  11  field  committees  and  a  staff 
of  128  headquarters  and  field  secretaries. 
These  promoted  such  specialized  activities  as 
visiting  and  teaching  immigrant  women  and 
girls,  helping  young  business  women  by  voca- 
tional guidance,  establishing  club  houses  for 
nurses  and  art  students,  offering  opportunities 
to  colored  and  Indian  students,  and  interesting 
women  in  philanthropic  and  religious  work. 
The  membership  in  1916  was  364,673.  Im- 
mediately following  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  in  the  War  in  1917,  the  Association 
appointed  a  War  Council  and  entered  on  an 
active  campaign  in  the  interest  of,  girls  and 
women  in  the  War.  Features  of  this  work 
were  the  erection  of  hostess  houses  in  the  army 
camps  throughout  the  country,  emergency 


Y.  W.  C.  A. 


1493 


YUKON 


housing  for  girls  employed  in  military  and 
industrial  centres,  the  formation  of  the  Pa- 
triotic League  for  younger  girls  and  club  and 
recreation  centres  for  colored  and  white  women, 
and  work  with  foreign-born  women  in  the 
United  States.  The  Association  also  instituted 
industrial  clubs  for  the  women  of  France  and 
Russia  and  organized  social  centres  for  Ameri- 
can nurses  in  France.  A  war  fund  of  $5,000,- 
000  was  raised  in  1917-18.  By  the  end  of 
1918  nearly  100  hostess  houses  had  been  organ- 
ized and  built  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $2,000,000  in 
camps  throughout  the  United  States.  The 
Girl  Reserves  oiganized  by  the  Association  had 
a  membership  of  445,300  with  774  units  in 
47  States  A  housing  committee  rented  or 
built  vacation  houses,  dormitories,  cafeterias, 
and  hostels  in  11  centres  for  women  in  in- 
dustry, at  a  cost  of  more  than  $500,000.  In 
France,  15  hotels  and  social  centres  were  in 
operation,  21  huts  for  nurses  in  base  hospitals, 
and  18  centres  for  the  French  workingwomen. 
Work  in  France  wa»  carried  on  for  the  welfare 
of  women  specifically.  The  Association  under- 
took cemetery  work  in  France,  and  for  the 
benefit  of  women  who  went  to  France  to  visit 
the  graves  of  their  soldier  dead,  centres  were 
provided  in  1919  at  large  American  cemeteries 
Work  was  maintained  during  the  year  in 
Czecho-Slovakia,  Poland,  Italy,  Russia,  Bel- 
gium, Rumania,  the  Near  East  and  elsewhere. 
The  overseas  budget  for  1917  was  $4,128,145. 
In  1920  the  Association  had  59  centres  in 
Europe  and  the  Near  East,  with  118  secretaries; 
and  in  the  Orient  and  South  America,  32  centres 
with  118  secretaries.  During  1920  the  board 
conducted  40  10-day  summer  conferences  for 
girls,  with  a  total  attendance  of  10,840;  in  1923 
it  had  42  with  an  attendance  of  10,581.  Under 
the  Continuation  Committee  of  the  National 
War  Work  Council,  there  was  maintained,  dur- 
ing 1921-22,  certain  war  work  of  postwar  signi- 
ficance This  was  financed  from  the  balance 
of  sums  originally  appropriated  for  this  work 
from  war  work  funds.  In  1924  the  Association 


had  a  membership  of  545,000.  Its  real  estate 
was  valued  at  more  than  $40,000,000,  and  the 
gross  budgets  of  the  local  associations  amounted 
to  approximately  $25,000,000.  Aggressive  work 
continued  in  its  domestic  and  foreign  branches 
during  1923.  The  Association  has  an  official 
monthly  publication. 

YFRES,  BATTLES  OF.  See  WAR  IN  EUBOPE, 
Western  Front. 

YSER,  BATTLES  OF  THE.  See  WAR  IN  EUR- 
BOPE,  Western  Front. 

YUDENITCH,  NIKOLAI  (1862-  ).  A 
Russian  general,  educated  at  the  General  Staff 
College.  He  saw  service  in  Turkestan  and  in 
the  Kusso-Japanese  war  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  and  gradually  rose  in  rank  At  the 
beginning  of  the  War  he  rendered  great  service 
to  the  Allied  cause  as  commander  of  Russian 
forces  in  the  Caucasus,  and  when  in  1917  the 
revolution  caused  a  complete  breakdown  of 
Russia's  military  organization,  Yudcnitch  by 
a  masterly  retreat  succeeded  in  extricating  his 
men  from  a  difficult  position.  From  the  Baltic 
provinces  in  1920  he  attempted  to  overturn  the 
Soviet  regime  but  was  defeated. 

YUGOSLAVIA.     See  JUOO-SLAVIA. 

YUKON.  A  territory  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  bordering  on  Alaska.  Total  area,  207,- 
07G  square  miles.  Population,  in  1921,  4157 
(1911,  8512:  1901,  during  the  pold  boom,  27,- 
219).  Capital,  Dawson  City,  with  a  population 
of  975  in  1921,  as  against  3013  in  1911.  Mining 
was  the  chief  occupation.  The  gold  rained  from 
1885  to  1918  amounted  to  $198,000,000.  In 
1922  the  gold  output  was  54,450  ounces,  valued 
at  $1,125,705  Other  mmeials  produced  in  the 
latter  year  were  silver,  lead,  and  coal;  copper 
production  was  not  reported  after  1920.  In 
1921,  the  total  mineral  production  was  valued  at 
$1,929,000.  The  fisheries  continued  to  be  of 
some  importance.  There  were  1C  fur  farms  in 
1921.  Prior  to  1920  the  Yukon  was  governed 
by  a  gold  commissioner  and  a  territorial  council 
of  10  elected  members.  After  that  date  the 
membership  of  the  council  was  reduced  to  three. 


ZAGHLTTL,  SAAD  PASHA  (1850- 
).  An  Egyptian  premier, 
born  at  Ibian  in  the  province 
of  Gharbia,  and  educated  at  the 
university  at  El  Azhar,  founded 
by  the  great  Saladin.  In  1884  he 
began  to  practice  law,  and  in  1802  he  was  ap- 
pointed councillor  of  the  Court  of  Appeal.  In 
1900  he  became  an  able  minister  of  education. 
As  a  prominent  member  of  the  Nationalist 
party,  after  the  signing  of  the  Armistice  in 
1918  he  asked  for  recognition  of  Egyptian  in- 
dependence. He  based  his  appeal  on  the  self- 
determination  policy  which  the  British  govern- 
ment had  followed  witli  regard  to  other  coun- 
tries liberated  from  Turkish  rule.  When  he 
was  not  allowed  to  go  to  London  to  urge  this 
cause,  he  and  his  friends  exhibited  so  hostile 
an  attitude  that  they  were  arrested  and  deport- 
ed to  Malta.  This  action  aroused  the  country, 
and  many  were  killed  in  the  subsequent  out- 
breaks. Zaghlul  was  released  after  a  time  and 
finally  was  allowed  to  go  to  London.  When  he  re- 
turned in  1921,  however,  he  was  again  arrested 
and  deported  to  Ceylon.  On  Feb  28,  1922,  the 
British  declared  Egypt  independent,  except  for 
certain  "leserved  points"  Zaghlul  and  his  fol- 
lowers demanded  complete  independence,  and  in 
the  election  of  Januaiy,  1924,  they  received  a 
large  majority.  Zaghlul  was  made  premier  on 
Jan.  28,  1924. 

ZAHN,  ERNST  (1807-  ).  A  popular 
Swiss  novelist  (see  VOL.  XXIII).  His  later 
publications  include:  Einmal  Muss  icieder 
Fnede  Werden  (1910);  fUephan  der  Rchmied 
(1917),  translated  into  English  in  1920;  Die 
Mutter  (1917);  tichweizer  (1920);  Lotto  Ess- 
lings  Wille  und  Weg  (1921);  and  Das  Licht 
(1922). 

ZAIMIS,   ALEXANDER.     See  GREECE. 

ZANGWILL,  ISRAEL  (1804-1920).  A  Brit- 
ish author  (see  VOL.  XXI1T).  lie  was  very 
active  as  a  speaker  and  lectured  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland,  Jerusalem,  Holland,  and  the 
United  States.  During  the  War  he  was  a  pac- 
ifist. His  attempt  to  combine  all  the  Jewish 
organizations  in  a  plan  to  secure  the  Highlands 
of  Angola  as  the  Jewish  national  home  was  un- 
successful, and  he  later  declined  to  work  with 
the  Zionists  when  the  British  government  sup- 
ported a  plan  to  set  apart  Palestine  for  the 
Jews.  He  published  Too  Muah  Money  and 
Chosen  Peoples  (1918);  Jinny  the  Carrier 
(1919);  The  Voice  of  Jerusalem  (1920);  and 
Ibn  Gabriol's  Poems,  from  the  Hebrew  (1923). 
He  also  produced  the  plays,  The  Cockpit  (1921) 
and  The  Forcing  House  (1922). 

ZANZIBAR.  A  British  protectorate  of  East 
Africa  comprising  the  island  of  Zanzibar  (040 
square  miles),  the  island  of  Pemba  (380  square 
miles ) ,  and  several  islets.  The  population  of 
the  protectorate  was  estimated  at  some  197,000. 
By  the  1921  census  there  were  24,125  inhabitants 
not  native,  including  270  Europeans,  10,000 


1493 


Arabs,  and  12,900  British  Indian  subjects.  Zan- 
zibar town  had  35,000  inhabitants.  Cloves  and 
copra  continued  the  most  important  articles  of 
trade.  Others  were  rice  and  grain,  ivory,  and 
raw  cotton,  all  of  which  entered  into  the  transit 
trade.  Exports  steadily  mounted;  their  values 
in  1913,  1921,  and  1922  were  £1,048,300,  £3,- 
240,405,  and  £3,045,000.  Imports  similarly 
showed  increases;  their  values  for  1913,  1921, 
and  1922  were  £1,103,348,  £3,223,295,  and  £2,- 
844,200.  Leading  articles  of  import  were  cotton 
piece  goods,  rice  and  grain,  sugar,  motor  spirits, 
and  peti  oleum.  Of  the  total  trade  in  1922,  25 
per  cent  was  with  India  and  Burma,  20  per  cent 
with  Tanganyika  Territory,  14  per  cent  with 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  5  per  cent  with  the 
United  States.  Imports  from  the  United  States 
in  1922  (1913  figure  in  parentheses)  were  worth 
£r>2,407  (£28,790),  and  exports  to  the  United 
States  were  £142,103  (£48,317).  In  1913,  1,- 
502,920  tons  entered;  in  1922,  tonnage  was  788,- 
038.  Of  late  years,  the  importance  of  Zanzibar 
port  as  a  point  of  transhipment  and  as  a  dis- 
tributing centre  decreased,  owing  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mainland,  the  establishment  of  di- 
rect steamer  communication  between  coast  ports 
and  Europe,  and  the  growing  importance  of 
Aden.  The  local  traffic  was  retained.  Revenues 
increased  from  £275,120  in  1913  to  £445,594  in 
1923  (estimate).  For  the  same  years  expendi- 
tures were  £248,000  and  £545,121  (estimate). 
The  public  debt  at  the  end  of  1921  was  £100,000. 
In  July,  1913,  control  over  the  affairs  of  the 
protectorate  was  vested  in  the  Colonial  Office. 
The  reigning  sultan,  Seyyid  Khalifa  bin  Harud, 
whose  iniluence  over  the  natives  of  East  Africa 
was  great,  aided  considerably  in  keeping  the 
country  well  disposed  toward  Great  Britain  dur- 
ing the  War. 

ZAYAS,  ALFREDO.    See  CUBA. 

ZECKWEB,  CAMILLE  (1875-1924).  An 
American  composer,  born  at  Philadelphia.  He 
received  his  early  training  from  his  father  at 
the  Philadelphia  Musical  Academy,  then  studied 
for  two  years  (1893-95)  under  Dvorak  at  the 
National  Conservatory  in  New  York,  and  later 
under  Scharwenka  in  Berlin.  In  1915  he  be- 
came director  of  the  Germantown  branch  of  the 
Philadelphia  Musical  Academy.  In  1922  he  was 
the  first  recipient  of  the  newly  established  $1000 
prize  awarded  annually  at  the  Nortli  Shore 
Festival  (Evanston,  111.).  His  works  include  a 
symphonic  poem,  Sohrafo  and  Rustum;  Jade 
Butterflies  (North  Shore  Festival  prize)  ; 
Swedish  Fantasy  for  violin  and  orchestra;  a 
piano  concerto;  a  piano  trio,  a  piano  quartet, 
a  piano  quintet,  a  string  quartet,  and  two 
violin  sonatas;  Stire'nade  M6lancolique  for  violin, 
'cello,  and  piano;  The  New  Day,  cantata  for 
soli,  chorus,  and  orchestra;  piano  pieces;  cho- 
ruses; and  songs.  A  three-act  opera,  Jane  and 
Janetta,  had  not  yet  been  produced  in  1924. 

ZELENY,  CHARLES  (1878-  ).  An  Amer- 
ican zoologist,  born  at  Hutchinson,  Minn.,  and 


ZELENY 


1494 


ZINC 


educated  at  the  University  of  Minnesota  and 
the  University  of  Chicago.  He  was  instructor 
in  zoology  (1904-05),  assistant  professor  (1906- 
07),  and  associate  professor  (1907-00)  at  the 
University  of  Indiana;  and  assistant  professor 
of  zoology  (1909-10),  associate  professor  (1910- 
15),  and  professor  (1915-  )  at  the  University 
of  Illinois.  His  published  work  was  mainly  on 
regeneration  and  experimental  embryology. 

ZELENY,  JOHN  (1872-  ).  An  American 
physicist,  born  in  Racine,  Wis.,  and  educated  at 
the  University  of  Minnesota  and  at  Berlin  and 
Cambridge.  During  1892-96  he  was  instructor 
in  physics  at  Minnesota,  where  lie  was  professor 
(1908-15)  and  acting  dean  of  the  graduate 
school  (1912-13).  In  1915  he  was  called  to  the 
chair  of  physics  at  Yale,  where  he  has  since 
remained.  Among  his  original  investigations 
are  studies  on  the  conduction  of  electricity 
through  gases,  properties  of  ionized  gases,  elec- 
trical discharges  from  liquid  surfaces,  and  prop- 
agation of  smell. 

ZEMSTVOS,  ALL-RUSSIAN  UNION  OF.  See 
RUSSIA,  History. 

ZEPPELIN  AIRSHIPS.     See  AERONAUTICS. 

ZIMMERMANN,  ARTHUR  (1859-  ).  A 
German  statesman,  born  at  Frankenstein.  He 
entered  the  Foreign  Office  in  1902  in  a  subordi- 
nate capacity  and  in  1910  was  made  director  of 
the  political  section.  In  November,  1910,  he  be- 
came secretary  of  state  and  as  such  attempted  to 
incite  Mexico  to  an  attack  on  the  United  States 
and  suggested  that  Mexico  should  be  rewarded 
bv  the  gift  of  New  Mexico,  Texas,  and  Arizona. 
Disclosures  concerning  his  activities  and  those 
of  Bethma-Hollwcg  caused  the  downfall  of  the 
latter,  and  Zimmermann  was  forced  to  retire  on 
Aug.  6,  1917. 

ZINC.  In  the  period  between  1914  and  1924 
the  zinc  industry  passed  through  several  inter- 
esting phases,  particularly  in  the  United  States, 
where  for  a  time  there  was  an  extraordinary  de- 
velopment in  production.  In  1870  the  United 
States  produced  about  7000  tons  of  zinc,  but 
by  1917  its  output  was  almost  100,000.  With 
that  amount  attained,  both  the  mining  and  re- 
fining of  the  metal  were  placed  on  a  highly 
efficient  basis.  Jn  the  United  States  there  arc 
three  principal  kinds  of  zinc  ores-  first,  the 
zinc  lead  ores  of  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  and 
Oklahoma  regions,  found  in  an  area  of  some 
3000  miles,  located  at  the  point  of  intersection 
of  these  three  States,  and  also  the  zinc-lead  ores 
of  Wisconsin;  secondly,  the  remarkable  mine  of 
the  New  Jersey  Zinc  Company;  and  thirdly,  the 
mixed  ores,  chiefly  zinc-copper  and  zinc-lead,  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  is  in  this  field  that 
the  most  important  new  metallurgical  develop- 
ments were  made,  for  practicable  methods  were 
devised  for  concentrating,  roasting,  and  leach- 
ing zinc-copper  ores  and  producing  zinc  from 
solution  by  electrolysis;  the  residues  were 
treated  for  their  copper  content.  The  zinc 
electrolytic  plant  of  the  Anaconda  Copper  Com- 
pany at  Great  Falls,  Mont.,  had  in  1924  a 
capacity  of  150  tons  of  zinc  per  day,  while  the 
Butte  and  Superior  Company,  which  was  the 
largest  individual  zinc-producing  mine  in  the 
United  States,  concentrated  its  ores  by  flotation 
and  then  roasted  and  smelted  the  concentrates 
in  retort  furnaces.  The  ore  handled  by  this 
plant  was  from  10  to  30  per  cent  zinc,  and  in 
1916  this  mine  produced  90,000,000  pounds  of 
zinc. 

Inasmuch  as  most  of  the  zinc  is  utilized  for 


ZINO  PRODUCED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

1922  AND   1923 

United  States  Geological  Survey 

(In  short  tons) 


Arkansas        
Illinois    ....         

1922 
13,627 
70,200 
24,1<>7 
74,537 
57,319 
52,992 
55.309 

1923 
29,870 
93,239 
32,006 
119,744 
8J.003 
82.484 
71,088 

Kansas   
Oklahoma              
Pennsylvania 
Other  States    .          .      . 
Electrolytic 

Total  primary 

854,277 

510,434 

Prom  domestic  ore   .    . 
From  foreign  ore: 

353,274 

508,335 

•- 

2,099 

"55 
'918 
1,0(M 

Chile     
Mexico    

Total  foreign   .... 

Total   primary 
Redistilled   secondary 

Total 

2,099 

354,277 
32,988 

510,434 
159,900 

387,205 

550,334 

Grade  A        ... 
Grade  B       .    . 
Grade  C                   .    . 
Grade  D                     ... 

Total 

07.459 
36,402 
49  980 
233,424 

90,082 
58,636 
90,459 
311,157 

387,265 

550,334 

Average    selling    price 
per    pound 
Grade   A 
Grade   B    . 
Grade    0 
Grade    1) 
All   grades             .  •    . 

Total  value  of  output    . 

Cents 

60 
60 
5  6 
5  0 
5  7 

Cents 

7  1 
7.1 

fi  7 
6  7 
6  8 

$44,148,000 

$71,845,000 

Zinc   dust 
"Atomized" 
"Blue    powder" 

3,859 
-VI  9  4 

4.376 
3,676 

brass,  which  was  extennively  required  for  muni- 
tions during  the  War,  it  was  inevitable  that  the 
demand  for  zinr  should  be  stimulated  by  the 
great  contest.  Kaily  in  the  War  the  German 
armies  occupied  the  zinc-smelting  region  of  Bel- 
gium, BO  that  a  large  fraction  of  the  world's 
zine-smeltjiig  capacity  was  eliminated  at  a  time 
when  this  metal  was  most  needed.  Accordingly 
the  demand  for  /inc  became  urgent  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  price  rose  to  the 
point  where  large  profits  could  be  made  in 
working  the  various  deposits  and  smelting  the 
ores. 

Notwithstanding  increased  costs,  due  to  high 
wages  and  prices  of  materials,  the  scale  of  op- 
eration of  American  zinc  mines  and  smelters  in- 
creased, and  new  companies  were  started,  so 
that  where  zinc  production  in  the  United  States 
amounted  to  333,000  tons  in  1914,  it  increased 
in  1017  to  000,573  tons.  In  the  mid-continent 
field  natural  gas  was  used,  and  the  new  plants, 
although  hastily  constructed,  involved  impor- 
tant metallurgical  improvements.  Beginning 
with  1900,  zinc  ore  was  imported  into  the 
United  States  for  smelting;  considerable  zinc 
concentrate  was  brought  to  the  United  States 
from  Australia  in  1916.  Over  100,000  tons  of 
zinc  were  made  from  imported  ores  smelted  in 
the  United  States,  but  by  1918  the  production 
of  zinc  from  foreign  ores  had  declined  to  25,- 
000  tons,  and  by  1921  it  amounted  to  only  2208 
tons  out  of  a  total  production  of  218,093  tons. 

The  zinc  industry  was  also  a  source  of  sul- 
phuric acid  from  the  zinc  sulphate  concentrates, 
which  had  to  be  roasted  to  convert  them  to 


ZZKOVXEV 

oxide  for  further  treatment.  The  sulphur  di- 
oxide used  in  this  process  is  commonly  converted 
into  sulphuric  acid.  While  most  of  the  zinc 
produced  is  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  brass, 
nevertheless  the  decade  1914-24  saw  a  consider- 
able increase  in  the  manufacture  of  rolled  and 
sheet  zinc;  the  latter  is  manufactured  for  roof- 
ing and  also  for  boxes  and  various  stamped 
articles,  such  as  jar  tops,  etc.  In  addition  to 
the  metal  there  was  also  a  normal  increase  in 
the  consumption  of  /inc  oxide,  through  its  ex- 
tensive use  in  the  manufacture  of  automobile 
tires,  as  well  as  in  the  more  general  use  of 
zinc  pigments,  especially  in  enamel  paints 
Zinc  chloride  is  used  by  railroad  companies,  for 
the  preservation  of  ties,  and  by  other  consumers 
of  timber.  The  quantity  of  zinc  oxide  sold  in 
1923  was  practically  the  same  as  in  1922,  al- 
though the  price  increased  about  5  per  cent. 
The  sale  of  lithopone,  on  the  other  hand,  showed 
an  encouraging  increase,  nearly  18  per  cent,  and 
an  increase  in  price  of  7  per  cent 

ZINOVIEV,  GRIRORI  OVSEI  GEBSIION  ARON 
(1883-  ).  A  Russian  revolutionary  politi- 
cian In  1907  he  attended  the  London  confei 
ence  of  delegates  of  the  Russian  Social  Demo- 
cratic Labor  party,  of  which  he  was  an  active 
member.  In  1908  ho  seived  a  term  in  prison 
for  his  revolutionary  activities,  but  in  1909  he 
made  his  way  abroad  and  edited  The  tfoctal 
Democrat,  chief  organ  of  his  party.  After  the 
i evolution,  Zirioviev  became  a  member  of  the 
Petrograd  Soviet  and  in  1918  its  president. 
The  newspaper  J)cn  charged  that  he  had  been 
a  police  spy,  and  this  was  never  refuted,  yet  ho 
advanced  and  became  the  first  president  of  the 
Third  (Communist)  International  He  was  al- 
so president  of  the  Petrograd  Extraordinary 
Commission  for  combating  counterrevolution. 
As  a  member  of  the  Cheka  (Central  Committee) 
lie  took  a  leading  part  in  the  eiTort,  begun  in 
1924,  to  obtain  more  freedom  of  judgment  and 
action  within  the  ranks  of  his  party. 

ZIONISM.  The  outbreak  of  the  War  ended 
the  gradual  influx  of  Jewish  settlers  into  Pales- 
tine and  cut  off  the  funds  which  had  enabled 
them  to  maintain  themselves  and  their  institu- 
tions. The  Jewish  population,  which  had 
reached  100,000  in  1914,  began  gradually  to 
diminish  bec-ause  of  emigration.  A  Provisional 
Committee  for  Zionist  affairs  was  hurriedly  or- 
ganized in  America  under  the  chairmanship  of 
Louis  D.  Brandeis  to  prevent  the  disintegiation 
of  the  settlements  already  made  in  Palestine  and 
to  assist  the  settlers  until  the  ending  of  hostilities 
In  the  meantime  an  intensive  propaganda  was 
instituted  among  American  Jev\s  in  the  effort 
to  raise  sufficient  funds  to  compensate  for  the 
complete  breakdown  of  the  Zionist  organization 
in  Europe.  In  1910  conversations  began  be- 
tween the  leaders  of  the  Zionist  organization, 
headed  by  Dr.  Chaym  Weitzman,  a  Russian- 
born  Jew,  who  had  attained  a  position  of  prom- 
inence in  the  University  of  Manchester  (Eng- 
land), and  the  leaders  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, relative  to  the  creation  of  an  autonomous 
Jewish  settlement  in  Palestine.  Actuated  by 
the  double  motive  of  winning  the  united  sym- 
pathies of  the  Jews  for  the  Allied  cause  and 
the  creation  of  a  friendly  population  in  Pales- 
tine, which  borders  on  the  Suez  Canal,  Lord 
Arthur  Balfour,  in  November,  1917,  declared  the 
attitude  of  the  British  government  toward  Zion- 
ism favorable.  A  special  Jewish  battalion  \vm 
organized  under  the  leadership  of  Col.  John  II. 


ZOOLOGY 

Patterson  to  assist  in  the  reconquest  of  the  Holy 
Land.  Shortly  after  the  issuance  of  the  Balfour 
Declaration,  it  aided  in  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem. A  Zionist  Commission  was  sent  to  assist 
the  British  authorities  in  the  administration  of 
the  Jewish  homeland  In  the  meantime  prepa- 
rations were  begun  for  creating  a  large  Jewish 
university  on  Mt.  Scopus,  where  the  language 
of  instruction  was  to  be  Hebrew,  which  had 
been  revived  by  the  incoming  fcettlers. 

In  1920,  in  London,  the  firht  Zionist  Congress 
after  the  War  was  held  Plans  wore  diawn 
up  for  the  reorganization  of  the  Jews  of  the 
world  for  work  in  Palobtine  and  for  the  rais- 
ing of  a  fund,  called  the  Keiin  llayesod,  to  be- 
gin the  woik  of  financing  the  new  settlements. 
The  Halfour  Declaration,  originally  an  enunci- 
ation of  the  policy  of  Great  Britain  only,  waa 
ratified  by  the  Allied  statesmen  at  the  Confer- 
ence of  ^'an  Remo  and  in  1922  by  the  League  of 
Nations.  These  two  decisions  ma  iked  the  stabi- 
lization of  the  Zionist  political  position  and  the 
beginning  of  a  period  of  intense  activity  Jn  the 
summer  of  1921  Sir  lleibeit  Samuel,  an  Eng- 
lish Jew  of  Zionist  sympathies,  was  appointed 
by  the  Lloyd  George  goveinment  to  the  position 
of  High  Commissioner  of  Palestine  with  the  re- 
sponsibility of  maintaining  the  lights  of  the 
\aiious  contending  parties.  Jewish  immigrants, 
chk'ily  from  eastern  Kurope,  at  the  rate  of  1000 
a  month,  were  beginning  to  enter  the  country, 
they  \\ere  financed  by  the  International  Zionist 
Organization.  In  the  meantime  a  break  oc- 
cuiied  between  the  adherents  of  Judge  Louis  D. 
Urandeis  in  Ameuca  and  those  of  Dr  Weitz- 
man. The  official  organization,  ho\\ever,  re- 
mained under  the  con t ml  of  the  international 
leaders.  In  the  latter  part  of  1923  serious 
work  was  begun  for  the  extension  of  the  re- 
sponsibility for  the  lehabilitation  of  Palestine, 
which  was  borne  almost  entirely  by  the  Zionist 
organisation  and  by  Baron  Ediiiond  Rothschild 
of  Paris.  In  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the 
British  mandate,  a  Jewish  Agency  was  to  be  or- 
gani/ed  for  the  inclusion  of  Je>\s  who  were  not 
members  of  the  Zionist  organization.  In  the 
early  part  of  1924,  under  the  leadership  of  Louis 
Marshall  of  New  York  City,  foundations  for  this 
agency  were  laid,  as  well  as  for  the  unification 
of  all  Jewry  in  the  work  of  lebiuldmg  Pales- 
tine. During  this  period  the  influx  of  Jewish 
settlers  began  to  make  its  maik  on  the  country 
The  culthation  of  tobacco  uas  begun;  largo 
tracts  of  land  weie  bought  from  the  Arabs  foi 
purposes  of  culthatiori.  A  number  of  new 
schools  and  cultural  institutions  and  even  a 
Hebiew  opera  were  created.  The  Rutenberg 
scheme  for  the  electrification  of  the  country 
made  much  progress,  and  the  model  township  of 
Tel- Aviv  boasted  an  entirely  Jewish  population 
of  20,000  and  all  modern  conveniences.  The 
total  Jewish  population  was  in  1924  estimated 
at  100,000.  With  the  additional  funds  coming 
from  the  new  Jewish  agency  the  increase  of 
the  Jewiwh  population  was  expected  to  be  about 
20,000  per  annum.  See  PALESTINE';  JEWS  AND 
JUDAISM. 

ZIPS.  See  TEBCHEN,  ZIPS,  AND  OBAVA  QUES- 
TIONS. 

ZONING.     See  CITY  PLANNING. 

ZOOLOGY.  Since  Neolithic  man  had  a  con- 
siderable number  of  domesticated  animals,  it 
may  bo  Maid  that  the  study  of  zoology  bejfan 
>ery  eaily  in  the  history  of  man,  and  during 
the*  following  centuries  he  must  have  accumu- 


ZOOLOGY 


1496 


ZOOLOGY 


lated  considerable  information  concerning  the 
structure  and  habits  of  the  animals  which  he 
encountered.  Of  these  earlier  observations,  nat- 
urally, no  records  are  preserved  except  insofar 
as  they  became  incorporated  in  the  folklore  and 
tribal  histories  of  the  race,  and  zoology  as  a 
science  begins  with  the  work  of  Aristotle  (384- 
322  BC.)  in  his  History  of  Animals.  This  His- 
tory is  a  compilation  of  what  was  known  about 
animals  up  to  that  time  combined  with  the  re- 
sults obtained  by  the  large  number  of  field  nat- 
uralists whom  Aristotle  was  able  to  employ 
through  the  financial  assistance  given  him  by 
Alexander  the  Great.  In  addition,  and  this 
gives  the  History  the  character  of  something 
more  than  a  mere  compilation  of  information, 
Aristotle  attempted  a  classification  of  animals, 
in  which  he  arranged  them  in  groups  based  on 
their  structural  agreements  and  differences. 

In  the  following  centuries  zoology  shared  in 
the  fortunes  of  the  other  sciences,  showing  ad- 
vances when  freedom  of  thought  and  investi- 
gation were  allowed,  and  a  degeneration  into 
mere  repetition  of  traditional  dogmas  when,  as 
in  the  Dark  Ages,  conditions  were  unfavorable 
for  independent  investigation.  During  most  of 
this  time,  zoology  was  closely  bound  up  with 
medicine;  anatomy  was  of  much  importance  to 
physicians,  and  many  important  advances  in 
zoology  were  made  'by  physicians.  Much  of 
historical  interest  occurred  during  this  interval, 
and  by  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  a 
considerable  body  of  information  had  been  ac- 
cumulated, but  this  was  in  a  very  chaotic  con- 
dition Notable  as  the  first  successful  attempt 
to  reduce  these  facts  to  some  order  is  the  work 
of  Lin  11  am s  (1758)  to  whom  we  largely  owe 
the  concept  of  a  "species,"  as  well  as  the  system 
of  nomenclature  for  species  universally  em- 
employed  since  then.  The  Limiipan  concept  was 
that  at  some  time  in  the  past  there  were  in- 
dependently created  pairs  of  individuals,  male 
and  female,  differing  from  all  other  animals  in 
certain  definite  structural  characteristics,  and 
that  the  descendants  of  each  pair  retained  from 
generation  to  generation  the  essential  specific 
characters  given  to  their  first  parents  at  the 
time  of  their  creation.  Linnoms  noted  further 
that  the  differences  between  species  are  not  uni- 
form but  greater  in  some  cases  than  in  others; 
the  dog  and  the  fox,  for  example,  resemble  one 
another  much  more  closely  than  either  re- 
sembles a  cow;  so  it  is  possible  to  arrange 
species  into  groups  of  a  higher  order,  the  species 
in  eacli  group  resembling  one  another  more  than 
they  resemble  species  in  any  other  group.  Each 
of  these  higher  groups  he  called  a  genus.  Ac- 
cording to  Linnaeus,  this  grouping  of  individu- 
als into  species  and  of  species  into  genera  was 
a  part  of  the  original  plan  of  creation.  For 
convenience  of  reference,  he  proposed  to  give 
every  animal  a  double  name,  of  which  the  first 
word  should  indicate  the  genus,  the  second  the 
species,  to  which  it  belongs.  Thus  the  scientific 
name  of  the  dog,  cams  familiaris,  indicates  that 
it  belongs  in  a  genus  cania  to  \vhich  also  be- 
long the  fox  and  the  wolf,  while  its  structural 
differences  from  them  is  indicated  by  its  assign- 
ment to  a  distinct  species,  familiaris.  This 
"binomial"  system  proved  to  be  a  tool  of  the 
greatest  importance  for  the  zoologist,  and  in 
the  century  following  Linn  JIM  is  an  immense  num- 
ber of  genera  and  species  were  described  and 
named.  On  the  assumption  that  each  of  these 
species  represented  a  distinct  act  of  creation, 


this  recognition  and  description  seemed  a  suf- 
ficient end  in  itself. 

The  next  date  to  be  considered  is  1859,  when 
Daruin  published  The  Origin  of  Species,  and  the 
universal  acceptance  of  the  evolution  hypothesis 
which  followed  completely  revolutionized  zool- 
ogy. Belief  that  animals  have  a  blood  relation- 
ship to  one  another  naturally  made  the  recog- 
nition of  boundaries  between  species  seem  of  less 
importance,  and  taxononry,  or  the  classification 
of  animals,  accordingly  fell  more  or  less  into 
disrepute,  while  morphology,  combining  the 
study  of  adult  structure  with  the  embryonic  his- 
tory of  the  individual,  became  the  chief  line  of 
investigation.  (See  below,  Embryology  ) 

The  next  important  change  in  the  point  of 
view  of  the  zoologist  was  the  de\elopment  of 
the  experimental  method.  No  piecise  dale  can 
be  assigned  to  the  beginning  of  this  development, 
but  during  the  last  two  decades  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  and  through  the  first  quarter 
of  the  twentieth,  there  has  been  an  increasing 
use  of  this  method,  so  that  from  being  largely 
an  observational  science  zoology  is  rapidly  be- 
coming experimental.  New  fields  of  research 
have  been  opened  up,  each  demanding  its  own 
special  technique,  its  own  vocabulary,  and  in 
many  cases  its  own  special  journals,  so  that 
at  the  present  time  few  zoologists  are  able  to 
claim  intimate  acquaintance  with  more  than  a 
very  limited  portion  of  the  field.  Points  of  con- 
tact have  also  been  establibhed  with  other  sci- 
ences. The  zoologist  interested  in  the  study  of 
heredity  finda  that  his  interests  lie  very  close  to 
those  of  the  botanist  working  along  the  same 
lines,  and  he  is  apt  to  affiliate  with  the  latter 
rather^than  with  zoologists  in  general;  this  new 
affiliation  he  calls  a  society  of  geneticists.  (See 
HEKEDITY  )  In  another  direction,  the  zoologist 
finds  that  chemical  reactions  accompany  and 
probably  cause  certain  life  activities,  and  to  un- 
derstand these  he  must  affiliate  with  the  bio- 
chemist. (See  BIOCHEMISTRY.)  In  still  other 
directions  the  zoologist  finds  important  openings 
for  research:  along  economic  lines,  as  in  the 
relations,  especially  among  the  protozoa  and  the 
insects,  to  the  causation  and  transmission  of 
disease,  or  in  the  control  of  plant-feeding  insects 
which  offer  a  serious  problem  to  the  agricul- 
turalist. As  a  result,  zoology  at  the  present 
time  might  almost  be  considered  a  group  of 
closely  related  sciences  rather  than  a  distinct 
science.  In  all  of  these,  there  is  the  unifying 
principle  that  all  living  matter  is  in  the  last 
analysis  composed  of  protoplasm  having  similar 
structure  and  subject  to  certain  fundamental 
laws  wherever  it  occurs.  It  will  be  convenient 
to  consider  separately  some  of  the  more  im- 
portant of  these  subdivisions. 

Taxonomy.  The  classification  of  animals. 
According  to  the  older  notion  species  are  in- 
dependently created  groups.  According  to  the 
theory  of  evolution  they  are  related  to  one  an- 
other in  that  they  have  all  descended  fiom  a 
common  ancestor,  and  the  degree  of  structural 
resemblances  between  them  is,  within  ceitain 
limits,  an  indication  of  the  nearness  of  that 
relationship.  Working  on  this  hypothesis,  it 
is  obviously  of  less  importance  than  was  for- 
merly thought  that  we  should  endeavor  to  trace 
the  limits  of  species;  the  knowledge  of  a  few 
thousand  specific  names  is  no  longer  the  mark 
of  a  great  zoologist,  and  taxonomy  has  lost  its 
relatively  high  position  among  the  subdivisions 
of  the  science.  Where  taxonomy  still  has  valu- 


ZOOLOGY 


1407 


ZOOLOGY 


able  work  to  do  is  in  determining  the  arrange- 
ment of  animals  according  to  their  relationships, 
in  describing  new  forms  which  are  constantly 
being  discovered,  and  in  delimiting  the  bound- 
aries of  species 

While  it  is  difficult  to  formulate  an  adequate 
definition  of  species,  no  one  doubts  that  groups 
exist  to  which  this  name  properly  applies,  and 
it  seems  certain  that  differences  of  a  funda- 
mental nature  (possibly  chemical)  underlie 
these  visible  external  differences  which  are 
found  amon<r  species.  If  this  be  true,  it  fol- 
lows that  the  experimental  zoologist  should 
know  the  species  with  which  he  is  working,  and 
that  a  confusion  of  species  may  introduce  as 
many  errors  into  his  results  as  would  follow  the 
use  of  impure  reagents  by  a  chemist.  As  an 
illustration  of  the  practical  value  of  the  work 
of  the  taxonomiflt  may  be  cited  the  case  of  the 
sanitarian  interested  in  the  control  of  insect  - 
boine  diseases.  Yellow  fever  is  carried  by  one 
genus  of  mosquitoes  and  malaria  by  another, 
while  a  third  is  harmless  so  far  as  disease- 
carrying  is  concerned.  Obviously  an  accurate 
diagnosis  of  these  genera  is  essential  to  the  sani- 
tarian, and  for  this  information  he  must  look 
to  the  taxonomist. 

In  modern  classifications  the  entire  animal 
kingdom  is  divided  into  a  series  of  phyla.  As 
might  be  expected  from  the  theory  of  evolution, 
some  animals  have  developed  along  peculiar 
lines  so  that  their  relationships  to  others  are  ob- 
scure, and  they  are  grouped  differently  by  ^dif- 
eri'iit  taxonomists;  but  aside  from  some  minor 
differences  of  this  sort  there  is  general  agree- 
ment as  to  the  following  classification: 


Phj  him 

Protozoa. 

One-celled   animals. 

Phylum 

Porifora 

The    sponge^ 

Phylum  : 

Ccrlenterata 

Hvdra       nnd       hjdroids, 

Phjlum- 

Plathelmmthcs 

jellyfish,    and   corals 
The     flat  worms     (Turbcl 

laria),  liver  flukes,   lupe- 

•worms,    and    nemorteann 

Phylum  . 

Nomathclminthes 

The      threadworms,      tri- 

china, hookworm,  etc. 

Phylum  • 

Troohelmmthes. 

The  rotifers. 

Phylum 

Amiulata. 

The     segmented     worms, 

earthworm,     marine     an- 

nelids,   leech  cs,     and    ge 

phyreans 

Phylum: 

Molluscoidea. 

The  bryo/oa   and   brachi- 

opods. 

Phjluin: 

Arthropoda. 

Crustncen,     insects     spi- 

ders,  hcorpions,  and  cen- 

tipedes 

Phylum  : 

Mollusca. 

Clam  8,  snails,  and  cuttle- 

fishes 

Phylum  : 

Echmodermata. 

Starfish,  sea  urchins,  and 

crinoids 

Phylum  .     Ghordata 
S  u  bphylum  :    E  n  tcropn  oust  a 
Subphylum  :     Tunicata. 

Subphylum  •    Cephalochorda 
Subphylum.     Vertebrata 

Balanoglossus. 
The  "sc-a  squirts"    and 
tumcates 
Ampluoxus 
Vertebrate  animals. 

Each  phylum  is  further  subdivided  into  classes  and 
these  into  orders,  etc  For  the  smaller  subdivisions 
the  reader  should  consult  textbooks  See  below,  JBib- 
hogt  nphyt 

Physiology.  This  is  a  study  of  the  func- 
tions and  activities  of  the  organs  of  the  animal 
body,  and  thus  a  dynamic  as  distinguished 
from  a  purely  static  study  of  anatomy.  Origi- 
nally quite  distinct  from  anatomy,  except  in- 
sofar as  a  knowledge  of  the  structure  of  an 
animal  is  an  essential  preliminary  to  a  study  of 
its  activities,  the  distinction  hetween  the  two 
has  largely  disappeared  with  the  development 
of  the  experimental  method.  When  the  emhry- 
ologist  applies  the  experimental  method  to  the 
analysis  of  the  process  of  fertilization  of  the 


eg£  or  the  form-changes  going  on  in  the  devel- 
oping embryo,  he  is  using  the  methods  of  the 
physiologist.  The  physiologist  must,  on  the 
other  hand,  rely  on  the  biochemist  for  aid  in 
answering  many  of  his  problems,  especially  when 
appealed  to  for  assistance  by  the  morphologist , 
thus  these  three  meet  here  on  common  ground. 
Important  contributions  of  physiology  to  zool- 
ogy are,  first,  the  study  of  the  enzymes,  a  se- 
ries of  organic  substances  which  seem  to  be  simi- 
lar to  if  not  identical  with  the  catalytic  agents 
of  the  chemists  and  which  accompany  most  if  not 
all  of  the  fundamental  physiological  processes. 
This  similarity  to  catalytic  agents  in  their 
mode  of  working  has  led  to  the  belief  that  they 
are  practically  the  same,  and  thus  that  life  is 
merely  a  series  of  these  catalytic  activities. 
This  leads  to  the  mechanistic  conception  of  life 
as  really  nothing  but  a  phvflicochemical  proc- 
ess, a  theory  opposed  by  the  vital istic  school,  who 
hold  that  the  rcgulathe  powers  possessed  by 
animals  and  often  exhibited  in  their  ability  to 
adjust  themselves  to  new  and  unusual  conditions 
indicates  the  presence  of  a  regulative  mecha- 
nism independent  of  any  chemical  or  physical  ac- 
tivities going  on  in  the  protoplasm.  This  regu- 
lative mechanism  is  admittedly  beyond  the  reach 
of  any  scientific  analyses,  but  the  vitalist  be- 
lieves that  without  tlfe  assumption  of  its  pres- 
ence it  is  not  possible  to  explain  animal  activi- 
ties. At  present  it  seems  probable  that  the 
mechanistic  hypothesis  is  the  more  generally 
held. 

Another  physiological  contribution,  of  espe- 
cial importance  in  medicine  but  having  definite 
applications  in  zoology,  is  the  discovery  of  the 
important  part  played  by  the  glands  of  inter- 
nal secretion,  i  e.  the  endocrine  glands.  The 
presence  in  the  animal  body  of  gland-like  or- 
gans possessing  no  definite  ducts  has  long  been 
recognized,  and  they  have  generally  been  grouped 
together  as  the  "ductless  glands."  Until  late 
in  the  decade  1914-24,  their  function  was  large- 
ly a  matter  of  conjecture,  although  it  was  rec- 
ognized that  disease  of  these  ductless  glands 
was  correlated  with  definite  bodily  defects.  It 
is  now  known  that  some  of  these  glands,  possi- 
bly all,  secrete  into  the  blood  substances  known 
as  hormones  which  are  earned  by  the  blood  to 
other  parts  of  the  body  and  which  govern  the 
proper  development  or  functioning  of  those  parts. 
Thus,  if  the  pituitary  body  does  not  send  off 
the  proper  amounts  of  its  peculiar  hormone,  an 
abnormal  development  of  the  skeleton  results 
The  development  of  a  tadpole  into  a  frog  seems 
may  be  prevented  by  removing  the  thyroid  from 
the  tadpole,  while  on  the  other  hand  metamor- 
phosis will  be  hastened  if  extra  thyroid  be  fed 
to  the  animal.  The  development  of  second- 
ary sex  characters  at  the  time  of  puberty  seems 
to  be  dependent  on  the  hormones  formed  in  the 
maturing  sex  organs  at  this  time  and  discharged 
into  the  blood  to  be  cairied  to  other  pnits  of 
in  the  thyroid  gland,  and  this  transformation 
the  body;  the  effects  of  castration  or  lemovul  of 
the  sex  organs  in  hindering  the  development 
of  secondary  sex  characters  is  due  to  the  loss  of 
the  hormones  caused  by  the  operation.  In 
addition  to  hormones  which  produce  these  eas- 
ily recognizable  characters,  evidence  is  accumu- 
lating which  makes  it  seem  probable  that  any 
organ  in  the  body  is  capable  of  producing  hor- 
mones which  may  exert  some  influence  on  any 
other  organ  in  the  same  body.  This  possibility 
has  been  considered  in  recent  discussions  of  the 


ZOOLOGY 


1498 


ZOOLOGY 


inheritance  of  acquired  characters  (see  HERED- 
ITY ) ,  for  experimental  evidence  has  been  present- 
ed to  show  that  changes  set  up  in  certain  organs 
may  produce  changes  in  the  sex  cells  through 
the  action  of  hormones  and  in  this  way  may  set 
up  changes  in  the  next  generation.  At  the 
time  of  writing,  research  along  this  line  has 
only  just  begun,  and  few  definite  results  are 
available;  but  it  seems  certain  that  the  possi- 
dependent  on  the  presence  of  hormones  formed 
other  parts  through  the  action  of  hormones 
must  be  consideied  in  future  discussions  of  he- 
redity. 

The  widespread  phenomenon  of  luminescence  in 
animals  has  evidently  l>een  solved  by  physiol- 
ogy. A  large  number  of  animals,  of  'which  the 
firefly  is  the  most  familiar  example,  are  able 
to  produce  light  often  of  very  considerable  in- 
tensity, a  form  of  light  production  different 
from  any  artificial  methods  known  to  man  in 
that  there  is  no  appreciable  loss  of  energy  as 
heat.  This  has  made  the  study  of  animal  lu- 
minescence of  interest  to  practical  engineers,  in 
the  hope  of  applying  the  method  to  the  problem 
of  reducing  the  cost  of  the  present  wasteful 
methods  employed  in  all  artificial  lighting.  It 
has  been  B!IO\MI  that  animal  light  production 
is  due  to  the  oxidation  of  a  substance  called 
luciferin,  apparently  a  protein,  by  the  action 
of  luciferese,  an  enzyme.  This  light  in  the  fire- 
fly is  used  as  a  Hex  call,  while  some  deep-sea 
fishes  seem  to  employ  it  as  a  flash  light  to  illu- 
minate the  bottom  of  the  ocean  where  no  sun- 
light can  penetrate 

Tropisms.  The  study  of  animal  behavior  is 
of  interest  from  two  points  of  view.  One  is 
that  of  the  ecologist  \*ho  considers  the  purposive 
character  of  many  animal  activities  and  the 
way  in  which  these  activities  relate  the  indi- 
vidual to  its  enxiionment,  the  other  that  of 
the  physiologist  whose  problem  is  to  explain 
the  mechanisms  employed  in  these  processes. 
An  influential  school  of  physiologists  explain 
animal  behavior  by  the  theory  of  tropisms  As 
a  starting-point  in  the  exposition  of  this  theory 
we  may  follow  Jacques  Loeb,  who  ranks  as  its 
leading  exponent,  in  calling  attention  to  what 
are  known  as  '"forced  movements,"  or  peculiar 
behavior  shown  by  animals  in  which  a  portion 
of  the  brain  is  injured  or  diseased  If  food  be 
held  at  a  distance  in  front  of  a  normal  dog  he 
will,  naturally,  go  directly  toward  it.  If  this 
experiment  is  repeated  on  a  dog  in  which  a 
portion  of  one  cerehial  hemisphere  has  been  re- 
moved he  will  no  longer  go  directly  toward  the 
food,  but  in  attempting  to  do  HO,  will  continu- 
ally turn  toward  the  injured  side  and  thus  will 
move  in  a  circle  The  explanation  is  that  while 
in  the  normal  animal  forwnid  movement  is  pro- 
duced by  the  equal  contraction  of  the  leg  muscles 
on  the  two  sides  of  the  l>ody,  these  equal  con- 
tractions in  turn  being  due  to  equal  stimuli 
reaching  them  from  the  two  cerebral  hemispheres, 
in  the  injured  animal  stimuli  from  the  abnormal 
part  of  the  brain  are  more  or  less  suppressed 
and  so  lead  to  a  lesser  stimulus  on  one  side  than 
on  the  other.  As  a  result,  the  stronger  leg 
movements  on  one  side  bend  the  body  toward  the 
injured  side.  The  animal  does  not  circle  from 
any  desire  to  do  so,  hut  because  if  it  moves  at 
all  its  muscles  force  it  to  go  in  this  direction. 

In  the  well-known  tendency  of  some  insects 
to  go  toward  a  light,  the  tropism  theory  recog- 
nizes a  precise  analogy  to  the  forced  movements 
of  the  injured  dog.  If  the  common  fruit  flies 


droeophila  are  put  in  a  tube  and  the  tube  turned 
so  that  only  one  end  is  lighted,  or  one  end 
turned  toward  the  window  so  that  light  rays 
strike  that  end  before  they  do  the  other,  the 
flies,  if  they  move  at  all,  will  go  directly  to  the 
end  toward  the  light  If  the  tube  is  turned 
through  180°  they  will  again  go  toward  the 
lighter  end.  According  to  the  tropism  inter- 
pretation, these  movements  are  produced  as  fol- 
lows: If  the  insect  is  facing  the  light  at  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment,  light  rays  fall  with 
equal  intensity  on  the  two  eyes,  equal  stimuli 
are  sent  from  the  eyes  to  the  central  nervous 
system  and  from  there  to  the  leg  muscles,  the 
muscles  of  the  two  sides  are  equally  stimulated, 
and  the  animal  moves  directly  forward  Should 
the  insect  be  standing  so  as  not  to  face  the 
light  directly,  one  eye  will  recei\e  a  stronger 
stimulus  than  the  other;  this  unequal  stimulus 
leads  eventually  to  a  stronger  contraction  of  the 
muscles  on  one  side  of  the  body  than  on  the 
other  and  thus  turns  the  body  toward  the  less 
stimulated  side.  As  the  body  is  turned,  the 
eyes  are  eventually  brought  to  a  position  where 
they  receive  stimuli  of  equal  strength,  and  the 
animal  then  moves  toward  the  direction  of  the 
light  rays.  This  is  then  a  forced  movement  re- 
sulting from  the  action  of  the  light  rays  on 
the  physicochemical  make-up  of  the  animal's 
body  and  has  nothing  analogous  to  an  intelli- 
gent desire  to  go  to  the  brighter  region.  Simil- 
arly the  moth,  when  it  flies  into  a  candle  flame, 
does  so  because  the  physicochemical  composition 
of  its  body  responds  in  a  precise,  mechanical 
fashion  to  light  stimuli;  and  the  moth  if  it 
moves  at  all,  is  forced  to  go  in  that  one  direc- 
tion. 

In  the  illustrations  given,  the  tropism  is 
known  as  "positive"  because  the  animal  moves 
toward  the  source  of  the  stimulus.  Other  ani- 
mals show  a  "negative"  tropism  in  that  under 
these  same  conditions  they  collect  at  the  place 
farthest  from  the  source  of  the  stimulus.  A 
reversal  of  this  tropism  may  appear,  however,  in 
that  a  "positive"  animal  may  become  "negative," 
and  vice  versa.  This  reversal  is  explained  by 
Loeb  as  due  either  to  a  modification  of  the  photo- 
chemical processes  or  to  an  effect  on  the  nervous 
system  and  may  be  experimentally  produced  in 
the  laboratory  by  subjecting  the  animals  to 
chemical  or  mechanical  treatment.  It  also  fre- 
quently occurs  in  nature  as  when  the  larvae  of 
a  barnacle  are  strongly  positive  to  light  at  the 
time  of  hatching  and  become  equally  strongly 
negative  when  they  are  a  little  older.  This  re- 
action to  light  is  called  heliotropism.  Other 
tropisms  are  known  as  chemotropism,  gal- 
vanotropism,  thermotropism,  rheotropism,  ame- 
motropism,  stereotropism,  and  geotropism,  ac- 
cording as  the  stimulating  agent  is  chemical, 
electrical,  heat,  current  of  water,  current  of  air, 
contact  with  solid  bodies,  or  force  of  gravity 
The  responses  of  animals  to  these  various 
stimuli  are  frequently  quite  marked  and  are 
all,  according  to  the  tropism  theory,  purely 
forced,  mechanical  movements  resulting  from 
the  stimuli  acting  on  the  physicochemical  com- 
position of  the  complex  of  structures  making  up 
the  body  of  the  animal.  By  Jacques  Loeb  this 
tropistic  explanation  is  extended  to  cover  all 
animal  activities  even  to  the  so-called  higher 
intellectual  and  emotional  processes  in  man. 

Some  experiments  on  insects  are  difficult  to 
explain  on  this  theory.  According  to  it,  the 
constantly  acting  influence  of  the  light  rays 


ZOOLOGY 


1499 


ZOOLOGY 


keeps  an  animal  turned  in  the  proper  direction, 
and,  ao  to  speak,  steers  it  in  the  way  it  should 
go;  but  a  firefly  on  receiving  a  flash  from  his 
mate  will  turn  and  go  directly  to  her,  even 
though  the  flash  is  but  temporary  in  duration 
and  the  greater  part  of  his  journey  is  carried  on 
in  the  dark.  This  observation  was  recorded  by 
Mast,  who  has  also,  as  a  result  of  a  ret^xami na- 
tion of  the  "orienting"  reactions  of  insects,  con- 
cluded that  even  in  these  cases  the  effective 
stimuli  are  not  symmetrically  applied  as  the 
tropism  theory  maintains,  and  the  process  of 
adjustment  is  really  a  reflex  action.  A  similar 
explanation  would  be  given  of  all  of  the  other 
tropisms.  Students  of  behavior  also,  notably 
those  who  have  worked  with  the  higher  hymen- 
optcra  such  as  the  wasps,  are  generally  agreed 
that  it  is  impossible  to  explain  their  activities 
as  tropisma,  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  has 
been  defined  above.  The  term  tropism  with  the 
appropriate  prefix  is  convenient  as  a  descriptive 
term  and  is  often  so  used  without  neces- 
sarily implying  the  tropistic  interpretation  of 
the  mechanisms  employed.  In  the  recent  de- 
velopment of  physiology,  this  tropistic  concept 
has  been  of  very  great  value  as  a  stimulus  to 
investigation,  and  its  importance  as  such  would 
not  be  lessened  even  if  its  final  conclusions  are 
overt  brown 

Sex  Determination.  For  practical  ks  well 
as  sentimental  reasons  the  subject  of  sex  deter- 
mination has  received  an  immense  amount  of 
attention.  The  breeder  of  cows  or  the  breeder 
of  chickens  for  egg  production  could  greatly  in- 
crease his  profits  if  be  could  control  the  sex 
of  his  animals  so  as  to  produce  a  large  excess  of 
females,  and  in  human  society  desire  is  often 
expressed  for  offspring  of  one  sex  rather  than 
another.  The  generally  accepted  explanation 
at  the  present  time  is  based  on  the  number  of 
chromosomen  in  the  sex  cells.  In  the  nucleus 
of  each  cell  in  the  body  is  a  substance  called 
chromatin,  which,  at  the  time  the  cells  divide, 
groups  into  bodies  known  as  chromosomes.  The 
number  of  these  chromosomes  is  constant  in  any 
one  species  and  is  generally  even.  The  excep- 
tions to  this  rule  are  where  in  a  number  of  ani- 
mals one  sex  is  found  to  have  regularly  one 
more  chromsome  than  the  other.  In  the  best- 
known  cases,  those  of  some  of  the  insects,  the 
female  has  an  even  number  and  the  male  one 
less,  or  an  odd  number.  Ordinarily  the  chromo- 
somes occur  in  definite  pairs,  and  this  odd  one, 
in  the  case  cited,  is  recognisable  as  equivalent  to 
one  of  a  certain  pair  in  the  female.  These  are 
known  technically  as  the  "X"  chromosomes,  so 
that  the  female  has  two  X's,  the  male  only  one. 
In  other  rases  the  number  in  the  male  is  even, 
due  to  the  presence  of  a  UY"  chromosome,  which, 
however,  does  not  act  as  a  mate  to  the  X,  so 
that  so  far  as  the  X  is  concerned,  its  presence  or 
absence  seems  a  matter  of  indifference.  In  the 
peculiar  series  of  processes  known  as  maturation 
through  which  the  sex  cells  pass  before  they 
unite,  division  is  such  that  each  mature  egg 
cell  contains  only  one  X,  while  among  the 
spermatozoa  one-half  have  one  X,  and  the  rest 
have  none.  If  a  spermatozoon  with  one  X  fer- 
tilizes an  egg,  the  result  is  a  cell  with  two  X's, 
and  a  female  results.  If  the  egg  is  fertilized 
by  a  spermatozoon  having  no  X,  the  resulting 
individual  is  male.  If  this  explanation  is  cor- 
rect it  follows  that  sex  is  determined  at  the 
time  of  fertilization  of  the  egg  and  not  by  later 
agencies  operating  on  the  developing  embryo. 


In  some  other  animals  this  chromosomal  action 
is  reversed  in  that  it  is  the  male  who  has  the 
even  number,  one  more  than  the  female.  Recent 
work  indicates  that  this  is  not  due  either  to 
a  greater  or  less  quantity  or  to  peculiar  quality 
of  the  X  chromatin  but  rather  to  a  certain  pro- 
portion between  the  number  of  chromosomes  and 
the  other  chromosomes  or  "autosomea."  Obser- 
vations by  Bridges  on  the  fruit  fly  show  a  posi- 
tive correlation  between  the  varying  numerical 
proportions  of  these  two  kinds  of  chromosomes 
and  the  normal  and  abnormal  sex  conditions  in 
the  adult  flies. 

Embryology.  Reproduction  in  animals  is  ac- 
complished by  both  asexual  and  sexual  methods. 
In  the  former  case,  there  is  either  a  growth  of 
a  bud  from  the  surface  or  a  division  of  the  body 
into  two  parts,  followed  by  a  growth  of  the 
bud  or  separated  portions  until  the  full  adult 
size  is  reached.  Sexual  reproduction  is  the  de- 
velopment of  a  new  individual  from  a  specialized 
cell,  the  ovum  or  egg,  derived  from  the  ovary  of 
the  female,  and  this  egg  either  develops  without 
further  treatment,  a  condition  known  as  par- 
thenogenesis and  of  frequent  occurrence  among 
insects,  or  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  fuses 
with  a  spermatozoon  derived  from  the  testis 
of  the  male,  and  this  product,  the  fertilized 
ovum,  is  the  starting-point  of  the  new  individ- 
ual. By  repeated  divisions  of  this  fertili/ed  egg 
and  its  descendant  cells  a  many-celled  body  is 
formed  in  which  differentiations  arise,  and 
finally  the  completed  animal  with  its  complex  of 
organs  appears.  Observations  on  the  develop- 
ing embryo  in  the  hen's  egg  are  easily  made  and 
were  described  as  early  as  1021  by  Harvey, 
whose  dictum,  "Omno  ovum  ex  ovo,"  dates  from 
this  time.  The  foundation  of  modern  embryol- 
ogy was  laid  by  von  Baer,  who  discovered  the 
mammalian  ovum  in  1828.  In  his  completed 
work,  published  in  1834,  \on  Baer  demonstrated 
the  existence  of  the  primary  "germ  layers" 
which  occur  in  all  of  the  metazoa.  In  this 
same  work  he  announced  the  discovery,  since 
known  as  von  Baer's  law,  that  in  passing  from 
the  egg  to  the  adult  state  the  embryo  of  a  high- 
er form  goes  through  stages  in  which  it  re- 
sembles th«  embryo  of  lower  foims. 

Louis  Agassiz  pointed  out  that  in  thus  pass- 
ing from  the  one-celled  egg  to  the  adult  con- 
dition an  embryo  passes  through  a  series  of 
stages  in  which  it  resembles  a  series  which 
would  l>e  formed  if  we  arranged  adult  animals 
in  order  of  increasing  structural  complexity 
from  the  simple  protozoa  to  the  higher  metazoa, 
and  he  argued  that  this  and  the  series  of  von 
Baer  were  prearranged  by  the  Cieator  at  the  be- 
ginning in  order  to  demonstrate  his  plan  of 
creation.  A  different  interpretation  was  later 
put  on  these  facts  by  the  evolutionists,  who 
recognized  in  these  series  of  embryonic  stages  a 
recapitulation  of  the  ancestral  history  of  the 
race.  The  German  zoologist  Haeckel  was  the 
most  prominent  advocate  6f  this  theory,  and 
largely  through  his  influence  it  was  generally 
believed  that  a  fairly  accurate  history  of  the 
ancestry  of  an  animal  could  be  obtained  through 
a  study  of  its  embryonic  stages.  During  the 
1870's  and  1880's,  this  belief  was  the  inspiration 
of  a  great  deal  of  descriptive  embryology,  but 
this  phase  of  the  subject  has  been  very  largely 
given  up,  partly  because  of  the  discovery  that 
may  embryonic  characters  aie  newly  acquired 
and  not  ancestral,  and  partly  because  of  the 
shifting  of  interest  to  the  experimental  method. 


ZOOLOGY 


1500 


ZOOLOGY 


This  law  of  von  Baer  is  by  no  means  abandoned, 
but  embryologists  generally  recognize  that  its 
application  is  limited  to  more  generalized  char- 
acters and  does  not  extend  to  the  finer  details. 
By  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  embry- 
ologists were  divided  into  two  groups,  descrip- 
tive and  experimental.  The  descriptive  embry- 
ologists, following  the  lines  laid  down  by  von 
Baer,  were  studying  with  constantly  improving 
technique  the  normal  development  of  animals 
and  had  accumulated  much  information  of  a 
purely  descriptive  character.  A  speculation  as 
to  the  real  composition  of  the  fertilized  egg 
arose  from  this  work  The  e^g  appears  to  be 
perfectly  homogeneous,  but  out  of  it,  after  re- 

rted  divisions,  arises  a  differentiated  body, 
the  homogeneity  merely  appaient  and  does 
the  egg  contain  materials  of  different  kinds 
which  are  separated  from  one  another  by  the 
division  processes,  or  is  it  real  and  does  dif- 
ferentiation depend  on  the  position  of  the  cell 
in  the  complex  and  its  relation  to  surrounding 
cells?  This  and  similar  questions  led  to  ex- 
perimental embryology,  and  while  with  the 
twentieth  century  descriptive  embryology  has 
brought 'out  much  new  information  about  the 
normal  development  of  animals,  the  experi- 
mental method  has  largely  overshadowed  it  in 
interest.  One  answer  to  the  question  was 
sought  through  the  method  of  cell  lineage.  This 
consists  in  following  the  developing  egg  cell  by 
cell  until  different  regions  or  organs  of  the 
adult  body  are  outlined.  From  learning  in 
this  way  the  origin  and  fate  of  each  cell,  it  was 
found  that  in  many  cases  the  pattern  of  the 
cleavage  is  so  regular  and  the  relation  of  cer- 
tain cells  to  certain  organs  so  definite  and  cer- 
tain as  to  indicate  that  cleavage  is  really  a 
separation  of  different  kinds  of  material  from 
one  another.  In  some  animals  this  conclusion 
seems  the  more  certain,  because  from  the  be- 
ginning certain  portions  of  the  eggs  differ  from 
the  remainder  in  color  and  apparently  follow 
definite  and  prearranged  paths  until  they  give 
rise  to  definite  organs  in  the  new  individual. 
Even  where  there  is  not  this  visible  distinction 
the  regularity  of  the  divisions  indicates  a 
similar  though  invisible  condition. 

A  second  line  is  more  definitely  experimental. 
Developing  eggs  are  mutilated  in  various  ways, 
as  by  the  separation  of  the  cells  from  one  an- 
other in  the  early  cleavage  stages,  and  a  study 
is  made  of  the  behavior  of  the  resulting  separat- 
ed blastomeres.  Others  are  treated  chemically 
in  surh  a  way  as  to  alter  the  osmotic  pressure 
or  the  chemical  nature  of  the  environment.  In 
this  fashion  an  experimental  analysis  of  the 
forces  at  work  in  and  on  the  embryo  may  be 
made.  In  later  stages  operative  interference 
with  normal  developmental  processes  is  em- 
ployed for  the  same  purpose.  These  later  meth- 
ods are  such  as  removing  the  spinal  cord  of  an 
amphibian  embryo  and  replacing  it  end  for  end, 
or  removing  arms  from  similar  embryos  and 
grafting  them  into  other  parts  of  the  body. 
The  general  purpose  of  all  of  these  experiments 
is  to  secure  data  bearing  on  the  question  of  how 
far  an  organ  is  self-differentiating,  and  how  far 
its  differentiation  is  a  result  of  influences 
brought  to  bear  on  it  from  neighboring  organs. 
For  a  discussion  of  the  results  obtained  by  these 
experiments  consult  titles  given  in  the  bibliog- 
raphy 

Some  eggs,  as  in  many  insects,  develop  par- 
thenogenetically,  while  others  normally  require 


fertilization  by  a  spermatozoon.  In  many  eggs 
of  this  latter  type,  it  has  been  found  possible  to 
induce  parthenogenesis  by  artificial  means.  The 
agent  employed  may  be  a  change  in  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  surrounding  medium ;  for  ex- 
ample, adding  certain  chemicals  to  the  water 
in  the  case  of  water-living  animals,  or  by 
mechanical  means  such  as  shaking;  and  Jacques 
Loch  has  succeeded  in  producing  parthenogenetic 
development  in  the  frog  up  to  sexually  mature 
individuals  by  simply  pricking  the  egg  with  a 
needle.  It  would  appear  that  one  function  of 
the  spermatozoon  is  to  stimulate  the  egg  to  de- 
velop, and  this  function  may  be  replaced  by 
other  agents.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
even  in  the  mechanical  stimuli  a  chemical  change 
is  the  ultimate  cause  of  the  development,  and 
Lillie  has  recognized  this  chemical  process  in 
the  working  of  a  substance  called  fertilizin 
which  is  secreted  by  the  egg  and  which  when 
it  comes  in  contact  with  a  spermatozoon  sets 
free  a  substance  acting  as  a  stimulus  to  develop- 
ment. Loeb,  on  the  other  hand,  considers  that 
anything  which  can  produce  an  egg  membrane 
is  an  efficient  stimulus  and  will  start  the  de- 
velopmental process. 

Evolution.  Darwin  succeeded  where  his 
predecessors  failed,  partly  because  of  his  formu- 
lation of  the  theory  of  natural  selection  as  a  fac- 
tor in  evolution,  but  it  seems  probable  that  his 
successors  overemphasized  the  seventy  of  the 
struggle  for  existence  and  the  consequent  im- 
portance of  natural  selection.  In  more  recent 
times  the  validity  of  this  hypothesis  as  the  chief 
factor  in  evolution  has  been  seriously  called  in 
question,  even  to  the  extent  of  its  abandonment. 
While  this  latter  position  is  certainly  too  ex- 
treme, it  is  true  that  there  are  many  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  explaining  how  slight  variations 
could  have,  as  Darwin  supposed,  selective  value; 
and  it  seems  reasonable  to  believe  that  while 
natural  selection  can  operate  on  variations  after 
they  have  appeared,  it  is  not  a  valid  explan- 
ation of  their  appearance.  A  widespread  and 
unfortunate  misunderstanding  arose  through 
the  assumption  by  the  strict  natural  selection- 
ists of  the  name  "Darwinian."  Since  in  the 
popular  mind  Darwinism  and  evolution  are 
synonymous,  i  ejection  of  Darwinism  by  zool- 
ogists is  understood  to  mean  rejection  of  evolu- 
tion. Used  in  this  sense,  Darwinism  means 
merely  one  explanation  of  evolution,  and  that 
not  the  most  widely  held. 

A  large  number  of  zoologists  join  with 
botanists  in  ascribing  the  origin  of  new  species 
and  new  adaptations  to  mutation,  a  position 
which  we  very  largely  owe  to  the  work  of  the 
botanist  De  Vries.  Any  group  of  plants  or  ani- 
mals, considered  with  respect  to  any  particular 
character,  will  show  a  considerable  range  of 
variability  for  that  character,  varying  in  both 
directions,  above  and  below  the  mean  or  av- 
erage. Darwin  thought  that  selection  of  ex- 
treme variates  above  or  below  the  mean  and  a 
breeding  from  these  variates  would  result  in  a 
new  range  of  variability  in  the  selected  direc- 
tion and  the  establishment  of  a  new  mean. 
Practically  all  the  results  obtained  by  experi- 
ment along  these  lines  have  negatived  this  con- 
clusion, and  it  generally  happens,  if  not  al- 
ways, that  the  offspring  of  an  extreme  variant 
normally  arrange  themselves  around  the  mean 
of  the  whole  race  irrespective  of  the  degree  of 
variation  of  the  parent.  The  mutation  theory 
supposes  that  from  some  cause  which  is  not  un- 


ZOttLOGtY 


1501 


ZOOLOGY 


derstood  but  which  certainly  exists,  there  ap- 
pear at  intervals  changes  in  the  hereditary 
material  such  as  to  lead  to  the  establishment  of 
a  new  mean  with  a  new  range  of  variability. 
Such  a  change  is  called  a  mutation.  A  muta- 
tion may  be  very  slight  in  amount,  so  as  to  re- 
semble a  mere  individual  variation,  or  it  may 
be  large  as  in  the  fruit  fly,  when  the  normal 
rod  eye  is  replaced  by  a  white  one.  In  any  case 
it  is  recognizable  by  its  heritability  and  its  es- 
tablishment of  a  new  mean.  It  is  believed 
that  natural  selection  first  operates  after  this 
mutation  has  appeared  and  determines  whether 
or  not  it  shall  survive.  Natural  selection,  then, 
as  De  Vries  has  expressed  it,  "has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  arrival  of  a  species  but  determines 
its  survival." 

The  Lainarckian  theory  of  the  inheritance 
of  acquired  characters,  so  widely  accepted  by 
most  post-Darwinian  writers,  was  as  a  result  of 
the  work  of  Weismann  largely  abandoned;  but 
later  experiments  indicated  that  it  might  possi- 
bly be  rehabilitated  as  a  factor  in  evolution. 
(See  HEREDITY  )  Rome  observers  secured  results 
which  seem  to  indicate  that  instead  of  variations 
appearing  as  Darwin  supposed,  in  all  directions 
around  a  mean,  they  have  occurred  only  in  cer- 
tain definite  lines  as  if  predetermined  from  the 
beginning;  i.e.  ns  if  tlie  composition  of  the 
germ-plasm  of  the  race  is  such  that  variations 
can  only  occur  in  a  few  limited  directions. 
Kimer,  working  on  insects,  and  Whitman,  on 
the  development  of  the  color  pattern  of  pigeons, 
got  evidence  in  favor  of  this  theory,  called  or- 
thogenesis. An  illustration  of  the  supposed 
working  of  this  factor  would  appear  in  the  case 
of  the  Irish  elk,  extinct  apparently  because  of 
the  overdevelopment  of  its  horns,  which  becamo 
HO  large  and  unwieldy  as  to  lead  to  the  death 
of  the  animal.  Spencer  cited  this  as  a  case  of 
inheritance  of  acquired  characters  where  the 
horns  eventually  became  large  through  much 
iibc  and  proved  a  fatal  handicap  in  the  strug- 
gle for  existence.  Since  serious  difficulties  ap- 
pear in  the  way  of  accepting  the  Lamarckian 
hypothesis,  orthogenesis  is  proposed  as  an  al- 
ternative explanation. 

Histology.  With  increasing  perfection  of 
microscopic  technique,  anatomists  studied  more 
and  more  thoroughly  the  finer  details  of  animal 
and  plant  structure,  and  this  microscopic  in- 
vestigation eventually  developed  into  a  distinct 
subdivision  of  anatomy  called  histology  This 
concerns  itself  very  little  with  the  structure  of 
protoplasm  or  of  the  undiffcrentiated  cell  but 
deals  mainly  with  the  differentiated  condition  of 
cells  as  they  appear  in  combination  to  form  the 
various  tissues  of  the  body.  This  study  may 
be  directed  toward  the  normal  structure  of  tis- 
sues, or  it  may  deal  with  their  appearance  under 
abnormal  or  diseased  conditions.  In  the  diag- 
nosis and  treatment  of  many  diseases,  a  com- 
parison of  the  normal  with  the  diseased  condi- 
tion is  often  of  very  great  practical  importance. 

Cytology.  More  recently  cytology,  or  the 
division  of  miscroscopic  anatomy  which  studies 
especially  the  undifferentiated  protoplasm  and 
the  structure  of  the  simple  cell,  has  received 
especial  attention.  While  the  earlier  cytologists 
thought  they  recognized  visible  structures  in 
protoplasm,  the  later  tendency  was  to  regard 
most  of  these  structures  as  artefacts  or  abnor- 
malities resulting  from  the  manipulation  to 
which  the  material  must  necessarily  be  subjected 
in  order  to  study  it,  and  to  think  of  protoplasm 


as  a  complex  colloidal  compound  which  may 
in  whole  or  in  part  change  from  a  sol  to  a 
gel  condition  and  lack  again,  these  changes  be- 
ing in  some  way  connected  with  the  life  mani- 
festations of  the  protoplasm.  Two  kinds  of 
material  are  recogni/able  in  the  cell,  the  nucleo- 
plasm  inside  and  the  cytoplasm  outside  of  the 
nucleus,  differing  from  one  another  in  their 
physicochemical  composition  and  containing  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  materials.  In  the  nucleus  is  the 
chromatin  which  has  been  shown  to  have  very 
great  importance  in  the  life  of  the  cell  and  is  an 
important  agent  in  the  transmission  of  heredi- 
tary qualities.  More  than  any  other  portion 
of  the  cell  the  behavior  of  this  chromatin  dur- 
ing cell  division  by  mitosis  has  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  cytologists.  Still  later,  attention  was 
turning  to  the  study  of  cytoplasmic  inclusions 
known  as  chondrioeomes  and  Golgi  apparatus, 
structures  which  lie  in  the  cytoplasm  and  which, 
owing  to  concentration  of  attention  on  the  chro- 
matin, were  largely  ignored  by  earlier  cytolo- 
gists. Opinions  differ  as  to  wnether  these  are 
merely  temporary  structures  in  the  cytoplasm  or 
permanent  organs  with  some  possible  function  in 
heredity. 

Ecology.  This  is  a  study  of  the  living  organ- 
ism in  its  natural  environment  with  especial 
reference  to  the  reasons  why  it  should  be  in 
that  environment  rather  than  in  some  other. 
In  the  environment  of  an  animal  would  be  in- 
cluded climatic  conditions,  chemical  composition 
of  the  water  or  soil  in  or  on  which  it  lives,  loca- 
tion of  its  food,  presence  or  absence  of  enemies, 
and  conditions  governing  mating  and  care  of  the 
young.  Adams  divides  the  subject  into  three 
aspects:  individual,  in  which  a  particular  kind 
of  animal  is  studied  throughout  its  range  of  dis- 
tribution ;  aggregate,  where  the  taxonomic  unit 
or  family  is  traced  throughout  its  early  history; 
and  associational,  in  which  the  animal  or  group 
of  animals  is  studied  with  reference  to  its  associ- 
ation with  other  organisms.  Ecology  as  thus  de- 
fined has  received  little  consideration  as  com- 
pared with  the  amount  of  research  devoted  to 
morphology,  embryology,  and  physiology.  A 
rather  cheap  criticism,  frequently  expressed  in 
this  connection,  is  apparently  based  on  the  as- 
sumption that  studying  an  animal  under  a  micro- 
scope or  in  a  laboiatory  in  some  way  alters  its 
character,  so  that  what  is  there  seen  is  un- 
natural and  abnormal.  The  absurdity  of  this 
extreme  position  is  sufficiently  obvious,  but  it  is 
certainly  true  that  the  point  of  view  of  the  old 
time  naturalist  has  been  too  much  ignored  and 
that  its  reappearance  under  the  newer  name  of 
ecology  is  a  sign  of  progress. 

It  seems  probable  that  associational  ecology 
offers  the  most  interesting  field.  A  study  of  this 
sort  would  include,  first,  a  list  of  the  species  of 
animals  and  plants  living  in  a  given  locality, 
and  then  a  consideration  of  the  various  factors 
that  have  brought  them  together.  The  climatic 
and  the  soil  conditions  would  be  of  much  impor- 
tance, but  the  main  interest  would  lie  in  a  study 
of  the  relationships  existing  between  the  compo- 
nent species  of  the  association.  These  relation- 
ships may  be  hostile,  as  where  one  animal  feeds 
on  another;  mutually  beneficial  or  symbiotic  as 
in  the  case  of  the  sea  anemone  carried  on  the 
shell  of  a  crab;  commensal  as  in  the  small  crab 
living  in  the  oyster  shell,  where  neither  animal 
is  benefited;  or  parasitic,  uhere  one  lives  per- 
manently attached  to  the  body  of  the  other;  or 
they  may  merely  amount  to  an  occupation  of  the 


ZOOLOGY 


1502 


ZWEIO 


same  general  territory  without  the  animal*'  hav- 
ing any  very  definite  influence  on  one  another. 
The  breeding  habits  of  component  species  would 
also  bo  considered  in  reference  to  their  modifica- 
tion through  the  association.  It  is  not  to  be 
understood  that  in  all  cases  definite  and  precise 
reasons  can  be  assigned  for  the  distribution  of 
animals,  for  because  of  their  locomotor  powers 
their  appearance  in  a  given  locality  might  be 
quite  accidental  Carefully  conducted  observa- 
tions should,  however,  separate  the  accidental 
from  the  definitely  significant  distributions.  A 
study  of  this  sort  might  cover  a  considerable 
area,  or  it  might  be  quite  limited,  as  for  ex- 
ample, the  ant  colonies  studied  by  Wheeler, 
where  in  a  very  restricted  area  associations  ex- 
ist between  a  considerable  number  of  animals, 
and  complicated  ecological  conditions  icHiilt. 

Death.  A  question  to  which  biologists  de- 
voted much  attention  is  whether  death  is  an 
inevitable  and  necessary  process,  or  \\hether, 
given  a  continuous  optimum  adjustment  of  in- 
ternal to  external  conditions,  any  organism 
might,  barring  accident,  be  immortal.  Proto/oa 
reproduce  by  transverse  fission.  The  body  of 
the  parent  divides  into  two,  usually  equal,  parts, 
each  of  which  in  its  giowth  comes  to  resemble 
the  parent  in  sire  and  form.  Kach  of  these  later 
divides,  and  this  is  continued  indefinitely,  no 
portion  of  any  generation  dies  unless  by  acci- 
dental injury.  It  is  evident  that  in  this  proc- 
ess which  began  with  the  first  piotozobn  and 
will  continue  to  the  last,  we  have  a  true  bodily 
immortality.  Further,  Carrol  has  boon  a  bio  to 
keep  portions  of  the  heart  of  an  embryo  chick 
alive  in  aitificial  culture  media  for  a  period 
several  times  the  normal  length  of  life  of  the 
fowl,  and  there  seems  110  reason  why  this  might 
not  be  continued  indefinitely.  Similar  results 
have  been  reported  by  others,  and  the  conclu- 
sion must  follow  that  there  is  nothing  inherent 
in  protoplasm  itself  which  inevitably  leads  to 
senescense  and  death. 

When,  however,  we  combine  these  individually 
potentially  immortal  cells  into  a  system  of  tis- 
sues and  organs  making  up  the  body  of  a  com- 
plex animal  or  plant,  death  appeals  as  an  ap- 
parently inevitable  process  at  the  end  of  n  period 
which  is,  roughly  speaking,  characteristic  for 
each  race,  although  length  of  life  varies  in  dif- 
ferent families  within  a  race  and  js  undoubted- 
ly an  inherited  trait  Several  explanations  for 
the  senoscense  and  death  of  many-celled  oigan- 
isms  have  been  given,  some  referring  them  to 
changes  in  the  relative  sizes  of  nucleus  and  cyto- 
plasm in  the  cell,  others  to  a  decrease,  with  ad- 
vancing differentiation,  of  ability  to  assimilate 
nutrition  and  to  eliminate  waste,  and  still 
others  to  the  fact  that  the  combination  of  highly 
differentiated  cells  into  tissues  and  their  relations 
to  one  another  make  up  so  complicated  a  bit 
of  machinery  that  failure  to  function  normally 
in  one  part  disorganizes  the  whole  mechanism. 
It  would  appear,  from  any  or  all  of  these  sug- 
gestions, that  death  is  the  price  we  pay  for  the 
differentiation  of  tissues  making  possible  the 
efficiency  of  our  highly  organized  bodies,  and 
that  had  we  been  content  to  remain  protozoa, 
we  might  all  be  immortal. 

Economic  Zoology.  Important  economic  ap- 
plications of  zoology  appear  along  both  medical 
and  nonmedical  lines.  Some  proto/oa  cause  dis- 
ease, some  Plathelminthea  and  Nemathelminthes 
are  dangerous  parasites,  and  some  insects  carry 
disease-producing  organisms  from  one  animal  to 


another  These  are  obviously  conditions  of  In- 
terest to  physicians  and  sanitarians,  who  derive 
their  information  concerning  the  anatomy,  life 
histories,  ecology,  and  methods  of  combating 
these  organisms  from  the  researches  of  the  zo- 
ologists. In  addition  the  physician  gets  from 
the  same  source  his  knowledge  of  normal  anato- 
my and  embryology.  Most  of  the  nonmedical  ap- 
plications have  to  do  with  the  production  and 
preservation  of  man's  food  and  clothing.  Among 
the  invertebrates  the  most  important  are  the 
insects,  for  while  only  a  few  of  these  produce 
food  (e.g.  the  honeybee),  and  others  material 
for  clothing  (eg.  the  silkworm),  a  large  num- 
ber, which  appears  to  be  increasing,  cause  seri- 
ous losses  through  their  attacks  on  commercially 
valuable  plants.  An  appreciable  proportion  of 
the  cost  of  production  of  food  and  clothing  is 
due  to  the  expense  involved  in  fighting  the  in- 
sect enemies  of  the  plants  from  which  these  ma- 
terials are  obtained.  In  the  United  States  the 
boll  weevil  which  is  attacking  the  cotton  crop, 
and  the  gypsy  moth  attacking  shade  and  fruit 
trees  are  striking  examples  of  this  situation 
Less  spectacular  but  similar  problems  arise  in 
all  parts  of  the  country,  and  large  amounts 
of  money  arc  spent  annually  in  attempting  to 
solve  them ;  this  work  is  largely  under  the  super- 
\ision  of  State  and  Federal  entomologists. 
Similar  work  is  under  way  in  other  countries, 
although  insect  pests  seem  to  be  much  more 
mimeious  in  North  America  than  in  any  part 
of  Europe.  Other  applications  of  economic  /o- 
ology  aio  in  the  propagation  of  edible  mollusca, 
crustacea,  fish,  terrapin,  etc  ,  in  the  study  of  fur- 
bearing  animals  such  as  seals,  and  in  devising 
means  of  protection  against  predatory  animala 
other  than  insects. 

ZOBN,  ANDEKS  LEONARD  (18<>0-1<)20).  A 
Swedish  painter  and  etcher.  The  last  years  of 
his  life  were  spent  entirely  in  Sweden.  Hi« 
exhibitions  showed  a  curious  juxtaposition  of 
portraits  of  men  and  women  in  irreproachable  so- 
ciety dress  and  strikingly  realistic  nudes.  lie 
continued  the  production  of  etchings  of  the  old 
technical  excellence  and  produced  several  fine 
pieces  of  sculpture,  including  "The  Broken 
PiU-her"  (1020). 

ZSIGMONDY,  RICHARD  (1805-  ).  An 
Austrian  chemist  (see  VOL.  XXTTI).  He  in- 
vented the  Membrane  filter  in  1917  and  wrote 
Lehrbuch  der  Kolloidchemie  (1920). 

ZUKOB,  ADOLF    (1873  ).     An  American 

motion -picture  official,  born  at  Ricse  in  Hun- 
gary, and  educated  in  Hungary  and  in  the 
Hchoolg  of  New  York  City.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1888.  For  several  years  he  en- 
gaged in  business  in  New  York  City  and  Chicago 
and  was  later  the  owner  of  several  vaudeville 
and  motion-pictuie  theatres  in  New  York  City. 
He  founded  the  Famous  Players  Film  Company 
in  1912  and  later  became  president  of  the  Fa- 
mous Players-Lasky  Corporation. 

ZWEIG,  STLFAN  (1881-  )  An  Austrian 
writer,  born  at  Vienna,  where  ho  studied  phi- 
losophy at  the  university  He  wrote  poetry,  fic- 
tion, plays,  essays,  and  many  translations,  and 
is  the  author  of  Milberne  Ratten  (1901);  Die 
Fruhen  Krunze  (1907);  Tersites  (1907);  Das 
Hans  am  Meer  (1911);  Der  Veruandelte  Ko- 
modiant  (1913);  and  the  tragedy  Jeremias 
(1918).  He  also  wrote  Die  Liebe  der  Erika 
Ewald  (1894),  Erste*  Erlebnias  (Mil), 
ten  (1920),  and  easayg. 


COURSES  OF  READING  AND  STUDY 


preface 


i 


"^iHE  purpose  of  the  present  volume,  as  its  name  suggests,  is  to  offer  help 
towards  self-instruction  in  the  various  arts  and  sciences,  utilizing  the 
New  International  flncyclopacdia  as  a  general  text-book.  There  is  little 
need  to  emphasize  in  this  place  the  role  of  popular  educator  played  by 
a  work  like  the  Encyclopaedia.  This  has  been  long  recognized  ;  and,  from  a  mere 
work  of  reference  consulted  at  odd  moments  for  frngments  of  information,  the 
modern  Encyclopa?dia  has  become  in  thousands  of  homes  a  source  of  common 
culture,  the  basis  of  a  thorough  training  in  the  principles  and  facts  of  History, 
Law,  Literature,  the  Fine  Arts,  Religion,  Biology,  Engineering,  Physics,  Chemistry, 
or  Agriculture.  Especially  where  access  to  large  libraries  is  difficult  or  impossible, 
its  value  is  apparent.  In  every  department  of  human  knowledge,  it  speaks  with  a 
copiousness  unequalled  in  the  average  text-book  and  a  degree  of  authority  attain- 
able only  when  exery  department,  and  subdivision  of  a  department,  is  covered  by 
an  acknowledged  specialist  in  the  field. 

A  glance  at  any  chapter  in  the  book  will  show  the  method  pursued.  The  aim 
has  been  to  make  every  chapter  a  complete  summary  of  the  subject  with  which  it 
deul*»  by  arranging  the  material  as  the  reader  or  student  would  iind  it  arranged  in 
a  systematic  treatise  on  the  subject.  The  amount  of  text  in  each  chapter  has 
necessarily  been  reduced  to  a  minimum,  only  so  much  being  given  as  is  essential  to 
trace  the  connection  between  the  successive  groups  of  titles.  But,  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  every  title  in  every  group  represents  from  two  or  three  hundred  to 
fifteen  thousand  words  of  text,  the  completeness  of  treatment  will  be  realized. 

Within  the  chapter  the  material  has  been  divided  and  subdivided  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  facilitate  study  on  special  topics.  If  the  reader,  for  instance,  desires 
to  make  himself  particularly  well  acquainted  with  a  certain  period  in  American 
History,  he  need  but  turn  to  the  proper  .section  in  Chapter  I.,  where  the  subject  of 
American  History  is  outlined  in  five  sub-headings  with  as  many  groups  of  titles; 
and  at  the  end  of  the  section  on  American  History  he  will  find  a  list  of  authorities 
in  \\hose  works  he  may  carry  on  supplementary  reading  to  any  extent.  In  the 
same  manner,  a  person  interested  in  the  ceremonial  or  h>mnology  or  clerical  vest- 
ments of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  will  find  these  topics  treated  in  related 
groups  of  titles  as  a  section  in  the  chapter  on  Religion.  Under  Chemistry  one 
may  study  the  entire  subject,  carefully  outlined  for  such  a  purpose,  or  may  con- 
centrate on  the  acids  or  the  salts  or  the  fata.  In  every  chapter,  the  technical 
exposition  is  supplemented  by  comprehensive  lists  of  biography  wherein  the  histori- 
cal aspect  of  the  subject  finds  complete  treatment. 

In  quoting  titles  in  the  lists,  the  form  given  is  that,  of  course,  which  appears 
in  the  Encyclopaedia;  as,  CRUELTY*  TO  CHILDREN,  PREVENTION  OF;  or,  MACHINERY, 
ECONOMIC:  EFFECTS  OF.  Where  reference  is  made  to  a  long  article,  the  particular 
section  is  indicated ;  as,  "See  section  The  Renaissance  under  SCULPTURE,"  in  which 

the  reader  will  turn  to  Sculpture  in  the  Encyclopaedia.     In  the  biographical 


VI 


PREFACE 


titles,  the  full  Christian  name,  or  the  corresponding  initials,  is  given  as  a  rule ;  as 
ADAMS,  SAMUEL  ;  ADAMS,  H.,  KIPLING.  The  alphabetic  arrangement  of  titles  in 
the  Encyclopaedia  makes  reference  to  volume  and  page  obviously  superfluous. 

It  is  in  its  orderly  marshalling  of  the  material  contained  in  the  Encyclopedia 
that  we  believe  the  value  of  this  book  consists.  It  is  quite  unlikely  that  the 
average  reader,  left  to  his  own  guidance,  will  plan  his  course  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  produce  the  fullest  results  with  the  least  waste  of  time.  Where  the  subject  is 
unfamiliar,  he  is  as  apt  at  the  start  to  hit  upon  the  middle  of  it  as  upon  the 
beginning,  and,  in  passing  from  article  to  article,  there  is  always  the  danger  of 
his  missing  the  logical  sequence  of  topics.  A  mere  index  would  here  be  useless. 
What  is  necessary  is  a  carefully  planned  outline  that  shall  lead  the  reader,  step  by 
step,  from  elementary  principles  to  the  most  specialized  treatment.  Such  a  guide 
this  Outline  aims  to  be. 

The  preparation  of  this  volume,  carried  on  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Editors,  has  been  in  the  direct  charge  of  Mr.  SIMEON  STRUNSKY,  of  the  staff  of 
the  New  International  Encyclopedia,  and  the  supervision  of  the  revision  for  the 
second  edition  under  the  charge  of  Mr.  IRWIN  SCOFIELD  GUERNSEY. 

— THE  EDITORS. 


Contents 

CHA: 

PTER 

PAGE 
.        .        .             1 

9, 

.      .      .        41 

8, 

.      .       54 

4 

.      .      .       61 

fi, 

.      .      .       67 

6 

.      .      .       78 

7 

,      .      .       90 

8. 

PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY      

95 

9. 

.      .      .      104 

10, 

THE  FINE  ARTS  —  ARCHITECTURE      

.      127 

11 

THE  FINE  ARTS  —  SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING     ... 

.      137 

12. 

THE  MINOR  ARTS  

.      151 

.      .      .      155 

14, 

.      .      .      161 

15, 

.      o      .     166 

16 

.      .      .     170 

AERONAUTICS     ....•••••«•• 

.      .      .     178 

18, 

.      .      .     179 

19 

INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY             .              .••••« 

.      188 

20 

HOME  ECONOMICS  AND  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE   .... 

.      .      .      198 

21 

INTFRIOR  DECORATION  AND  DECORATIVE  ART     ... 

.      195 

22 

.      .      .      197 

23 

IVlETFOROLOGY              ......•»••• 

.     209 

24 

.      .      .     212 

25 

.      .      .     219 

gfi 

AGRICULTURE    HORTICULTURE,  AND  FORESTRY   .      •      • 

.     234 

4t>U> 

27 

.      .      .      243 

00 

IVf  ANUFACTURES   ANT)    KTCGINEPRI'N<»       ...... 

.      .      .      255 

OQ 

EFFICIENCY  AND  INDUSTRIAL  IVIANAGEMICXT         * 

.      .      .     270 

»J7. 

an 

.      .      .      271 

41 

.     285 

t/X. 

go 

...     298 

.      .      .     308 

44. 

...     311 

(Etpqrtrr  1.    ijfetarg 


H STORY,  which  we  may  define  as  the  record  of  man's  life  on  earth 
and  the  sum  of  his  achievements,  would  include  in  its  broadest 
aspect  the  entire  story  of  human  development  from  Palaeolithic 
man  to  the  present  day.  As  a  matter  of  convenience,  however, 
in  this  book  we  shall  leave  the  beginnings  of  associated  human 
life  to  be  treated  under  the  heading  of  Anthropology  and  Ethnology,  where,  too, 
will  be  found  the  material  for  the  stories  of  those  peoples  and  tribes  which  to  the 
present  day  have  remained  without  the  pale  of  our  civilisation.  Here  we  shall 
take  up  the  narrative  at  a  point  in  time  when  we  first  catch  a  glimpse  of  the 
nations  whose  culture,  evolved  during  thousands  of  years,  and  passed  on  from 
hand  to  hand,  has  become  the  heritage  of  the  present  day.  The  traditional 
division  into  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  Modern  history  is  followed,  and  in 
accordance  with  custom  the  account  begins  with  the  nations  of  the  Mesopotamian 
region,  and  passes  on  through  Persia  and  the  empire  of  Alexander  into  Rome, 
where  also  the  course  of  Egyptian,  Jewish,  Phoenician,  and  Greek  history,  taken 
up  in  turn,  leads  us.  With  Rome,  Ancient  history  ends.  India,  China,  and 
Japan,  though  their  history  goes  back  to  a  past  coeval  with  the  period  we  call 
ancient,  are  treated  apart  because  of  their  far  less  intimate  connection  with  the 
civilization  of  Europe,  wherein  our  interest  is  centered.  Medieval  history  takes 
up  the  story  at  the  fall  of  Rome,  traces  the  amalgamation  of  the  old  world  with 
the  new,  the  growth  of  the  Church,  the  rise  of  States,  and  the  transition,  through 
inward  development  and  outward  contact  with  Asia  and  America,  to  modern 
times.  There  European  history  becomes  largely  the  story  of  nations  and  their 
conflicts.  One  by  one  due  treatment  is  accorded  them,  the  field  widening  as 
Australia,  Africa,  and  Asia  come  within  the  scope  of  European  interests.  The 
record  ends  with  a  section  on  the  history  of  the  United  States  outlined  with 
greater  detail  than  the  account  of  other  lands. 

First  some  conception  of  the  methodology  of  historical  writing  and  a  bird's 
eye  view  of  the  history  of  the  world  may  be  useful,  for  which  see : 

History  Africa 

Asia  America 

Europe  Australia 

A.  Atirmit 

1.  BABYLONIA,  ELAM,  AND  ASSYEIA.  Assyria,  and  revealed  something  of  the 
Archaeological  research  has  carried  literature,  science,  art,  laws,  and  so- 
back  the  origin  of  Sumcrian  and  Ak-  cial  life  of  these  countries.  Babylonia 
kadian  civilization  to  the  fifth  millen-  was  ruled  at  times  by  Gutians,  Elam- 
nium  B.  c.,  given  us  a  fairly  continu-  ites,  Kassites,  Assyrians,  and  Chal- 
ous  history  of  Babylonia,  Elam,  and  dn?ans,  but  always  exercised  a  power- 


HISTORY 


ful  cultural  influence.  The  Assyrians 
established  an  empire  that  finally  in- 
cluded Elam,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and 
Egypt.  A  part  of  it  fell  to  the  Chal- 
daean  kingdom,  which  was  conquered 
by  Cyrus  in  589  B.  c.  Sec: 

(a)  For  the  Land: 
Mesopotamia 
Euphrates 
Tigris 
Babylonia 
Assyria 
Arrapachitis 
Adiabene 
Shinar 
Elam 

(6)  For  the  Cities: 
Nippur 
Babylon 
Calah 
Ur 

Erech 
Nineveh 
Assar 
Khorsabad 

(c)  For  the  Kings: 

Sargon 

Hammurapi 

Shalmaneser 

Tiglath-pileser 

Asurnazirpal 

Sennacherib 

Esarhaddon 

Sardanapalus 

Nabonassar 

Nabopolassar 

Nebuchadnezzar 

Belshazzar 

Cyrus 

(d)  For    the    People,    Religion,    and 

Language : 
Sumerian  Language 


Chaldaeans 

Kassites 

Amorites 

Mitannians 

Merodach 

Ishtar 

Semitic  Languages 

Babylonian  Art 

Assyrian  Art 

Cuneiform   Inscriptions 

(e)  For  the   Historians   and   Investi- 
gators : 
Botta,  P.  E. 
Delitzsch,  F. 
Layard,  A.  H. 
Meyer,  E. 
Oppert,  J. 
Rassarn,  H, 
Rawlinson,  II.  C. 
Sayce,  A.  H. 
Schrader,  E. 
Smith,  G. 
Winckler,  H. 

8.  EGYPT. 

From  the  monuments  it  is  evident 
that  the  Egyptian  civilization  was  in 
its  origin  independent  of  the  Baby- 
lonian arid  goes  back  to  as  early 
an  antiquity.  From  primitive  times 
when  the  land  was  divided  into  two 
sections,  the  Delta  and  the  South,  we 
pass  through  many  dynasties  of  pyra- 
mid and  temple  building  kings  to  a 
time  of  subjugation  by  foreign  in- 
vaders, of  conquests  in  Palestine  and 
Asia  Minor,  of  decline,  and  of  reduc- 
tion by  the  Persians,  by  Alexander  of 
Macedon,  and  by  Rome.  A  cheerful 
people,  influenced  greatly  by  their 
priests,  submissive  to  their  kings,  wor- 
shiping many  gods  and  animals,  they 
left  behind  them  massive  structures  of 
which  we  have  not  yet  the  secret.  Their 


HISTORY 


8 


priests  read  the  stars  and  knew 
geometry,  speculated  on  the  soul,  and 
probably  passed  on  to  the  Phoenicians 
(he  alphabet  which  was  to  be  ours. 
(?—  B.  c.  30)  See: 

/  \  TI     4.u    T      j 
(a)  For  the  Land: 


Nlle 
Dclta 

Nubia 
Ethiopia 

Llbyft 
Suez  Canal 

(b)  For  the  Cities  and  Monuments: 

Memphis 

Tanis 

Thebes 

Kamak 

Luxor 

Ramesseum 

Pyramid 

Rosetta  Stone 

(c)  For  the  Kings: 

Menes 

Cheops 

Chephren 

Amcnemhat 

Uscrtcsen 

Amasis 

Amenophis 

Thothmes 

Hatasu 

Ramescs 
T.  .  .  , 

Psammetichus 

^    , 

A        .    TT 
p    , 
p,         ^ 

(d)  For   the   People,   Religion,   Lan- 

guage,  and  Culture: 
Egypt 
Hamites 


Hyksos 

Re 

Horus 

Osiris 

Thoth 

Athor 

. 
Ammon 

Apis 

Set 

Isis 

Ncphthys 
Anubis 

Hieroglyphics 
Egyptian  Art 
Egyptian  Music 
For  the   Historians   and  Invest!- 

gators  : 
Egyptology 
Breasted,  J.  H. 
Brugsch,  H.  K. 
Champollion,  J,  F. 
Lenormant,  C. 
Lepsius,  K.  R. 
Manetho 
Marietta,  A.  E. 
Maspero,  G.  C.  C. 

Navil]c'  E*  H- 


Renouf,  P. 


Wilkinson,  J.  G. 

3,  PHCENICIA  AND  ASIA  MINOR. 

„_,    ,  .  _,  _        ,     „  .   . 

What  is  now  Syria  and  part  of  Asia 
...  .         *       v    .  \.         ,  ,    . 

Minor  was  in  the  earliest  times  debat- 

able  ground  between  Egypt  and  the 
Mesopotamian  monarchies.  On  the 
Palestinian  coast  the  Phoenicians,  with 
little  territory,  developed  a  splendid  in- 
dustry  and  commerce  and  in  their  ships 
carried  the  seeds  of  Babylonian  and 
Egyptian  civilization  over  the  Mcdi- 
terranean  basin.  Later,  when  the 


4 


HISTORY 


Hyksos  were  invading  Egypt,  a 
people  known  as  the  Hittites  appear, 
stout  fighters  who  render  a  good  ac- 
count of  themselves  against  the  Assyr- 
ians and  Egyptians.  Their  homes 
were  in  Northern  Syria  and  in  Eastern 
Asia  Minor,  but  about  B.  c.  700  they 
disappeared,  leaving  little  trace  behind 
them.  See : 

(a)  For  the  Phoenicians: 
Phoenicia 
Sidon 
Tyre 

Acre 

Byblos 

Cyprus 

Carthage 

Hiram 

Melkarth 

Astarte 

Phoenician  Art 

Aniarna  Lett  ITS 

(6)  For  the  Hittitrx- 
Hittites 
Syria 

Boghaz-Keiri 
Eyuk 

Mitannians 
Cappadocia 
Carchemish 
Marash 
Hamath 

4.  THE  JEWS. 

The  Jews  form  the  third  in  the 
group  of  peoples  lying  between  Egypt 
and  Babylonia  and  affected  by  the  in- 
fluence of  both.  The  Hebrews,  a 
Semitic  tribe  of  nomads,  after  wander- 
ing through  the  land  of  Canaan,  enter 
the  land  of  Goshen,  a  territory  belong- 
ing to  Egypt,  are  there  held  in  bond- 
age, and,  hammered  into  a  nation  by 


persecution,  escape,  conquering  for 
themselves  the  land  of  Canaan  and 
passing  thereby  from  the  nomad  into 
the  agricultural  stage.  See: 

Jews 

Palestine 

Goshen 

Semitic  Languages 

Abraham 

Isaac 

Jacob 

Esau 

Amarna  Letters 

Exodus 

Moses 

Aaron 

Joshua 

Canaan 

Simeon 

Judah 

Levi 

Gad 

Naphtali 

Issachar 

Dan 

Zebulun 

Ephraim 

Benjamin 

Ruled  by  warrior  leaders  for  a  long 
period,  the  people  finally  obtain  a  king, 
but  after  a  hundred  years  the  nation 
breaks  into  two,  the  northern,  Israel, 
falling  to  Assyria,  the  southern,  Judah, 
150  years  later  to  Babylonia.  The 
Babylonian  exiles  return  and  re- 
establish the  Jewish  state  in  the  form 
of  a  theocracy  based  on  a  purified 
Yahwc  worship.  See: 

Jews 

Saul 

David 

Jerusalem 

Solomon 


HISTORY 


Judah 

Jeroboam 

Joash 

Abimelech 

Jehosaphat 

Ahab 

Josiah 

Hczekiah 

Samaritans 

Babylonia 

Nchcrniah 

Ezra 

Cyrus 

Amorites 

Philistines 

Aramaeans 

Ammon 

Moab 

Edom 

Judges,  Book  of 

Kings,  Books  of 

The  reestablished  State  passes  from 
the  suzerainty  of  Persia  to  that 
of  Macedonia,  the  Seleucid  kings  of 
Syria,  and  Rome,  rising  against  whom, 
Jerusalem  is  taken  (A.  D.  70),  the 
Temple  destroyed,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  nation  scattered  over  the  Roman 
world.  The  insurrection  of  Bar- 
Kolvba  in  the  second  century  is  the  last 
forcible  assertion  of  the  national  spirit. 
The  Jews  now  enter  upon  their  historic 
role  of  wanderers,  subject  alternately 
to  persecution  and  favor  at  the  hands 
of  rulers  and  peoples,  and  held  together 
as  a  folk  by  the  Law  and  the  Talmud. 
See: 

(a)   Jews 

Babylonish  Captivity 

Antiochus 

Maccabees 

Herod 

Sadducees 


Pharisees 

Zealot 

Essenes 

Zadokites 

Messiah 

Bar-Kokbn 

Spain 

Crusades 

Anti-Semitism 

Zionist  Movement 

(6)  For  the  Law,  Language,  Litera- 
ture, and  Science: 
Bible 

Pentateuch 
Talmud 
Gemara 
Mishna 
Cabbala 
Halacha 
Haggada 
Midrash 
Maimonides 
Yiddish 

(c)  For  the  Historians: 
Josephus,  Flavius 
Ewald,  G.  H. 
Wellhausen,  J. 
Renan,  E. 
Graetz,  H. 

5.  PERSIA. 

In  northeastern  Iran,  a  people,  the 
Medians,  shake  off  the  yoke  of  Assyria 
in  the  eighth  century  B.  c.  and  soon 
attain  power  over  their  former  masters, 
but  fall  themselves  under  the  domi- 
nation of  the  Persians  and  Cyrus,  who 
brings  under  his  sway  all  of  Meso- 
potamia and  Palestine.  Under  his 
successors  Persia  becomes  the  great- 
est empire  of  pre-Alexandrian  times, 
spreads  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  enters 
Egypt,  but  fights  vainly  against  the 
Greeks  and  is  conquered  by  the  young 


6 


HISTORY 


hero  of  Maccdon.  The  empire  falls 
apart,  the  heart  of  it,  Persia  proper, 
passing  in  turn  to  the  Parthians,  Arabs, 
Turks,  Mongols,  and  Turks  again,  till 
it  remains  what  it  is  at  the  present  day, 
a  piece  in  the  game  between  England 
and  Russia  in  Asia.  Sec: 

(a)  For  the  Land  and  the  People: 

Iran 

Media 

Persia 

Asia  Minor 

Bactria 

Parthia 

Armenia 

Susa 

Persepolis 

Ctesiphon 

Ecbatana 

(&)  For  the  Dynasties  and  Kings: 

Achaemenidae 

Seleucidae 

Arsacidae 

Sassanidae 

Abbasides 

Samani  and  Dilemi 

Ghaznevides 

Ghuri 

Seljuks 

Astyages 

Cyrus 

Cambyses 

Darius 

Xerxes 

Artaxerxes 

Khosru 

Hulaku  Khan 

Timur 

Abbas  I. 

Nadir  Shah 

(c)  For  the  Culture: 
Persian  Art 


Persian  Language 
Persian  Literature 

6.  GREECE. 

The  seeds  of  culture  brought  to 
Greece  by  the  Phoenicians  from  Baby- 
lon, Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor,  devel- 
oped into  a  new  civilization,  the  high- 
est in  many  respects  the  world  has  as 
yet  seen,  which  influenced  mightily 
the  history  of  future  ages.  The  leg- 
endary accounts,  in  the  tales  of 
heroes  and  gods,  probably  reflect  his- 
torical conditions.  See: 

Mythology 

Danaiis 

Cadmus 

Hercules 

Theseus 

Minos 

Argonauts 

Trojan  War 

Agamemnon 

Ulysses 

Achilles 

Greek  history  begins  with  a  succes- 
sion of  great  migrations  from  the  main- 
land eastward  towards  Asia  Minor. 
When  authentic  history  begins,  Greece 
appears  as  an  agglomeration  of  small 
independent  states,  in  a  state  of  transi- 
tion from  the  monarchical  form  of  gov- 
ernment into  tyrannies,  oligarchies,  and 
democracies.  See : 

(a)  For  the  Land: 
Greece 
Asia  Minor 
Crete 

Thessaly 

Boeotia 

Epirus 

Attica 

Peloponnesus 


HISTORY 


Euboea 

Lesbos 

Chios 

Ithaca 

Pydnus 

Olympus 

Delos 

(6)  For  the  Cities: 
Athens 
Sparta 
Thebes 
Mycenae 
Tiryns 
Argos 
Corinth 

(c)  For  the  People: 

Archaeology,  II 

Hellenes 

Danai 

Dorians 

lonians 

^Eolians 

Achaean? 

(d)  For  the  Men: 

Lycurgus 
Solon 
Pisistratus 
Olisthenes 

The  Greeks,  after  a  long,  successful 
struggle  against  Persia,  won  national 
greatness.  Democratic  Athens  first 
takes  the  lead  among  the  Greek  city 
states  and  for  a  half  century  plays  a 
brilliant  part,  then  succumbs  to  Sparta, 
which  in  turn  falls  before  Thebes. 
Disunion  brings  Greece  under  the 
«way  of  Macedon,  whose  young  king, 
Alexander  the  Great,  conquers  Persia 
and  Egypt  and  spreads  the  Hellenic 
culture  in  his  new  realm.  Greece 
proper  is  ruled  by  Macedon  till  it  falls 
with  Macedon  under  the  power  of 
Rome.  See : 


Greece 

Athens 

Miltiades 

Marathon 

Themistocles 

Salamis 

Thermopylae 

Aristides 

Leonidas 

Ephialtcs 

Pericles 

Conon 

Nicias 

Sparta 

Syracuse 

Lysander 

Agesilaus 

AntrJcidas 

Pausanias 

Eparninondas 

Pelopidas 

Mantinea 

Leuctra 

Macedon 

Philip  II 

Demosthenes 

^Eschines 

Alexander  the  Great 

Chaeronea 

Antipater 

Demetrius  Poliorcetes 

^Etolian  League 

Achaean  League 

Philopoemen 

Pydnn 

Cynoscephalae 

In  the  Greek  city  states  the  problems 
of  democracy  were  well  worked  out,  and 
politics  became  an  exact  science.  The 
principles  of  democracy  were  carried 
over  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Black  Sea,  wherever  the  Greeks, 
the  successors  of  the  Phoenicians  as 
traders  and  colonizers,  went.  See: 


HISTORY 


(a)  For  Greek  Government: 

Monarchy 
Tyrant 
Democracy 
Aristocracy 
Despot 
Ecclesia 
Areopagus 
Ostracism 
Boulc 
Ephori 
Archon 
"Solon 
Lycurgus 
Lysandcr 

(b)  For  the  Greek  Colonies: 

Ionia 

Mitylene 

Ephesus 

Halicarnassus 

Chalcidicc 

Colchis 

Chersonesus 

Cyrenc 

Sicily 

Magna  Graecia 

Marseilles 

Over  all  the  Greek  world  the  Hellenic 
culture  prevailed  as  in  the  home  coun- 
try. See : 

Architecture,  Greece 

Greek  Language 

Greek  Literature 

Greek  Music 

Greek  Art 

Greek  Philosophy 

The  Greek  religion  passed  from  an 
unrestrained  polytheism  into  an  antici- 
pation of  monotheism  on  the  part  of  the 
select  few,  into  gross  superstition  on 
the  part  of  the  many.  See: 

Olympus 

Pantheon 


Jupiter 

Juno 

Apollo 

Mercury 

Vulcan 

Ceres 

Venus 

Diana 

Mars 

Minerva 

Neptune 

Pluto 

Greek  Religion 

Greek  Festivals 

Games 

Olympic  Games 

Mysteries 

For  the  Historians: 
Herodotus 
Thucydides 
Xenophon 
Plutarch 
Polybius 
Dio  Cassius 

Dionysius   of  Halicarnassus 
Arrianus 
Theopompus 
Diodorus   Siculus 
Curtius,  E. 
Finlav,   G. 
Grote,  G. 
Schlicmann,  H. 

7.  ROME. 

Greek  civilization  was  imposed  on  the 
peoples  of  Europe,  Northern  Africa, 
and  Western  Asia  by  the  armies  of 
Rome,  whose  origin  goes  back  to  a 
settlement  of  Latin  outlaws  and  shep- 
herds on  one  of  the  seven  hills  south  of 
the  Tiber.  A  legendary  kingdom 
gives  way,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century  B.  c.,  to  a  republican 


HISTORY 


9 


form  of  government.  A  long  contest 
between  privileged  and  non-privileged 
classes  results  in  the  elaboration  of  a 
splendidly  efficient  system  of  municipal 
government.  See : 

(a)  For  the  Land  and  the  People: 

Rome 

Italy 

Latium 

Italic  Languages 

Latini 

Etruria 

Samnites 

(b)  For  the  Cities: 

Rome 

Alba  Longa 

Veii 

Tarentum 

Capua 

Naples 

Brindisi 

Pompeii 

Hcrculaneum 

(c)  For  the  Kingship  and  the  Strug- 

gle between  Classes: 
Romulus 
Numa  Pompilius 
Tarquinius 
Comitia 
Patrician 
Plebeians 
Consul 
Tribune 
Praetor 
Censor 
JEdiles 
Senate 
Decemviri 
Hortensius 
Licinian  Rogations 

With  her  internal  problems  settled, 
Rome  enters  upon  a  career  of  foreign 


conquest  and  by  means  of  her  splendid 
military  art  and  unscrupulous  diplom- 
acy makes  herself  mistress  of  Latium, 
of  Italy,  and,  after  a  struggle  with 
Carthage,  with  Macedonia,  and  with 
Syria,  of  the  Mediterranean  basin. 
Unchecked  power,  however,  brings  cor- 
ruption within  the  State,  republican 
institutions  tend  to  become  empty 
forms,  factional  strife  breaks  out,  the 
Senate  rules  for  a  while  and  then  suc- 
cumbs to  the  ambition  of  masterful 
politicians ;  in  the  conflict  of  parties  the 
Republic  meets  its  end.  See: 

Gaul 

Camillus 

Pyrrhus 

Carthage 

Punic  Wars 

Hamilcar 

Hasdrubal 

Hannibal 

Hispania 

Cannae 

Zama 

Scipio 

Macedonia 

Antiochus 

Gracchus 

Agrarian  Laws 

Jugurtha 

Marius 

Sulla 

Pompeius 

Mithridates 

Cicero 

Catiline 

Caesar 

Cassius 

Brutus 

Crassus 

Antonius 

Cleopatra 

Actium 


10 


HISTORY 


The  Roman  Empire,  established  by 
Augustus  before  the  beginning  of  the 
present  era,  attained  its  greatest  ex- 
tent in  the  early  years  of  the  second 
century  of  that  era  and  entered  on  its 
decline  towards  the  end  of  the  same 
century.  At  its  height  it  embraced 
within  its  limits  the  classic  world. 
Peace,  excellent  means  of  communica- 
tion, and  an  unrivalled  administrative 
system  brought  the  different  parts  of 
the  Empire  close  together  and  facili- 
tated the  spread  of  Greek  culture  and 
later  of  Christianity.  The  decline  of 
the  Empire,  due  to  the  decay  of  old 
age  and  the  onset  of  the  barbarian 
tribes  of  Northern  Europe,  is  arrested 
by  the  reforms  of  Diocletian  and  of  his 
successor  Constantino  the  Great,  who, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century, 
makes  Christianity  the  State  religion. 
See: 

Augustus 

Tiberius 

Caligula 

Claudius 

Nero 

Vespasian 

Titus 

Domitian 

Trajan 

Hadrian 

Antoninus  Pius 

Aurelius 

Commodus 

Severus,  Scptimius 

Caracalla 

Severus,  Alexander 

Aurelianus 

Diocletian 

Praetorian  Guard 

Constantine  the  Great 

Christianity 

After  Constantine  the  decline  is  pre- 


cipitate. The  ancient  Roman  prowess 
is  gone,  and  the  defence  of  the  Empire 
is  entrusted  to  barbarian  mercenaries; 
the  task  of  government  becomes  too 
heavy  for  one  man,  and  the  Empire  is 
divided  in  two.  The  wave  of  barbarian 
migration  breaks  with  full  force  upon 
the  Western  Empire,  and  the  last  em- 
peror of  Latin  Rome  is  dethroned  in 
476.  See: 

Migration 

Parthia 

Julian 

Theodosius 

Stilicho 

Alaric 

Attila 

Huns 

Goths 

Vandals 

Burgundians 

Odoacer 

Ravenna 

Honorius 

Augustulus 

Aetius 

The  Romans  were  preeminent  for 
their  political  genius;  their  literature, 
in  part,  their  philosophy,  and  their  art 
were  copies  of  the  Greek,  and  the  gen- 
eral culture  at  the  time  of  the  Empire's 
zenith  was  Hellenistic ;  their  gods,  too, 
were  largely  borrowed  or  adapted  from 
the  Greek  pantheon ;  but  in  adminis- 
tration and  law  they  were  unexampled 
innovators  and  in  these  fields  they  in- 
fluenced subsequent  European  civiliza- 
tion mightily.  See: 

(a)  For  the  Religion: 
Roman  Religion 
Jupiter 
Janus 
Mars 


HISTORY 


11 


Quirinus 

Vesta 

Auguries  and  Auspices 

Flamens 

Lupercalia 

Salii 

(6)  For  the  Language  and  Culture: 
Italic  Languages 
Latin  Language 
Latin  Literature 
Roman  Art 
Philosophy 

(c)  For  Administration  and  Law: 
Civil  Law 
Justinian 
Twelve  Tables 
Jus  Gentium 
Municipality 


Papinianus 

Paulus 

Pandects 

(d)  For  the  Historians: 

Ammianus  Marcellinus 

Annals 

Appianus 

Eutropius 

Fcrrero,  G. 

Gibbon,  E. 

Ihnc,  W. 

Livy 

Merivale,  C. 

Mommscn,  T. 

Nicbuhr,  B.  G. 

Sallust 

Suetonius 

Tacitus 


B. 


1.  Tho  East  Roman  or  Byzantine 
Empire  continued  to  exist  for  a 
thousand  years.  Within  the  limits  of 
the  Western  Empire  the  Germanic  tribes 
settled  as  masters,  and  from  their  grad- 
ual amalgamation  with  the  conquered 
Roman  provincials  date  the  beginnings 
of  the  modern  peoples  of  Europe. 
The  most  powerful  of  the  barbarian 
kingdoms,  that  of  the  Franks,  attained 
imperial  extension  under  Charles  the 
Great,  who,  by  his  alliance  with  the 
Pope,  established  the  connection  be- 
tween Empire  and  Church,  which  was 
to  become  one  of  the  most  powerful 
determinants  of  events  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  See : 

(a)  For  the  Migrations: 
Migration 


Britannia 

Angles 

Saxons 

Jutes 

Gaul 

Burgundians 

Franks 

Hispania 

Suevi 

Vandals 

Italy 

Goths 

Theodoric 

Lombards 

Saracens 

(6)  For  the  East  Roman  Empire: 

Byzantine  Empire 
Justinian 
Belisarms 
Narses 


12 


HISTORY 


(c)  For  the  Prankish  Empire : 
Clovis 

Merovingians 
Carolingians 
Brunhilda 
Frcdegunda 
Charles  Martel 
Pepin  the  Short 
Donation  of  Pepin 
Charles  the  Great 
Papal  States 
Salic  Law 

2.  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Great 
the  Frankish  Empire  falls  apart. 
Two  great  kingdoms  arise,  France  and 
Germany.  The  Germans  make  their 
power  supreme  in  Central  Europe  and 
in  Italy,  and  a  German  king  is  crowned 
Holy  Roman  Emperor,  reviving  the 
connection  between  Church  and  State 
established  by  Charles  the  Great.  A 
second  Teuton  stock,  the  Northmen,  ap- 
pear as  conquerors  in  France,  England, 
Italy,  and  Russia.  The  growth  of  na- 
tions proceeds  rapidly,  and  from  the 
relations  between  conqueror  and  con- 
quered develops  Feudalism.  The 
young  nations  are  brought  into  con- 
flict with  the  growing  power  of  the 
Church,  which,  under  the  leadership  of 
the  Bishop  of  Rome,  seeks  to  raise  the 
ecclesiastical  power  above  the  secular. 
The  break-up  of  the  Mediaeval  ages  be- 
gins with  the  Crusades.  See : 

(a)  For  the  Growth  of  Nations: 
Franks 

Verdun,  Treaty  of 
France 
Neustria 
Germany 
Austrasia 
Franconia 
Swabia 


Alemanni 

Otho  the  Great 

Holy  Roman  Empire 

Normans 

Normandy 

Varangians 

England 

William  the  Conqueror 

Italy 

Sicily 

Guiscard 

Russia 

(b)  For  Mediaeval  Society: 

Feudalism 

Feud 

Livery 

Homage 

Knight 

Chivalry 

Esquire 

Heraldry 

Serf 

Ordeal 

Truce  of  God 

Compurgation 

(c)  For  the  Struggle  between  Church 

and  State : 
Gregory  VII 
Investiture 
Hohenstaufen 
Guelphs  und  Gliibellines 
Henry  IV  of  Germany 
Henry  V  of  Germany 
Papacy 
Innocent  III 
Philip  II  of  France 
Philip  IV  of  France 
John  of  England 
Henry  II  of  England 
Frederick  I  Barbarossa 
Frederick  II  of  Germany 

(d)  For  the  Crusades: 

Crusades 


HISTORY 


18 


Papacy 

Hospitalers 

Templars 

Teutonic  Knights 

Peter  the  Hermit 

Urban  II 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon 

Bohemund 

Tancred 

Baldwin 

Antioch 

Richard  I  of  England 

Saladin 

Venice 

Dandolo 

Louis  IX  of  France 

Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem 

8.  The  Crusades  were  followed  by  a 
great  increase  in  the  commerce  of  West- 
ern Europe  and  the  rise  of  an  influen- 
tial burgher  class,  with  whose  aid  thu 
kings  succeeded  in  making  themselves 
independent  of  the  feudal  nobility. 
With  the  growth  of  centralized  king- 
doms the  power  of  the  Papacy  declines. 
Contact  with  the  East  and  the  ancient 
world  stimulated  the  European  mind, 
and  the  Revival  of  Learning,  the  suc- 
cession of  great  geographical  and 
astronomical  discoveries,  and  the  inven- 
tion of  gunpowder  and  printing  hasten 
the  transition  from  the  Middle  Ages  to 
modern  times.  The  uniformity  of 
European  society,  characteristic  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  is  broken  up  by  the 
Reformation.  See : 

(a)  For   Commerce,    Discoveries,    and 

Inventions : 
Hanseatic  League 
Gunpowder 
Printing 
Copernicus 
Columbus 


Gama,  Vasco  da 
Venice 
Genoa 

Henry  the  Navigator 
Africa 
America 

(6)  For  the  Decline  of  the  Papacy: 
Boniface  VIII 
Avignon 
Schism,  Great 
Constance,  Council  of 
Basel,  Council  of 

(c)  For  the  Revival  of  Learning  and 

the  Renaissance: 
Petrarch 
Bracciolini 
Guarino 
Poliziano 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici 
Erasmus 
Colet 
Grocyn 
Linacre 
More,  Thomas 
Rcuchlin 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von 
Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorum 
Renaissance  Art 

(d)  For  the  Reformation : 

Reformation 

Wiclif 

Huss 

Luther 

Charles  V 

Augsburg  Confession 

Melanchthon 

Schmalkaldic  League 

Zwingli 

Calvin 

Huguenots 

Henry  VIII  of  England 

Wishart 

Knox 


14 


HISTORY 


Counter-Reformation 
Trent,  Council  of 
Thirty  Years'  War 
For  the  Historians: 

Crcighton,  M. 

Dcniflc,  F.  H. 

Emerton,  E. 

Fisher,  G.  P. 


Fleury,  Claude 
Gieseler,  J.  K. 
Hallam,  H. 
Harnack,  Adolf 
Hef  ele,  K.  J. 
Lea,  H.  C. 
Neander,  J.  A. 
Pastor,  L. 


C. 


At  the  opening  of  the  modern  era  the 
process  of  State  formation  in  Europe 
had  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
firmly  centralized  nations  in  England, 
France,  and  Spain.  Germany  and 
Italy,  on  the  contrary,  were  disunited, 
and  destined  so  to  remain  till  the  later 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
conflicts  of  States  and  nationalities  is 
one  of  the  great  features  of  modern 
times;  till  1648  religion  is  a  fruitful 
cause  of  external  warfare  and  civil 
strife;  after  1648  wars  are  fought  on 
political  and  commercial  grounds. 
The  disappearance  of  a  common  Church 
and  of  Latin  as  the  common  vehicle  of 
communication  among  the  higher 
classes  tended  to  intensify  the  differ- 
entiation of  national  characteristics. 
The  burgher  class,  which  had  begun  to 
assert  itself  in  the  period  after  the  Cru- 
sades, rose  to  full  recognition  in  the  life 
of  the  State  and  in  turn  was  forced  to 
render  recognition,  after  the  French 
Revolution,  to  the  lowest  classes  in  the 
State,  artisans  and  peasants.  The 
Church  loses  control  over  the  temporal 
affairs  of  its  members,  and  even  in  the 
spiritual  field  its  authority  is  subor- 
dinated to  that  of  the  State.  Life  takes 
on  a  predominantly  secular  tinge ;  sci- 
ence broadens  the  intellectual  horizon, 


and  commerce  and  colonization  bring 
the  non-European  part  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere  within  the  sphere  of  Euro- 
pean influence.  The  history  of  modern 
times  is  best  studied  in  the  history  of 
the  various  nations. 

1.  ENGLAND. 

The  Britannia  of  the  Romans  is 
overrun  in  the  age  of  migrations  by 
Teutonic  tribes  from  Jutland  and  the 
northwest  of  Germany,  who,  receiving 
a  new  infusion  of  kindred  blood  from 
the  Danes,  arc  conquered  in  the  eleventh 
century  by  a  more  remote  kinsfolk,  the 
Normans — Gallicized  Teutons  from 
France.  Saxons  and  Normans  are 
blended  into  one  before  1400,  by  which 
time  a  constitutional  system  of  govern- 
ment, worked  out  in  the  course  of  long 
conflicts  between  rulers  and  subjects,  is 
in  force,  based  on  the  supreme  legisla- 
tive authority  of  a  Parliament,  repre- 
senting the  different  estates.  Wales 
and  Ireland  have  been  subdued,  and 
Scotland  has  ceased  to  be  a  dangerous 
rival.  Feudalism,  never  so  strong  in 
England  as  on  the  Continent,  is  prac- 
tically destroyed  during  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
the  modern  era  may  be  dated  from  the 
accession  of  the  Tudors  in  1485.  See: 


HISTORY 


15 


England 

Britannia 

Anglo-Saxons 

Heptarchy 

Alfred 

Edward  the  Confessor 

Canute 

Harold 

Witenagemot 

William  the  Conqueror 

Hastings,  Battle  of 

Hereward 

Domesday  Book 

William  II 

Henry  I 

Stephen 

Plantagenet 

Henry  II 

Becket 

Ireland 

English  Pale 

Richard  I 

John 

Magna  Charta 

Oxford,   Provisions  of 

Montfort,  Simon  de 

Edward  I 

Parliament 

Wales 

Llewellyn  ap  Griffith 

Scotland 

Wallace 

Bruce 

Bannockburn 

Edward  II 

Mortimer,  Roger  de 

Edward  III 

Hundred  Years'  War 

Crccy 

Poitiers 

Black  Death 

Richard  II 

Tyler's  Rebellion 

Ball  John 


Wiclif 

Provisors,  Statute  of 

Praemunire 

Mortmain,  Statutes  of 

Lancaster,  House  of 

Henry  IV 

Agincourt 

Henry  VI 

York,  House  of 

Margaret  of  Anjou 

Cade,  Jack 

Roses,  Wars  of  the 

Edward  IV 

Warwick,  Earl  of 

Richard  III 

Tudor 

Under  the  Tudors  the  power  of  Par- 
liament greatly  declined.  The  Refor- 
mation, initiated  by  Henry  VIII,  soon 
spread  beyond  the  limits  the  King  would 
set  to  it,  and  England  became  Protes- 
tant. Under  Elizabeth  it  was  forced 
to  contend  against  Spain,  the  champion 
of  Catholicism.  With  the  defeat  of 
Spain,  England  enters  on  her  career  as 
ruler  of  the  seas  and  begins  the  work  of 
founding  a  new  English-speaking  na- 
tion across  the  Atlantic.  The  death  of 
Elizabeth,  the  last  of  the  Tudors,  gives 
England  and  Scotland  a  common  sov- 
ereign. A  revived  Parliament  asserts 
its  rights  successfully  against  the 
absolutism  of  the  Stuarts,  dethrones 
them,  recalls  them,  and  drives  them  as 
enemies  of  Protestantism  once  more 
from  the  throne,  bestowing  the  crown 
upon  a  prince  of  Dutch  blood.  The 
crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  are 
united.  On  the  Continent,  England 
takes  a  leading  part  in  the  overthrow 
of  Louis  XIV  of  France  and  comes  out 
of  the  struggle  more  powerful  than 
ever  upon  the  seas.  See : 

Henry  VII 


16 


HISTORY 


Parliament 

Star  Chamber 

Benevolence 

Henry  VIII 

Boleyn,  Anne 

Wolsey,  Cardinal 

Cromwell,  Thomas 

Reformation 

Cranmer 

Edward  VI 

Mary  I 

Ridley 

Latimer 

Elizabeth 

Supremacy 

Mary  Stuart 

Burleigh 

Walsingham 

Leicester 

Essex 

Armada 

Drake 

Howard 

Stuart 

James  I 

Charles  I 

Petition  of  Rights 

Ship-Money 

Strafford,  Earl  of 

Laud 

Long  Parliament 

Grand  Remonstrance 

Five  Members 

Pym 

Eliot 

Hampden 

Cromwell,  Oliver 

Vane,  Henry 

Blake 

Fairfax 

Ireton 

Scotland 

Covenants 

Presbyterianism 


Montrose,  Earl  of 

Charles  II 

Clarendon,  Earl  of 

Cabal 

Test  Acts 

Gates,  Titus 

Shaftesbury,  Earl  of 

James  II 

Halifax,  Earl  of 

William  III 

Mary  II 

Anne 

Succession  Wars   (Spanish) 

Utrecht,  Treaty  of 

Marlborough,  Duke  of 

Bolingbroke 

Harley 

Sachovcrell 

With  the  accession  of  the  House  of 
Hanover,  the  supremacy  of  Parliament 
is  firmly  established;  cabinet  govern- 
ment is  developed,  and  the  rule  of  party 
is  the  order — by  the  Whigs,  roughly 
speaking,  to  the  French  Revolution,  by 
the  Tories  to  1832,  by  the  two  or  their 
successors  since  then,  in  comparatively 
rapid  alternation.  France  is  defeated 
and  deprived  of  her  Indian  and  Ameri- 
can possessions,  but  almost  immediately 
England  suffers  an  irreparable  loss  in 
the  defection  of  the  thirteen  colonies. 
Partial  compensation,  however,  is  found 
in  India,  where  English  adventurers 
build  up  a  new  empire.  After  the 
French  Revolution  and  the  Napoleonic 
Wars,  comes  strife  between  the  advocates 
of  reaction  and  the  rising  forces  of 
democracy,  stimulated  by  the  great  in- 
dustrial revolution.  The  latter  win  in 
1832,  and  the  subsequent  history  of 
England  is  one  of  democratic  progress 
within,  of  conquest  and  commercial  ex- 
pansion abroad.  See : 


HISTORY 


17 


United  Kingdom 

Whig  and  Tory 

George  IV 

Cabinet 

South  Sea  Company 

Walpole,  Robert 

Newcastle,   Duke   of 

Chatham,  Earl  of 

Seven  Years'  War 

Bute,  Earl  of 

Grenville 

Townshend 

Wilkes,  John 

North,  Lord 

Fox,    Charles   James 

Pitt,  William 

Burke,  Edmund 

Sheridan,  R.  B. 

Trafalgar 

Nelson 

Wellington 

Peninsular  War 

Canning 

India 

('live 

Hastings,  Warren 

Wclleslc'y,  Marquis 

Cormvullis,  Lord 

Dupk'ix 

William  IV 

Pctcrloo  Massacre 

Trade  Unions 

Russcl,  Lord  John 

Grey,  Earl  (1st,  2d  and  3d) 

Victoria 

Corn  Laws 

Peel,  Robert 

Cobden,  John 

Bright,  John 

Palmcrston,  Lord 

Derby,  Earl 

Disraeli 

Gladstone 

Salisbury,  Marquis  of 


Roscbcry,  Earl  of 

Chamberlain,  Joseph 

Balfour,  Arthur 

Beresford,  Lord  C. 

Campbell-Bannerman 

Law,  A.  Bonar 

Morley,  Viscount 

Ireland 

Tyrconnel 

Stewart,  Robert 

Home  Rule 

Roman  Catholic  Emancipation 

O'Connell,  Daniel 

Irish  Land  Laws 

Fenian  Society 

Redmond,  J.  E. 

Parnell,  Charles  Stewart 

Australia 

Canada 

Imperial  Federation 

Edward  VII 

South  African  War 

French,  Sir  J.  W. 

Union  of  South  Africa 

War  in  Europe 

Asquith,  H.   II. 

Lloyd-George,  D. 

Kitchener  of  Khartum 

George  V7 

Churchill,  W.  S. 

Curzon,  Earl 

For  the  Historians: 

Acton,  J.  E.  E.  D. 
Bury,  J.    B. 
Clarendon,  Lord 
Elphinstone,  M. 
Firth,  C.  H. 
Freeman,  E.  A. 
Fronde,  J.  A. 
Fyffe,  C.  A. 
Gairdncr,  J. 
Gardiner,  S.  R. 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth 


18 


HISTORY 


Gildas 

Giraldus  dc  Barri 
Green,  J.  R. 
Gross,  C. 
Gwatkin,  H.  M. 
Hallam,  H. 
Holinshcd,  R. 
Kinglnkc,  A.   W. 
Kingsford,  W. 
Lappenberg,  J.  M. 
Lccky,  W.  E.  H. 
Lingard,  J. 
Macaulay,  T.   B. 
McCarthy,  Justin 
Maitland,  F.  W. 
Napier,  W.  F.  P. 
Oman,  C.  W.  C. 
Palgrave,  F. 
Paris,  Matthew 
Rose,  J.  H. 
Seebohm,  F. 
Stubbs,  W. 
Turner,   Sharon 
Walpole,  Spencer 
William  of  Malmesbury 

2.  FRANCE. 

Upon  the  dissolution  of  the  Frankish 
Empire  in  the  ninth  century,  descend- 
ants of  Charles  the  Great  continue  to 
rule  over  the  land  of  the  Western 
Franks  with  a  population  predom- 
inantly Celtic  and  a  language  derived 
from  the  Latin.  This  is  the  begin- 
ning of  France.  The  weak  Caro- 
lingians  are  replaced  by  the  energetic 
house  of  Capet,  under  which  the  unifi- 
cation of  the  country  is  carried  on  by 
such  able  rulers  as  Philip  II,  Louis  IX, 
and  Philip  IV.  The  Hundred  Years' 
War  is  disastrous  to  the  kingdom,  but 
its  recovery  is  rapid  under  Charles  VII 
and  his  son,  Louis  XI,  who  leave  the 


power  of  the  crown  firmly  established. 
Religious  wars  in  the  sixteenth  century 
become  a  factor  for  anarchy,  but 
feudalism  is  definitely  crushed  by 
Richelieu,  and  absolutism  is  established 
by  Louis  XIV,  under  whom  France  is 
for  fifty  years  the  overweening  power 
in  Europe.  Absolutism  breaks  down 
under  Louis  XIV's  unworthy  successors, 
and  the  entire  ancient  fabric  of  society 
is  swept  away  by  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. See : 

France 

Brittany 

Normandy 

Burgundy 

Flanders 

Aquitania 

Anjou 

Navarre 

Franks 

Curolingians 

Verdun,  Treaty  of 

Cupctitm  Dynasty 

Louis  VII 

Philip  II,  Augustus 

Louis  IX 

Philip  IV,  the  Fair 

Valois,  House  of 

Hundred  Years'  War 

Crecy 

Poitiers 

John  II 

Jacquerie 

Charles  VI 

Agincourt 

Du  Guesclin 

Dunois 

Joan  of  Arc 

Charles  VII 

Louis  XI 

Charles  the  Bold 

Charles  VIII 


HISTORY 


19 


Louis  XII 
Francis  I 
Henry  II 
Huguenots 
Catharine  de'  Medici 
Guise 
Conde 
Coligny 

Bartholomew's,  Massacre  of  Saint 
Charles  IX 
Henry  III 
Politiques 
Henry  IV 
Nantes,  Edict  of 
Sully,  Duke  de 
Louis  XIII 
Richelieu 

Westphalia,  Peace  of 
Mazarin 

Maintenon,  Marquise  de 
Louis  XIV 
Fronde 
Parlement 
Colbert 
Louvois 
Turennc 

Vcndome,  Duke  de 
Luxembourg,  Duke  of 
Villars 
Camisards 
Succession  Wars 
Orleans,  Philippe,  Duke  of 
Dubois 
Louis  XV 
Seven  Years*  War 
Pompadour,  Marquise  de 
Du  Barry,  Countess 
Louis  XVI 
Turgot 
Nccker 

Farmers-General 
States-General 

The  abolition  of  feudalism  by  the 
French  National  Assembly  is  followed 


by  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy. 
Assailed  by  the  rulers  of  Europe, 
France  retaliates,  and  its  conquering 
armies  carry  the  gospel  of  democracy 
over  the  Continent.  Under  Napoleon, 
France  dominates  Europe  until,  de- 
feated by  a  rising  of  the  European 
peoples,  it  is  compelled  to  take  back  its 
Bourbon  kings.  Reaction  struggles 
with  the  advancing  ideals  of  political 
and  social  revolution,  and  the  country 
witnesses  within  the  century  the  over- 
throw of  three  dynasties  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  two  republics.  Under 
Napoleon  III,  France  regains  for  a 
brief  period  its  ascendency  in  Euro- 
pean politics,  but  suffers  overwhelming 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  a  new-created 
Germany.  Her  latest  history  has  to 
do  with  the  slow  grounding  of  repub- 
lican principles,  the  adjustment  of  rela- 
tions between  Church  and  State  and  the 
great  war  which  began  in  1914.  See: 

French  Revolution 

Assembly,  National 

Mirabeau 

Marie  Antoinette 

Bastille 

National  Guard 

Lafayette 

Bailly 

Jacobins 

Feuillants 

Cordeliers 

Barnave 

Potion 

Pillnitz 

Valmy 

Jemappes 

Dumouriez 

Convention,  National 

Girondists; 

Brissot 


20 


HISTORY 


Roland  de  la  Plat&re 

Vcrgniaud 

Montagnardes 

Marat 

Danton 

Billaud-Varennes 

Carnot 

Callot  d'Herbois 

Robespierre 

Saint-Just 

Vendee 

Hebert 

Jourdan 

Pichegru 

Moreau 

Barras 

Directory 

Siey&s 

Talleyrand 

Josephine 

Napoleon  I;  III 

Massena 

Ney 

Murat 

Davout 

Junot 

Marmont 

Lannes 

Soult 

Suchet 

Victor 

Bcauharnais 

Continental  System 

Code  Napoleon 

Separation  of  Church  and  State 

Louis  XVIII 

Charles  X 

Louis  Philippe 

Guizot 

Thiers 

Ledru-Rollin 

Blanc,  Louis 

Eugenie-Marie  de  Monti  jo 

Crimean  War 


Franco-German  War 

Bazaine 

Favre,  Jules 

Gambetta 

MacMahon 

Ferry 

Boulangcr 

Casimir-Perier 

Faure 

Loubet 

Dreyfus,  Alfred 

Waldeck-Rousseau 


Triple  Entente 

Freycinet 

Ribot 

Fallieres 

Jaures 

Poincare 

Viviani 

Briand 

Gallieni 

JofFre 

War  in  Europe 

For  the  Historians: 

Cheruel,  P.  A. 
Duruy,  V. 
Froissart,  J. 
Guizot,  F.  P.  G. 
Hanotaux,  G. 
Houssaye,  H. 
Joinville,  Jean 
Lanfrey,  P. 
Lavisse,   E. 
Luchaire,  A. 
Martin,  H. 
Michaud,  J. 
Michelet,  J. 
Mignet,  F.  A.  M. 
Montalembcrt,  C.  F. 
Rambaud,  A.  N. 
Seignobos,  C, 


HISTORY 


21 


Sorel,  A. 
Stephens,  H.  M. 
Sybel,  H. 
Thierry,  Amedee 
Thierry,  Augustin 
Thou,  J.  A.  de 
Villehardouin,  Geoffroy  de 

3.  GERMANY. 

German  history,  like  the  history  of 
France,  may  be  dated  from  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Frankish  Empire.  Unlike 
France,  Germany  knew  no  unity  until 
the  very  latest  times.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  the 
tenth  century  connected  the  political 
fortunes  of  Germany  with  those  of  Italy 
and  the  Papacy,  and  the  history  of  the 
empire  is  but  the  history  of  the  sep- 
arate states  within  the  empire.  After 
1273,  the  imperial  dignity  is  held,  as  a 
rule,  by  members  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg,  and  the  imperial  interests  become 
more  and  more  Austrian.  Disunion  is 
fostered  by  the  Reformation  and  per- 
petuated by  the  Thirty  Years5  War. 
In  the  eighteenth  century,  Prussia  en- 
ters into  competition  with  Austria  for 
leadership  in  the  empire,  which,  after 
existing  for  more  than  eight  hundred 
years,  is  dissolved  by  Napoleon  in  1805. 
The  quarrel  between  Prussia  and  Aus- 
tria is  fought  out  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  the  former  triumphs.  A 
new  German  Empire  is  formed,  differ- 
ing from  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  its 
national  character,  and,  as  the  strongest 
military  power  on  the  Continent,  occu- 
pies a  leading  place  in  the  European 
system.  See : 

Germany 

Prussia 

Bavaria 


Saxony 

Wiirttemberg 

Hanover 

Baden 

Verdun,  Treaty  of 

Franconia 

Swabia 

Lorraine 

Othol 

Holy  Roman  Empire 

Henry  II,  IV,  VI 

Conrad  II 

Investiture 

Gregory  VII 

Hohenstaufen 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines 

Frederick  I,  Barbarossa 

Frederick  II 

Hapsburg 

Rudolph  I 

Austrm-II  ungary 

Charles  IV,  V,  VI 

Golden   Bull 

Electors 

Sigismund 

Maximilian  I 

Aulic  Council 

Reformation 

Passau,  Treaty  of 

Bohemia 

Thirty  Years'  War 

Leopold  I 

Pragmatic  Sanction 

Frederick  William  I,  III,  IV 

Frederick  II 

Mari.'i  Theresa 

Succession  Wars  (Austrian) 

Seven  Years'  War 

Francis  II  of  Austria 

Stein 

Scharnhorst 

Bliicher 

Gneiscnau 

Leipzig,  Battles  of 


22 


HISTORY 


Waterloo 

Vienna,  Congress  of 

Metternich 

Burschenschaft 

Zollvercin 

Frankfort,  Council  of 

Seven  Weeks'  War 

Bismarck-Schonhausen 

Moltke 

William  I 

Kulturkampf 

Triple   Alliance 

William  II 

Caprivi 

Hohenlohe 

Billow 

Bothnia  nn-IIollwe£ 

Jagow 

Hindenburg 

Tirpitz 

War  in  Europe 

For  the  Historians: 

Bulle,  K. 
Dahlmann,  F.  C. 
Dahn,  F. 
Droysen,  J.  G. 
Diirnmler,  E. 
Erdmannsdorffer,  B. 
Gfrorer,  A.  F. 
Giesebrccht,  F.  W.  B 
Htiusscr,  L. 
Janssen,  J. 
Lamprecht,  K. 
Marcks,  E. 
Maurenbrocher,  W. 
Miiller,  Johannes 
Oncken,   W. 
Ranke,  L. 
Raumer,  F.  L. 
Sybel,  H. 
Treitschke,  H. 
Waitz,  G, 


4.    AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Austria-Hungary  is  a  political  unit 
merely  and  in  no  sense  a  national  State, 
and  its  history  is  largely  that  of  the 
several  states  that  compose  it.  The  re- 
lationship to  European  affairs  result- 
ing from  the  close  connection  between 
the  house  of  Austria  and  the  Holy  Ro- 
man Empire,  for  five  centuries,  is  best 
traced  under  GERMANY,  which  see. 
Here,  the  internal  affairs  alone  will  be 
touched  upon,  and  the  history  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  history  of  a  family, 
the  Hapsburgs,  that,  starting  with 
small  territorial  possessions  in  the  Swa- 
bian  mountains,  brought  under  its  sway 
by  conquest  or  marriage  the  heart  of 
Central  Europe,  from  the  Carpathians 
to  the  Alps  and  from  the  Vistula  to  the 
Danube  and  the  Adriatic  Sea.  See : 

(a)  For  Austria: 

Austria-Hungary 

Bohemia 

Dalmatia 

Styria 

Moravia 

Galicia 

Tyrol 

Carinthia 

Carniola 

Babenbcrg 

Ottokar  II 

Hapsburg 

Rudolph  I 

Albert  II 

Maximilian  I 

Charles  V 

Ferdinand  I,  II 

Maximilian  II 

Thirty  Years'  War 

Succession  Wars  (Spanish) 

Eugene,  Prince 

Joseph  II 


HISTORY 


28 


Leopold  II 

Campo-Formio 

Luneville 

Pressburg 

Vienna,  Congress  of 

Mcttcrnich 

Francis  II 

Francis  Joseph  I 

Windischgratz 

Radetzky 

Lornbardy 

Seven  Weeks'  War 

Ausgleich 

Triple  Alliance 

War  in  Europe 

(6)  For  Hungary: 
Hungary 
Arpad 
Bathory 
Louis  I,  II 
Sigismund 
Hunyady,  Janos 
Matthias  Corvinus 
Mohacs 
Zapolya 
Tokolyi 

John  III,  Sobieski 
Rakoczy 
Dedk,  Ferencz 
Batthyanyi 
Kossuth 
Bern 

Dernbinski 
Gorgey 
Meszaros 
Klapka 
Haynau 
Tisza 

(6)  For  the  Historians: 
Arneth,  A.  R. 
Fessler,  I,  A. 
Gindely,  A. 
Hormayr,  J. 


Krones,  F. 
Mailiith,  J. 
Zeissberg,  H. 
Wolf,  Adam 

5.  THE  IBERIAN  PENINSULA. 

One  of  the  richest  regions  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  Hispania,  was  wrested 
from  the  Romans  by  successive  waves  of 
barbarian  invaders  in  the  fifth  century 
of  our  era.  The  Christian  Gothic  king- 
dom was  overthrown  by  the  Arabs,  who 
developed  in  the  peninsula  a  civiliza- 
tion that  was  long  the  highest  in  Eu- 
rope. The  remnants  of  the  Christian 
inhabitants  rallied  in  the  northern 
mountains  and  a  slow  but  steady  process 
of  reconquest  was  begun,  hastened  by 
the  dissolution  of  the  Arab  Caliphate, 
retarded  by  strife  among  the  various 
Christian  kingdoms,  completed  before 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when 
the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula  had 
been  brought  under  one  crown.  Portu- 
gal alone  preserved  its  independence  of 
Castile.  Enriched  by  the  wealth  of  a 
newly  discovered  world  and  her  Low- 
land possessions,  Spain,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  plays  the  leading  role  in 
European  affairs  and  then  enters  on  a 
course  of  political  and  economic  de- 
cline which  has  continued  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  Portugal  and  Great  Britain 
have  been  friends  since  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  See: 

(a)  For  Spain: 

Spain 

Iberians 

Phoenicia 

Carthage 

Hispania 

Lusitania 


HISTORY 


Goths 

Suevi 

Roderick 

Moors 

Tarik 

Ommiads 

Cordova 

Mohammedan  Art 

Navarre 

Asturias 

Le6n 

Castile 

Aragon 

Almoravides 

Almohades 

Granada 

Boabdil 

Ferdinand  V  of  Castile 

Isabella  I,  II 

Ximcnes 

Inquisition 

Cortes 

Fuero 

Padilla,  Juan 

Alcantara 

Calatrava 

Gonsalvo  de  Cordova 

Philip  II,  III,  IV 

Armada 

Charles,  II,  IV 

Succession   Wars    (Spanish) 

Alberoni 

Farnese 

Godoy 

Peninsular  War 

Ferdinand  VII 

Carlos,  Don 

Maria  Christina 

Espartero 

Narvaez 

Prim 

O'Donnell 

Castelar 

Serrano 


Anmdeus  I 

Alfonso  XII,  XIII 

Canovas  del  Castillo 

Sagasta 

Silvela 

Spanish- American  War 

(6)  For  Portugal: 
Portugal 
Alfonso  I,  V 
Diniz 

John  I,  III 
Henry  the  Navigator 
Manuel  the  Great 
Garna,  Vasco  da 
Almeida 
Albuquerque 
Braganza,  House  of 
Methucn  Treaty 
Pombal 

Peninsular  War 
Miguel,  Dom 
Pedro,  Dom 
Saldanha 
Charles  I 
Brazil 

Manuel  I,  II 
War  in  Europe 

(c)  For  the  Historians,  see: 
Barros,  J.  de 
Coxe,  W. 
Dozy,  R. 
Gayangos 
Lafuente,  M. 
Lea,  H.  C. 
Llorentc,  J.  A. 
Mariana,  J. 
Prescott,  W.  H. 
Robertson,  W. 
Zurita  Y.  Castro 

6.  ITALY. 

The  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  was 
followed   by    a   struggle   between   the 


HISTORY 


25 


Goths  and  the  Byzantines  for  the  posses- 
sion of  Italy.  The  latter  held  the  south 
while  the  north  passed  from  the  Goths 
to  the  Lombards  and  the  Franks.  Con- 
stituted with  Germany  into  a  shadowy 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  Italy  enters  upon 
a  period  of  utter  disunion  with  the  Pa- 
pal power  established  in  the  centre  of 
the  peninsula,  the  north  parceled  out 
into  independent  principalities  and  re- 
publics, the  south  ruled  by  Normans, 
Saracens,  French,  and  Spaniards.  The 
Italian  cities  rise  to  great  prosperity 
after  the  Crusades  and  become  the  cra- 
dle of  the  Renaissance.  The  state  of 
political  disintegration  continues  till  the 
later  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
and  Italy  suffers  from  internal  strife 
and  foreign  domination,  Spain  and 
Austria  playing  the  master  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  peninsula.  Union 
comes  to  the  country  from  the  house  of 
Savoy,  whose  power,  spreading  over 
Sardinia  and  Piedmont,  after  a  contest 
with  Austria,  the  Papacy,  and  Spain, 
spreads  over  the  entire  peninsula. 
Early  Italian  history  is  best  studied  in 
the  story  of  separate  states  and  cele- 
brated families.  See: 

Rome 

Venice 

Florence 

Milan 

Genoa 

Pisa 

Lucca 

Verona 

Bologna 

Ravenna 

Ferrara 

Naples 

Papal  States 

Two  Sicilies,  Kingdom  of 

Sicily 


Foscari 

Falieri 

Malatesta 

Medici 

Visconti 

Colonna 

Orsini 

Este 

Borgia 

Theodoric  the  Great 

Belisarius 

N  arses 

Lombards 

Saracens 

Normans 

Guiscard 

Crusade 

Reniassance 

Charles  VIII  of  France 

Sforza 

Condottieri 

Louis  XII  of  France 

Ferdinand  V  of  Spain 

Julius  II  (Pope) 

Savoy 

Napoleon  I 

Suvaroff 

Nelson 

Murat 

Carbonari 

Holy  Alliance 

Victor  Emmanuel  I,  II,  113 

Charles  Albert 

Mazzini 

Young  Italy 

Radetzky 

Manin 

Cavour 

Garibaldi 

Villafranca 

Rattazzi 

Ricasoli 

Crispi 

Rudini 


26 


HISTORY 


Depretis 

Humbert  I 

Mafia 

Turco-Italian  War 

Salandra 

Sonnino 

War  in  Europe 

For  the  Historians: 
Amari,  M. 
Balbo,  C. 
Botta,  C.  G. 
Burckhardt,  J. 
Cantd,  C. 
Cibrario,  G.  A. 
Farini,  L.  C. 
Gallenga,  A. 
Grcgorovius,  F. 
Hodgkin,  T. 
Johnston,  R.  M. 
La  Farina,  G. 
Liudprand 
Muratori,  L.  A. 
Paulus  Diaconus 
Sismondi,  J.  C. 
Syinonds,  J.  A. 
Villari,  P. 

7.  THE  SLAV  EMPIRE. 

The  Slav  inhabitants  of  the  plains 
south  of  the  Finnish  lakes  received  in 
the  ninth  century  a  ruler  of  Scandina- 
vian stock,  whose  successors  extended 
their  sway  to  the  southern  rivers.  The 
Byzantine  civilization  and  religion  are 
introduced.  The  unity  of  the  country 
disappears  after  the  tenth  century,  and 
its  independence  is  swept  away  in  the 
thirteenth  by  Mongol  invaders  from 
the  east.  The  power  of  the  Mongols 
breaks  up  in  the  fifteenth  century  and 
a  new  empire  is  created  by  the  grand 
princes  of  Moscow,  whose  rule  is  stead- 
ily extended  to  the  south  and  west  at 
the  expense  of  Poland  and  the  Baltic 


powers.  Peter  I  brings  Russia  within 
the  sphere  of  European  politics  and 
gains  for  his  country  a  predominant 
place  among  the  northern  powers. 
With  the  Baltic  reached,  Russia  turns 
once  more  to  the  south  and  driving  the 
Turks  before  her,  she  reaches  the  Black 
Sea  and  seeks  to  press  into  the  Balkan 
peninsula.  The  jealousy  of  the  pow- 
ers halts  her  progress  and  her  advance 
assumes  a  new  direction — eastward  and 
southward  in  Asia,  where  the  begin- 
nings of  her  power  had  been  made  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  In  her  attack 
on  the  integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 
she  finds  a  formidable  rival  in  Japan. 
Internally,  after  Peter's  time,  a  strug- 
gle goes  on  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  civilization,  which,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twentieth  century,  finds 
Russia  still  a  despotism.  Poland,  at 
one  time  the  greatest  power  in  central 
Europe,  fell  through  disunion  and  its 
territory  was  absorbed  by  Austria, 
Prussia,  and,  to  the  largest  extent,  by 
Russia.  See : 

(a)  For  Russia: 

Russia 

Slavs 

Varangians 

Rurik 

Novgorod 

Kiev 

Vladimir 

Tchernigov 

Batu  Khan 

Alexander  Nevski 

Moscow 

Kiptchak 

Ivan  III,  the  Great 

Ivan  IV,  the  Terrible 

Godunoff,  Boris 

Demetrius 


HISTORY 


27 


Romanoff,  House  of 

Peter  I,  the  Great 

Streltsi 

Charles  XII  of  Sweden 

Anna  Ivanovna 

Dolgoruki 

Golitzin 

Biron 

Anna  Karlovna 

Elizabeth  Petrovna 

Catharine  II 

Poland 

Armed  Neutrality 

Paul  I 

Alexander  I 

Tilsit 

Holy  Alliance 

Nicholas  I 

Crimean  War 

Alexander   II 

Serf 

Nihilism 

Russo-Turkish  War 

Berlin,  Congress  of 

Loris-Melikoff* 

Alexander  III 

Ignatieff 

A  n  t  i- Si' m  i  tism 

Nicholas  II 

Finland 

Siberia 

Manchuria 

Russo-Japanese  War 

Goreniykin 

Nicholas  (NikoLii  Nikolaievitch) 

War  in  Europe 

(b)   For  Poland: 

Poland 

Lithuania 

Teutonic  Knights 

Casimir  III,  the  Great 

Jagellons 

Casimir  IV 


Sigismund  the  Great 

Ukraine 

Cossacks 

Chmielnicki 

Thorn 

John  III,  Sobicski 

Succession    Wars    (Polish) 

Stanislas  Leszczynski 

Augustus  II 

Catharine  II 

Kosciuszko 

Chlopicki 

Bern 

Dembmski 

Panslavism 

Aksakoff,  I.   S. 

War  in  Europe 

For  the  Historians : 

(a)       Bcstuzheff-Ryumin,   K.   N. 

Bruckner,  A. 

Karamzin,  N.  M. 

KostomarofF,  N.  I. 

Pogodin,  M.  P. 

Rambaud,  A.  N. 

Solovicff 
(fe)       Chodzko,  L.  J. 

Lclcwel,  J. 

Niemcewicz,  J.  U. 

8.   THE  BALKAN  PKNINSTLA. 

The  Byzantine  Empire,  successor  tc 
the  Roman  Empire  in  the  eastern  Med- 
iterranean, after  a  thousand  years'  ex- 
istence, fell  before  the  Turks,  whose 
power,  spreading  northward  beyond  the 
Danube,  extended  over  Hungup  and 
threatened  the  Austrian  dominions. 
The  rapid  decline  of  the  Turks  begins 
with  the  eighteenth  century  and  has 
continued  to  the  present  day,  resulting 
in  the  restriction  of  the  Ottoman  power 
to  but  a  fraction  of  its  once  vast  terri- 
tories. Russia  and  Austria  have  stead* 


28 


HISTORY 


ily  pressed  the  Turkish  power  back- 
ward, and  only  the  jealousy  of  the 
Western  powers,  England  primarily, 
has  preserved  the  integrity  of  the  Em- 
pire. Part  of  the  territory  wrested 
from  Turkey  has  been  erected  into  in- 
dependent Christian  States.  In  1908 
the  Young  Turk  movement  overthrew 
the  old  order  of  things  and  estab- 
lished a  constitutional  government. 
In  the  Great  War  Turkey  divorced 
herself  from  England  and  cast  in  her 
lot  with  the  Teutonic  allies.  See: 

(a)  Turkey 

Eastern   Question 

Othman 

Amurath  I 

Janizaries 

Bajazet  I 

Amurath  II 

Mohammed  I 

Mohammed  II 

Mohammed  III 

Mohammed  IV 

Mohammed  V 

Selim  I 

Solyman 

Lepanto 

Kiuprili 

Kara  Mustapha 

Eug&ne,  Prince 

Mahmud  II 

Mehemet  Ali 

Crimean  War 

Abd  ul-Aziz 

Abd  ul-Hanrid 

Russo-Turkish  War 

Berlin,  Congress  of 

Greece 

Crete 

Armenia 

Albania 

Ali  Pasha 

Macedonia 


Adrianoplc 
Constantinople 
Abd  ul-Mcdjid 
Turco-Italian  War 
Balkan  War 
War  in  Europe 

(b)  Greece 

Hetorae 

Coray 

Ypsilanti 

Mnvrocordatos 

Miaulis 

Kanaris 

Bozzaris 

Kolokotronis 

Capo  d'Istria 

Navarino 

Otto  I 

George  I 

Trikoupis 

Delyannis 

Trikoupis,  C. 

Constantine  I 

Balkan  War 

Venizelos 

Zaimis 

War  in  Europe 

(c)  Servia 

Czerny  George 

Obrenovitcli 

Alexander  Kunigcorgevitcb 

Milan  I 

Natalie 

Ristic 

Alexander  I 

Peter  I,  Karageorgevitch 

Skupshtina 

Bosnia 

Herzegovina 

Berlin,  Congress  of 

Panslavism 

Balkan  War 

Pashich 


HISTORY 


29 


War  in  Europe 
Mijatovich 

(d)  Bulgaria 

Bulgars 

Russo-Turkish  War 
Alexander  I 
Ferdinand  I 
Stambuloff 
Berlin,  Congress  of 
Balkan  War 
Panslavism 
War  in  Europe 

(e)  Rumania 

Moldavia 

Wallachia 

Kanternir 

Hospodar 

Fanariots 

Ypsilanti 

Gliiku 

Russo-Turkish  War 

Jews 

Berlin,  Congress  of 

Brat'uinu 

(Charles  I 

Balkan  War 

Panslavism 

Ferdinand  (Rumania) 

War  in  Europe 

(/*)   Bosnia 

(g)  Herzegovina 

(h)  Montenegro 

Berlin,  Congress  of 
Danilo  I 
Panslavism 
Balkan  War 
Scutari 
Nicholas  I 
War  in  Europe 

(i)  Albania 

Balkan  War 
Essad  Toptani 


William  of  Wied 
War  in  Europe 

For  the  Historians: 

Creasy,  E.  S.   (Turkish) 
Hammcr-Purgstall  (Turkish) 
Lambros   (Greek) 
Trikoupis,  S.   (Greek) 
Ranke,  L.  von.  (Servian) 
Mijatovich,  C.  (Servian) 
Jirccek,  K.  (Bulgarian) 
lorga,  N>  (Rumanian) 

8.  THE  MINOR  NATIONS  OF  EUROPE. 

(«)  Denmark 
Margaret 
Christian  VII 
Christian  VIII 
Christian  IX 
Christian  X 
Schleswig-Holstein 
Frederick  III 
Frederick  V 
Frederick  VI 
Frederick  VII 
Frederick  VIII 
Norway 
Oscar  II 
War  in  Europe 

(b)   Sweden 

Finland 

Eric 

Kalmar 

Sture 

Gustavus  Vasa 

Charles  IX 

Gustavus  Adolphus 

Oxenstiema 

Christina 

Charles  XII 

Gustavus  I-V 

Caps  and  Hats 

Charles  XIV,  John 


30 


HISTORY 


Oscar  I,  II 
Adolphus  Frederick 
War  in  Europe 

(c)  Norway 
Normans 

Harald  Haarfagr 
Iceland 
Haakon 
Denmark 

Christian  II,  IV,  VII 
Frederick  I,  II 
Haakon  VII 
Olaf 
War  in  Europe 

(rf)  Netherlands 
Burgundy 
Granvella 

Margaret  of  Parma 
William  the  Silent 
Egmont 
Hoorne 
Alva 

Farnese,  Alexander 
Barneveldt 
Maurice  of  Nassau 
Dort,  Synod  of 
De  Witt 
Stadtholder 
William  III 
Louis  XIV 
Wilhehnina 
War  in  Europe 

(e)  Belgium 
Flanders 
Brabant 
Walloons 
Netherlands 
Ostend  Company 
Frcrc-Orban 
Rogier 

Leopold  I,  II 
Albert  I 
Vandervelde 


Lidge 

Namur 

Ostend 

War  in  Europe 

(f)   Switzerland 
Helvctii 
Alernannia 
Burgundy 
Hapsburg 
Tell,  William 
Morgartcn 
Sernpach 
Winkclried 
Morat 
Zurich 

Hofer,  Andreas 
Sonderbund 
War  in  Europe 

For  the  Historians: 
Blok,  P.  J.   (Dutch) 
Fryxcll,  A.   (Swedish) 
Geijer,  E.   (Swedish) 
Juste,  T.  (Belgian) 
Merle  D'Aubignc  (Swiss) 
Motley,  J.  L.  (Dutch) 
Munch,  P.  A.  (Norwegian) 
Nielson,  Y.   (Norwegian) 
Stcenstrup,  J.  C.  H.  R.  (Danish) 

10.  SOUTH  AMERICA  AND  MEXICO. 

Beginning  with  Mexico  in  1519,  the 
great  regions  of  Central  and  South 
America  were  rapidly  brought  under 
Spanish  rule,  Portugal,  however,  held 
sway  in  Brazil,  and  in  Guiana  small 
portions  fell  to  other  European  na- 
tions. The  harsh  Spanish  rule  led 
to  bitter  but  unsuccessful  uprisings 
among  the  Indian  tribes  of  Peru  and 
Chile.  The  first  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  witnessed  the  successful 
revolt  of  the  Spanish  dependencies, 
aided  in  their  struggle  by  the  decidedly 


HISTORY 


friendly  attitude  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  of*  whom  the  latter 
now  assumes  the  role,  largely,  of  pro- 
tector over  the  newly  established  repub- 
lics. A  decided  inaptitude  for  self- 
government  is  evinced  by  these,  and 
chronic  disorder  checks  national  devel- 
opment. Chile,  Argentina,  and  Mexico 
are,  however,  prominent  exceptions. 
Brazil,  after  living  tranquilly  as  an  in- 
dependent empire,  enters  upon  the 
troubled  career  of  republican  politics 
towards  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. The  influence  of  the  United 
States  in  South  America  becomes  an 
important  factor  with  the  completion 
of  the  work  of  building  the  Panama 
Canal.  See  : 

Mexico 

Mexican  Archeology 

Montczuma 

CorU's 

Mondo/a,  Antonio  de 

Hidiilgn,  Miguel 

Morel  os 

Itiirbide 

Guerrero,  Vicente 

Santa  Anna 

Mexican  War 

Comonfort 

Juarez 

Mirumon 

Almonte 

Maximilian 

Lerdo  dc  Tejada 

Dia/,  Porfirio 

Villa 

Huerta 

Madero 

Zapata 

Central  America 

Guatemala 

Nicaragua 

Zelaya 


Honduras 

Salvador 

Costa  Rica 

Morazan 

Carrera,  Rafael 

Walker,  William 

Peru 

Huayna  Capac 

Pizarro,  Francisco 

Pizarro,  Gonzalo 

Almagro 

San  Martin,  Jose  de 

Prado,  M.  I. 

Bolivia 

Chile 

Araucania 

Valdivia,  Pedro  do 

Carrera,  Jose  Miguel  de 

O'Higgins,  Bernardo 

San  Martin,  Jose  dc 

Balmaceda,  Jose  Manuel 

Argentina 

Rosas,  Juan  Manuel 

Urquiza,  Justo  Jose 

Mitre,  Bartolome 

Sarrniento,  Domingo  F. 

Uruguay 

Gauchos 

Artigas,  Fernando  Jose 

Flores,  Venancio 

Paraguay 

Guarani 

Francia,  Jose  Gaspar 

Lope/,  Francisco  Solano 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Venezuela 

Castro,  C. 

Miranda,  F. 

Bolivar,  Simon 

Pacz,  Jose  Antonio 

Brazil 

Pedro  I,  II 

Fonseca,  Deodoro  da 


82 


HISTORY 


For  the  Historians  and  Investigators, 
see: 

Ixtlilxochitl 
Prescott 

Bancroft,  H.  H. 
Bandelicr,  A.  F.  A, 
Charnay,  C.  J.  D. 
Squier,  E.  G. 
Markham,  C.  R. 
Vicuna-Mackenna,  Benjamin 

11.  THE  FAR  EAST. 

(1)  INDIA.  The  history  of  India 
may  be  divided  into  three  periods,  that 
of  the  early  Hindu  domination,  the 
period  of  Mohammedan  rule,  and  the 
period  of  European  supremacy.  See : 

(a)  For  the  Peoples : 

India 

Indian  Peoples 

Aryan 

Dravidians 

Tamils 

Telugus 

Kanarese 

Malayalim 

(b)  For  the  History: 

India 

Bimbisara 

Sandrocottus 

Ghaznivides 

Timur 

Baber 

Akbar 

Shah  Jehan 

Aurung/cbe 

Nadir  Shah 

Ahmed  Shah 

Gama,  Vasco  da 

Albuquerque 

Almeida 

Pondicherry 

Goa 


Duplcix 
Clive 

East  India  Company 
Hastings,  Warren 
Cornwallis,  Lord 
Wellesley,  Marquis  of 
Nana  Sahib 

For  the  Religions  of  India,  see  Clmptci 
on  RELIGION. 

(2)  CHINA.      China     present?     the 
spectacle   of  a   nation   which,   having 
attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization 
at  a  time  when  Europe  was  still  barbar- 
ian, has  been  content  to  remain  qijios- 
cent  while  the  world  has  moved  forward. 
In  spite  of  its  vast  latent  strength,  it 
seems  destined  to  become  the  prey  of 
European  ambitions,  unless  the  example 
of  its  kindred  nation,  Japan,  should 
lead  it  to  recognize  the  civilization  of 
the  West,  and  to  observe  the  preponder- 
ant role  that  should  be  its  own  in  the 
Orient.     See : 

China 
Fuh-hi 

She  Hwang-Ti 
Han 

Genghis  Khan 
Kublai  Khan 
Ta  Ts'ing 
K'ang-hi 
Hung-siu-ts'cuen 
Gordon,  Charles  George 
Li  Hung  Chang 
Kwang-Sii 

Far  Eastern  Question 
Tze-hsi 
*  Yuan  Shih-kai 

For  the  Philosophy  and  Religions  of 
China,  see  Chapter  on  RELIGION. 

(3)  JAPAN.     Among  the  nations  of 
the  East,  Japan  stands  forth  as  an 
amazing  exception  to  Eastern  immobil 


HISTORY 


33 


ity.  The  political  balance  in  the  Pa- 
cific has  been  quite  upset  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  this  new  power,  which,  in 
less  than  four  decades,  has  passed  from 
feudalism  and  Oriental  seclusion  to  a 
constitutional  government  and  the  skil- 
ful utilization  of  the  sciences  and  wis- 
dom of  the  West.  Japan's  triumph 
over  China  in  1894-95  first  marked 
strength;  its  magnificent  struggle 
against  Russian  aggression  in  China 
and  its  participation  in  the  Great  War 
raised  the  possibility  of  a  quite  unex- 
pected development  in  the  relations  be- 
tween Europeans  and  Mongolians. 
See: 

Japan 

Jimmu  Tenno 

Taira 

Samurai 

Minamoto 

Fujiwara 

Yoritomo 

Asliikaga 

Daimio 

Nobunaga 

Ilideyoshi 

lyeyasu 

Toktigawa 

lyemitsu 

Perry,  M.  C. 

Kciki 

Mutsuhito 

Arisugawa 

II  Kamon  no  Kami 

Itagaki,  Taisiikc 

Ito,  Hirobumi 

Iwakura,  Tomomi 

Okubo,  Toshimichi 

Okuma,  Shigcnobu 

Soyeshima  Taneomi 

Yamagata  Aritomo 

Kato 

Yoshihito 

War  in  Europe 


See  also: 
Nichiren 

Arai  Hakuseki  (1657—) 
Motoori  Norinaya  (1730 — ) 
Hokusui  (1760—) 
Fukuzawa,  Yukichi 
Kido,  Takayoshi 

For  the  Authorities,  see: 
Abcel,  D. 
Real,    S. 
Biot,  E.  C. 
Griffis,  W.  E. 
Hirth,  F. 
Julion,   S.   A. 
Legge,  J. 
Morrison,  R. 

12.  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Norse  explorations  in  North  America, 
about  the  year  1000,  led  to  no  result, 
and  Europe,  before  the  time  of  Colum- 
bus, had  no  knowledge  of  a  A\orld  be- 
yond the  Atlantic.  The  discovery,  in 
1492,  was  followed  by  a  period  of  ex- 
ploration, in  which  Spanish,  French, 
English,  and  Dutch  participated.  Set- 
tlement follows,  and  poverty  and  relig- 
ious persecution  in  Great  Britain 
stretches  a  chain  of  English  speaking 
colonies  along  the  eastern  coast  of  what 
is  now  the  United  States.  Swedes  and 
Dutch  give  way  in  time,  and  with  Spain 
restricted  to  Florida,  England  enters 
into  a  struggle  for  possession  of  the  in- 
terior with  France,  whose  rule  has  mean- 
while been  extended  over  the  basins  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Mississippi,  and 
the  Great  Lakes.  England  triumphs, 
and  brings  under  her  authority  the  dis- 
puted territory  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
Sec: 

(a)  The  Discoverers : 
Ericson 


34  HISTORY 

Vinland  Yeardlcy 

Madog  Berkeley 

Columbus  Bacon 

Vespucius  Bradford,  William 

Cabot  Standish 

Cortcreal  Endecott 

Verrazano  Winthrop 

Ponce  de  Leon  Minuit,  Peter 

Ayllon  Kieft 

Narvdez,  P.  de  Stuyvcsant 

Nunez   Cabe9a  Hooker,   T. 

De  Soto  Davenport,  J. 

Coronado  Williams,  Roger 

Drake  Hutchinson,  Anne 

Frobisher  Baltimore,  Barons  of 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey  Claiborne 

Gosnold  Friends 

Smith,  John  Penn 

Norumbega  Oglethorpc 

'          ,  .  (c)  For  the  Struggle  with  the  French: 

Champlam  ^  J                        ** 

Hudson  Ki"S  Williain'a  War 

Nicollet  Quccn  Anne's  War 

Jolict  KinS  George's  War 

Marquette  French  and  Indian  War 

La  Salle  Pepperrell,  Sir  William 

Hennepin  Louisburg 

Tontv  Albany  Convention 

Lewis,  Meriwcther  Braddock 

Clark,  William  Amherst 

pikc  Abcrcromby 

T           c    TT  Loudoim 
Long,  S.  H. 

Bonneville  Wolfe'  James 

Catlin  Montcalm 

Whitney,  J.  D.  Pontiac 

Hayden  Paris'  T™tics  of 

Powell,  J.  W.  England's   triumph  over  France  is 

/.  v   mu    o  1.1.1  followed    almost    immediately    by    the 

(o)    Ine  oettJcrs:  .               .                                     ; r                , 

irreparable    loss    of    the   thirteen   col- 
See  under  the  names  of  the  thirteen     onjcs.   The  injustice  of  Parliamentary 

original  colonies ;  also :  taxation  stirs  the  colonists  to  resistance, 

London  Company  and  the  memory  of  their  triumph  over 

Plymouth  Company  the  French  lends  them  courage  for  the 

Jamestown  struggle.    See : 


HISTORY 


35 


(a)  The  Pre-rcvolutionary  Period: 

Navigation  Laws 
Assistance,  Writ  of 
Otis,  James 
Stamp  Act 
Sons  of  Liberty 
Boston  Massacre 
Boston  Tea  Party 
Boston  Port  Bill 
Quebec  Act 
Adams,  Samuel 
Hancock,  John 

(b)  The  Revolution:  (1)  The  Battles: 

Lexington 

Concord 

Bunker  Hill 

Long  Island 

Trenton 

Princeton 

B  ran  dy  wine 

Germantown 

Oriskany 

Bcnniiigton 

Saratoga 

Momnouth 

Camden 

Cowpens 

Guilford  Court  House 

Eutaw  Springs 

Yorktown 

(2)  The  Men: 

Warren 

Putnam 

Washington 

Montgomery 

Arnold 

Lee,  Charles 

Gates 

Greene 

Conway 

Stark 

TTcrkimer 

Morgan 


Marion 

Sumter 

Pickens 

Lee,  Richard  Henry 

Jones,  Paul 

Wayne,  Anthony 

Clark,  George  Rogers 

Lafayette 

Rochambeau 

Grassc,  Count  de 

Steubcn 

Kalb,  Baron  de 

Kosciuszko 

Pulaski 

Howe,  Lord 

Clinton 

Burgoyne 

Cornwallis 

Tarlcton 

Jefferson 

Franklin,  B. 

Livingston,  R.  R. 

Deane,  Silas 

Sherman,  Roger 

Morris,  Robert 

Declaration  of  Independence 

The  thirteen  colonies,  having  vindi- 
cated their  independence  in  a  protracted 
war,  are  impelled  for  the  defence  of 
their  now  won  liberties,  and  the  further- 
ance of  their  common  welfare,  to  organ- 
ize themselves  into  a  federal  republic 
with  a  written  constitution,  in  nature 
essentially  a  compromise  between  the 
ideas  of  local  liberty  and  efficiency  of 
the  central  authority.  The  Liberator 
of  the  nation  is  also  its  first  executive. 
His  death  is  followed  by  a  struggle  be- 
tween the  two  constitutional  principles. 
The  advocates  of  "  strict  construction  " 
triumph,  and,  in  the  person  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,  the  Republican-Democratic 
Party  assumes  power  to  hold  it  unin- 
terruptedly for  forty  years.  The 


36 


HISTORY 


boundaries  of  the  Union  are  extended 
by  the  admission  of  new  States,  and  the 
national  territory  is  enormously  in- 
creased by  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana 
and  Florida.  Party  differences  disap- 
pear, for  a  while,  after  a  second  war 
with  Great  Britain,  but  a  new  cause 
of  dissension  appears  in  the  form  of  the 
slavery  question,  which  replaces  consti- 
tutional politics  by  sectional.  Sec: 

(a)  The  Formation  of  the  Union: 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 

Shays's  Rebellion 

Hamilton 

Madison 

Jay 

Pinckney,  C.  C. 

Wilson,  James 

Randolph,  Edmund 

Paterson,  William 

Henry,  Patrick 

Northwest  Territory 

(6)   The  Era  of  Party  Strife: 

Federalists 
Anti-federalists 
Federalist,  The 
Gallatin,  A. 
Marshall,  John 
Burr 
Genet 

Jay  Treaty 
Whisky  Rebellion 
X.  Y.  Z.  Correspondence 
Alien  and  Sedition  Laws 
Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolu- 
tions 

Louisiana  Purchase 
Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition 
Continental  System 
Orders  in  Council 
Embargo 
Chesapeake,  The 


Constitution,  The 

Erie,  Battle  of  Lake 

Thames,  Battle  of  the 

Chippewa 

Luiidy's  Lane 

New  Orleans,  Battle  of 

Tippecanoe 

Hull,  Isaac 

Hull,  William 

Lawrence 

Perry 

Macdonough 

Hartford  Convention 

Gushing,  Caleb 

Ghent,  Treaty  of 

Missouri  Compromise 

Monroe,  James 

Monroe  Doctrine 

The  Democratic  Party  in  the  course 
of  time  did  not  fail  to  adopt  many  of 
the  principles  of  the  old  Federalists, 
among  them  notably  the  national  en- 
couragement of  internal  improvements 
and  the  creation  of  a  Government  bank. 
The  tendency  on  the  part  of  a  faction 
to  lay  stress  on  these  functions  of  the 
Government  led  to  the  dissolution  of  the 
Democratic  Party.  The  Whigs  now 
appear,  historically  the  successors  of 
the  Federalists  and  the  predecessors  of 
the  Republican  Party.  The  hierarchic 
succession  of  presidents  ends  in  1828, 
and  the  Western  Democracy  triumphs 
in  the  person  of  Andrew  Jackson.  Sec- 
tional feeling,  fostered  by  growing 
economic  differences  between  North  and 
South,  is  intensified  by  the  rise  in  the 
North  of  an  outspoken  spirit  of  oppo- 
sition to  the  institution  of  slavery. 
The  two  political  parties  for  a  time 
eagerly  ignore  the  issuo,  and  Southern 
statesmen,  nrmcd  with  the  threat  of  a 
disruption  of  the  Union,  succeed  in 
coercing  the  conservatives  in  the  North. 


HISTORY 


Territorial  expansion,  however,  forces 
the  slavery  question  into  the  fore- 
ground; the  Whig  Party,  unwilling 
directly  to  challenge  the  issue,  is  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Republican  Party,  which 
will.  The  Democratic  Party  is  broken 
in  two.  With  the  triumph  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party  in  1860,  the  South 
secedes  from  the  Union.  Sec: 
(a)  The  Formation  of  Parties  and  the 
Rise  of  the  Slavery  Question: 

Democratic1  Party 

Adams,  John  Quincy 

Crawford,  William 

Jackson,  Andrew 

Caucus 


Party 
Clay,  Henry 
Cumberland  Road 
Tariff 
Nullification 
McDuffic 

Calhoun,  John  C. 
Hayne,  Robert 
Webster 
Abolitionists 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd 
Phillips,  Wendell 
Love  joy,  Elijah 
Limdy,  Benjamin 
Van  Buren 
Murcy,  W.  L. 
Harrison,  William  Henry 
Tyler 

Webster-Ashburton  Treaty 
Northeast  Boundary  Dispute 
Polk 
Texas 

Houston,  Samuel 
Oregon 

Northwest  Boundary  Dispute 
Mexican  War 
Wilmot  Proviso 
Scott,  Winfield 


Taylor,  Zachary 

Fillmore 

Cass 

Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty 

(6)  The  Final  Struggle  over  Slavery: 
Free  Soil  Party 
Compromise  Measures  of  1850 
Fugitive  Slave  Law 
Seward 
Sumner 

Davis,  Jefferson 
Underground  Railroad 
Pierce,  Franklin 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill 
Popular  Sovereignty 
Thayer,  Eli 
Republican  Party 
Douglas,  Stephen  A. 
Taney,  Roger 
Dred  Scott  Case 
Buchanan,  James 
Brown,  John 
Lincoln,  Abraham 
Breckinridge,  J.  C. 
Bell,  John 
Constitutional  Union  Party 

(c)  The  Civil  War: 

Civil  War  in  America 
Confederate  States  of  America 
Stephens,  Alexander 
Benjamin,  Judah  P. 
Toombs,  Robert 

1.  The  Battles: 
I.  In  the  East: 

Fort  Sumter 
Big  Bethel 
Bull  Run 
Ball's  Bluff 
Williamsburg 
Seven  Pines 
Mcchanicsville 


88 


HISTORY 


Gaines's  Mill 
Savage's  Station 
Frazier's  Farm 
Malvcrn  Hill 
Bull  Run  (second) 
Antietam 
Fredericksburg 
Chancellorsville 
Gettysburg 

II.  In  the  West: 

Wilson's  Creek 

Paducah 

Belmont 

Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson 

Pea  Ridge 

Shiloh 

Corinth 

luka 

Island  No.  10 

New  Orleans 

Perryville 

Stone  River 

Vicksburg 

Chickamauga 

Chattanooga 

Mobile  Bay 

III.  The  Final  Campaigns: 

Dalton 

Kenesaw  Mountain 

Nashville 

Fort  McAllister 

Bentonville 

Wilderness 

Spottsylvania  Court  House 

Cold  Harbor 

Monocacy 

Winchester 

Cedar  Creek 

Five  Forks 

Petersburg 

Appomatox  Court  House 


2.  The  Men: 
Grant 
Sherman 
Sheridan 
McClellan 
Meade 
Thomas 
Burnside 
Halleck 
Hooker 
Rosecrans 
Buell 
Hancock 
Pope 
Lyon 
Foote 
Farragut 
Lee 

Jackson 
Johnston 
Johnston 
Longstrcet 
Beauregard 
Bragg 
Hood 
Early 

(d)  Emancipation  Declaration 
Draft  Riots 

Four  years  of  civil  war  established 
the  principle  that  the  United  States, 
once  perhaps  a  federation,  is  now  a 
nation.  Slavery  is  abolished  and  a  par- 
tisan Congress,  under  the  stress  of  cir- 
cumstances, gives  the  ballot  to  the  lib- 
erated bondsmen.  Reconstructed,  the 
Southern  States  devote  themselves  to  the 
task  of  rebuilding  their  wasted  fortunes 
on  old  ruins  and  new  conditions.  The 
South  recognizes  the  lesson  of  the  war 
in  its  bearing  on  the  nature  of  our 
Government,  but  refuses  to  recognize 
the  capacity  for  political  and  social 
equality  in  the  negro,  and  in  the  last 


HISTORY 


89 


years  of  the  nineteenth  century  enters 
upon  a  deliberate  policy  of  negro  dis- 
franchisement  through  State  legisla- 
tion. In  the  North  and  West,  the  era  is 
one  of  extraordinary  material  growth, 
and  political  questions  of  the  time 
are  largely  economic — currency,  tariff, 
labor,  and  monopoly.  With  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
the  Pacific,  and  the  assumption  of  the 
task  of  building  the  intcroccanic  Pan- 
ama Canal,  the  United  States  begins  its 
career  as  a  world  power.  See: 

(a)  The  Restored  Union: 

Johnson,  Andrew 

Reconstruction 

Freedman\s  Bureau 

Carpet  Baggers 

Ku-Klux  Klan 

Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle 

Force  Bill 

Tenure  of  Office  Act 

Stanton 

Alaska 

Chase,  S.  P. 

Stevens,  T. 

(b)  From  the  Close  of  the  Civil  War 

Period : 
Grant,  U.  S. 
Alabama  Claims 
Grange 

Credit  Mobilicr  of  America 
Virgin  ins  Massacre 
Whisky  Ring 
Electoral  Commission 
Custer 
Modoc 
Sioux 
Indians 
Centennial  Exhibition 

Hayes,  R.  B. 

Tildcn 


Strikes  and  Lockouts 
Bland,  R.  P. 
Greenbacks 
Grecly,  H. 

Garfield,  J.  A. 

Arthur,  C.  A. 
Harrison,  B. 

Bering  Sea  Controversy 

Tariff 

Hawaiian  Islands 

Cleveland,  G. 
Venezuela 
World's  Columbian  Exposition 

McKinlcy,  Win. 
Blaine,  J.  G. 
Reed,  T.  B. 
Spanish-American  War 
Cuba 

Philippines 
Porto  Rico 
Trusts 
Pan-American  Exhibition. 

Roosevelt,  T. 

Hay-Pauncefotc  Treaty 

Panama  Canal 

Root,  E. 

Louisiana    Purchase   Expoaa- 

tion 

Russo-Japanese  War 
Hughes,  C.  E. 
Trusts 
Lodge,  H.  C. 
Poindexter,  Miles 

Taft,  Wm.  H. 
Pugo 

Knox,  P.  C. 
Conservation 
Trusts 
Tariff 

Lorimer,  Wm. 
Aldrich,  N.  W, 


40 


HISTORY 


Mexico,  History 
La  Follette,  R.  M. 
Cummins,  A.  B. 
Penrose,  B. 
Borah,  Wm. 

Wilson,  W. 

Bryan,  Wm.  J. 

Parker,  A.  B. 

Underwood,  O. 

Brandeis,  L.  D. 

McAdoo,  Wm.  G. 

Daniels,  J. 

Reserve  Bank,  Federal 

Mexico,  History 

Tariff 

Mann,  J.  P. 

O'Gorman,  J.  A. 

Newlands,  F.  G. 

Kern,  J.  W. 

Owen,  R.  L. 

Gore,  T.  P. 

Smith,  Hokc 

Stone,  Wm. 

War  in  Europe 

Party  Names 

Money 

Coinage 

Labor  Organizations 

Arbitration 

Railways   (Interstate  Commerce 

Act) 
Trusts 
Tariff 

For  the  Historians : 
Adams,  0.  F. 
Adams,  H. 


Bancroft,  G. 
Bancroft,  H.  H. 
Beard,  C.  A. 
Brodhead,  J.  R. 
Bryce,  James 
Burgess,  J.  W. 
Channing,  F. 
Coffin,  C.  C. 
Curtis,  G.  T. 
Dodge,  T. 
Doyle,  J.  A. 
Dunning,  W.  A. 
Fiske,  J. 

Frothingham,  R. 
Gayarrc,  C. 
Harrisse,  H. 
Hart,  A.  B. 
Higginson,  T.  W. 
Hildreth,  R. 
Hoist,  H.  E.  von 
Johnston,  A. 
Lodge,  H.  C. 
Lossing,  B. 
McMaster,  J.  B. 
Palfrey,  J.  G. 
Parkman,   F, 
Peter  Martyr 
Rhodes,  J.  F. 
Robinson,  J.  H, 
Ropes,  J.  C. 
Schouler,  J. 
Shea,  J.  G. 
Sloane,  W.  M. 
Sptirks,  J. 
Thorpe,  F.  N. 
Thwaitcs,  R.  G. 
Wilson,  W. 
Winsor,  J. 


Chapter  Z.  ICaro  mt&  ftaltttral 


NATIONAL  or  Municipal  law  is  commonly  divided  into  two  gen- 
eral classifications,  Substantive  Law,  and  Adjective  or  Remedial 
Law.      Substantive  Law   prescribes  and   defines  the  normal   rela- 
tions of  social  and  political  life,  that  is,  legal  rights,  obligations, 
and  privileges,   as   distinguished  from   violations   of   the  normal, 
legal  order.     (See  Substantive  Law.)     Adjective  or  Rcnxidial  Law  deals  with 
abnormal  conditions,  such  as  crimes,  and  with  the  methods  of  enforcement  of 
legal   rights.     Both   of   these   classifications   are   severally   divided   into   Public 
Law  and  Private  Law.     The  title,  Public  Law,  is  applied  to  those  subjects  which 
have  to  do  with  the  relations  of  individuals  to  the  various  branches  of  govern- 
ment.    Private  Law  includes  the  rules  governing  the  relations  of  individuals  to 
each   other,   and   their   rights   in   and   over   property.     While,   for   some   pur- 
poses, Substantive  and  Remedial  Law  are  so  closely  connected  that  a  complete 
knowledge  of  one  is  not  possible  without  an  acquaintance  with  the  other,  yet,  in 
general,  it  may  be  said  that,  for  practical  purposes,  the  average  layman  is  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  the  rules  of  Substantive  Law,  except,  perhaps,  Public  Reme- 
dial Law  —  the  Law  of  Crimes.     For  example,  it  is  quite  necessary  that  a  person 
in  business  be  somewhat  familiar  with  the  ordinary  principles  of  the  Law  of 
Contracts,  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  he  should  know  how  to  proceed  in  law  to 
obtain  redress  for  the  breach  of  a  contract. 

International  Law  is  distinguished  from  Municipal  Law,  in  that  the  former 
deals  with  the  relations  of  nations  with  each  other,  and  such  rules  of  law  as  will 
be  recognized  by  nations  in  dealing  with  the  citizens  of  each  other,  while  the 
latter  deals  with  the  relations  of  one  nation  to  its  citizens,  and  the  relations  of 
the  citizens  with  each  other.  International  Law  is  administered,  generally,  in  the 
various  courts  of  each  nation  when  applicable,  but  the  refusal  of  a  nation  to 
recognize  any  of  its  principles  could  only  be  met  by  a  declaration  of  war  on  the 
part  of  the  aggrieved  .nation  or  nations,  whereas  the  sovereign  power  of  a 
nation  sanctions  and  enforces  Municipal  or  National  Law.  Therefore,  to  avoid 
confusion,  topics  in  International  Law  are  placed  in  a  separate  classification. 
For  a  General  Discussion  of  the  Nature  and  Purposes  of  Law,  see: 

Law  Municipal  Law 

Jurisprudence  Mercantile  Law 

Substantive  Law  Military  Law 
International  Law 

A.   9itb0tatttftf*    fiatu 

classifications,      CONSTITUTIONAL     and 

I.  PUBLIC  SUBSTANTIVE  LAW.  ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW.     Constitutional 

This   branch   of   substantive  law   is      law  deals  with  the  nature  and  powers  of 

commonly    divided    into    two    general     the  Government,  and  correlatively  with 

41 


42 


LAW    AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


the  rights  and  privileges  of  citizens 
with  reference  to  the  Government.  The 
name,  ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW,  is  applied 
to  that  portion  which  controls  and  regu- 
lates the  enforcement  of  the  will  of  the 
Government,  as  expressed  by  constitu- 
tions, statutes,  etc. 

1.  CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW: 

Constitution 

Constitutional  Law 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 

Magna  Charta 

Amendment 

Federal  Government 

Police  Power 

Veto 

Eminent  Domain 

Bill  of  Rights 

Civil  Rights  Bill 

Bill  of  Attainder 

Sovereignty 

State 

Ex  post  facto 

Retroactive 

Due  Process  of  Law 

Congress 

Legislature 

Legislation 

Conflict  of  Laws 

Act 

Act  of  Parliament 

Repeal 

Citizen 

Alien 

Naturalization 

Allegiance 

Domicile 

Alien  and  Sedition  Acts 

Expatriation 

Expulsion 

Liberty  of  Individual 

Liberty,  Religious 

Emancipation 


Reprieve 
Territories 
Consolidation  Acts 
Restraint  of  Trade 
Interstate  Commerce  Act 
Granger  Cases 
Concurrent  Jurisdiction 
Original  Package 
Income  Tax 
Inheritance    Tax 
Dartmouth  College  Case 
Slaughter-House  Cases 
Dred  Scott  Case 
Fugitive  Slave  Law 
Homestead  Laws 
Poor  Laws 
Tenure  of  Office  Act 
Legal  Tender  Cases 
Debt,  Public 
Convention 
Election 
Vote 

Fishing  Laws 
Franchise 

ADMINISTRATIVE  LAW: 

Administrative  Law 
Executive  Department 
State,  Department  of 
Diplomacy  ' 
High  Commission 
Commission 
Commissioner 
Municipality 
Municipal  Government 
Municipal  Law 
Municipal  Ownership 
Municipal  Reform  Acts 
Civil  Administration 
Court 

Supreme  Court  of  U.  S. 
Courts,  Military 
Court  Baron 
Court  of  Session 


LAW    AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


48 


County  Court 

Common  Bench 

Probate   Court 

Petty   Sessions 

District  Court 

Sheriff's  Court 

Ecclesiastical  Court 

King's  Bench 

Cassation,  Court  of 

Claims,  Court  of 

Instance,  Court  of 

Inns  of  Chancery 

Inns  of  Court 

Ordinance 

By-law 

Charter 

Building  Acts 

Cemetery  Laws 

Factor's  Acts    . 

Intoxicating  Liquors 

Grand  Jury 

Justice,  Lord 

Sheriff 

Justice  of  the  Peace 

Marshal 

Coroner 

Assessors 

Auditor 

Alderman 

Attorney-General 

Surrogate 

Ju  dge-  A  dvocate 

Judge 

Referee 

Justice 

Justice,  Department  of 

Justice  of  the  Peace 

Appointment 

II.  PRIVATE  SUBSTANTIVE  LAW 

For  convenience  this  portion  of  the 
substantive  law  is  divided  into  two  clas- 
sifications, the  Law  of  Persons  and  the 
Law  of  Property. 


1.  LAW  OF  PERSONS: 

In  law,  both  natural  persons  and 
those  creations  of  the  law,  such  as  cor- 
porations, known  as  legal  entities,  or 
juristic  persons,  are  classed  together  in 
the  Law  of  Persons,  as  the  same  gen- 
eral principles  apply  to  them.  Under 
the  title  NATURAL  PERSONS,  are 
grouped  titles  dealing  with  the  pecu- 
liar privileges  and  disabilities  of 
married  women,  infants,  and  persons 
of  unsound  mind.  Topics  dealing 
with  the  family  relation  are  for  con- 
venience grouped  together. 

(a)  Natural  Persons: 

I.  Persons   Exercising    Incomplete    or 
Special  Rights: 

Infant 

Minor 

Legitimacy 

Apprentice 

Disability 

Married  Women 

Feme  Coverte 

Coverture 

Insanity 

Lucid  Interval 

Capacity 

(6)  Family  Relations: 

Husband  and  Wife 

Settlement 

Marriage 

Divorce 

Alimony 

Adultery 

Separation 

Abandonment 

Paraphernalia 

Community  of  Property 

Emancipation 

Separate  Estate 


LAW    AND   POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


Parent  and  Child 

Adoption 

Bastard 

Ancestor 

Affinity 

Consanguinity 

Domicile 

Guardian 

(c)  Juristic  Persons: 
Company 
Corporation 
Ultra  Vires 
De  Facto 
Charitable  Trusts 
Ecclesiastical  Corporation 
Joint  Stock  Company 
Limited  Companies 
Limited  Liability 
Regulated  Companies 
Stock  Company 
Dividend 
Director 
Trust 
Trust  Fund  Doctrine 

2.  LAW  or  PROPERTY  : 

The  term  property  includes  every- 
thing that  is  the  subject  of  possession 
and  ownership,  whether  tangible  or  in- 
tangible. The  various  kinds  of  proper- 
ty are  naturally  divided  into  two  classi- 
fications, REAL  and  PERSONAL.  Real 
Property  includes  lands,  tenements, 
and  hereditaments,  and  interests  therein. 
Subjects  dealing  with  the  disposition 
and  incumbrance  of  real  property  inter 
vivos  are  also  placed  under  this  title. 
Personal  Property  includes  all  movable 
objects  of  property,  commonly  known 
asi  chattels,  and  such  claims,  obligations, 
and  rights  of  action  as  are  the  subject 
of  transfer.  Topics  treating  of  the 
transfer  of  property,  both  real  and  per- 
sonal, by  will  or  descent,  arc  classed  un- 


der the  title,  SUCCESSION  AND  INHERI- 
TANCE. 

(a)  Real  Property : 

i.  Nature  of  Real  Property : 

Real  Property 

Real  Estate 

Hereditament 

Tenement 

Mines  and  Mining 

Feudalism 

Fee 

Fief 

Feud 

Feu 

Accession 

ii.  Systems  of  Tenure: 

Tenure 

Seisin 

Manor 

Socage 

Frankalrnoigne 

Gavelkind 

Ground- Annual 

Demesne 

Ancient  Demesne 

Borough  English 

Burgage  Tenure 

Tenant  Right 

Community  of  Property 

Mortmain 

Subinfcudation 

Sergeanty 

Landlord  and  Tenant 

Attornment 

Lease 

Leasehold 

Common,  Tenancy  in 

Tenancy  at  Sufferance 

Tenancy  at  Will 

Rent 

Occupancy 

Mining  Claim 


LAW   AND  POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


Life  Estate 
Conditional  Fee 
Remainder 
Reversion 
Freehold 
Dower 
Curtesy 

Entry,  Right  of 
Entirety 

Equity  of  Redemption 
Equitable  Estate 
Riparian  Rights 

Rivers,  Navigable  and  Non-navi- 
gable 

Inclosures  of  Commons 
Use  and  Occupation 
License 
Pew  Rights 

iii.  Transfer  and  Incumbrance  of  Real 
Property : 

Alienation 

Incumbrance 

Bargain  and  Sale 

Conveyance 

Conveyancing 

Land  Transfer,  Reform  in 

Abstract  of  Title 

Search  of  Title 

Deed 

Habendum 

Restrictive  Covenants 

Conditional  Limitation 

Quit  Claim 

Lease  and  Release 

Demise 

Executory  Devise 

Shifting  Use 

Entail 

Shelley's  Case,  Rule  in 

Enrollment 

Power  of  Appointment 

Power 

Ejectment 


Eviction 

Adverse  Possession 

Common  Assurance 

Elegit,  Estate  by 

Jointure 

Escrow 

Settled  Estate 

Tax  Sale 

Tax  Title 

Cloud  on  Title 

Perpetuity 

Prescription 

Quit  Rent 

Office  Found 

Partition 

Mortgage 

Merger 

Tacking  of  Mortgages 

Mechanic's  Lien 

Servitude 

Easement 

Equitable  Easement 

Incorporeal 

Equitable  Mortgage 

Building  Loans 

Donis  Conditionalibus 

Domesday  Book 

Recording  Acts 

Recording  of  Deeds 

Torrens  System 

Title,  Registration  of 

Title  Insurance 

(b)  Personal  Property : 
i.  Possession: 

Chattel 

Movables 

Confusion 

Treasure-Trove 

Chose  in  Action 

Fixtures 

Emblements 

Estray 

Good-Will 


LAW    AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


Finding 

Oysters,  Law  as  to 

Wreck 

ii.  Patents,  Patent  Law : 

Letters  Patent 

Trademark 

Trade-name 

Copyright 

Literary  Property 

Invention 

Caveat 

iii.  Contracts,  Obligations,  and  Intan- 
gible Property  Rights: 

Contract 

Obligation 

Covenant 

Consideration 

Rescission 

Discharge 

Breach 

Subrogation 

Abrogation 

Suretyship 

Pledge 

Reward 

Guaranty 

Gift 

Claim 

Debt 

Creditor 

Commercial  Law 

Debtor 

Payment 

Chose  in  Action 

Accord  and  Satisfaction 

Assignment 

Donation 

Joint  Ownership 

Sale 

Bill  of  Sale 

Auction 

Market  Overt 


Oivcat  Einptor 

Delivery 

Condition  and  Conditional 

Vendor's  Lien 

Lien 

Bailment 

Carrier,  Common 

Baggage 

Bill  of  Lading 

Forwarding 

Consignment 

Stoppage  in  Transitu 

Joint  Adventure 

Freight 

Negotiable  Instruments 

Negotiable  Paper 

Promissory  Note 

Check 

Bill  of  Exchange 

Bank-Bills 

Exchequer  Bills 

Bought  and  Sold  Notes 

Specialty 

Bond 

Stock 

Coupon 

Credit,  Letter  of 

Warehouse  Receipt 

Bottomry  Bond 

Indorsement 

Dishonor 

Exchange 

Interest 

Agent 

Factor 

Partnership 

Mercantile  Agent 

Mercantile  Agency 

Master  and  Servant 

Joint  Liability 

Insurance 

Life  Insurance 

Accident  Insurance 

Wager  Policy 


LAW    AND    POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


47 


Account 

Deposit 

Voucher 

Receipt 

Seal 

Notary  Public 

Acknowledgment 

Debenture 

(c)  Succession  and  Inheritance: 

T.       ,     , 

Decedent 

«  ,   , 

Instate 

T  ,      ., 

Inheritance 

T 

Tx.  ,   M     ,. 

Distribution 

~  .        .   T   .     .   , 

Succession  ab  Intestato 

o  i  • 

hurveyorship 

r>  .  .. 

Primogeniture 
T         ACT 
Inventory 

Administration 


Testament 

Appraisement 

Legacy 

Residuary  Legacy 

Ademption 

Advancement 

Codicil 

Share 

Beneficiary 

Per  Stirpes 

^     .        r 

Devise 

_  ,  r>  ,,• 

Personal  Representative 

^         J          x 

Executor 

Undue  Influence 

,       ,  - 

Deathbed.  Law  of 
TT  . 
Heir 
TT  .  , 
Heirloom 
A  .  .. 

Accumulations 
T 

^    ^  ^  .,  , 

Posthumous  Child 


B. 


I.  PUBLIC  REMEDIAL  LAW. 

This  portion  of  the  Adjective,  or  Re- 
medial,  Law  deals  with  crimes,  the  pen- 
allies  therefor,  and  the  method  of  prose- 
cutiou  of  accused  persons  by  the  State. 
We  shall  first  take  up  those  topics  which 
define  particular  crimes,  under  both 
statutes  and  the  common  law,  and  then 
those  which  deal  with  the  prosecution 
and  puni&hment  of  crimes.  See  : 

Adjective  Law 

1.  Crimes,  Misdemeanors,  etc.: 
Crime 

Criminology 
Criminal  Law 
Misdemeanor 
Accessory 
Accomplice 
Infamy 


Ham 


Felony 

Barratry 

Blackmail 

Blasphemy 

Body-Snatching 

Bribery 

By-Bidding 

Burglary 

Embezzlement 

T^     l^t 

Itobbery 

Stolen  Goods 
Receiving  Stolen  Goods 

Assault  and  Battery 

Security 

Security  of  Person 

Manslaughter 

Homicide 

Murder 

Malpractice 

Consent 


48 


LAW    AND    POLITICAL    SCIENCE 


Infanticide 

Arson 

Smuggling 

Counterfeiting 

Subornation  of  Perjury 

Compounding  of  Felony 

Suicide 

Misprision 

Treason 

Overt  Act 

Malicious  Mischief 

Extortion 

Forgery 

Sunday 

Gambling 

Disturbance 

Eavesdropping 

Embracery 

Engrossing 

Forestalling 

Monopoly 

Harboring 

Champerty 

Concealment 

Corrupt  Practices 

Simony 

Piracy 

Policy 

Fornication 

Rape 

Incest 

Rescue 

Riot 

Abortion 

False  Pretenses 

Common  Scold 

Sumptuary  Laws 

Trading  Stamps 

Habitual  Drunkard 

Criminal    Procedure    and    Punish- 
ment of  Crimes: 

Criminal  Procedure 
Arrest 


Arraignment 
Search 

Bench  Warrant 
Search  Warrant 
Writ 
Attainder 
Autrefois  Acquit 
Benefit  of  Clergy 
Capital  Punishment 
Charge  and  Specification 
Commitment 
Corporal  Punishment 
Corruption  of  Blood 
Fine 

Forfeiture 
Hard  Labor 
Information 
Indictment 
Justification 
Ordeal 
Outlawry 
Civil  Death 
Peine  Forte  et  Dure 
Penalty 

Posse  Comitatus 
Nolle  Prosequi 
Prisoner 
Prosecution 
Prosecutor 
Voir  Dire 
Punishment 
Self  Defense 
Sentence 
State's  Evidence 
Corpus  Delicti 
Ne  Exeat 
Torture 
Extradition 
Locus  Delicti 

II.  PEIVATE  REMEDIAL  LAW. 

This  division  of  Remedial  Law  in- 
cludes the  law  of  Torts  and  Civil 
Practice  and  Procedure.  Torts  are 


LAW    AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


49 


wrongs  other  than  those  arising  out  of 
contract,  for  which  the  injured  party 
has  a  right  of  action.  A  tort  action  is 
not  assignable  and  is  not  strictly  a 
property  right,  and,  therefore,  the  law 
of  torts  is  properly  considered  remedial 
law.  Under  the  title,  Civil  Practice 
and  Procedure,  are  grouped  all  topics 
dealing  with  the  enforcement  of  civil 
rights  of  action  of  a  private  nature. 

1.  TORTS,  OR  CIVIL  WRONGS. 

Conversion 

Trespass 

Assault 

Trover 

Fraud 

Fraudulent  Conveyance 

Infringement 

Slander  of  Title 

Defamation 

SLindcr 

Libel 

Contribution 

Intimidation 

Accident 

Injury 

Misrepresentation 

Nonfeasance 

Nuisance 

Negligence 

Malfeasance 

False  Imprisonment 

Malicious  Prosecution 

Mayhem 

Pollution  of  Watercourses 

Criminal  Conversation 

Employer's  Liability 

Fellow-Servants 

2.  CIVIL  PRACTICE  AND  PROCEDURE. 

In  English  jurisprudence,  three  dis- 
tinct systems  of  procedure,  correspond- 
ing and  adapted  to  distinct  systems  of 
jurisprudence,  were  developed  respect- 


ively by  the  courts  of  common  law,  the 
courts  of  chancery,  and  the  courts  of 
admiralty.  The  common  law  procedure 
is  much  older  than  the  procedure  in 
either  equity  or  admiralty,  as  practiced 
by  the  English  courts,  the  curia  regis, — 
which  was  the  forerunner  of  the  Eng- 
lish Courts  of  Exchequer,  Common 
Pleas,  and  King's  Bench,  in  which  the 
common  law  procedure  was  developed, — 
having  been  established  in  the  early 
part  of  the  twelfth  century.  Procedure 
in  equity  is  much  simpler  than  pro- 
cedure at  common  law.  Its  essential 
characteristics  are  based  on  the  fact 
that  the  sole  power  of  that  court  is  to 
command  things  to  be  done,  and  not 
directly  to  transfer  or  otherwise  affect 
the  rights  of  litigants.  Procedure  in 
admiralty  was  founded  upon  the  Roman 
law  and  corresponds  in  many  particu- 
lars to  the  equity  system.  The  embar- 
rassment experienced  as  a  consequence 
of  the  technical  character  of  the  com- 
mon law  procedure  has  led  to  many 
reforms  by  legislation. 

Action 

Limitation  of  Actions 

Civil  Action 

Civil  Procedure 

Forms  of  Action 

Admiralty  Law 

Equity 

Procedure 

Practice 

Pleading 

Process 

Code 

Code  Napoleon 

Service  of  Papers  and  Process 

Next  Friend 

Parties 

Name 

Plea 


50 


LAW    AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


Common  Counts 

Common  Forms 

Common  Plea 

Common  Recovery 

Debt,  Action  of 

Detinue 

Assumpsit 

Foreclosure 

Replevin 

Bill  in  Equity 

Real  Action 

Civil  Death 

Claim 

Lawyer 

Attorney 

Advocate 

Barrister 

Counselor 

Solicitor 

Disbarment 

Client 

Plaintiff 

Defendant 

Respondent 

Joinder 

Writ 

Declaration 

Confession  and  Avoidance 

Answer 

General  Issue 

Verification 

Demurrer 

Disclaimer 

Defense 

Forma  Pauperis,  In 

Cross-Bill 

Confession  of  Judgment 

Case 

Chambers 

Chancery 

Cestui  que  Trust 

Cestui  que  Use 

Master  in  Chancery 

Citation 


Month 

Attachment 

Foreign  Attachment 

Letters  Rogatory 

Lis  Pendens 

Oath 

Notary  Public 

Precept 

Discovery,  Bill  of 

Cognovit 

Cognizance 

Color 

Subpoena 

Recoupment 

Ex  Parte 

Distringas 

Garnishment 

Entry,  Writ  of 

Quia  Tirnct 

Qui  Tarn  Action 

Interrogatories 

Affidavit 

Bill  of  Particulars 

Certiorari 

Habeas  Corpus 

Motion 

Inquiry,  Writ  of 

Inquisition 

In  Personam 

In  Rem 

Interpretation 

Interpleader 

Injunction 

Prohibition 

Special  Proceeding 

Specific  Performance 

Trustee  Process 

Warrant 

Quo  Warranto 

Intervention 

Invoice 

Bill  of  Peace 

Acknowledgment 

Civil  Damage  Acts 


LAW    AND    POLITICAL    SCIENCE 


51 


Forcible  Entry  and  Detainer 

District  Attorney 

Hilary  Term 

Oyer  and  Terminer 

Venue 

Judicature  Acts 

Jurisdiction 

Judge 

Jury 

Challenge 

Judge  Advocate 

Oyer 

Stay 

Stare  Decisis 

Damages 

Day 

Marshalling 

Trial 

Mistrial 

Nonsuit 

Incident 

Judicial  Notice 

Evidence 

Exception 

Circumstantial  Evidence 

Burden  of  Proof 

Condonation 

Admission 

Examination 

Cross  Examination 

Witness 

Expert 


Proof 

Handwriting 

Testimony 

Privilege 

Privileged  Communication 

Laches 

Dictum 

Precedent 

Res  Adjudicata 

Presumption 

Declaration  or  Affirmation 

Alteration 

Access 

Ambiguity 

Argument 

Verdict 

Special  Verdict 

Scotch  Verdict 

Judgment 

Award 

Appeal 

Bill  of  Costs 

Taxation  of  Costs 

Bill  of  Exceptions 

Execution 

Supersedcas 

Exemption 

Sequestration 

Distress 

Equitable  Assets 

Receiver 

Winding  Up  of  Company 


C.  Itttmiatiimal  Earn 


The  subjects  or  persons  of  Interna- 
tional Law  arc  independent  sovereign 
States  or  nations.  The  community  con- 
stituting such  State  is  permanently  es- 
tablished for  a  political  end,  is  pos- 
sessed of  a  defined  territory,  and  is 
independent  of  external  control.  If 
one  or  more  of  these  elements  be  lack- 


ing, the  community  is  not  a  State  in  the 
sense  of  International  Law.  Individ- 
uals choose  their  associates,  and  States 
likewise  determine  whether  and  when 
they  wish  to  maintain  relations  with  a 
newcomer.  A  fundamental  proposition 
of  International  Law  is  the  equality 
of  States,  of  which  Chief  Justice  Mar- 


52 


LAW    AND    POLITICAL    SCIENCE 


shall  said :  "  No  principle  of  general 
law  is  more  universally  acknowledged 
than  the  perfect  equality  of  nations. 
Russia  and  Geneva  have  equal  rights. 
It  results  from  this  equality  that  no 
one  can  rightfully  impose  a  rule  on 
another."  See: 

International  Law 

Treaty 

Diplomacy 

Diplomatic  Agents 

Envoy 

Embassy 

Ambassador 

Neutrality 

Enemy 

Embargo 

Blockade 

Contraband 

Mare  Clausum 

High  Seas 

Territorial  Waters 

Seashore 


Tide  Waters 

Bering  Sea  Controversy 

Extraterritoriality 

Prescription 

Privateering 

Piracy 

Award 

Convoy 

Extradition 

Foreign  Judgment 

Foreign  Law 

War;  War  in  Europe;  War  Zone 

Truce 

Acts  of  Hostility 

Comity  of  Nations 

Mainprizc 

Navigation,  Freedom  of 

Navigation  Laws 

Recapture 

Retaliation 

Rules  of  the  Road 

Salvage 

Seamen,  Laws  Relating  to 


D.  8fi0t0nj  anfc 


1.  AGRARIAN  LAW: 
Anglo-Saxon  Law 
Customary  Law 
Common  Law 
Civil  Law 

Civil  Church  Law 
Twelve  Tables 
Salic  Law 
Scotch  Law 
Spanish  Law 
Oleron,  Laws  of 
Law  Merchant 

2.  PARLIAMENTARY  LAW: 
Revised  Statutes 
Medical  Jurisprudence 
Maxims 


Legal  Education 

3.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the 
names  in  the  ranks  of  jurists,  lawyers, 
and  publicists  of  all  time : 

Austin,  John 
Betts,  S.  R. 
Binney,  Horace 
Black,  J.  S. 
Blackstone,  William 
Bluntschli,  J.  K. 
Bodin,  J. 

Bracton,  Henry  de 
Brougham,  Lord 
Campbell,  John 
Choate,  Rufus 
Coke,  Edward 


LAW    AND    POLITICAL    SCIENCE  58 

Cooley,  T.  M.  Lieber,  Francis 

Curtis,  G.  T.  Livingston,  Edward 

Ellsworth,  Oliver  Lowell,  A.  L. 

Erskine,  Lord  Maine,  Henry 

Fearne,  Chas.  Mansfield,  Earl 

Feuerbach,  P.  J.  A.  Marshall,  John 

Field,  D.  D.  Montesquieu,  C. 

Field,  S.  J.  Moore,  J.  B. 

Filangieri,  G.  Pardessus,  J.  M. 

Fortescue,  John  Parsons,  Theophilus 

Gans,  E.  Plowden,  E. 

Glanvill  Pollock,  F. 

Grotius,  Hugo  Portalis,  J.  E.  M. 

Hale,  Matthew  Pufendorf,  S. 

Holt,  John  Savigny,  F.  K. 

Janet,  Paul  Smith,  Goldwin 

Jeffreys,  Lord  Stephen,  J.  F. 

Johnson,  Reverdy  Story,  J. 

Kent,  James  Taney,  R.  B. 

Laboulaye,  E.  L.  Tocqueville,  A.  C. 

Lamar,  L.  Q.  C.  Wharton,  F. 

Langdell,  C.  C.  Woolsey,  T.  D. 


Cfjaptrr  3.   &octolog|> 


&octologp 


SOCIAL  science  presents  a  theoretical  and  a  practical  aspect,  of  which 
the  latter,  at  the  present  time,  is  the  more  important.  Speculation 
on  the  origins  of  social  life,  the  evolution  of  social  institutions,  and 
the  nature  of  existing  social  bonds  has  been  rich  in  theories,  diverse 
in  view,  but  casting  light  on  all  the  course  of  human  development. 
Society  has  been  variously  regarded  as  an  aggregate,  an  organization,  or  an 
organism,  and  accordingly  as  it  has  been  regarded  its  rights  and  duties  as 
against  the  individual  have  been  outlined.  The  influence  of  the  collective  body 
and  the  collective  mind  on  the  body  and  mind  of  the  individual  forms  one  of  the 
most  fascinating  topics  of  sociology,  fascinating  because  of  the  close  connection 
that  may  be  established  between  individual  and  social  progress.  But  as  yet 
scarcely  sufficient  material  has  been  collected  to  make  social  theory  strictly 
scientific,  and  the  greater  interest,  probably,  attaches  to  what  has  been  called  the 
practical  aspect  of  social  science,  the  study,  namely,  of  contemporary  social  con- 
ditions and  the  problems  which  they  create.  Thus  it  would  not  be  far  from  the 
truth  to  call  practical  sociology,  social  pathology,  for  as  a  matter  of  fact  the 
attention  of  the  working  sociologist  is  directed,  in  greater  part,  to  the  study  of 
the  ills  of  the  social  body,  a  study  of  those  individuals  and  classes  of  individuals 
whose  presence  in  the  midst  of  society  is  a  burden  or  a  source  of  danger  to  society 
or  the  cause  of  misery  to  themselves.  In  this  respect  social  science  deals  with 
the  helpless  and  the  vicious  and  is  largely  coincident  with  humanitarianism. 
Theoretical  sociology  is  most  closely  allied  to  Anthropology  and  Historv,  going 
to  the  latter  for  its  evolutionary  data  and  to  the  former  for  origins.  Practical 
sociology  depends  very  largely  on  statistics. 

L  The  methods  and  theories  of  so-  of  the  sociologist,  such  as  the  Family, 

ciology    are   treated   at   length   under  Marriage,  the  Tribe,  etc.,  will  be  found 

that  heading,  supplemented  by  minor  in  the  chapter  on  Anthropology   and 

articles    on    subsidiary    topics.      This  Ethnology, 
article,  therefore,  should  be  made  the 

starting  point  on  reading.     See :  TT    -    .,,  ,  .       , 

.  II.  1.  Taking  human  aggregates  as 

Sociology  jj.s  subjec|  mattor,  practical  sociology 

Man,   Science  of  draws  thc  grcatest  uscs  fpom  statistics. 

Anthropo-geography  The  gathering  of  statistical  data  is  be- 

Acclimatization  ing    initiated     wherever     governments 

Environment  have  as  yet  fai]cd  to  assumc  thc  office? 

Standard  of  Living  and   wfa         offidal    enumcrati0ns   pre- 

f~^        j 

crowd  yaj|    their    scope    is    constantly    being 

A  discussion  of  various  social  insti-     widened.     The  study  of  population  is 
tutions  which  form  part  of  the  data     now  well  advanced.     See; 

54 


SOCIOLOGY 


55 


Demography 

Census 

Population 

Vital  Statistics 

Births,  Registration  of 

Illiteracy 

Transportation,  Penal 

Immigration 

Emigration 

Migration 

Colony 

Oriental  Immigration 

Naturalization 

Suicide 

Infanticide 

Divorce 

Marriage 

Statistics 

2.  "Dependents,  Defectives,  De- 
linquents," adequately  describes  the 
subject*  dealt  with  by  the  social 
pathologists.  In  this  immensely  broad 
field,  private  efforts  cooperate  with 
State  activity,  the  former  through  in- 
vestigations and  advocacy  largely,  the 
latter  through  remedial  legislation  and 
the  use  of  State  resources.  For  a 
study  of  the  dependent  and  defective 
classes,  see : 

Dependents,  Defectives,  Delinquents 

Social  Debtor  ('lasses 

Debt 

Pauperism 

Poor  Laws 

Poor  Rate 

Casual  Poor 

Mendicancy 

Eugenics 

Tramp 

Vagrant 

:T  n  employment 

Workhouse 

.  Jmshouse 


Charitable  Trusts 

Rockefeller  Foundation 

Rockefeller,  J.  D. 

Rockefeller,  J.  D.,  Jr. 

Carnegie,  A. 

Charities 

Charities   and   Correction,  National 

Conference  of 

Charity  Organization  Society 
Brinkerhoff,  Roeliff 
Elberfeld  System 
Blind,  Education  of  the 
Keller,  H.  A. 
Perkins,   T.   H. 
Bridgman,  L. 
Howe,  S.  G. 
Deaf  Mute  (Institutions) 
Gallaudet,  E.  M. 
Insane  Asylum 
Insanity 
Idiocy 

Mental  Defectives 
Mental  Pathology 
Medical  Jurisprudence 
Bedlam 
Degeneracy 
Jukes,  The 

3.  Of  dependent  classes,  children, 
naturally,  absorb  a  large  share  of  the 
attention  of  the  sociologist  and  the 
charity  worker.  The  mission  here  is 
not  one  of  relief  only,  but  of  redemp- 
tion, and  successful  effort  in  this  field 
discounts  future  dangers  to  society. 
See: 

Dependent  Children 
Foundling  Hospital 
Penology 
Creche 

Marbeau,  J.  B. 
Infant  School 
Ragged  Schools 
Bauhcs  Haus 


56 


SOCIOLOGY 


George  Junior  Republic 

Parks  and  Playgrounds 

Juvenile  Court 

Juvenile  Offenders 

Lindsey,  B.  B. 

Children,   Societies   for 

Cruelty  to  Children,  Prevention  of 

Children's  Aid  Society 

Schools 

Wirt,  Wm.  A. 

4.  Sufficient  reason  exists  for 
speaking  of  a  criminal  class  to  make 
Criminology  an  independent  branch 
of  investigation  with  something  of  the 
methodology  of  a  science.  The  de- 
linquent, the  criminal,  is  regarded  as 
at  war  ttith  society.  The  causes  that 
have  changed  the  course  of  nature  in 
him  and  made  him  anti-social  may  be 
heredity  or  environment  or  both.  The 
prevention  and  punishment  of  crime 
and  the  possible  reformation  of  the 
criminal  form  the  subject  matter  of 
the  "science."  See: 

Criminology 

Lombroso,  Cesare 

Bcrtillon  System 

Finger  Pr'nts 

Punishment 

Corporal  Punishment 

Flogging 

Penology 

Capital  Punishment 

Prisons 

Osborne,  T.  M. 

Convict 

Convict  Labor 

Clinton   State  Prison 

Newgate 

Fleet  Prison 

Millbank  Prison 

Bicetre 

Conciergerie 


Transportation,  Penal 

Botany  Bay 

Bagncs 

Recidivists 

Reformatories 

Elmira  Reformatory 

Juvenile  Offenders 

Brockway,  Z.  R. 

Ticket  of  Leave 

Met  tray 

Beccaria,  C.  B. 

Howard,  John 

Round,  W.  M. 

Fliedner,  T. 

Fry,  Elizabeth 

Prison   Association,   American 

Prison  Buildings 

International  Prison  Congress 

5.  The  vices  of  individuals,  as  well 
as  of  classes,  affect  the  welfare  of  the 
body  politic.  (a)  The  standard  of 
personal  purity  is  rising  with  the 
general  heightening  in  moral  tone, 
(b)  The  evils  resulting  from  the  abuse 
of  liquor  have  led  to  one  of  the  most 
notable  movements  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  See : 

(a)  Family 
Marriage 
Divorce 
Infanticide 
Syphilis 
Concubinage 
Eugenics 
Celibacy 
Illegitimacy 
Bastard 
Prostitution 
White  Slavery 

(6)   Intoxicating  Liquors 
Intoxication 
Temperance 
Prohibition 


SOCIOLOGY 


5T 


Prohibition  Party  (Under  Tem- 
perance) 

License 

Liquor  Traffic 

Excise 

Local  Option 

Gothenburg  System 

Abstinence  Societies 

Mathew,  T. 

Dow,  N. 

Gough,  J.  B. 

Keeley,  L. 

Chafin,  E.  W. 

Lcnd-a-Hand  flubs 

Loyal  Temperance  League 

Woman's  ( 'hristian  rJVmperance 
Union 

World's  Woman's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union 

Temperance,  Sons  of 

Good  Templars,  Independent  Or- 
der of 

6.  The  problem  of  remedying  so- 
cial evil  has  drawn  the  attention  of 
men  in  all  ages,  and  thinkers  have  been 
fond  of  busying  themselves  with  the 
construction  of  ideal  forms  of  society 
since  the  days  of  Plato.  More  than 
philosophers'  dreams,  however,  are  the 
great  social  movements  of  modern 
times,  whose  aim  is  the  reorganization 
of  society  on  a  different  basis  than  that 
of  the  present — private  property. 

(a)  For  the  literary  utopias,  see: 
Plato  (The  Republic) 
Campanclla   (The  City   of  the 

Sun) 
Defoe,    Daniel    (An    Essay    on 

Projects) 

More,  Thomas  (Utopia) 
Harrington,  James  (Oceana) 
Bellamy,      Edward      (Looking 

Backward) 


Bacon,  Francis  (New  Atlantis) 
Fcnclon,  Francois  (Voyage  dans 
Hie  des  Plaisirs) 

(fc)  For  Communism,  sec: 
Communism 
Communistic  Societies 
Socialism 
Shakers 
Owen,  Robert 
Blanc,  J.  J.  L. 
Harmonists 
New  Harmony 
Cabet,  Etienne 
Icarians 

Saint-Simon,  C.  N. 
Fourier,  F.  M.  C. 
Anarchism 
Wells,  H.  G. 
Brook  Farm 
Hopedale 

Onoida  Community 
Zoar  Community 
Korcshan  Ecclcsia 
Amana 
Noyes,  J.  H. 
Perfectionists 
Taborites 
Moravians 
Anabaptists 
Separatists 
Ephrota 

(c)  For  Socialism,  see : 
Socialism 
Collectivism 
Fourierism 
Nationalism 
Communism 
Value 
Capital 

Industrial  Revolution 
Debs,  E.  V. 
Berger,  V.  L. 
National  Workshops 


58 


SOCIOLOGY 


Saint-Simon,  C.  H. 
Fourier,  F.  M.  C. 
Rodbertus,  J. 
Enfantin,  B.  P. 
Hazard,  A. 
Considerant,  V.  P. 
Babeuf,  F.  N. 
Proudhon,  P.   J. 
Blanc,  J,  J.  L. 
Marx,  Karl 
Lassalle,  F. 
Engcls,  F. 
Internationale 
Weitling,  W. 
Liebknecht,  K. 
Liebknecht,  W. 
Gronlund,  L. 
Bellamy,  E. 
Bebcl,  F.  A. 
Vollrnar,  G.  H. 
Bernstein,  E. 
Malon,  B. 
Godin,  J.  B.  A. 
James,  E.   J. 
Millerand,  A. 
Jaur£s,  J.  L. 
Briand,  A. 
Gronlund,  Lawrence 
Morris,  Wm. 
Hyndman,  H.  M. 
Fabian  Society 
Webb,  S. 
Kelly,  E. 
Loria,  A. 
Wagner,  A. 
Schmoller,  G. 
Shaw,  G.  B. 
Nieuwenhuis,  D. 
Sabotage 

(d)  For  Anarchism,  see: 
Anarchist 
Bakunin,  M. 
Godwin,  William 
Proudhon,  P.  J. 


Tucker,  B.  R. 

Hess,  Moses 

Syndicalism 

Industrial  Workers  of  the  World 

Ferrer 

Most,  Johann 

Nihilism 

Michel,  Louise 

(e)  For    quasi-socialistic    movements, 
see: 

(a)  Municipal  Ownership 
Single  Tax 
George,  Henry 

(&)  Cooperation 

Rochdale  Pioneers 
Consumers'  League 
Profit  Sharing 
Leclaire,  E.  J. 

7.  Socialism  is  heterodox  in  exalt- 
ing the  State  over  the  individual,  yet 
there  is  rapidly  growing  recognition 
of  the  right  of  the  State  to  intervene 
for  the  protection  of  the  working 
classes,  and  to  assume  functions  tend- 
ing to  further  their  welfare.  See: 

Factory  Inspection 
Labor  Legislation 
Employers'  Liability 
Employment  Bureau 
Social  Insurance 
Labor  Church 
Labor  Colonies 
Labor  Congresses 
Labor  Day 
Labor  Organizations 
Labor  Party 
Labor  Problems 
Labor  Exchange 
Child  Labor 
Sweating  System 
Lodging  Houses 
Housing  Problem 


SOCIOLOGY 


Tenement  House  Problem 
Bath  Houses,  Municipal 
Postal  Savings  Banks 
Old  Age  Pensions 
Vacant  Lot  Farming 

8.  A  recent  development  of   social 
work  is  the  settlement  house  established 
in  the  congested  district  of  great  cities 
to   act   as   a   centre   of  physical   and 
moral  uplifting.     Sec: 

Social  Settlements 
People's  Palace 
Toynbee,  Arnold 
Hull  House 
Addams,  Jane 
Boys'  Clubs 
Fresh-Air  Work 
George*  Junior  Republic 

Sec  also :  Salvation  Army ;  Booth, 
Charles;  Pullman;  Krupp  Foundries, 
Social  Work  at;  Y.  M.  V.  A.;  Y.  W. 
C.  A. 

9.  For  a  problem  specifically  Amer- 
ican, see: 

Negro  in  America 

Negro  Education 

Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural 

Institute 
Tuskegee    Normal    and    Industrial 

Institute 
Washington,   Booker  T. 

Societies  in  the  narrow  sense,  asso- 
ciations, that  is,  of  individuals,  for  the 
attainment  of  a  common  aim,  have 
always  existed,  illustrating  in  the 
miniature  the  gregarious  nature  of 
man.  Their  purpose  may  be  various, 
social,  political,  religious,  educational, 
or  protective.  See  for  types  of  each : 

Societies 

Club 

Benefit   Societies 


Friendly  Society 

Building  and  Loan  Associations 

Secret  Associations 

Burschenschaft 

Carbonari 

Mafia 

Camorra 

Fenian  Society 

Patriotic  Societies 

Orders 

Templars,  Knights 

Hospitalers 

Brotherhoods,  Religious 

Jesuits 

Societies  for  Ethical  Culture 

Fraternities,  American  College 

Academy 

Institute  of  France 

Royal  Society 

Historical  Associations,  American 

Masons,  Free 

Odd  Fellows,  Independent  Order  of 

Pythias,  Knights  of 

Elks,     Benevolent     and     Protective 

Order  of 

Hibernians,  Ancient  Order  of 
Industrial  Workers  of  the  World 

10.  A  partial  list  only  of  writers 
and  investigators  in  sociology  would 
include : 

Addams,  Jane 

Althusius,  Johannes 

Ammon,  Otto 

Angell,  George  Thorndike 

Appcrt,  B.  N.  M. 

Barth,  Paul 

Barton,  Clara 

Baxter,  Robert  D. 

Bebel,  F.  A. 

Birkbeck,  George 

Bodin,  Jean 

Booth,  Charles 

Buckle,  Henry  T. 


60 


SOCIOLOGY 


Burdett-Coutts,  A.  G. 
Burdett-Coutts,  W.  L.  A.B. 
Buxton,  Sir  Thomas  F. 
Consid6rant,  V.  P. 
Cooper,  Peter 
Coram,  Thomas 
C'randall,  Prudence 
Darling,  Grace 
Durkhcim,  E. 
Enfantin,   B.   P. 
Fairbanks,  Arthur 
Faithfull,  Emily 
Folks,  Homer 
Fourier,  Fran£ois  C.  M. 
Fry,  Elizabeth 
Galton,  Sir  Francis 
Giddings,  F.  H. 
Girard,  Stephen 
Godin,  Jean  B.  A. 
Gompers,  Samuel 
Gurnplowicz,  Ludwig 
Gurney,  J.  J. 
Guy,  Thomas 
Hanway,  Jonas 
Henderson,  C.  R. 
Hill,  Octavia 
Hill,   Sir  Rowland 
Hobhouse,  L.  T. 
Holyoake,  G.   J, 
Howard,  John 
Kidd,   Benjamin 
Kyrle,  John 


Lassallc,  Ferdinand 
Lc  Bon,  G. 
Le  Play,  P.  G.  F. 
Licbknecht,  K. 
Liebknrc-ht,  W. 
Livermorf,  M.  A. 
Lloyd,  Henry  D. 
Mathew,  Theobald 
Montcfiorc,  Sir  Moses  H. 
Montyon,  A.  J.  B. 
Moon,  William 
Mott,  Luerctia 
Neale,  Edward  V. 
Pinkcrton,  Allen 
Rowton,  M.  W.  L. 
Sadler,   M.   T. 
Schafflc,  A. 
Schulze-Delitzch,  H. 
Selignuin,  E.  R.  A. 
Sharp,    Granville 
Smith,  Gcrrit 
Stuckenburg,  J. 
Tardc*,  G. 

Torrcns,  W.  T.  McC. 
To3'nbee,   Arnold 
Ward,   Lester  F. 
Waugh,  Benjamin 
Webb,    Sidney 
Willard,   Frances   E. 
Wines,  F.  H. 
Worms,  Ren£ 


Chapter  4.   political  <£conomp 


political  (Comomp 


Political  Economy  has  been  briefly 
defined  as  the  science  of  wealth,  but 
this  definition  requires  a  further  ex- 
planation of  the  peculiar  sense  in 
which  the  term  wealth  is  employed. 
Wealth  has  been  defined  as  the  body  of 
things  that  have  value,  but  here  again 
value  in  the  economic  sense  has  a  nar- 
rower meaning  than  in  ordinary  use. 
Value,  in  economic  discussion,  usually 
means  power  in  exchange,  that  is,  the 
power  of  a  commodity  to  command 
other  commodities  in  exchange.  Such 
attempts  at  brief  definition,  however, 
are  not  satisfactory,  since  each  pri- 
mary concept  of  the  science  is  itself 
the  text  for  long  discussion.  The  best 
introduction  to  the  subject  will  bo 
found  in  the  article,  POLITICAL  ECON- 
OMY, which  outlines  clearly  the  content 
or  scope,  the  relation  of  political 
economy  to  other  branches  of  study, 
and  the  methods  of  investigation  or 
arrangement  that  it  employs. 

I.  The  fundamental  principles 
should  then  be  studied  by  reference 
to  the  following  articles: 

Wealth 

Production 

Labor 

Division  of  Labor 

Industrialism 

Wages 

Money 

Bank,  Banking 

Standard   of  Living 

Capital 

Interest 

Usury 

Rent 


lax 

Single  Tax 

Metayer 

Profit 

Monopoly 

Speculation 

Consumption 

Value 

Cooperation 

Distribution 

Exchange 

Tariff 

The  history  of  economic  thought 
should  be  studied  next.  In  ancient 
arid  mediaeval  times  political  economy 
was  not  marked  off  from  other 
branches  of  learning,  and  no  attempt 
was  made  to  study  it  systematically. 
From  the  historical  paragraphs  in  the 
article,  POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  it  will  be 
seen  that  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  phi- 
losophers, as  well  as  to  the  mediaeval 
churchmen,  the  laws  of  trade  were  of 
interest  mainly  in  their  moral  bearings. 
Even  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
some  of  its  principles  were  understood, 
and  something  like  a  systematic  study 
was  attempted,  its  scope  and  impor- 
tance were  not  realized.  It  was  re- 
garded as  a  branch  of  statecraft.  Not 
private  wealth,  but  the  best  means  of 
increasing  financial  power  of  the  state 
was  the  main  object  of  investigation. 
For  an  account  of  the  various  systems 
of  economic  thought,  and  the  contri- 
butions of  individual  economists,  see 
the  following: 

Mercantilism 

Physiocrats 

Laissez-Faire 


01 


62 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY 


Manchester  School 
Free  Trade 
New  Freedom 
Open  Door 
International  Trade 
Protection 
Balance  of  Trade 
Navigation  Laws 
Tariff 
Quesnay,  F. 
Smith,  Adam 
Ricardo,  D. 
Malthus,  T.  R. 
Thiinen,  J.  H.  von 
Say,  J.  B. 
Carey,  H.  C. 
Bastiat,  F. 
Mill,  J.  S. 
Cairnes,  J. 
Jevons,  W.  S. 
Walker,  F.  A. 
Marshall,  Alfred 
Boelirn  von   Bawerk,  E. 
Clark,  J.  B. 
Wagner,  Adolf 
Schmoller,  G. 
Menger,  K. 
Nicholson,  J.  S. 
Patten,  S.  N. 

Obviously  the  study  of  past  eco- 
nomic conditions  is  essential  to  an 
understanding  of  the  present.  On  the 
general  subject  of  Industrial  Evolu- 
tion consult  the  following: 

Manufactures 

House  Industry 

Mir 

Guild 

Hanseatic  League 

Merchants  Adventurers 

Mercantilism 

Physiocrats 

Industrial  Revolution 


Factories  and  the  Factory  System 

Cartwright,  E. 

Open  Field  System 

Agriculture 

Hargreaves,  J. 

Arkwright,  Sir  R. 

Crompton,  Samuel 

Watt,  James 

Whitney,  Eli 

Spinning 

Weaving 

Wool 

Cotton 

Loom 

Textile  Manufacturing 

Eight-Hour  Day 

(See  UNITED  STATES,  GREAT 
BRITAIN,  GERMANY,  etc.,  for  eco- 
nomic evolution  of  those  coun- 
tries. ) 

II.  Reading  the  above  topics  in 
the  order  given  will  have  supplied  the 
theoretical  and  historical  basis  for  the 
study  of  actual  conditions,  practical 
questions,  and  proposed  measures  of 
reform,  which  are  arranged  logically 
in  the  following  lists: 

1.  TRADE  AND  TRANSPORTATION: 
Commerce 
B'arter 

Chamber  of  Commerce 
Imports  and  Exports 
Demand  and  Supply 
Exchange 
Foreign  Money 
Ad  Valorem 
Coasting  Trade 
Competition 
International  Trade 
Balance  of  Trade 
Stock  Exchange 
Bond 
Stock 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY 


68 


Bucket  Shop 

Customs  Duties 

Lloyds 

Underwriter 

Crisis,  Economic 

Speculation 

Transportation 

Railways 

Express  Company 

Baggage 

Commerce   Court 

Treaty 

Commercial  Treaties 

Reciprocity 

Tariff 

Geography,  Economic 

Mercantile  Agency 

Port  of  Entry 

Pooling 

Labor  and   Commerce,   Department 

of 
Municipal  Ownership 

See  also  statistics  of  Commerce  and 
Railways  under  the  various  countries, 
as  UNITED  STATES,  GEEAT  BEITAIN, 
CHILE,  etc. 

2.  LABOR  AND  CAPITAL: 
Trade  Unions 
Labor 
Capital 

Labor  and  Capital,  Relations  of 
Socialism 
Communism 
Anarchism 
Political  Economy 
Division  of  Labor 
Labor  Organizations 
Knights  of  Labor 
Labor,  American  Federation  of 
Industrial  Workers  of  the  World 
Wages 

Minimum  Wage 
Labor  Union,  The  American 


Railway  Brotherhoods 

Typographical  Union  of  North 
America 

Letter  Carriers,  National  Associa- 
tion of 

Metal  Trades  Association 

Miners,  Western  Federation  of 

Mine  Workers  of  America 

Labor  Representation  Committee 

Labor  Party,  British 

Manufactures 

Strikes  and  Lockouts 

Industrial  Arbitration  and  Concilia- 
tion 

Sabotage 

Syndicalism 

Eight-Hour  Day 

Standard   of  Living 

Union  Label 

Interlocking  Directorates 

Boycotting 

Lockout 

Picketing 

Labor  Problems 

Labor  Colonies 

Labor  Congresses 

Contract  Labor  Law 

Labor  Day 

Labor  Legislation 

Labor,  Department  of 

Labor  Church 

Industrial  Revolution 

Sweating  System 

Employment  Bureau 

Labor  Exchanges 

Labor,  Bureaus  of 

Child  Labor 

Employers'  Liability 

Workingmen's   Compensation 

Accidents,  Industrial 

Factory  Inspection 

Social  Democracy 

Shops 

Injunction 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY 


3.  GOVERNMENTAL  REGULATION   AND 

ENCOURAGEMENT   OF   COMMERCE 
AND  INDUSTRY: 

Protection 

Customs  Duties 

Tariff 

Drawback 

Warehousing  System 

Mercantilism 

Industrial  Commission 

Latin  Union 

Hamilton,  Alexander 

List,  Friedrich 

Balance  of  Trade 

Corn  Laws 

Anti-Corn-Law  League 

Cobden  Club 

Reciprocity 

Shipping  Subsidies 

Coasting  Trade 

Monopoly 

Trusts 

Trust  Fund  Doctrine 

4.  MONEY  AND  CREDIT: 

Money 

Precious  Metals 
Foreign  Money 
Bullion 
Coinage 
Numismatics 
Index  Numbers 
Tabular  Standard 
Bimetallism 
Latin  Union 
Monetary  Conferences 
Monetary  Commission 
Gresham,  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham's  Law 
Greenbacks 
Currency 
Greenback  Party 

Specie    Payments,    Suspension    and 
Resumption  of 


Fiat  Money 

Credit 

Credit,  Letter  of 

Crisis,  Economic 

Interest 

Bank,   Banking 

Land  Banks 

Clearing-House 

Trust  Companies 

Bill  of  Exchange 

Exchequer  Bills 

Credit  Foncier 

Mortgage  Banks 

Rural  Credit 

Reserve  Bank,  Federal 

5.  TAXATION  AND  FINANCE: 
Finance 

Tax,  Taxation 

Debt,  Public 

Independent  Treasury 

Repudiation 

Tariff 

Customs  Duties 

Excise 

Internal  Revenue  System 

Budget 

Income  Tax 

Land  Tax 

Special  Assessment 

Single  Tax 

See  also  sections  on  Pittance  under 
the  various  countries,  as  UNITKD 
STATES,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  BRAZIL,  etc. 

6.  INSURANCE  AND  SAVINGS  INSTITU- 

TIONS : 

Insurance 
Life  Insurance 
Fraternal  Insurance 
Fire  Insurance 
Marine  Insurance 
Friendly  Societies 
Workingmen's  Insurance 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY 


Tontine 

Underwriter 

Annuity 

Savings  Banks 

Post  Office  Savings  Bank 

Trust  Companies 

Building  and  Loan  Associations 

7.  AMONG  PROMINKNT  ECONOMISTS, 
in  addition  to  those  already  named  m 
the  lists,  are  the  following: 

Achenwall,  Gottfried 
Adams,  H.  C. 
Aguado,  A.  M. 
Anderson,  Jame: 
Ashley,  W.  J. 
Astor,  John  Jacob 
Atkinson,  Edward 
Bagchot,  Walter 
Baring 
Baring,  A. 
Bastable,  C1.  F. 
Bastiat,  F. 
Bates,  Joshua 
Baudrillart,  H.  J.  L. 
Baxter,  Robert  D. 
Beckmann,  Johann 
Bemis,  Edward  W. 
Biddle,  Nicholas 
Blanqui,  J.  A. 
Block,  Maurice 
Bodin,  Jean 

Boehm   von   Bawerk,  E. 
Boisguilhert,  P.  Ic  P. 
Brent ano,  L.  J. 
Cairnes,  John  E. 
Carey,  Henry  C. 
Carli,   G.   R. 
Cernuschi,  Henri 
Chevalier,  M. 
Child,  Sir  Josiah 
Clark,  John  B. 
Cobden,  Richard 
Cohn,  Gustav 


Cooke,  Jay 
Cossa,  Luigi 
Courcelle-Seneuil,  J,  (? 
Cournot,  A.  A. 
Decker,  Sir  Matthew 
Dewey,  Davis  R. 
Drexel,  Anthony  J 
Ely,  Richard  T. 
Engcl,  Ernst 
Farr,  William 
Farrcr,  T.  H. 
Faucher,  J. 
Fawcett,  Henry 
Ferraris,   C.   F. 
Field,  Cyrus  F. 
Fisher,  I. 
Fisk,  James 
Fix,  Theodore 
Frick,  H.  C. 
Gage,  L.  J. 
Galiani,  F. 
Gamier,  J.  C. 
Gcnovesi,  A. 
Giffcn,  Sir  Robert 
Gioja,  M. 
Giovanitti,  A.  M. 
Girard,  Stephen 
Glass,  Carter 
Gould  (family) 
Gournay,  J.   C.  M.  V. 
Hadley,  A.  T. 
Hamilton,  Hubert 
Harriman,  Eduard  H. 
Haxthausen,  A. 
Hermann,  F.   B    W. 
Hewitt,  A.  S. 
Hill,  James  J. 
Hobson,  J.  A. 
Horner,   F. 
Horton,  S.  D. 
Howe,  S.  G. 
Hudson,  G. 
Hufeland,  G. 
Ingram,  J.  K. 


POLITICAL  ECONOMY 


Jenks,  J.  W. 
Jevons,  W.  S. 
Kay,  Joseph 
King,  Wm.  L.  M. 
Knox,  J.  J. 
Laing,  S. 
Laughlin,  J.  I*. 
Laveleye,  Emile 
Law,  John 
Le  Play,  P.  G.  R 
Leroy-Beaulieu 
Leslie,  T.  E.  C. 
Lcvasseur,  E. 
Levi,  Leone 
List,  F. 
Loria,  A. 
McCulloch,  J.  R. 
Mackay,  C.  W. 
Macleod,  H.  D. 
Malthus,  T.  R. 
Marshall,  A. 
Mayo-Smith,  R. 
Menger,  Karl 
Morgan,  J.  P. 
Mun,  Thomas 
Necker,  Jacques 
Newmarch,  William 
Nicholson,  J.  S. 
North,  Sir  Dudley 
Oncken,  August 
Overstone,   S.   J.   L. 
Parien,  M.  L.  P.  F.  E. 
Pater  son,  Wm. 
Peabody,  G. 
Fender,  Sir  John 


Petty,  Sir  William 
Price,  Richard 
Quesnay,  F. 
Raiffeisen,  F.  W. 
Rau,  K.  H. 
Rogers,   J.   E.   T. 
Roscher,  W.  G.  F. 
Rothschild 
Say,  J.  B. 
Say,  L. 

Schaffle,  A.  E.  F. 
Schmoller,  G. 
Schulze-Dclitzsch,  F.  H. 
Seebohm,  F. 
Seligman,  E.  R.  A. 
Senior,  N.  W. 
Soetbeer,  A. 
Sumner,  W.  G. 
Taussig,  F.   W. 
Tooke,  Thomas 
Torrens,  Robert 
Tucker,  Josiah 
Vanderbilt  (family) 
Wagner,  Adolf 
Wagner,  H. 
Walker,  F.  A. 
Walker,  R.  J. 
Walrus,  M.  E.  L 
Watkin,    Sir   E.    W. 
Wells,  D.  A. 
Wolowski,  L.  F.  M.  R. 

8.  FOR  ECONOMIC  AND  SOCIAL  RE- 
FORM MOVEMENTS,  see  section  6  of 
the  preceding  division  (Sociology). 


5. 


TAKEN   in  its  broadest  signification,  Anthropology,   the  science  of 
Man,  would  include  within  its  scope  all  the  sciences  and  arts  as 
dealing  with  particular  phases  only  of  the  history  of  human  life 
on     earth.        Physiology,     Psychology,     Philosophy,     Linguistics 
and    Literature    would   then    be    proper   fields    of    study    for   the 
anthropologist,  as  to  a  large  extent  they  are.     But  the  field  of  human  knowl- 
edge is  so  broad,  and  the  scope  of  every  particular  science  in  fact  so  exten- 
sive, that  in  the  nature  of  things  no  single  mind  can  at  the  present  day  carry  on 
the  work  of  scientific  investigation  in  more  than  a  limited  field  of  inquiry.     Prac- 
tically, therefore,  anthropology,  with  its  allied  science  of  ethnology,  has  become 
the  study  of  a  man  as  a  zoological  genus,  and  secondly,  the  study  of  the  origins  of 
culture  as  deduced  from  ancient  remains  and  the  testimony  afforded  by  surviving 
savage  races  whose  life  has  as  yet  undergone  no  such  differentiation  as  to  put  it 
beyond  the  study  of  a  single  mind.     Among  them  are  sought  the  germs  of 
present  institutions  and  beliefs,  which  are  followed  up  until  they  become  the 
things  of  which  history  takes  cognizance.     Primitive  life,  then,  is  largely  the 
subject  of  anthropology  which  deals  also  with  survivals  of  primitive  modes  of  life 
and  methods  of  thought  in  our  own  times.     Thus  the  topic  of  Folklore  and 
Customs  falls  fairly  within  its  field.     See : 


Man,  Science  of 

Anthropology 

Ethnography 

1.  The  study  of  human  anatomy 
and  physiology  is  of  primary  import- 
ance in  the  science  of  man.  On  the 
basis  of  morphological  and  physi- 
ological peculiarities,  various  classi- 
fications of  mankind  have  been  made, 
and  our  knowledge  of  prehistoric  man 
is  largely  a  matter  of  skulls  and  thigh 
bones.  The  measurement  of  the  hu- 
man body  has  become  a  science  in 
itself.  See: 

Somatology 

Craniometry 

Skin 

Mongolian  Spots 

Anthropometry 

Melanism  and  Albinism 

Hair 

Giants 


Dwarf 

Skull 

2.  Remains  of  prehistoric  man  have 
been  found  in  both  hemispheres,  but 
most  plentifully  in  Europe.  Ingenious 
comparative  studies  allow  us  to  arrive 
at  a  fair  conception  of  the  physical 
characteristics  of  the  earliest  inhabi- 
tants of  the  world.  See : 

Barrow 

Mound-Builders 

Megalithic  Monuments 

Dolmen 

Avebury 

Stonehenge 

Spy 

Chellean 
Cro-Magnon 
Furfooz  Race 
Hallstatt  Epoch 
Madeleine,  La 


67 


68 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


Mousterian  Epoch 
Neanderthal  Man 
Lansing  Man 
Kitchen-Midden 

8.  For  the  great  divisions  of  man- 
kind determined  on  the  basis  of  phys- 
ical characteristics  and  geographical 
distribution,  see: 

Caucasian  Race 
Europe,  Peoples  of 
Mediterranean  Race 
Mongolian  Race 
Negro 

Indian  Peoples 
Malayan  Peoples 
Melanesians 
Indians,  American 
Mixed  Races 

4.  On  the  question  of  the  origin  of 
mankind  there  lias  been  much  disputa- 
tion among  anthropologists  with  little 
positive  results.        See: 

Evolution 
Pithecanthropus 

5.  Man    has    nowhere    been    found 
in  complete  isolation.     From  the  first 
he  appears  as  the  social  being  with  his 
life  conditioned  by  the  co-existence  of 
others     of     his     kind.        Co-existence 
meant  likeness  of  thought  and  exper- 
ience  and   the   necessity   of   intercom- 
munication.      Our  interest,  therefore, 
turns  to  language.     See: 

Language 
Philology 
Gesture  Language 
Sign  Language 
Writing 
Hieroglyphics 
Cuneiform  Inscriptions 
Wampum 

6.  In    common    with    the    animals 


man  is  early  engaged  in  a  struggle  for 
the  material  needs  of  existence,  with 
greater  needs  to  satisfy,  however,  than 
the  animals,  and  consequently  with 
growing  resources. 

(a)   The  desire  for  food  is  the  primal 

motive  in   life.      See: 
Cannibalism 
Geophagy 
Cookery 
Pottery 

(6)  According  to  the  nature  of  the 
physical  conditions  amidst 
which  he  dwelt,  man  found 
shelter  for  himself.  See: 

Tent 

Wigwam 

Cave-Dwellers 

Cliff-Dweller 

Mesa 

Earth  Lodge 

Lake  Dwellings 

Archaeology,  American 

Casa  Grande 

Oaxaca,  Ruins  of 

Palenque 

Nomad 

Gypsies 

(c)  Dress,  it  is  well  established,  came 
from  no  need  of  protecting 
the  body,  but  had  its  origin 
in  ornament.  See: 

Dress 

Tattooing 
Headdress 
Hairdressing 

7.  Man  entered  upon  a  rapid 
course  of  development  when,  in  his 
search  for  sustenance  and  shelter,  he 
began  the  use  of  tools.  See: 

(a)   For  Implements : 
Flint  Implements 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


69 


Celt 

Stone  Ago 
Bronze,  Ago  of 
Archaeology,  American 
Paleolithic  Period 

(b)   For  Weapons: 

Arrow 

Blowgun 

Tomahawk 

Boomerang 

Scalping 

For  the  beginnings  of  the  agricultural 

stage,  see: 
Agriculture 
Plow 
Domestic  Animals 

8.  The  religion  of  primitive  man  is 
essentially  the  belief  in  a  universally 
animated  world,  a  world  of  spirits,  to 
combat  and  placate  whom  is  the  busi- 
ness of  his  life.  See: 

Animism 

Totemism 

Superstition 

Religion,  Comparative 

Magic 

Necromancy 

Oracle 

Nature-Worship 

Fire- Worship 

Phallicism 

Fetishism 

Shamanism 

Amulet 

Manitou 

Demonology 

Demoniac 

Satanism 

Voodoo 

Ghosts 

Fast 

Sacrifice 


9.  Birth   and   death   are   naturally 
portentous  phenomena  to  the  primitive 
mind,  and  arc  marked,  death  especially, 
by  various   ceremonies.     In    case    of 
death  the  rites  connect  themselves  with 
the  belief  in  existence  beyond  the  grave. 
See: 

Couvade 

Circumcision 

Teknonymy 

Infanticide 

Mortuary  Customs 

Burial 

Cist-burial 

Suttee 

Coffin 

10.  The  origin  of  the  family  rela- 
tion is  a  subject  of  much  controversy; 
and  the  older  view  that,  preceding  the 
present    organization    of    the    family 
under  the  authority  of  the  father  and 
conditioned  by  the  element  of  property, 
mankind    passed   through   a   stage   in 
which  the  family  centered  around  the 
mother,  in  whom  authority  was  vested, 
and  from  whom  descent  was  traced  has 
been  abandoned.     See: 

Marriage 

Matriarchate 

Partriarchate 

Polygamy 

Polyandry 

Levirate  Marriage 

Clan 

Tribe 

Totemism 

Caste 

Exogamy 

Miscegenation 

Slavery 

11.  Primitive  morality  is  often  re- 
garded as  ultilitarian  and  narrow  in 
the  scope  of  its   application;  but   a 


70 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


great  deal  of  data  has  accumulated  to 
negate  this  interpretation.  In  prim- 
itive life  the  social  group  is  independ- 
ent politically  and,  hence,  frequently 
hostile  with  its  neighbors,  but  this  is 
not  essentially  different  from  civilized 
governments.  Internally  each  of  these 
primitive  groups  is  governed  by  a  legal 
code.  Primitive  law  is  summed  up  in 
custom.  See : 

Law 

Custom 

Taboo 

12.  Energy  not  directed  towards 
the  direct  satisfaction  of  material 
wants  finds  expression  among  savages 
in  games  and  sports.  ^Esthetics,  mod- 
ern research  goes  to  show,  had  its  ori- 
gin in  play.  See : 

Art,  Primitive 

JSsthetics 

Swastika 

Festivals 

Dancing 

Corroboree 

Sun  Dance 

Snake  Dance 

Music 

Areois 

Potlatch 

18,  The  survival  of  primitive 
thought  in  custom,  legend,  superstition, 
and  common  practices  shows  how  con- 
tinuous is  the  line  of  development  from 
the  mental  life  of  primitive  man  to  our 
own.  For  the  entire  subject  of  folk 
lore,  see : 

Folklore 
Nursery  Lore 
Nursery  Rhymes 
Superstition 
Magic 


Witchcraft 

Incantation 

Vampire 

Werwolf 

Griffin 

Dragon 

Unicorn 

Mermaid 

Fairy 

Morgan,  the  Fay 

Avalon 

Goblins 

Oberon 

Puck 

Robin  Goodfellow 

Baring-Gould,  S. 

14.  The  data  of  anthropology  have 
been  collected  from  many  sources,  and 
the  outline  of  the  principles  of  the 
science  may  be  filled  in  with  concrete 
detail,  by  referring  to  the  many  de- 
scriptive articles  on  the  primitive  peo- 
ples. Of  the  most  interesting  primi- 
tive groups  for  the  anthropologists,  a 
partial  list  would  be  the  following: 

(a)  For  America,  see  INDIANS, 
AMERICAN,  an  elaborate  study 
which  may  be  carried  into 
great  detail  by  following  out 
the  cross  references  to  every 
tribe  of  North,  Central,  and 
South  America.  See  also  ES- 
KIMO. 

(6)  For  Asia: 

Philippine  Islands 

Aino 

Andamanese  (under  Andamans) 

Sundanese  (under  Sunda  Islands) 

Dyak 

Gonds 

Gurkhas 

Khonds 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


71 


Karens 

Mois 

Miao-Tse 

Shans 

Thai 

Todas 

Vcddas 

Baluchis    (under   Baluchistan) 

Bhil 

Bedouin 

Kurds 

Buriats 

Giliaks 

Kalmucks 

Golds 

Kirghiz 

Koriaks 

Ossetes 

Tchuktchi 

Tchuvashes 

Tatars 

Ugrians 

Uzbeks 

Vedahs 

Yakuts 

Yukagirs 

Malayan  Peoples 

Polynesians 

Melancsians 

Micronesians 

Negritos 

(c)   For  Africa: 

Akka 

Bantu 

Bcjas 

Berber 

Kabyles 

Bushmen 

Hottentots 

Kafirs 

Dinka 

Fellah 

Masai 


Hausa  (under  Hausa  States) 

Niam  Niam 

Somali 

Yolof 

Yoruba 

Zulus  (under  Zululand) 

(d)  For  Australasia: 

Australians  (under  Australia) 

Maoris 

Tasmanians  (under  Tasmania) 

(e)  For  Europe : 

Europe,  Peoples  of 

Basque  Race 

Gypsies 

Lapps   (under  Lapland) 

15.  A  partial  list  of  well-known 
anthropologists  would  include  the  fol- 
lowing names: 

Andre,  R. 

Bandelier,  A.  F.  A. 
Bastian,  A. 
Beauchamp,  W.  M. 
Berendt,  K.  H. 
Boas,  F. 
Brinton,  D.  G. 
Broca,  P. 
Catlin,  G. 
Cushing,  F.  H. 
Faidherbe,  L.  L.  C, 
Flower,  W.  H. 
Fritsch,  G.  T. 
Furness,  W.  H. 
Gatschct,  A.  S. 
Haddon,  A.  C. 
Hale,  H. 
Hartmann,  R. 
Hodge,  F.  W. 
Holmes,  W.  H. 
Kanitz,  F.  P. 
Kroeber,  A.  L. 
Laufer,  B. 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


Lubbuck,  J. 
McCurdy,  J.  F. 
McGee,  W.  J. 
McLennan,  J.  F. 
Mallery,  G. 
Mantegazza,  P. 
Mason,  O.  T. 
Mooney,  J. 
Morgan,  Jacques  de 
Morgan,  L.  H. 
Mortillet,  L.  L. 
Pilling,  J.  C. 
Powell,  J.  W. 
Prichard,  J.  C. 


Putnam,  F.  W. 
Quartrefages,  J.  L.  A. 
Ranke,  J. 
Ratzel,  F. 
Reinach,  S. 
Ripley,  W.  Z. 
Rivers,  W.  H.  R. 
Schoolcraft,  H.  R. 
Sergi,  G. 

Smith,  Buckingham 
Squier,  E.  G. 
Topinard,  P. 
Tylor,  E.  B. 
Ujfalvy,  C.  E. 


(Eltaptrr  6.    Ifcligum 


O~F  THE  numerous  classifications  of  religion,  none  of  which  is  free 
from  many  serious  objections,  we  may  adopt  as  the  most  practical 
that  which  divides  creeds  into  monotheistic  and  non-monotheistic; 
and  though   here,   too,   we   are   confronted   by   the   difficulty   that 
certain  faiths  are  neither  one  nor  the  other,  completely,  we  may 
apply  the  former  term  to  the1  three  great  religions  of  Judaism,  Christianity,  and 
Mohammedanism,  and  classify  under  the  second  heading  all  beliefs  whatsoever, 
from  primitive  animism  through  the  various  national  mythologies  to  the  great 
moral  and  philosophic  systems  of  the  East.     The  starting  point  should  be  the 
comprehensive  article  on  RELIGION,  COMPARATIVE     The  subject  may  be  then 
pursued  through  such  general  articles  as  BELIEF,  WORSHIP,  RITE,  PRAYER,  SAC- 
RIFICE, PRIEST,  etc.     Additional  titles,  in  great  number,  will  naturally  suggest 
themselves  to  the  reader.     The  field,  indeed,  is  extensive  and  touches  intimately 
on  the  domains  of  Anthropology,  Psychology,  Philosophy,  and  History.     This 
will  be  found  especially  true  in  the  religions  of  the  East,  where  philosophy  and 
mythology  or  religion  are  practically  one. 


A. 


1.  The  beginnings   of   religion,    as 
studied  in  the  beliefs  of  primitive  races, 
will  be  found  treated  in  the  chapter  on 
Anthropology,     where     appear     such 
titles  as 

Man,  Science  of 
Nature- Worship 
Fetishism,  etc. 

The  subject  is  carried  on  in  the  spe- 
cial articles  dealing  with  individual 
tribes  and  rations,  of  which  a  list 
appears  in  the  same  chapter. 

2.  The    religions    and    mythologies 
of  Babylonia,  Assyria,   Egypt,  Greece, 
and  Rome  are  discussed  in  the  chap- 
ter on    History,   in    the   various    sec- 
tions devoted  to  those  countries.     The 
intimate  connection  of  the  religions  and 
the  political  life  in  the  ancient  world 
has  made  this  division  seem  desirable. 

3.  The   mythology   of   the    Scandi- 
navian and  Teutonic  races  differs  from 


that  of  Greece  in  its  pervading  atmos- 
phere of  gloom  and  the  foreboding 
of  fate.  The  northern  divinities  lack 
the  joyous  grace  and  humanity  of  the 
Olympian  pantheon,  and  the  powers  of 
darkness,  cold,  and  death  play  a  far 
more  conspicuous  part.  See: 

Mythology 
Polytheism 

Scandinavian    and   Teutonic    Myth- 
ology 
Edda 
Aesir 
Asgard 
Bifrost 
Yggdrasil 
Mimir 
Norns 
Odin 
Tyr 
Thor 
Bragi 


73 


74 


RELIGION 


Balder 

Loki 

Freyja  and  Frigga 

Ragnarok 

Fenrir 

Walhalla 

Hel 

Niflheim 

4.  We  leave  pure  polytheism  in 
passing  tb  the  great  religions  of  India. 
It,  there,  evolves  with  time  into  com- 
plex systems  of  mythology  modified  by 
pantheism  and  agnosticism. 

(a)  BRAHMANISM. 

Brahmanism  may  go  back  to  the 
second  millennium  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  comprises  the  mass  of  beliefs 
and  institutions  originated  or  elab- 
orated from  a  primitive  nature-worship, 
by  the  Brahmans,  who  constitute  the 
dominant  class  among  the  Hindus.  It 
is  essentially  a  legislative  system,  with 
a  vast  and  minutely  outlined  cere- 
monial. In  its  later  development,  it  is 
characterized  by  pantheism,  the  doctrine 
of  Karma,  and  metempsychosis.  See: 

Brahmanism 

Aryan 

Veda 

Brahmana 

Upanishad 

Manu 

Brahma 

Varuna 

Agni 

Indra 

Ushas 

Maruts 

Pitris 

Sankhya 

Nyaya 

Vedanta 


Mahabharata 

Ramayana 

Vishnu 

Krishna 
Purana 
Tantra 
Vaishnavas 

Saivas 

/ 

Sdktas 


Hanuman 

Gnnesa 

Sraddha 

Caste 

Henotheism 

Karma 

Metempsychosis 

Theosophy 

Sikhs 

(&)  BUDDHISM. 

Buddhism  antedates  Christianity  in 
its  origin,  and  its  adherents  are  second 
in  number  only  to  those  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  Taking  its  rise  in  Hindu- 
stan, it  has  spread  over  China,  Indo- 
China,  Japan,  Tibet,  and  the  plains 
of  Northern  and  Central  Asia.  In 
that  continent,  its  mission  as  a  bearer 
of  civilization  and  morality  has  been 
not  unlike  the  role  played  by  Chris- 
tianity in  Europe  and  America.  See: 

Buddhism 

Pitaka 

Asoka 

Metempsychosis 

Karma 

Nirvana 

Sravaka 

Shin-Shu 

Bonze 


RELIGION 


75 


For  a  Variant  of  Buddhism,  see 

Lamaism 
And,  for  an  Allied  Creed,  see 

Jainism 
Sec  also  Brahmanism,  above. 

5.    ZOROASTRIANISM. 

In  the  great  religion  of  Iran,  we 
may  find  the  earliest  traces  of  primi- 
tive Aryan  belief.  Zoroastrianism  is 
important  for  the  influence  it  exor- 
cised on  Judaism  and  Christianity,  to 
which  it  contributed  the  great  dual- 
istic  principle  of  the  conflict  between 
good  and  evil.  See: 

Zoroastrianism 

Zoroaster 

Avesta 

Gathas 

Pahlavi    Language    and    Literature 

Magi 

Parsis 


B. 


I.  JUDAISM. 

The  history  of  the  Jewish  people, 
who  claimed  to  be  the  nation  specially 
favored  of  the  One  God,  and  the  sole 
depository  of  His  revelation,  will  be 
largely  found  in  the  historical  chapter 
of  this  book;  but  here  a  few  further 
indications  may  be  given  of  some 
of  their  peculiar  institutions.  Their 
worship,  in  its  earlier  form,  is  described 
under  TABERNACLE,  then  under  TEM- 
PLE, and  in  a  special  section  of 
the  article  SACRIFICE,  and  a  still  later 
development  is  treated  under  SYNA- 
GOGUE. 

Special  observances  at  particular 
seasons  arc  treated  under: 

Passover 


Ghebers 

Ormazd 

Ahriman 

Mithras 

Asmodeus 

Saoshyant 

6.  The  prevailing  religion  in  China 
and  Japan  is  Buddhism.  The  native 
religious  systems  of  China  arc  in 
reality  moral  philosophies.  In  Japan, 
however,  we  find  a  peculiarly  national 
religion,  influenced  to  some  extent  by 
Chinese  and  Buddhistic  elements.  Sec : 

(a)   Confucius 

Moncius 

Chu-Hi 
(6)   Taoism 

Lao-tse 

(c)    Shint5 

Kobo  Daishi 

Fox-deity 

Bushido 


Purim 

Atonement,  Day  of 

Pentecost 

Dedication  Feast 

Weeks,  Feast  of 

Tabernacles,  Feast  of 

Sabbath 

Jubilee,  Year  of 

On  their  sacred  writings,  besides  the 
articles  on  each  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, sec: 

Talmud 

Targum 

Midrash 

Gemara 

Mishna 

The  functionaries  of  their  religion 
and  justice  come  under: 


76 


RELIGION 


Priest 

High  Priest 

Levite 

Scribe 

Rabbi 

Sanhedrin 

Other  characteristic  customs  and 
usages  : 

Circumcision 

Tithes 

Unction 

Proselyte 

Urim  and  Thummim 

Phylactery 

The  sects  and  parties  which  devel- 
oped in  course  of  time  among  the  race 
are  detailed  under  JKWISH  SECTS,  and 
specially  in  the  following  articles: 

Pharisees 

Sadducees 

Essenes 

Chasidim 

Frank,  Jacob 

II.  CHRISTIANITY. 

1.  FOUNDATIONS.  The  history  of 
Christianity  is  so  diversified,  and  so 
intimately  bound  up  with  the  develop- 
ment of  European  civilization,  that  a 
large  amount  of  space  is  necessarily 
accorded  to  it.  The  most  convenient 
division  will  begin  with  the  founda- 
tions, including  under  that  head  the 
articles  centring  around  its  Founder 
and  the  history  and  worthies  of  the 
first  few  centuries  of  the  Christian  era, 
before  Europe  was  submerged  in  the 
chaos  which  resulted  from  the  bar- 
barian invasions.  See: 

Christianity 

Creeds  and  Confessions 

Fundamentals  of  Christian  Doctrine 

Development  of  Doctrine 


God 

Jesus  Christ 

Incarnation 

Hypostatic  Union 

Atonement 

Intercession,  Doctrine  of 

Resurrection 

Miracles 

Holy  Ghost 

Filioque 

Trinity,  Doctrine  of  the 

Nicene  Creed 

Prayer 

Providence 

Predestination 

Foreknowledge  and  Foreordination 

Sin 

Original  Sin 

Besides  the  article  under  the  title 
Esc  HATO  LOGY,  several  others  which 
follow  deal  with  the  problems  which 
have  so  exercised  the  mind  of  man  as 
to  his  ultimate  destination  after  the 
short  period  of  life  in  this  world.  See: 

Immortality 

Judgment,  Final 

Millennium 

Second  Advent  of  Christ 

Apocalyptic  Literature 

Antichrist 

Annihilationism 

Heaven 

Beatific  Vision 

Hell 

Probation  after  Death 

Purgatory 

Limbus 

The  following  articles  deal  with  the 
organizations  by  whose  means  the  re- 
ligion of  Christ  was  spread  throughout 
the  world,  and  with  early  records  of 
its  faith  and  practice: 

Church 


RELIGION 


77 


Council 

Synod 

Missions,  Christian 

Apostle 

Doctors  of  the  Church 

Fathers  of  the  Church 

Persecutions  of  the  Christians 

Lapsed 

Catechumens 

Disciplina  Arcani 

Agapae 

Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 

Apostolic  Constitutions 

Apostolic  Fathers 

Jerusalem,  Councils  of 

Nicaea,  Councils  of 

Constantinople,  Councils  of 

Ephcsus,  Councils  of 

Council  of  Chalcedon   (under  Chal- 

cedon) 

For  the  great  figures  of  the  period 
of  foundation  and  dissemination,  see: 
Mary 
Joseph 

John  the  Baptist 
Peter 
Paul 
John 
James 
Philip 

Bartholomew 
Thomas 
Andrew 
Jude 
Barnabas 
Matthias 
Mark 
Luke 

Mary  Magdalene 
Timothy 
Titus 
Stephen 
Justin  Martyr 
Ignatius 


Irenaeus 

Polycarp 

Agnes 

Agatha 

Alban 

A  polios 

Athanasius 

Arius 

Augustine 

Barbara 

Basil 

Boniface 

Cassianus,  Johannes 

Cecilia 

Chrysostom 

Cyprianus 

Cyril  of  Alexandria 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem 

Denis 

Dionysius 

Ephraem 

Epiphanius 

Eusebius 

Felicitas 

Fortunatus,  Venantius 

Gregory  of  Nazianzus 

Gregory  of  Nyssa 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus 

Gregory  of  Tours 

Hilary 

Hippolytus 

Hosius 

Isidore  of  Seville 

Jerome 

Lawrence 

Martin  of  Tours 

Patrick 

Prudentius,  Aurelius  Clemens 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia 

2,  EARLY  SECTS  AND  HERESIES. 
No  sooner  had  the  Christian  Church 
been  fully  organized  and  entered  upon 
its  mission  of  converting,  than  the 
infinite  diversity  of  human  minds  im- 


78 


RELIGION 


pelled  different  men  to  emphasize  dis- 
proportionately some  one  aspect  of  the 
faith  which  all  at  first  held  in  common. 
This  was  especially  the  case  during  the 
first  three  centuries,  while  Christianity 
had  its  chief  stronghold  in  the  East, 
the  speculative  and  dialectical  minds  of 
whose  people  were  naturally  inclined  to 
minute  questions  of  abstract  theology. 
The  heresies  which  took  their  rise  in 
the  West  were  of  a  more  practical 
kind,  dealing,  like  Montanism,  with  the 
severity  of  discipline,  or,  like  Pelagian- 
ism,  with  the  freedom  of  the  human 
will.  Those  who  wish  to  trace  the 
abstruse  questions  which  threatened  to 
divide  the  Church  even  before  it  had 
emerged  from  the  shadow  of  persecu- 
tion, may  consult  especially  the  follow- 
ing articles : 

Adiaphorists 

Adoptian  Controversy 

Arius 

Aetius 

Agnoetae 

Alogians 

Apollinaris 

Celsus 

Ccrdonians 

Ccrinthus 

Docetae 

Donatists 

Dositheans 

Ebionites 

Elkesaites 

Eutyches 

Gnosticism 

Hesychasts 

Iconoclasm 

Macedonians 

Manichaeism 

Monarchians 

Monophysites 

Monothelitism 


Montanus 

Nestorians 

Nicolaitans 

Novatian 

Origen 

Patripassianism 

Paulicians 

Pelagianism 

Sabellius 

Semi-pclagianism 

Valentinians 

Vigilius 

3.  TRADITIONAL  CHRISTIANITY. 
The  latter  history  of  Christianity  may 
be  most  conveniently  divided  into  two 
main  heads — according  as  the  various 
Christian  bodies  have  adhered,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  to  the  older 
usages  or  beliefs,  or  have  broken  away 
from  them,  and  evolved  new  ones  of 
their  own.  Of  these  two  divisions,  the 
former  is  inevitably  much  the  larger, 
covering  a  much  greater  extent  of  time 
and  a  wider  range  of  subjects.  The 
naturally  unchanging  East  has  been 
less  affected  by  the  currents  of  thought, 
and  the  many  practical  problems,  which 
have  introduced  many  changes  or  de- 
velopments in  the  western  world.  The 
articles  PAPACY,  which  traces  the  his- 
tory of  the  central  see  of  Christendom, 
down  to  the  Council  of  Trent ;  ROMAN 
CATHOLIC  CHURCH,  which  includes  the 
subsequent  history  of  the  churches  in 
communion  with  it;  and  GALLICAN 
CHURCH,  give  a  large  part  of  the  gen- 
eral institutional  development ;  and  the 
biographies  of  nearly  all  the  Popes, 
contain  valuable  indications  of  the 
policy  which  has  at  different  periods 
guided  the  larger  part  of  Christendom. 
The  article,  CHURCH  HISTORY,  con- 
tains an  account  of  the  principal 


RELIGION 


writers  who  have  narrated  this  develop- 
ment; and  the  following  articles  con- 
tain detailed  information  on  all  the 
more  important  points. 

(a)  For  Church  Organization,  see: 

Patriarch 

Metropolitan 

Archbishop 

Bishop 

Titular  Bishops 

Suffragan 

Apostolic   Succession 

Orders,  Holy 

Cardinal 

Conclave 

Legate 

Priest 

Rector 

Vicar 

Vicar-General 

Archdeacon 

Cathedral 

Dean 

Chapter 

Rural  Dean 

Deacon 

Subdeacon 

Acolytes 

Reader 

Exorcist 

Ostiarius 

Tonsure 

Council 

Encyclical  Letters 

Bull 

In  Coena  Domini 

Unigenitus 

Brief,  Papal 

Church  Discipline 

Excommunication 

Dispensation 

Indulgence 

Inquisition 


Congregation 

Propaganda 

Index 

Commandments  of  the  Church 

Celibacy 

(6)  Christianity  had  scarcely  been 
organized  before  a  definite  form  of 
worship  was  adopted,  and  this  became 
more  and  more  fixed  and  uniform  in 
its  details  as  time  went  on.  A  great 
many  matters  of  interest  are  contained 
in  the  history  of  these  liturgical  forms, 
which  will  be  found  fully  given  under 
numerous  titles.  See: 

Worship 

Liturgy 

Mozarabic  Liturgy 

Mass 

Requiem 

Introit 

Kyrie  Eleison 

Gloria  in  Excelsis 

Collect 

Epistle 

Gradual 

Sequence 

Gospel 

Offertory 

Secret 

Missal 

Pontifical 

Ritual 

Processional 

Canonical  Hours 

Breviary 

Lesson 

Te  Deum 

Magnificat 

Nunc   Dimittis 

Miserere 

De  Profundis 

Ave  Maria 

Angelus  Domini 


80 


RELIGION 


Hymnology 
Dies  Irae 

Pange  Lingua 

Tantum  Ergo 

Veni  Creator  Spiritus 

Litany 

Benediction 

Rosary  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary 

Tenebra 

(c)  Under  COSTUME,   ECCLESIASTI- 
CAL, a  full  account  will  be  found  of  the 
historical  development  of  ecclesiastical 
vestments  and  their  use  at  the  present 
day  in  various  parts  of  Christendom. 
A  number  of  other  articles  also  give 
details  as  to  specific  vestments  and  arti- 
cles used  in  divine  worship.     See: 

Tiara 

Pallium 

Mitre 

Crosier 

Stole 

Maniple 

Surplice 

Flabelluin 

Altar 

Tabernacle 

Incense 

Censer 

Cross 

Chalice 

Corporal 

Agnus  Dei 

(d)  The  Christian  religion,  at  least 
in  its  ancient  and  traditional  form,  is 
essentially     a    sacramental    one.       In 
other  words,  it  provides  for  the  two- 
fold nature  of  man — body  and  soul — 
by    using    outward   and   visible    signs 
to  convey  inward  and  spiritual  grace. 
A  large  number  of  important  subjects, 
accordingly,    fall    under   the   heading 
Sacrament.     See : 


Sacrament 

Baptism 

Clinic  Baptism 

Heretic  Baptism 

Sponsors 

Confirmation 

Lord's  Supper 

Transubstantiation 

Viaticum 

Penance 

Confession 

Absolution 

Orders,  Holy 

Marriage 

Extreme  Unction 

Sacramentals 

Holy  Water 

Scapular 

Jubilee 

Pilgrim 

Stations 

Image-Worship 

Foot- Washing 

(e)  Very  early  in  the  history  of 
the  Christian  Church,  special  observ- 
ances began  to  be  connected  with  cer- 
tain days — weekly,  and  annual  com- 
memorations of  events  in  the  life  of 
its  Founder,  and  anniversaries  of  the 
chief  worthies  who  adorned  its  history, 
These  are  treated  under: 

Sunday 
Friday 
Festivals 
Fast 

Christmas 
Epiphany 
Candlemas 
Annunciation 
Ash-Wednesday 
Lent 

.Holy  Week 
Maundy  Thursday 


RELIGION 


81 


Good  Friday 

Easter 

Ascension  Day 

Pentecost 

Trinity  Sunday 

Corpus  Christ! 

Assumption  of  the  Virgin  Mary 

All-Soul's  Day 

Ember-Days 

Angel 

Michael 

Gabriel 

Saint 

Martyr 

Canonization 

Beatification 

Advocatus  Diaboli 

Act  a  Sanctorum 

(f)  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  enu- 
merate the  separate  books  of  the  Bible, 
on  which  every  organization  of  Chris- 
tians professes  to  base  its  creed.  Under 
each  of  their  titles,  the  history  and 
purport  of  every  book  may  be  studied, 
as  well  as  the  most  approved  conclu- 
sions of  the  most  recent  scientific  criti- 
cism. Questions  relating  to  the  Bible 
as  a  whole  are  discussed  at  great  length 
in  the  main  article  BIBLE;  and  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  the  following  sub- 
sidiary titles  • 

Inspiration 

Revelation 

Canon 

Biblical  Criticism 

Bible  Archaeology 

Textual  Criticism 

Tubingen  School 

Concordance 

Apocrypha 

Deuterocanonicttl  Books 

Bible  Society 

Bible,  Curious  Editions  of 


4.  THK  MONASTIC  LIFE.  As  the 
civilized  world,  under  the  later  Roman 
empire,  grew  more  and  more  corrupt, 
the  feeling  gained  ground  that  the 
surest  way  to  escape  from  the  wrath 
to  come  was  to  flee  into  the  desert,  and 
by  prayer  and  mortification  to  avert 
the  divine  displeasure.  The  monastic 
life,  therefore,  considered  as  the  mosi 
perfect  carrying  out  of  the  counsels 
of  Christ,  took  firm  root  in  the  Church. 
General  details  of  its  spirit  and  or 
ganization  will  be  found  under: 

Monasticism 

Asceticism 

Vow 

Monastery 

Laura 

Hermit 

Recluse 

Pillar  Saint 

Abbey 

Abbot 

Canon 

Brothers,  Lay 

Brotherhoods,  Religious 

Tertiary 

Monastic  Art 

The  earlier  monastic  ideal  was  that 
of  absolute  separation  from  the  world, 
considered  as  an  inherently  wicked 
place;  and  all  the  older  orders, 
though  frequently  of  the  greatest 
service  to  society  and  civilization 
by  their  preservation  of  learning, 
and  by  their  diligent  labors  in 
agriculture  and  the  like,  approach 
more  or  less  the  type  known  as  clois- 
tered orders.  Of  these  the  principal 
ones  follow  in  chronological  sequence, 
with  their  founders,  where  these  have 
separate  articles: 

Antony 


82 


RELIGION 


Paul 

Basilian  Monks 

Augustinians 

Benedictines 

Benedict 

Cluniacs 

Camaldolites 

Carthusians 

Bruno 

Chartreuse,  La  Grande 

Charterhouse 

Cistercians 

Bernard 

Premonstratensians 

Gilbertines 

Beguines 

Carmelites 

Servites 

Celestines 

Brigittines 

Bridget 

Ursulines 

Angela  Merici 

Trappists 

Ranee,  Armand  de 

As  modern  society  gradually  be- 
came organized  on  more  stable  foun- 
dations, and  men  whose  temperaments 
and  habits  were  peaceful  could  be  safe 
under  its  protection,  another  type 
came  forward,  whose  fundamental 
idea  was  not  retirement  from  the 
world,  but  an  effort  to  sanctify  it,  by 
mingling  more  or  less  with  it.  Under 
the  head  of  what  may  be  called  mis- 
sionary communities,  the  following 
are  to  be  noted: 

Sisterhoods 

Trinitarians 

Franciscans 

Francis  of  Assisi 

Clares,  Poor 

Clare 

Dominicans 


Dominic 

Minimites 

Francis  of  Paola 

Barnabitcs 

Theatines 

Capuchins 

Jesuits 

Ignatius  of  Loyola 

Oratory,  Congregation  of  the 

Philip  Neri 

Oblates 

Borromeo,  Carlo 

Piarists 

Visitation,  Sisters  of  the 

Francis  de  Sales 

Chantal,  Jeanne  Fran9oise 

Lazarists 

Vincent  de  Paul 

Sulpicians 

Olier,  Jean  Jacques 

Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Charity 

Brothers   of   the   Christian    Schools 

La  Salle,  Jean  Baptiste  de 

Passionists 

Paul  of  the  Cross 

Redemptorists 

Liguori,  Alfonse  Maria  di 

Sacred  Heart,  Ladies  of  the 

Mercy,  Fathers  of 

Paulists 

5.  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.  The  relig- 
ious aspect  of  the  Middle  Ages  will  be 
found  represented  in  nearly  every  arti- 
cle in  the  foregoing  section;  but  cer- 
tain others  may  be  added  which  give 
an  account  of  significant  developments 
taking  place  within  this  period.  Thus 
we  have  the  formal  organization  of  a 
whole  logical  system  of  dogmatic  the- 
ology and  philosophy  (see  SCHOLASTI- 
CISM), and  of  a  parallel  system  of 
ethics  or  moral  theology  (see  CASU- 
ISTRY). The  story  of  the  CEUSADES 
is  of  great  importance)  supplemented 


RELIGION 


83 


under  JERUSALEM  by  the  history  of  the 
kingdom  and  patriarchate  there  estab- 
lished. The  crucial  controversies  be* 
tween  Church  and  State  which  per- 
sisted throughout  the  Middle  Ages 
are  treated  under  INVESTITURE  and 
REGALIA  as  well  as  under  PAPACY, 
(See  also  in  the  chapter  on  history 
the  section  dealing  with  the  Mediaeval 
Ages.)  Under  SCHISM,  WESTERN,  we 
may  follow  the  division  within  the 
Church  caused  by  the  pretensions  of 
rival  popes.  The  efforts  made  to  se- 
cure unity  of  faith  and  discipline 
appear  under: 

Latcran  Councils 

Basel,  Council  of 

Ferrara-Florence,  Council  of 

Pisa,  Council  of 

Lyons,  Councils  of 

Inquisition 

Torquemada 

The  story  of  those  who  in  this  period 
broke  away  from  that  unity  is  told 
under  : 

Cathari 

Fraticellians 

Albigcnses 

Waldenses 

Brothers  and  Sisters  of  the  Free 
Spirit 

Apostolic  Brethren 

Lollard 

Abelard 

Berengarius  of  Tours 

Gottschalk 

Wiclif 

Other   topics   of   special    mediaeval 
interest  are : 
Joan,  Pope 
Feast  of  Fools 
Biblia  Pauperum 
Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals 


Fulda,  Monastery  of 
Saint  Gall 
Monte  Cassino 

The  great  names  in  the  theology, 
philosophy,  and  mysticism  of  the 
Mediaeval  Ages  include: 

Adalbert 

Ailly,  Pierre  d' 

Albert,  Count  of  Bollstadt 

Alexander  of  Hales 

Ansclm 

Aquinas,  Thomas 

Becket,  Thomas  & 

Bode 

Bonaventura 

Catharine  of  Siena  (under  Catha- 
rine) 

Clemanges,  Nicolas  de 

Columba 

Damiani,  Pietro 

Duns  Scotus 

Dunstan 

Eadmer 

Erigcna,  Johannes  Scotus 

Joachim  of  Floris 

Kempis,  Thomas  a 

Lanfranc 

Lully,  Raymond 

Malachy 

Occam,  William  of 

Peter  Lombard 

Peter  the  Hermit 

Rabanus  Maurus 

Savonarola,  Girolamo 

Tauler,  Johann 

Teresa,  St. 

Wadding,  Luke 

William  of  Saint- Amour 

William  of  Wykeham 

6.  THE  REFORMATION  PERIOD.  A 
special  section  may  well  be  devoted  to 
the  period  of  unrest  and  disruption 
commonly  known  as  the  Reformation. 


84 


RELIGION 


All  over  Europe  there  was  a  movement, 
more  or  less  general  and  permanent 
according  to  local  circumstances,  to- 
wards throwing  off  the  authority  of  the 
Pope,  simplifying  faith  and  worship, 
and  returning  to  what  were  assumed  to 
be  primitive  beliefs  and  usages.  See: 

Reformation 

Counter-Reformation 

Utraquists 

Communion  in  Both  Kinds 

Brethren,  Bohemian 

Augsburg  Confession 

Interim 

Concord,  Book  of 

Corpus  Doctrinae 

Magdeburg  Centuries 

Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorum 

Antinomianism 

Bartholomew's,  Massacre  of  Saint 

Dort,  Synod  of 

Reformed  Churches 

Trent,  Council  of 

For  the  Men  of  this  Period,  see : 

Albert  (of  Magdeburg) 
Baronius,  Caesar 
Bellarmine 
Bcza,  Theodore 
Bucer,  Martin 
Bugenhagen,  Johann 
Cajetan,  Thomas 
Campion,  Edmund 
Calvin,  John 
Canisius,  Petrus 
Cano,  Mclchior 
Carlstadt 
Colet,  John 

Eclc,  Johann  Maier  von 
Erasmus,  Desiderius 
Erastus,  Thomas 
Faber,  Jacques 
Fisher,  John 
Hamilton,  Patrick 


Hooper,  John 
Hutten,  Ulrich  von 
Luther,  Martin 
Melanchthon,  Philip 
More,  Thomas 
(Ecolampadius,  Johannes 
Philip  the  Magnanimous 
Reuchlin,  Johann 
Sarpi,  Paolo 
Tetzel,  Johann 
Vcrmigli,  Pietro  Martirc 
Wishart,  George 
Zwingli,  Ulrich 

7.  Before  proceeding  to  a  review  of 
the  Reformed  Churches  of  modern 
times,  the  history  of  Eastern  Chris- 
tianity, separate  from  that  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  since  1054, 
may  be  studied  under  the  following 
titles : 

Greek  Church 

Filioque 

Quinisext 

Photius 

Lucaris 

Nikon 

Raskolniki 

Dukhobortsy 

Molokani 

Skoptsy 

Stundists 

8.  MODERN  REFORMED  CHURCHES. 

(a)  ANGLICAN.  The  article  under 
the  title,  ANGLICAN  COMMUNION,  ex- 
plains the  extent  and  relations  of  the 
various  churches  in  communion  with 
the  Church  of  England,  which  repre- 
sent characteristically  the  more  con- 
servative elements  in  the  religion  of 
the  English-speaking  races.  Though 
as  organizations  they  owe  their  origin 
to  the  great  upheaval  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  their  doctrine  and  usages  are 


RELIGION 


85 


largely  in  harmony  with  those  which 
prevailed  before  the  Reformation,  and 
will  be  found  treated  in  many  in- 
stances under  titles  which  include  the 
ancient  and  modern  Roman  Catholic 
belief  or  practice.  The  following  ar- 
ticles, however,  may  be  consulted  for 
specifically  Anglican  points: 

England,  Church  of 

Ireland,  Church  of 

Episcopal  Church 

Articles,  The  Thirty-nine 

Prayer-Book 

Homily 

Lambeth  Conference 

Church  Congress 

Supremacy,  Royal 

Ecclesiastical  Commissioners 

Vestry 

Warden,  Church 

Parish 

Parish  Clerk 

Lay  Reader 

Advertisements  of  Elizabeth 

Martin  Marprclatc   Controversy 

Savoy  Conference 

Non  jurors 

Nonconformists 

Dissenters 

Act  of  Uniformity 

Oxford  Movement 

Gorham  Controversy 

Ecclesiastical  Titles  Assumption 

Act 

Ritualism 

Queen  Anne's  Bounty 
Christian     Knowledge,     Society 

for  Promoting 

Church  Temperance  Society 
Brotherhood  of  Saint  Andrew 
Daughters  of  the  King 
Bampton  Lectures 
Hulsean  Lectures 


Among  the  prominent  names  in  the 
history  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
Great  Britain  appear: 

Cranmer,  Thomas 
Ridley,  Nicholas 
Latimer,  Hugh 
Hooker,  Richard 
Laud,  William 
Andrewes,  Lancelot 
Hall,  Joseph 
Ken,  Thomas 
Leighton,  Robert 
Taylor,  Jeremy 
Sanderson,  R. 
Whitgift,  J. 
Tillotson,  John 
Wake,  William 
Attcrbury,  Francis 
Warburton,  William 
Simeon,  Charles 
Romaine,  W. 
Pusey,  Edward  Bouverie 
Keble,  John 
Rose,  Hugh  James 
Forbes,  Alexander  P. 
Liddon,  Henry  Parry 
Maurice,  Frederick  Denison 
Arnold,  Thomas 
Robertson,  Frederick  W. 
Milnmn,  Henry  Hart 
Jowett,  Benjamin 
Stanley,  Arthur  Penrhyn 
Wilborforcc,  Samuel 
Trench,  Richard  Chenevix 
Vaughan,  Charles  J. 
Wordsworth,  Charles 
Wordsworth,  Christopher 
Benson,  Edward  White 
Lightfoot,  Joseph  Barber 
Westcott,  Brooke  Foss 
Thorold,  Anthony  Wilson 
Stubbs,  William 
Bright,  William 


86 


RELIGION 


Tait,  Archibald  Campbell 
Temple,  Frederick 

Of  the  Church  in  America  the  lead- 
ing representatives  have  been : 

Seabury,  Samuel 
White,  William 
Hobart,  John  Henry 
Provoost,  Samuel 
Hopkins,  John  Henry 
Muhlenberg,  William  Augustus 
Tyng,  Stephen  H. 
Whittingham,    William    Rollin- 

son 

Williams,  John 
Whipple,  Henry  B. 
Potter,  Horatio 
Potter,  Alonzo 
Potter,  Henry  Codman 
Brooks,  Phillips 
Newton,  Richard  Heber 
Dix,  Morgan 
(6)  PRESBYTERIAN  : 

Presbyterianism 
Elder 
Moderator 
Synod 

•    Westminster  Assembly 
Perth,  Five  Articles  of 
Cameronians 
Covenants,  The 
Infralapsarian 
Alexander,  Archibald 
Alexander,  J.  A. 
Babcock,  M.  D. 
Baird,  C.  W. 
Briggs,  C.  A. 
Burrell,  D.  J. 
Calamy,  Edmund 
Cameron,  J. 
Chalmers,  Thomas 
Cuyler,  T.  L. 
Geddes,  J. 
Green,  W.  H. 


Hall,  John 
Hodge,  C. 
Knox,  John 
Melville,  Andrew 
Parkhurst,  C.  H. 
Patton,  F.  L. 
Paxton,  J.  R. 
Prentiss,  G.  L. 
Prime,  S.  I. 
Robinson,  C.  S. 
Shields,  C.  W. 
Talmage,  T.  DeWitt 
Tennent,  Gilbert 
Watson,  John 
Witherspoon,  J. 

(c)  METHODIST: 

Methodism 

Itinerancy 

Experience  Meeting 

Camp-Meeting 

Epworth  League 

Wesley,  John 

Wesley,  Charles 

Whitefield,  George 

Coke,  Thomas 

Huntingdon,   Selima  Hastings 

Asbury,  Francis 

Clarke,  Adam 

Emory,  John 

Fowler,  C.  H. 

Haven,  E.  O. 

Haven,  Gilbert 

Hurlbut,  J.  L. 

Hurst,  John  F. 

Moore,  D.  H. 

Moore,  Henry 

Newman,  J.  P. 

Ouseley,  G. 

Punshon,  W.  M. 

Sankey,  Ira  D. 

Strong,  James 

Taylor,  W. 

Tefft,  B.  F. 


RELIGION 


87 


Townley,  James 
Townsend,  L.  T. 
Vincent,  J.  H. 
Walden,  J.  M. 
Warren,  H.  W. 
Watson,  R. 
Wise,  Daniel 

(d)  CONGREGATIONALIST : 

Congregationalism 
Puritans 
Separatists 
Browne,  Robert 
Robinson,  John 
Cotton,  John 
Mather,  Richard 
Hooker,  Thomas 
Edwards,  Jonathan 
Hopkins,  Samuel 
Bellamy,  Joseph 
Dwight,  Timothy 
Abbott,  Lyman 
Bartlett,  S.  C. 
Beecher,  Henry  Ward 
Beecher,  Lyman 
Bissel,  E.  C. 
Bushnell,  H. 
Dexter,  H.  M. 
Finney,  C.  G. 
Gladden,  W. 
Park,  E.  A. 
Parker,  Joseph 
Phelps,  Austin 
Storrs,  R.  S. 
Taylor,  N.  W. 

(e)  BAPTIST: 

Baptists 
Baptism 

Baptism,  Infant 
Anabaptists 
Miinzer,  T. 
John  of  Leyden 
Mennonites 
River  Brethren 


Burrage,  H.  S. 
Conant,  T.  J. 
Hall,  R. 
Lorimer,  G.  C. 
Peters,  M.  C. 
Ripley,  H.  J. 
Robinson,  E.  G. 
Spurgeon,  C.  H. 
Vedder,  H.  C. 
Wayland,  F. 

(f)  LUTHERAN  : 
Lutheranism 

Reformation,  The  Protestant 
Luther 
Melanchthon 
Augsburg  Confession 
Greenwald,  Emanuel 
Muhlenberg,  H.  M. 
Muhlenberg,  J.  P.  G. 
Seiss,  J.  A. 
Stuckenberg,  J.  H.  W. 

(g*)   DUTCH  REFORMED: 

Reformed  Church  in  America 

Belgic  Confession 

Heidelberg     Catechism     (under 

Catechism) 
Dort,  Synod  of 
Classis 
Ferris,  I. 
Riddle,  M.  B. 

(h)  QUAKER  OR  FRIENDS: 
Friends 
Fox,  George 
Penn,  William 
Hicks,  Elias 
Gurney,  J.  J. 
Wilbur,  John 

(t)  UNITARIAN: 

Unitarianism 
Arius 
Socinus 
Servetus,  Michael 


38 


RELIGION 


Biddle,  John 
Priestley,  Joseph 
Allen,  J.  H. 
Chadwick,  J.  W. 
Channing,  W.  E. 
Collyer,  Robert 
Freeman,  James 
Frothingham,  O.  B. 
Hill,  Thomas 
Parker,  Theodore 
Savage,  M.  J. 
Ware,  Henry 

(j)  UNIVEESAIJST : 
Universalism 
Kelly,  James 
Murray,  John 
Ballou,  Hosea 
Hanaford,  Phebe  A. 

(A;)    MORMON  : 
Mormons 
Smith,  Joseph 
Pratt,  Orson 
Rigdon,  S 
Taylor,  John 
Woodruff,  W. 
Young,  Brigham 

(I)   OTHER  DENOMINATIONS: 
Adventists 
Miller,  William 
Christian  Catholic  Church 
Christians 
Christian  Science 
Disciples  of  Christ 
Eddy,  Mary  Baker  Glover 
Evangelical  Alliance 
German  Baptist  Brethren 
German   Evangelical   Protestant 

Church 
German    Evangelical    Synod   of 

North  America 
Institutional  Church 
Moravians 
Brethren,  Bohemian 


Huss,  John 
Comenius,  J.  A. 
Zinzendorf,  Nikolaus 
Reformed  Church  in  the  Unit- 
ed States. 

United  Brethren  in  Christ 
Otterbeiu,  P.  W. 
Evangelical  Association 

III.    MOIJAMMEDAXISM. 

The  history  of  Islam  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  the  nations 
which  adopted  it  as  their  creed. 
Though  the  spread  of  Mohammedan- 
ism has  at  all  times  been  to  some  ex- 
tent due  to  missionary  zeal,  its  exten- 
sion lias  largely  been  coincident  with 
conquests.  The  political  aspect  of 
Moslem  history  may  be  best  studied 
under  the  names  of  Mohammedan  na- 
tions, dynasties,  and  rulers,  such  as 
ABBASIDES,  OMMIADS,  SELJUKS,  TUR- 
KEY, ARABIA,  etc.  Here  are  only 
given  the  leading  titles  dealing  with 
the  religious  development  and  present 
character  of  the  faith. 

For  the  Rise  of  Islam,  see: 
Mohammed 
Mohammedanism 
Mohammedan  Sects 
Islam 
Mecca 
Medina 
Hejira 
Ayeshah 

For  the  successors  of  Mohammed 
and  early  conquerors  who  spread  the 
gospel  of  Islam  in  Asia,  Africa,  and 
Europe,  see: 

Caliph 

Abu-Bekr 

Omar 


RELIGION 


89 


Othman 

AH 

Ominiads 

Khalid 

M  usa  ibn  Nusair 

Amr  ibn  al-Asi 

Tarik 

Idrisites 

Aghlabids 

Fatimites 

Almoravides 

Almohadcs 

For  the  tenets  and  practices  of  the 
faith,  in  addition  to  the  titles  already 
quoted,  see: 

Koran 

Sunna 

Hadith 

Kaaba 

Hajj 


Fast 

Ramadan 

Beirum 

Muharram 

Kiblali 

Hour! 

Jinn 

Iblis 


Imam 

Mufti 

Muezzin 

Ulema 

Madrasah 

Marabouts 

Mosque 

For  Sects  and  Parties,  see: 
Sunnites 
Shiites 

Hasan  and  Ilusain 
Mahdi 
Nosairians 
Assassins 
Druses 

Hakim  ibn  Allah 
Mutazilitcs 
Sincere  Brethren 
Wahabis 
Dervish 
Babism 
Sufiism 
Scnussi 

For  Mohammedan  Theologians: 

Abu  Hanifah 
Ibn  Hanbal 
Ibn  Tumart 
Ghazali 


7.    lEhurattmi 


THE  study  of  the  science  of  education  is  peculiarly  related  to  the 
study  of  the  growth  and  development  of  the  intellectual,  moral, 
and  spiritual  life   of  the  human   race.       Every   department   of 
knowledge  is  necessarily  in  some  way  connected  with  the  science 
of  education.       Most  of  the  great  thinkers  of  all  ages  have  con- 
tributed to  the  literature  of  the  science,  and  consequently  many  names  must  be 
included  in  our  list  of  educators  which  appear,  as  well,  in  some  other  field.     As 
part  of  some  one  philosophical  system  or  another,  education  goes  back  to  early 
times,  but  its  history  as  an  independent  science,  separated  from  philosophy  or 
theology,  is  quite  recent.     Its  problems,  too,  have  grown  immeasurably  more  com- 
plex with  the  progress  of  democratic  ideals  and  the  widening  of  its  sphere  of 
interest.     More  even  than  national  defense,  the  fostering  of  public  education  has 
come  to  be  the  great  function  of  the  modern  State;  and,  though  differences  of 
opinion  prevail  as  to  how  far  this  obligation  extends  in  practice,  in  all  progressive 
countries  there  is  no  class  of  men  whom  the  government,  in  one  way  or  another, 
does  not  attempt  to  supply  with  the  means  of  education. 

There  are  three  sides  from  which  students  may  approach  the  study  of  the 
science  :  the  historical,  the  psychological,  and  the  pedagogical. 

The  History  of  education  is  outlined  in  the  Article  EDUCATION,  which  traces 
its  development  from  the  dawn  of  civilization  to  the  present  day.  A  more 
detailed  study  of  the  subject  may  be  systematically  pursued  in  the  following 
lists  of  articles.  The  subject  is  usually  divided  into  four  periods  :  Pre-Christian 
(including  the  Oriental  and  the  Classical  types),  Early  Christian,  Mediaeval, 
and  Modern. 

I*  THE  PRE-CHRISTIAN  PERIOD.  they  strove  to  attain  their  ideals,  are 

(a)   The  several  types  of  Oriental  discussed  under  the  following  heads: 
education  are  discussed  in  the  following          Sophists 
articles:  Socrates 

Plato 

Confucius  Aristotle 

Buddhism  Xenophon 

Caste  Cyropaedia 

Jews  Sparta 

Talmud  Games 

Rabbi  Plutarch 

Mohammedanism  Quintilian 

Ulema  _    ^        ^  ^  ^ 

II.  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  PERIOD. 


Madrasah  The  part  played  by  the  early  Chris- 

tian Fathers  in  the  furtherance  of  edu- 

(6)  The  aims  of  Greek  and  Roman     cation  and  the  establishment  of  schools 
educators,  and  the  methods  by  which     will  be  found  under  : 

90 


EDUCATION 


91 


Catechumens 

Catechetical  Schools 

Chrysostom 

Basil  the  Great 

Clement  of  Alexandria 

Origen 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia 

For  the  struggle  between  the  pagan 
and  early  Christian  educators,  see: 

Tertullian 

Augustine 

These  bring  the  student  up  to  the 
Mediaeval  period. 

III.  THE  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD. 

In  the  series  of  articles  dealing  with 
this  period,  the  student  will  find  an 
account  of  the  efforts  made  by 
the  Church  to  promulgate  education 
throughout  Christendom,  and  will  be 
led  up  to  the  modern  movement,  which 
properly  co-extends  with  the  movement 
that  led  up  to  and  through  the  Refor- 
mation. See : 

Monasticism 

Benedictines 

Arts,  Liberal 

Quadrivium 

Trivium 

Scholasticism 

Charles  the  Great 

Alcuin 

Alfred  the  Great 

Abelard 

Chivalry 

University 

IV.  THE  MODERN  PERIOD. 
Educational  progress  was  hastened 

and  turned  into  varying  channels  by 
the  revival  of  the  old  learning.  The 
Reformation  initiated  the  separation  of 
education  from  theology,  and,  by 
breaking  up  the  unit  of  European  cul- 
ture, gave  rise  to  national  systems  of 


education  and  the  use  of  the  national 
vernaculars  as  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion. For  the  early  educational  re- 
formers, see: 

Renaissance 

Humanism 

Dante 

Petrarch 

Boccaccio 

Poggio  Bracciolini 

Pico  della  Mirandola 

Poliziano 

Reuchlin 

Erasmus 

Budseus 

Scaliger,  J.  J. 

Scaliger,  J.  C. 

Casaubon,  I. 

Hardouin,  J. 

Reformation,  The  Protestant 

Luther 

Melanchthon 

Sturm,  Johannes 

Ascham,  Roger 

Rabelais 

Montaigne 

Bacon,  Francis 

Induction 

Ratichius 

Cornenius 

Orbis  Pictus 

The  efforts  of  the  Catholic  Church 
to  counteract  the  effects  of  the  Refor- 
mation may  be  studied  in  the  following 
articles : 

Ignatius  of  Loyola 

Jesuits 

Ratio  Studiorum 

Jansenism 

Port-Royal-des-Champs 

For  the  activity  of  the  Church  in 
supplying  education  to  the  very  young, 
see: 


EDUCATION 


La  Salic,  Jean  fiaptistc  dc 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 
For  writers  who  contributed  to  the 

advancement  of  the  science  of  educa- 

tion, see: 

Milton,  John 
Locke,  John 
Fenelon, 


The  realistic  movement  in  education 
begins  with  FRANCKE,  and  the  Real- 
schule  had  its  inception  in  his  efforts. 
The  movement  culminates  in  the 
thorough  sweeping  away  of  old  meth- 
ods and  ideas  in  education,  fore- 
shadowed in  Rousseau's  protest  in  his 
Emile.  Sec  : 

Franckc,  A.  H. 

Rousseau 

Emile 

Basedow 

Pestalozzi 

Girard,  J.  B. 

Jacotot 

Frobel 

Kindergarten 

Herbart 

Mann,  Horace 

Spencer,  Herbert 

Arnold,  Thomas 

Bell,  Andrew 

Lancaster,  Joseph 

The  systems  of  education  prevalent 
in  Europe  and  America  are  treated 
with  great  minuteness  in  the  article  on 
NATIONAL  EDUCATION,  SYSTEMS  OF. 
The  subject  is  further  amplified  in  the 
sections  on  Education  of  the  articles 
on  the  various  countries  of  the  world, 
wherein  the  statistical  side  is  empha- 
sized. The  various  phases  of  State 
activity  receive  full  attention  in  the 
following  articles  : 

Schools 


Public  Schools 
Evening  Schools 
Secondary  Schools 
High  Schools 
Grammar  Schools 
Gymnasia 
Realschule 

Women,  Education  of 
Negro  Education 
Industrial  Schools 
Vacation  School 
Education,  Colonial 

V.  PEDAGOGY. 

Pedagogy  is  that  branch  of  the  sci- 
ence of  education  which  deals  with  the 
methods  and  means  of  carrying  out  ed- 
ucational ideas.  The  old  and  the  new 
educational  methods  receive  compre- 
hensive treatment  in  the  article  PEDA- 
GOGY, which  is  amply  supplemented  by 
the  following  articles: 

Nature-Study 

Child  Psychology 

Object  Teaching 
Curriculum 
Kindergarten 
Physical  Education 
Manual  Training 
Normal  School 
Education,  Commercial 
Technical  Education 
Professional  Education 
Theological  Education 
Medical  Education 
Legal  Education 
Agricultural  Education 
Seminar 
Privat-Docent 
Reading 
Spelling 

VI.  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS. 

The  growth  of  colleges  and  univer- 
sities in  Europe  and  America  is  treated 
from  the  general  standpoint  in  the 


EDUCATION 


article  on  UNIVERSITY.  This  is  sup- 
plemented by  separate  accounts  of  all 
of  the  important  colleges  and  universi- 
ties in  the  world.  The  list  of  Ameri- 
can colleges  and  universities  is  espe- 
cially complete;  to  such  an  extent, 
indeed,  that  mention  may  be  made  of 
only  a  few  of  the  most  prominent. 
See: 

University 

College 

Colleges,  American 

Carnegie  Foundation 

Genera)  Education  Hoard 
Curriculum 

Elective  Courses 

Degree 

Diploma 

Examination 

Fellowship 

University  Extension 

Harvard  University 

Yale  University 

Princeton  University 

Columbia  University 

Pennsylvania,  University  of 

Brown  University 

Cornell  University 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Clark  University 

Chicago  University 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 

Catholic  University   of  America 

Amherbt  College 

Bowdoin  College 

Dartmouth  College 

William  and  Mary  College 

Williams  College 

Girard  College 

Carnegie  Institution 
.   The  State  universities  have  all  been 
written  up  in  detail. 

For  a  group  of  women's  colleges  in 
the  United  States,  see : 


Bernard  College 
Bryn  Mawr  College 
Goucher  College 
Mount  Holyoke  College 
Radcliffe  College 
Smith  College 
Vassar  College 
Wellesley  College 

In  this  connection  see  also : 
Collegiate  Education  of  Women 
Coeducation 

For  English  universities  and  schools, 
sec : 

Oxford  University 
Rhodes  Scholarships 
Cambridge,  University  of 
London  University 
Liverpool,  University  of 
Manchester,  University  of 
National  University  of  Ireland 
Dublin  University 
Girt  on  College 
Newnham  College 
Eton  College 
Rugby  School 
Harrow  School 
Shrewsbury  School 
Winchester  College 

For  the  greatest  of  European  uni- 
versities, either  in  present  importance 
or  historically,  see : 

Paris,  University  of 

Berlin,  University  of 

Vienna,  University  of 

Madrid,  University  of 

Munich,  University  of 

Moscow,  University  of 

Leipzig,  University  of 

Edinburgh,  University  of 

Heidelberg,  University  of 

Bologna,  University  of 

Padua,  University  of 


94 


EDUCATION 


Salerno,  School  of 
Coimbra,  University  of 
Salamanca,  University  of 
Montpellier,  University  of 
Prague,  University  of 

A    partial    list    of    prominent    edu- 
cators of  the  modern  times  includes : 

Adams,  C.  K. 
Ames,  J.  B. 
Andrews,  E.   B. 
Angell,  J.   B. 
Arnold,  T. 
Barnard,  F.  A.  P. 
Barnard,  Henry 
Bascom,  J. 
Brown,  E.  E. 
Butler,  N.  M. 
Clayton,  P.  P. 
De  Garmo,  C. 
Dewey,  John 
Drisler,  Henry 
Eliot,  C.  W." 
Gildersleeve,  B.  L. 
Gilman,  D.  C. 
Hadley,  A.  T. 
Hadley,  James 
Hall,  G.   S. 
Hanus,  P.  H. 
Harkness,  A. 
Harper,  W.  R. 
Harris,  W.  T. 
Hill,  D.  J. 
James,  E.  J. 
James,  W. 


Jebb,  Sir  R.  C. 
Jordan,  D.  S. 
Jowett,  B. 
Low,   Seth 
Lyon,  Mary 
McCosh,  J. 
McMurry,  F.  M. 
Monroe,  Paul 
Pattison,  Mark 
Fatten,  F.  L. 
Quick,  R.  H. 
Sadler,  M.  E. 
Schurman,   J.    G. 
Sidgwick,    Mrs. 
Washington,  Booker  T. 
Wendell,  Barrett 
West,  Win.  A. 
Wheeler,  B.  I. 
White,  A.  D. 
Whitney,  W.  D. 
Wirt,  Win.  A. 
Young,  Ella  Flagg 

For  classes  of  institutions  that 
have  become  centres  for  the  spread  of 
popular  education,  see : 

{a)   Libraries: 

New  York  Public  Library 

Book 

Alexandrian  Library 

Bodleian  Library 

British  Museum 

Bibliotheque  Nationale 

Library  of  Congress 

Museum 


8.  Jllnktaophg 


THOUGH  great  diversity  exists  as  to  the  meaning  and  scope  of  the 
term  Philosophy,  two  definitions  may  be  given  as  representative. 
The  more  modern  view  regards  philosophy  as  the  sum  of  all  scien- 
tific knowledge,  or  the  systematization  of  results  obtained  in  the 
individual  sciences;  the  historical  and  more  prevalent  view  looks 
upon  philosophy  as  the  search  for  the  ultimate  nature  and  meaning  of  the  uni- 
verse, and  especially  of  human  life.     Embracing  at  one  time  the  totality  of 
scientific  knowledge,  the  field  of  philosophy  has  steadily  grown  narrower  with  the 
erection  of  independent  sciences,  until  at  the  present  day  it  includes  the  studies 
of  metaphysics,  logic,  ethics,  and  aesthetics.     Psychology  is  the  latest  branch  of 
investigation  to  achieve  its  emancipation  from  philosophy,  whose  methods,  his- 
torically, have  been  quite  different  from  those  that  prevail  in  the  scientific  world 
to-day. 


1.  1.  The    problems    of    philosophy 
are  best  studied,  perhaps,  historically. 
A   brief  summary,  however,   in  neces- 
sarily technical  language,  will  serve  to 
present  the  main  outlines  of  the  sub- 
ject in  the  form  in  which  they  have 
appeared  to  thinkers  of  different  ages. 
Generally,  then,  the  problems  of  phi- 
losophy are  divided  into  three  classes: 
those  which  deal  with  the  ultimate  na- 
ture of  the  universe,  grouped  under  the 
heading    METAPHYSICS  ;    those    which 
deal  with  the  forms  of  human  knowl- 
edge and  its  relation  to  reality,  known 
as     epistemology,   or     the    theory     of 
knowledge ;  and  those  dealing  with  hu- 
man conduct,  included  in  the  science  of 
ethics.     See : 

Philosophy 
Metaphysics 
Knowledge,  Theory  of 
Ethics 

2.  The  inquiry  into  the  nature  of 
reality  takes  on  two  forms:  that  con- 
cerned  with     the    ultimate    nature   of 
things,  and  that  dealing  with  the  con- 
nection between  things,  or  the  archi- 
tectural plan  of  the  universe. 


(a)  For  the  First,  see: 
Ontology 
Dualism 
Monism 
Materialism 
Mechanism 
Realism 
Idealism 

(&)  For  the  Second,  see: 

Atomism 

Theism 

Transcendentalism 

Pantheism 

Body  and  Mind 

Parallelism 

Substance 

Form 

Causality 

Time 

Space 

Teleology 

Infinite 

Absolute 

3.  In  connection  with  our  knowledge 
of  the  universe,  two  questions  arise: 
(a)  Taking  the  conglomeration  of 
ideas  we  call  knowledge,  is  there  an 
outside  Reality  corresponding  to  them, 


96 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


or  are  they  Reality  itself;  and  (b)  are 
these  ideas  in  origin  the  result  of  ex- 
perience, or  are  they  independent  of 
experience?  See: 

(a)  Realism 
Idealism 
Skepticism 

(b)  Empiricism 
Rationalism 
A  priori 
Dialectic 
Category 
Induction 
Deduction 

II.  1.  The  history  of  European 
philosophy  begins  with  the  Greeks,  in 
whom,  however,  strong  Oriental  influ- 
ences are  traceable.  Their  earliest  phi- 
losophy was  a  nature  philosophy,  and 
its  two  great  problems  were  those  of 
Being  and  Becoming.  See: 

Greek  Philosophy 

Thales 

Anaximander 

Anaximenes 

Eleatic  School 

Xenophanes 

Parmenides 

Zeno  (the  Eleatic) 

Gorgias 

Heraclitus 

Pythagoras 

Pythagoreanism 

Neo-Pythagoreanisn* 

Archytas 

Metempsychosis 

Empedocles 

Anaxagoras 

Atomism 

Leucippus 

Democritus 

2.  In  the  second  period,  the  main  in- 
terest of  philosophy  becomes  anthro- 


pological or  ethical,  the  tendency 
being  most  fully  apparent  in  the  fig- 
ure of  the  great  teacher  Socrates, 
from  whom  descend  the  great  schools 
of  the  Hellenistic  world,  Platonists, 
Stoics,  Hedonists,  Cynics.  Plato  and 
Aristotle  by  their  genius  moulded 
almost  the  channels  in  which  philo- 
sophic thought  was  to  flow  in  the  fu- 
ture. Greek  philosophy,  toward  its 
end,  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on 
Christianity.  See : 

Sophists 
Protagoras 
Socrates 
Hedonism 
Cyrenaic  School 
Aristippus 
Hegesias 
Epicurus 
Epicureanism 
Lucretius 
Stoics 

Zeno  (the  Stoic) 
Cleanthes 
-Chrysippus 
Seneca 
Epictetus 
Aurelius,  Marcus 
Cynics 
Antisthencs 
Diogenes 

Euclid  (of  Mcgara) 
Plato 
Academy 
Arcesilaus 
New  Academy 
Carneades 
Aristotle 

Peripatetic  Philosophy 
Pyrrho 
JSnesidemus 
Sextus  Empiricus 
Skepticism 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


9T 


Neo-Platonism 

Philo  Judaeus 

Aramonius 

Plotinus 

Porphyrius 

lamblichus 

Proclus 

Boethius 

Anima  Mundi 

Logos 

Eclecticism 

Cicero 

8.  From  the  Platonic  philosophy,  as 
contained  in  the  writings  of  the  Chris- 
tian Fathers,  mediaeval  philosophy 
developed  into  the  system  known  as 
Scholasticism,  which  in  its  fullest  de- 
velopment, however,  became  Aristotel- 
ian, through  the  influence  of  the  Ara- 
bian philosophers.  Philosophy  became 
the  handmaiden  of  theology,  and  it 
supported  the  mysteries  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  by  means  of  a  subtle  dia- 
lectic. The  downfall  of  scholasticism 
began  with  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  was  hastened  by  the  Revival  of 
Learning.  See : 

Scholasticism 

Augustine  (of  Hippo) 

Erigcna 

Rabanus  Maurus 

Peter  Lombard 

Realism 

Anselm  of  Canterbury 

Guillaumc  dc  Champeaux 

Nominalism 

Roscelinus 

Durandus 

Occam,  William  of 

Buridan,  Jean 

Ailly,  Pierre  d' 

Concept 

Aboard 

Averroes 


Avicenna 

Albert  of  Bollstadt 

Alexander  of  Hales 

Vincent  of  Beauvais 

Aquinas,  Thomas 

Duns  Scotus 

Suarez,  Francisco 

Mysticism 

Hugo  of  St.  Victor 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux 

Bonaventura,  St. 

Eckhardt 

Tauler 

Kempis 

Bohme 

Quietism 

Molinos 

Bacon,  Roger 

Lully,  Raymond 

Cusa,  Nikolas 

Renaissance 

The  Revival  of  Learning  brought 
about  a  temporary  revival  of  the  classic 
philosophies,  but  these  served  only  to 
bridge  over  the  chasm  between  the  an- 
cient thought  and  the  modern  philoso- 
phy, whose  beginning  dates  from  the 
establishment  of  Empiricism  by  Bacon 
and  Rationalism  by  Descartes.  The 
subjects  of  Substance  and  Causality 
now  assume  leading  importance.  Car- 
tesian rationalism  ends  in  dogmatism 
on  the  Continent;  empiricism  ends  in 
skepticism  in  England.  See: 

Bruno,  Giordano 

Campanella,  T. 

Gassendi 

Rationalism 

Descartes 

Malebranche 

Occasionalism 

Spinoza 

Pantheism 

Leibnitz 


98 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


Preestablished  Harmony 

Monad 

Wolff,  Christian 

Baumgarten,  A.  G. 

Eberhard,  J.  A. 

Mendelssohn,  Moses 

Vico,  G.  B. 

Empiricism 

Hobbes,  Thomas 

Locke,  John 

Sensationalism 

Clarke,  Samuel 

Butler,  Joseph 

Paley,  William 

Berkeley,  George 

Cambridge  Platonists 

Cudworth,  Ralph 

More,  Henry 

Hume,  David 

Charron,  Pierre 

Toland,  John 

Hartley,  David 

Priestley,  Joseph 

Condillac 

La  Mettrie 

Diderot 

D'Alembert 

Helvetius 

Holbach 

Cabanis,  J.  P.  G. 

Genovesi,  A. 

Enlightenment,  Philosophy  of  the 

Common  Sense,  Philosophy  of 

Reid,  Thomas 

Beattie,  James 

Stewart,  Dugald 

Hamilton,  William 

The  critical  philosophy  of  Kant 
sought  to  mediate  between  Rational- 
ism and  Empiricism  by  assigning  to 
either  its  proper  function  in  the  men- 
tal life;  and,  though  Kantianism  was 
followed  by  the  rise  of  great  rational- 
istic systems  in  Germany,  in  which  the 


balance  was  overthrown  anew,  the 
teachings  of  the  Konigsberg  philoso- 
pher have  shown  the  greater  vitality 
as  being  in  consonance  with  the  spirit 
of  the  growing  sciences.  Reaction 
against  unrestrained  idealism  led  to 
Positivism,  in  which  philosophy  be- 
comes a  correlation  of  sciences.  Ma- 
terialism, after  a  brief  popularity, 
seems  to  have  passed  away  forever. 
See: 

Kant 

Herder 

Jacobi,  F.  H. 

Hamann,  J.  G. 

Krause,  K.  C.  F. 

Reinhold,  C.  E. 

Rosenkranz,  K. 

Erdmann,  J.  E. 

Trendelenburg 

Zeller,  E. 

Ulrici,  H. 

Fischer,  Kuno 

For  the  important  systems  that 
arose  after  Kant,  see: 

Fichte,  J.  G. 

Fichte,  I.  H. 

Schelling 

Hegel 

Feuerbach,  L.  A. 

Green,  T.  H. 

And  for  a  philosophy  of  will  that 
has  exercised  a  profound  influence  on 
modern  thought: 

Schopenhauer 

Pessimism 

Hartmann,  Karl  Robert 

Materialism  was  fostered  by  the  doc- 
trine of  evolution  and  the  Darwinian 
discoveries.  See : 

Moleschott,  J. 

Biichner,  F.  L. 

Vogt,  Karl 

Haeckel,  E. 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


For    the    neo-Kantianism    of    the 
latest  scientific  thought,  see: 
Lange,  F.  A. 
Cohen,  Herman 
Du  Bois-Reymond,  E.  H. 
Helinholtz 
Virchow 
Wundt 
Rcnan 
Taine 

For  systematic  attempts  at  reconcil- 
ing philosophy  and  religion,  see: 

Schleiermacher 

Ritter,  Heinrich 

Rosmini-Serbati 

James,  Wm. 

For  philosophies  that  have  been 
made  the  basis  of  important  pedagogi- 
cal psychologies,  see: 

Herbart 

Fliigel,  O. 

Beneke 

Lotze 

Fechner 

Paulsen,  Friedrich 

Spiritualism  had  influential  expo- 
nents in  France  in  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  See: 

Royer-Collard 

Cousin,  Victor 

Maine  de  Brian 

Jouffroy,  T.  S. 

Psychical  Research 

Myers,  F.  W.  H. 

Spiritualism  found  its  reaction  in 
the  epoch-making  work  of  Comte. 
See: 

Positivism 

Agnosticism 

Comte 


MiU,  J.  S. 


Spencer,  Herbert 
Lewes,  G.  H. 
Harrison,  Frederic 

Riehl,  A. 

For  philosophic  thought  in  America, 

866  • 

Edwards,  Jonathan 
Trascendentalism 
Emerson,  R.  W. 
Ripley,  G. 
Alcott,  A.  B. 
Channing,  W.  E, 
Thoreau,  H. 
McCosh,  J. 
Harris,  W.  T. 
Royce,  J. 
James,  Wm. 
Ladd,  G.  T. 
Dewey,  J. 

Every  well-rounded  philosophical 
system  has  its  logic,  ethics,  and 
aesthetics,  and  strictly  speaking  these 
cannot  be  divorced  from  the  discussions 
of  purely  metaphysical  problems. 
Nevertheless,  as  important  sub- 
divisions of  philosophy,  they  have 
received  an  amount  of  attention  that 
give  them  independent  consideration. 

A.  The  problems  of  human  con- 
duct are  discussed  minutely  in  the  gen- 
eral article  on  ETHICS,  and  further  dif- 
ferentiated in  subsidiary  articles.  See: 

Ethics 

Will 

Free  Will 

Casuistry 

Chance 

Fatalism 

Determinism 

Indifferentism 

Egoism 

Altruism 

Energism 


100 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


Eudaemonism 

Intuitionism 

Categorical  Imperative 

Utilitarianism 

Hutcheson 

Bentham,  J. 

Austin,  J. 

Mill,  J.  S. 

Nietzsche,  P. 

Stephen,  Leslie 

Sidgwick,  H. 

Martineau,  J. 

Green,  T.  H. 

Caird,  E. 

Alexander,  Samuel 

Fouillee 

Simmel,  G. 

B.  The  formal  rules  of  thought  as 
outlined  by  Aristotle  have  received 
modifications  at  the  hands  of  both 
rationalists  and  empiricists,  the  in- 
fluence of  the  latter  being,  however, 
the  more  pronounced  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  science.  See: 

Logic 

Knowledge,  Theory  of 

Induction 

Deduction 

Argument 

Syllogism 

Analysis 

Synthesis 

Abstraction 

Hypothesis 

Judgment 

Definition 

Division 

Percept 

Concept 

Connotation 

Denotation 

Obversion 

Opposition 

Comparison 


Analogy 
Identity,  Law  of 
Fallacy 
Dilemma 
Mill  J.  S. 
Jevons 
Whately,  R. 

C.  The  separate  science  of  aesthet- 
ics dates  only  from  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury.    Its  latest  development  has  been 
along  experimental  and  anthropologi- 
cal lines.      See: 

^Esthetics 

^Esthetics,  Experimental 

Baumgarten,  A.  G. 

Lessing,  G.  E. 

Shaftesbury,  third  Earl  of 

Hogarth 

Bain 

Bosanquet 

Santayana,  George 

D.  The  psychology  of  the  present 
differs    from   earlier   investigations   of 
the  human  mind  in  its  application  of  a 
more  rigorous  scientific  method.    It  as- 
sumes no  metaphysical  substratum  for 
mental  life,  but  is  content  to  take  ex- 
perience as   its   ultimate   fact   and   to 
study    its    forms    and    manifestations. 
Though  the  science  is  to  be  dated  only 
from  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,    it   has    already    been    found 
necessary  to  divide  the  field  of  investi- 
gation  for  the   purpose  of  the  more 
effective  study  of  the  mind  of  the  adult, 
the  child,  and  the  abnormal  individual, 
and  the  collective  mind  of  the  crowd. 
The    method    of   psychology    is    ulti- 
mately  introspective,  but   it   is   intro- 
spection   carefully    pursued    and    cor- 
rected by  the  standard  of  the  scientific 
average.     For  classification  and  meth- 
ods, see: 

Psychology 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


101 


Individual  Psychology 

Genetic  Psychology 

Child  Psychology 

Social  Psychology 

Folk-Psychology 

Insanity 

Psychology,  Experimental 

Psychological  Apparatus 

Psychophysics 

Introspection 

Phrenology 

With  mental  experience  as  basis  for 
analysis,  psychology  finds  that  the 
analytical  element  of  mental  life  is  sen- 
sation, and  sensations  depend  on  bod- 
ily processes  set  in  motion  by  external 
stimuli.  Sensations  are  classified  ac- 
cording to  the  organs  whose  stimula- 
tion they  accompany.  For  mind  in 
general,  and  its  relation  to  body,  see: 

(a)      Mind 

Elements,  Conscious 

Mental  Process 

Self 

Self-Consciousness 

Unity  of  Consciousness 

Double  Consciousness 

Sleep 

Dreaming 

Hypnotism 

Autosuggestion 

Somnambulism 

Consciousness 

Noetic  Consciousness 

Meaning 

Body  and  Mind 

Subconsciousness 

Subliminal  Consciousness 

Cerebration,  Unconscious 
(6)  For  Sensation,  see: 

Sensation 

Sensorium 


Intensity  of  Sensation 

Extension 

Duration 

Quality 

Discrimination,  Sensible 

Contrast 

Reaction 

Weber's  Law 

Limen 

Relativity,  Law  of 

(c)  For  a  Classification  of  Sensations, 
see: 

Vision 

Visual  Sensation 

Blind  Spot 

After-images 

Illusion 

Mirage 

Hallucination 

Clairvoyance 

Apparition 

Color 

Saturation 

Color-Blindness 

Audition 

Clang-Tint 

Colored  Hearing 

Fusion 

Smell 

Taste 

Touch 

Cutaneous  Sensations 

Static  Sense 

Muscle   Sense 

Muscle-Reading 

Pain 

Fatigue 

Common  Sensation 

Organic  Sensations 

From  simple  sensations  the  higher 
intellectual  processes  (perception,  idea, 
association  of  ideas,  etc.)  are  synthet- 
ized.  A  corresponding  process  has 


102 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


been  brought  forward  as  the  analytical 
element  of  our  emotional  life,  and  has 
been  denominated  Affection.  From  a 
combination  of  sensational  and  affec- 
tive elements  arise  the  various  pro- 
cesses classified  under  the  general 
designation,  Will.  It  is  thus  that  the 
new  psychology  improves  upon  the 
threefold  division  of  Intellect,  Reason, 
and  Will  in  the  older  psychology. 
See: 

Affection 

Conation 

Attention 

Effort 

Interest 

Tendency 

Disposition 

Faculty 

Mental  Constitution 

(a)  For  the  Complex  Sensational  Pro- 
cesses : 

Perception 

Idea 

Movement,  Perception  of 

Locality,  Perception  of 

Distance,  Perception  of 

Figure 

Rhythm 

Melody 

Association  of  Ideas 

Retention 

Reproduction  of  Ideas 

Memory 

Apperception 

Recognition 

Familiarity 

Apprehension 

Imagination 

Judgment 

Ratiocination 

Understanding 

Abstraction 


Intellect 

(6)  For   the   Affective   or   Emotional 

Processes : 
Feeling 
Emotion 
Mood 

Temperament 
Mental  Constitution 
Sentiment 
Sympathy 
Antipathy 
Fear 
Anger 
Belief 

Expectation 
Expression 
Laughter 
Language 
Gesture 

(c)  For  the  Will  Processes: 

Will 

Action 

Instinct 

Impulse 

Desire 

Habit 

Practice 

In  the  field  of  experimental  investi- 
gation, Germany  holds  the  first  rank. 
Excellent  work  has  been  done  in 
France,  especially  in  the  field  of  abnor- 
mal psychology,  and  in  England  and 
America,  where  German  thought  has 
blended  with  the  native  empiricism. 
See: 

(a)     Weber,  E.  H. 
Fechner,  G.  T. 
Helmholtz,  H. 
Hering,  E. 
Flechsig,  P.  E. 
Stumpf ,  K. 
Miiller,  G.  E. 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


108 


Wundt,  W. 

(b)  Bain,  Alexander 
Romanes,  G.  J. 
Galton,  F. 
Stout,  G.  F. 
Sully,  James 

(c)  Binet,  A. 
Charcot,  J.  M. 


Ribot,  T.  A. 
(d)     James,  William 
Ladd,  G.  T. 
Miinsterberg,  H. 
Dewey,  John 
Titchener,  E.  B. 
Baldwin,  J.  M. 
Hall,  G.  S. 


9.    JImtJuai*  mt& 


THE  tracing  of  the  mutual  relations  of  the  various  languages  of  the 
world,  and  the  study  of  their  similarities  and  differences,  is  the 
task  of  the  science  of  comparative  philology.  The  phonetic,  or 
mechanical  side,  the  inflectional,  or  constructive,  and  the  syntactic, 
or  psychological  aspect,  arc  the  three  factors  which  combine  to 
form  human  speech.  See : 


A.   ffimtguag? 


1.  PHILOLOGY.  Slang 

Philology  Metaphor 

Grammar  Orthography,  Figures  of 

Dialect  Prosody 

Phonetics  Rhyme 

Accent  Assonance 

Phonetic  Law  Alphabet 

Grimm's  Law  Inscriptions 

Verner's  Law  Paleography 

Etymology  Runes 

Grassman's  Law  Spelling 

Inflection  Rhetoric 

Declension  Pronunciation 

Comparison  Phonetics 
Nouns 

Name  *•  For  a  classification  of  languages 

Gender  in  related  groups,  see: 

Ad  j  ective 

Pronoun  (°)  For  the  Monosyllabic  Type: 

Article  Chinese  Language 
^A-dvcrh 

Preposition  (6)  For  the  Agg^utinati^  Type: 

Conjunction  African  Languages 

Interjection  Egyptian  (under  Egypt) 

Verb  Coptic  (under  Copts) 

Participle  Ural-Altaic 

Conjugation  Finnish  Language 

Reduplication  Turkish  Language 

Ablaut  Japanese  Language 

Umlaut      "  Dravidians 

Syntax,  Figures  of  Tamils 

Sentence  Telugus 

Semasiology  Philippine  Languages 

104 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  105 

(c)  For  the  Poly  synthetic  Type  (In-     (vi)  Mediterranean  Languages: 

corporating) :  Greek 

American     Indian     (under     In-  Italic  Languages 

dians,  American  )  :  Latin 

(d)  For  the  Inflectional  Type:  Italian 

Semitic  Languages  Spanish 

Cuneiform  Inscriptions  Norman  French 

Aramaic  French 

Syriac  Language  Provencal 

Samaritan  Language  Rumanian 

Moahitish      Language       (under  Portuguese 

Moabite  Stone)  (vii)  The  Teutonic  Languages: 

Arabic  Language  Teutonic  Languages 

Inflectional  also  are :  Gothic 

,.v    T    i    ,„            .     T  Icelandic 

(i)   Indo-Cjermanic  Languages  __ 

v  '                                       oo  Norwegian 

(ii)  The  Languages  of  India:  Swedish 

Sanskrit  Dutch 

Pali  German 

Prakrit  Plattdeutsch 

Assamese  (under  Assam)  Frisian 

Bengali  Flemish 

Ceylonese  (under  Ceylon)  Anglo-Saxon 

Gujarat!  English 

Hindustani  Americanisms 

Kashmiri  . 

Ma]divc  (viu)  The  Celtic  Languages: 

Marathi  Cclti?  Languages 

Panjabi  Cornish 

Sindhi  (ix)   The  Balto-Slavic  Languages: 

Uriya  Old  Prussian 

(iii)   The  Iranian  Languages:  Lettic 

Iranian  Languages  Lithuanian 

Old  Persian  (x)  The  Slavic  Languages: 

Avesta  Slavic  Languages 

Pahlavi  Old  Church  Slavic 

Persian  Polish 

Afghan  Russian 

Baluchi  Czech  or  Bohemian  Language 

Kurdish  0        , 

^      ,.  See  also: 

Ossetic  .  T 

International  Languages 

(iv)  Armenian  Esperanto 

(v)  Albanian  Volapuk 


106 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


3.  For  the  great  names  in  the  field 
of  comparative  philology,  see: 
Ascoli,  G.  I. 
Bopp,  F. 
Brugmann,  F.  K. 
Breal,  M. 
Bugge,  S.    - 
Burnouf,  E. 
Grimm,  J.  L.  K. 
Grundtvig,  S.  H. 
Kolbing,  E. 
March,  F.  A. 
Mencndez  Pidal,  11. 
Meillet,  A. 
Paris,  G. 
Pott,  A.  F. 


Rask,  R.  K. 
Roussclot,  Abbe 
Schlegel,  F. 
Schleichcr,  A. 
Schmidt,  J. 
Sievers,  E. 
Skeat,  W.  W. 
Stokes,  W. 
Sweet,  H. 

Thomas,  Andre  Antoine 
Taylor,  W. 
Verner,  K.  A. 
Vigfusson,  G. 
Webster,  Noah 
Whitney,  W.  D. 
Zeuss,  S.  C. 


B.    fitfcratur? 


Literature,  which  is  the  expres- 
sion, more  or  less  permanent,  in 
language,  of  human  thought  and 
emotions,  would  include  in  its  widest 
sense  every  written  record  of  man's 
activity,  the  university  man's  disserta- 
tion on  the  Coleoptera  no  less  than 
Shelley 'b  "  Ode  to  the  Skylark."  Such  a 
wide  connotation  of  the  term  would  ren- 
der any  classification  within  reasonable 
space  limits  impossible,  and  in  the 
present  chapter  the  matter  has  been 
restricted  to  the  treatment  of  what  we 
ordinarily  call  Belles-lettres.  The 
great  works  in  history  and  the  various 
fields  of  science  and  philosophy  will  be 
accounted  for  in  the  chapters  with  the 
subject  matter  of  which  they  are  more 
intimately  connected.  A  more  consid- 
erable difficulty  than  that  of  settling 
limits  to  the  scope  of  the  term  literature 
is  that  of  determining  a  reasonably 
fixed  standard  of  classification,  owing 
to  the  twofold  aspect  under  which 


every  literary  monument  presents  itself 
— as  form  or  matter.  Taking,  for 
instance,  any  specific  department  of 
literature,  such  as  satire,  we  find  that 
our  satirist  may  be,  as  regards  form, 
a  lyrist,  novelist,  essayist,  or  dramatic 
writer.  The  man  we  call  poet  may, 
in  the  same  manner,  have  turned  the 
poetic  form  to  the  uses  of  comedy  or 
of  the  lyric  spirit.  Again,  commonly, 
a  literary  artist  will  have  attained 
eminence  in  different  categories  of 
literature,  as  the  drama,  say,  criticism, 
and  poetry,  and  the  necessity  arises  of 
partially  and  often  arbitrarily  char- 
acterizing such  a  man.  A  certain 
measure  of  violence  is,  therefore,  un- 
avoidable when  the  attempt  is  made  to 
cast  any  great  literary  figure  into  a 
rigidly  labeled  department;  but  there 
is  sufficient  justification  for  the  scheme 
in  the  fact  that,  as  a  rule,  the  great 
literary  figure  does  stand  out  pre- 
eminently in  one  department  of  the  art, 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


107 


and,  remembering  that  the  line  of 
division  is  by  no  means  rigid,  we  may 
classify  him  accordingly. 

The  historical  study  of  literature 
may  be  pursued  in  two  ways.  There  is 
the  vertical  order,  as  it  may  be  called, 
in  which  we  take  up  the  national  liter- 
atures one  by  one,  a  method  of  study  in 
which  the  various  literary  genres  are 
considered  at  the  same  time,  and  where- 
in the  formal  side  is  naturally  subor- 
dinated to  the  investigation  of  the 
development  of  national  character  as 
revealed  in  the  national  literature. 
There  is  also  what  may  be  called  the 
horizontal  order,  where  our  attention 
is  confined  to  one  kind  of  literature  at 
a  time,  whose  development  is  traced 
from  the  beginning  to  the  present  day, 
across  national  boundaries,  the  process 
essentially  being  one  of  thematic  unity, 
as  compared  with  the  preceding  method 
of  national  unity.  Either  method  has 
its  advantages,  and  the  material  in  the 
New  International  Encyclopaedia  has 
been  so  treated  as  to  lend  itself  to  cither 
form  of  study  ;  but,  whereas  the  student 
or  reader  who  would  devote  himself  to 
the  study  of  national  literatures  may 
be  left  to  his  own  resources  in  view  of 
the  obvious  classification  followed,  the 
need  for  guidance  is  apparent  in  the 
second.  Emphasis,  therefore,  in  the 
present  chapter  is  laid  on  the  formal 
development  of  the  literary  form,  the 
underlying  principle  being  the  belief 
that  the  larger  number  of  students  are 
apt  to  turn  to  a  specialized  subject, 
like  the  history  of  the  novel  or  the  epic, 
rather  than  to  the  expanded  story  of 
an  entire  national  literature. 

I.  THE  NATIONAL  LITERATURES. 
American  Literature 


Arabic  Language  and  Literature 

Armenian  Language  and  Literature 

Australian  Literature 

Bengali  Language  and  Literature 

Breton  Literature 

Canadian  Literature 

Catalan  Language  and  Literature 

Chinese  Language  and  Literature 

Cuban  Literature 

Czech  Literature 

Danish  Language  and  Literature 

Dutch  Literature 

Egyptian  Language  and  Literature 
(under  Egypt) 

English  Literature 

Finnish  Language  and  Literature 

Flemish  Language  and  Literature 

French  Literature 

Frisian  Language  and  Literature 

German  Literature 

Greek  Literature 

Hindustani   Language   and  Litera- 
ture 

Hungarian  Literature 

Icelandic  Literature 

Iranian  Languages  and  Literatures 

Irish  Literature 

Italian  Literature 

Japanese  Literature 

Jewish  Language  and  Literature 
(under  Jews) 

Latin  Literature 

Lettic  Language  and  Literature 

Lithuanian   Language   and   Litera- 
ture 

Mexican  Literature 

Norwegian  Literature 

Old   Church   Slavic   Language   and 
Literature 

Pahlavi  Language  and  Literature 

Persian  Literature 

Polish  Literature 

Portuguese  Literature 

Portuguese-Brazilian  Literature 


108 


LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE 


Romance  Literatures 
Rumanian    Language    and    Litera- 
ture 

Russian  Literature 
Scottish  Language  and  Literature 
Spanish  Literature 
Spanish- American  Literature 
Swedish  Language  and  Literature 
Syriac  Language  and  Literature 
Turkish  Language  and  Literature 
Yiddish 

'  II.  THE  LITERARY  FORMS.  The 
broadest  subdivision  in  literature  ac- 
cording to  form  is  that  into  prose  and 
poetry;  and,  though  it  is  often  very 
difficult  to  differentiate  one  from  the 
other  in  fact,  and  always  hard  to  de- 
scribe the  distinction  between  them  in 
theory,  the  common  definitions  of  prose 
as  the  ordinary  mode  of  speech  and 
poetry  as  speech  figurative,  cadenced, 
and  cast  within  certain  compara- 
tively rigid  forms,  may  be  followed 
safely  enough  for  practical  pur- 
poses* Either,  taken  in  itself,  may  be 
subdivided  into  forms  of  narrower  con- 
notation, such  as  essay  and  novel  under 
prose,  epic  and  lyric  under  poetry. 
Here,  however,  appears  the  inconsis- 
tency already  mentioned  as  inherent  in 
literary  classification ;  for  the  earliest 
scientific  essays  of  the  Greeks  were 
written  in  verse,  while  Walt  Whitman's 
lyric  spirit  finds  expression  in  a  medi- 
um closely  akin  to  Ruskin's  fervid 
prose.  Again,  the  drama  is  probably 
nowadays  regarded  as  a  prose  form, 
though  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  world's 
greatest  plays  bear  the  poetic  form. 
Poetry,  then,  if  we  exclude  the  drama, 
embraces  the  two  subdivisions  of  the 
epic  and  the  lyric.  In  the  history  of 
literary  development,  poetry  precedes 


prose,  and  of  the   two  poetic  forms 
the  epic,  as  a  rule,  antedates  the  lyric. 

1.  EPIC  POETRY.  The  epic  may 
be  defined  as  a  lengthy  narrative  in 
verse,  dealing  with  a  subject  of  great 
magnitude  in  character,  national  or 
descriptive  of  a  great  movement.  A 
distinction  may  be  made  between  the 
epic  which  is  the  spontaneous  expres- 
sion of  national  life,  constructed  at  an 
early  period  in  national  development 
out  of  pre-existing  minor  poetic  forms, 
and  the  artificial  epic  of  a  more  ad- 
vanced cultural  stage,  which  is  the  work 
of  a  single  mind  and  in  consequence 
purposive  in  its  nature  rather  than 
spontaneous.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  the  mock  or  beast  epic,  in 
nature  largely  satirical.  See  EPIC 
POETRY;  and,  for  the  great  epics  and 
epic  poets  of  the  world's  literature,  the 
following  titles : 
SANSKRIT  : 

Mahabharata 

Ramayana 

Purana 
PERSIAN  : 

Firdausi 

Shah  Namah 

Rustam 

GREEK : 
Homer 
Age  of  Epic  Poetry   (under  Greek 

Literature) 
Cyclic  Poets 

LATIN  : 

Vergil 

JECneas 

Lucan 

Silius  Italicus 

Statius 
FRENCH  : 

Chansons  de  geste 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


109 


Roland 
Aymon 

SPANISH  : 
Cid,  The 
Ercilla  y  Zufiiga 

GERMAN : 

Nibclungenlied 
Klopstock 

ITALIAN  : 
Dante 
Boiardo 
Ariosto 
Tasso 

PORTUGUESE: 
CamCcs 

NORSE  : 
Edda 
Saga 

FINNISH  : 

Kalcvala 
ENGLISH  : 

Beowulf 

Milton 

THE  BEAST  EPIC: 

Homer;  Greek  Literature 
Reynard  the  Fox 

2.  THE  LYRIC.  Lyric  poetry,  as 
the  expression  of  personal  feeling,  is 
the  most  subjective  of  all  literary 
forms.  Originally  written  to  be  sung, 
the  lyric  has  remained  the  nearest  ap- 
proach in  literature  to  absolute  music. 
Its  scope  is  as  wide  as  human  emo- 
tion, broadening  in  the  course  of  its 
development  with  the  expansion  of 
human  sympathies.  Its  formal  varia- 
tions are  numerous.  See: 

Lyric  Poetry 

Versification 

Sonnet 


Ode 

Ballade 

Rondeau 

Madrigal 

Canzone 

Rhyme 

Vers  Libre 

Lyric  poetry  attained  great  perfec- 
tion in  ancient  Greece,  though  its  field 
was  narrower  than  that  of  modern 
poetry  for  comparative  lack  of  the 
nature  element,  which,  with  us,  is  so 
conspicuous  a  feature  of  lyric  expres- 
sion. The  Roman  genius  was,  on  the 
whole,  unfavorable  to  the  fostering  of 
the  lyric  spirit.  In  the  East,  Persia 
produced  a  succession  of  poets  of  great 
excellence.  See,  for  the  great  names 
in  the  realm  of  lyric  poetry : 

SANSKRIT  : 

Kalidasa 
PERSIAN  : 

Nizami 

Omar  Khayyam 

Sadi 

Hafiz 

Jami 

LATIN  : 

Catullus 

Tibullus 

Horace 

Ovid 

Propertius 

Ausonius 

Prudentius 

GREEK : 
Alcman 
Callinus 
Archilochus 
Tyrtaeus 
Simonides 
Solon 


110 


LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE 


Alcaeus 

Sappho 

Anacrcon 

Theognis 

Hipponax 

Pindar 

Bacchylides 

Timotheus 

Theocritus 

Bion 

Moschus 

Herondas 

The  lyric  poetry  of  the  Middle 
Ages  was  largely  ecclesiastical,  the 
Latin  hymns  of  the  period  being 
especially  marked  by  extraordinary  ef- 
fects of  rhyme.  The  court  singers  of 
France  and  Germany,  however,  fos- 
tered the  love  theme  assiduously.  With 
the  Revival  of  Learning  came  a  great 
impetus  to  the  poetic  expression  of 
secular  emotions,  Italy  being  the  first 
to  feel  the  impulse  of  the  new  move- 
ment. Lyricism  languished  during 
the  domination  of  classical  ideals  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, but,  freed  from  the  bond  of  ar- 
tificiality, entered  upon  an  unprece- 
dented development  towards  the  end 
of  the  latter  century.  See: 

Hymnology 

Troubadours 

Trouvere 

Minnesinger 

Meistersinger 

Goliardic  Literature 

Romanticism ; 

and  for  the  lyric  poets  of  Western  Eu- 
rope : 

FRENCH : 

Marie  de  France 
Meung,  Jean  de 
Villon 


Marot 

Malherbc 

Pleiadc 

Ronsard 

Ch6nier,  Andre  Marie 

Chenier,  Marie  Joseph 

Beranger 

Lamartine 

Delavigne 

Hugo 

Musset 

Gautier 

Leconte  de  Lisle 

Baudelaire 

Heredia,  Jose 

Sully-Prudhomme 

Verlaine 

Mallarme 

Regnier,  II. 

Rimbaud,  J.  A. 

Kahn,  Gustave 

PROVENCAL : 

> 

Roumanille 
Jasmin 
Mistral,  F. 
Gras,  Felix 
Felibrige 

ITALIAN  : 

Cavalcanti,  Guide* 

Cino  da  Pistoja 

Dante 

Petrarch 

Colonna,  Vittoria 

Guarini 

Marini 

Chiabrera 

Metastasio 

Bondi,  Clemente 

Foscolo,  Ugo 

Leopardi 

Monti,  V. 

Aleardi 

Giusti,  Giuseppe 


LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE 


111 


Carducci 
Graf,  A. 

SPANISH  : 

Lopez  de  Ayala,  Pedro 

Santillana 

Carcilasso  de  la  Vega 

Le6n,  Luis  de 

Figueroa,  Francisco  de 

Argensola 

Mendoza,  Diego  Hurt  ado  de 

Gongora  y  Argote 

Zorrilla  y  Moral 

Iriarte  y  Oroposa 

Lista  y  Aragon 

Melendez  Valdes 

Espronceda 

PORTUGUESE  : 
Ferreira,  A. 
Gomes  de  Amorim 

GERMAN  : 

Walther  von  der  Vogelweide 

Sachs,  Hans 

Fleming,  Paul 

Opitz 

Burger 

Kleist,  E.  (X 

Goethe 

Schiller 

Schlegel,  A.  W. 

Arndt 

Novalis 

Chamisso 

Uhland 

Korner 

Eichendorff 

Heine 

Ruckert 

Freiligrath 

Bodenstedt 

Scheffel 

Auersperg 

Hamerling 

Ambrosius,  Johanna 


DUTCH : 
Marnix 
Vondel 
Bilderdijk 
Kate,  J.  J.  ten 
Eeden,  F.  Van 

FLEMISH  : 
Maerlant 
Bijns 
Conscience,  H. 

The  lyric  poetry  of  Northern  and 
Eastern  Europe  is  recent  in  origin, 
dating  from  the  eighteenth  century.  It 
has,  as  a  rule,  been  under  the  influence 
of  the  great  literary  movements  of  the 
West,  but,  though  largely  mimetic  in 
form,  has  been  made  the  expression  of 
national  consciousness.  See: 

SWEDISH  : 

Bellman 

Tegner 

Atterbom 

Runeberg 

Snoilsky 
DANISH  : 

Heiberg,  «7.  L. 

Evald 

Richardt 
NORWEGIAN  : 

Wclhaven 

Wergeland 
HUNGARIAN: 

Kisfaludy 

Arany 

Petdfi 

Erdelyi 
RUSSIAN  : 

Derzhavin 

Pushkin 

Koltsov 

Lermontov 

Sheftchenko 

Nekrasov 


112 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


POLISH  : 

Namszewicz 

Karpinski 

Mickiewicz 

Kniaznin 

Slowacki 

Krasinski 

Pol 

Asnyck 

The  origins  of  the  English  lyric 
poetry  may  be  traced  back,  if  it  be  so 
desired,  to  early  Anglo-Saxon  times. 
The  continuous  history  begins  with 
Chaucer.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful 
lyrics  of  the  language  are  embodied 
in  the  works  of  the  Elizabethan  dram- 
atists, after  whom,  and  Milton,  the  art 
declines  and  hardens  until  revived  by 
Burns  and  Wordsworth.  English  lyric 
in  the  nineteenth  century  has  covered 
the  field  of  human  sympathies,  from 
Blake's  unseen  world  to  Tennyson's 
studies  in  evolution  and  Kipling's  in 
machine  construction.  See: 

ENGLISH  : 
Caedmon 
Ormulum 
Layamon 
Lydgate,  John 
Minot,  Laurence 
Barbour,  John 
Gower 
Chaucer 
Sackville 
Shakespeare 
Jonson 
Milton 

Ramsay,  Allan 
Donne 
Herrick 
Herbert 
Waller 
Crashaw 


Cowley 

Vaughan 

Gay 

Savage,  Richard 

Chatterton 

Shenstonc 

Young,  Edward 

Thomson 

Gray 

Collins 

Cowper 

Blake 

Burns 

Hogg 

Wordsworth 

Landor 

Moore 

Keats 

Shelley 

Praed 

Proctor,  B.  W. 

FitzGerald 

Tennyson 

Browning 

Clough 

Arnold,  Matthew 

Ingelow,  Jean 

Patmore 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel 

Rossetti,  Christina 

Morris 

Arnold,  Edwin 

Swinburne 

Masscy,  G. 

Henley 

Watson,  W. 

Kipling 

Meynell,  A.  C. 

Sharp,  W. 

Yeats,  W.  B. 

AMERICAN  : 

Freneau 
Barlow,  Joe) 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


118 


Key 
Halleck 
Bryant 
Drake 

Emerson 

Whittier 

Longfellow 

Holmes 

Poe 

Lowell 

Hoffman,  C.  F. 

Whitman 

Gary,  Alice  and  Phoebe 

Timrod 

Howe,  Julia  Ward 

Stedman 

Aldrich 

Lanier 

O'Reilly,  J.  B. 

Field,  Eugene 

Riley 

Miller,  Joaquin 

Moody,  William  Vaughun 

3.  THE  DRAMA.  The  Drama  has 
been  placed  high  among  mimetic  forms, 
because  of  the  contribution  it  lays  on 
the  other  arts,  thus  combining  within 
itself  their  several  qualities.  Action 
and  character  are  the  subject  matter. 
The  means  are  bodily  motion,  which 
gives  the  sculptor's  effect ;  language, 
which  is  the  instrument  of  the  poet; 
music,  and  scenery,  and  costume,  to 
which  painting  and  architecture  give 
their  share.  The  origins  of  the  drama 
are  to  be  found,  most  probably,  in  earty 
religious  ceremonial.  Festivals  marked 
by  singing  and  dancing,  the  latter 
more  or  less  symbolic  in  character,  are 
common  to  peoples  in  a  primitive  stage ; 
and  the  line  of  progress  is  along  thr 
development  of  the  action  and  the 
spoken  dialogue,  at  the  expense  of  the 


chant,  to  complete  secularization  of  the 
drama.  The  principles  of  the  drama 
as  propounded  by  Aristotle  have  re- 
mained for  the  most  part  the  same; 
the  mechanical  technique  has  varied 
widely  from  original  conditions.  See: 

Drama 

Theatre 

Stage 

Chorus 

Act 

Ballet 

Burlesque 

Farce 

Interlude 

Masque 

Vaudeville 

Pantomime 

Puppet 

Atellanse 

Mime 

Prologue 

Epilogue 

Greek  drama  had  its  origin  in  the 
worship  of  Dionysus.  With  /Eschylus, 
tragedy  is  profoundly  religious,  and 
the  actor's  speeches  are  still  subordi- 
nated to  the  choruses;  Sophocles 
strengthened  the  element  of  action; 
Euripides  thoroughly  humanized  trag- 
edy. Attic  comedy  was  fierce  in  per- 
sonal satire  and  unbridled  in  speech. 
The  Latin  drama  was  sedulously  mod- 
eled on  the  Greek.  The  origin  of  the 
Sanskrit  drama  is  disputed,  some  deriv- 
ing it  from  the  Greek,  others  assigning 
it  an  independent  development.  See, 
for  writers  and  plays : 
SANSKRIT  : 

Sudraka 

Kalidasa 

Bhavabhuti 
/ 

Sakuntala 
Mricchakatika 


114 


LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE 


GREEK:  : 

JSschylus 

Phrynichus 

Sophocles 

Euripides 

Aristophanes 

Agathon 

Epicharmus 

Eupolis 

Menander 

LATIN: 
Plautus 
Terence 
Seneca 

In  Medieval  times,  practically  the 
only  species  of  dramatic  performance 
was  the  religious  spectacles  of  the 
Church,  in  which  the  purpose  was  di- 
dactic* See:  MIEACLE  PLAY;  MOR- 
ALITY ;  INTERLUDE  ;  PASSION  PLAY. 

Out  of  the  religious  performances  of 
the  Middle  Ages  the  modern  drama 
developed.  In  France,  which  served 
as  a  model  to  the  Continent,  an  elabor- 
ate system  of  rules  was  built  up,  sup- 
posedly bringing  the  drama  into  con- 
formity with  the  standards  of  the 
classic  age.  The  classic  ideals,  with 
their  restriction  of  human  emotions  to 
kings  and  nobles,  were  overthrown  on 
the  Continent  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  since  when  the 
scope  of  the  drama  has  been  widened 
to  embrace  the  entire  complex  of  so- 
ciety. Like  the  novel,  the  drama  of 
the  latest  days  has  become  largely 
purposive.  See,  for  the  writers: 

FRENCH  : 
Mairet 
Regnard 
Corneille 
Racine 
Moliire 


Marivaux 
Chenier,  M.  J. 
Crebillon 
Beaumarchais 
Scribe 
Vigny 
Hugo 
Legouv£ 
Labiche 
Ponsard 
Augier 
Dumas 
Pailleron 
Meilhac 
Halevy 
Sardou 
Rostand 
Maeterlinck 
Brieux 

Comedie  Franfaise 
ITALIAN  : 
Trissino 
Maffei 
Goldoni 
Gozzi 
Alficri 
Manzoni 
Giacometti 
Annunzio,  G.  d' 

SPANISH  : 

Encina 

Vega  Carpio 

Calderon  de  la  Barca 

Moreto  y  Cabana 

Moratin,  Leandro  Fern&ndez 

Gil  y  Zarate 

Lopez  de  Ayala,  Adelardo 

Hartzenbusch,  J.  E. 

Echegaray 

Breton  de  los  Herreros 

PORTUGUESE  : 
S£  de  Miranda 
Almeida-Garrett 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


115 


The  primacy  in  Continental  drama, 
long  held  by  the  French,  is  disputed  at 
the  present  day  by  the  Teutons  and  the 
Slavs,  more  particularly  the  Scandi- 
navian branch  of  the  Teutons.  See: 
GERMAN  : 

Lessing 

Goethe 

Schiller 

Kotzebuc 

Grillparzer 

Laube 

Gutzkow 

Anzengruber 

Heyse 

Sudermann 

Hauptmann 

Lindau,  P. 

Hartleben 

Fulda 

SWEDISH  : 
Almqvist 
Strindberg 

DANISH  : 
Holbcrg 
Oehlenschlager 

NORWEGIAN  : 
Ibsen 
Bjornson 

RUSSIAN  : 
Sumarokov 
Griboedov 
Gogol 
Ostrovski 
Zagoskin,  M.  N. 
Tolstoy,  Alexei 
Tolstoy,  Liov 
Gorky 

POUSH  : 
Fredro 

Kniaznin 

Fredro  tho  Vounge] 


HUNGARIAN  : 

Kisfaludy,  K£roly 

Katona 

Szigligeti 

While  Continental  Europe  was  en- 
slaved by  the  rigid  formulas  of  the 
classicists,  in  England  the  Romantic 
drama  flourished  from  the  beginning. 
The  Elizabethan  age  is  the  golden  age 
of  the  drama  of  the  world.  Following 
the  Elizabethans  came  the  decline,  ar- 
rested partially  by  the  talent  of  Dryden 
and  Congreve  during  the  Restoration, 
and  of  Goldsmith  and  Sheridan  in  the 
later  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  the  nineteenth  century,  England 
brought  forth  no  dramatic  writer  of 
conspicuous  genius.  See: 
ENGLISH  : 

Udall 

Norton 

Sackville 

Kyd 

Lodge 

Peele 

Marston 

Greene 

Marlowe 

Shakespeare 

Nash 

Dekker 

Middleton 

Jonson 

Massinger 

Beaumont  and  Fletchei 

Ford 

Webster 

Davenant 

Dryden 

Wycherley 

Otway 

Congreve 

Farquhar 

Goldsmith 


116 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


Sheridan 
Knowles,  J.  S. 
Beddoes,  T.  L. 
Taylor,  Tom 
Robertson,  T.  W. 
Sims,  G.  R. 
Boucicault 
Pinero 

Jones,  H.  A. 
Shaw,  George  Bernard 
Phillips,  Stephen 
Barrie,  J.  M. 
Galsworthy,  John 
Synge,  J.  M. 
Masefield,  John 

AMERICAN  : 

Dunlap,  William 
Payne,  John  Howard 
Brougham,   John 
Boker 

Sargent,  Epes 
Carlcton,  Henry  Guy 
Howard,  Bronson 
Campbell,  Bartley 
Thompson,  Denman 
Harrigan,  Edward 
Belasco,  David 
Fitch,  William  Clyde 
Moody,  William  Vaughan 

A  partial  list  of  the  more  note- 
worthy actors,  of  all  times  and  all  na- 
tions, is  rs  follows: 

Anderson,  Mary  A. 
Archer,  Belle 
Arnould,  Sophie 
Arthur,  Julia 
Bancroft,  Mary  E.  W. 
Barrett,  Wilson 
Barry,  Elizabeth 
Barry,  Spranger 
Bates,  Blanche 
Bellamy,  George  Anne 
Bernhardt,   Sarah 


Betterton,  Thomas 
Betty,  W.  H.  W. 
Booth,  Agnes 
Booth,  Barton 
Booth,  Edwin 
Booth,  Junius  Brutus 
Bracegirdle,  Anne 
Burbage,  Richard 
Campbell,  Beatrice 
Clarke,  J.  S. 
Clive,  Catherine 
Coghlan,  Charles 
Coghlan,  Rose 
Coquelin,  B.  C. 
Crane,  W.  H. 
Cushman,  Charlotte 
Davenport,  E.  L. 
Davenport,  Fanny 
Dejazet,  P.  V. 
Dcvrient,  L. 
Drew 
Duse 

Farren,  Elizabeth 
Fisher,  Charles 
Fiske,  Minnie  M. 
Florence,  W.  J. 
Forbes-Robertson,  J, 
Forrest,  Edwin 
Garrick,   David 
Gilbert,  J.  G. 
Gillette,  W.  H. 
Goodwin,  N.  C. 
Haase,  F. 

Hackett,  James  H. 
Hading,  Jane 
Hare,  John 
Haworth,  Joseph 
Herne,  James  A. 
Irving,  Henry 
Janauschek,  Fanny 
Jordan,  Dorothy 
Kean,  Edmund 
Kean,  C.  J. 
Kemble,  Chas. 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


117 


Kemble,  Frances  Anne 
Kemble,  John  Philip 
Kendal,  Mr. 
Kendal,  Mrs. 
Lecouvreur,  Adrienne 
Lcmaitrc,  A.  L. 
McCullough,  J.  E. 
Macklin,  Charles 
Macready,  W.  C. 
Mansfield,  Richard 
Mathews,  Charles 
Mathews,  C.  J. 
Modjeska,  H. 
Morris,  Clara 
Mounet-Sully 
Oldficld,  Anne 
Payne,  J.  H. 
Placide,  H. 
Rachel,  Mile. 
Rehan,  Ada 
Re  jane,  Mme. 
Ristori,  A. 
Robson,  Stuart 
Roscius 

Russell,  Sol  Smith 
Salvini,  A. 
Salvini,  T. 
Siddons,  Sarah 
Sonnenthal,  A. 
Sothcrn,  E.  H. 
Stoddart,  J.   H. 
Thompson,  Dcnman 
Tree,  Beerbohm 
Vcstris,  Mine. 
Wallack,  J.  L. 
Wallack,  J.  W. 
Willard,  E.  S. 
Woffington,  Margaret 
Wyndham,   Charles 

4.  THE  NOVEL.  The  novel,  at 
present  the  most  flexible  of  literary 
forms,  though  of  recent  date  in  its 
present  character,  traces  back  to  early 
and  multiple  sources.  The  beast  tale, 


common  to  all  nations,  the  narrative 
of  adventure,  and  the  story  of  things 
supernatural,  were  the  precursors  of 
the  novel.  The  love  element  becomes 
pronounced  in  the  old  Greek  romances 
and  assumes  primary  importance  in  the 
romances  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
romance,  it  may  be  broadly  put,  passed 
into  the  novel,  when  the  tale  began  to 
assume  the  character  of  a  picture  of 
contemporary  life,  a  development  to  be 
assigned  to  the  sixteenth  century. 
See  the  article  NOVEL. 

The  geat  monuments  and  figures  of 
pre-modern  story-telling  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

SANSKRIT  : 
Dandin 
Subandhu 
Bana 

ARABIC  : 

Arabian  Nights 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN: 
Heliodorus 
Ephesiaca 
Daphnis  and  Chloe 
Apuleius 

Apollonius  of  Tyre 
Petronius 

In  Mediaeval  times,  the  romance 
flourished,  combining  in  itself  elements 
of  the  epic,  the  beast  fable,  and  the  tale 
of  adventure  and  of  love.  Materials 
were  largely  drawn  from  ancient  his- 
tory, and  the  stories  gathered  around 
great  figures  of  antiquity  and  the  early 
Middle  Ages.  See: 

Romance 

Fabliaux 

Gesta  Romanorum 

Alexander,  Legend  of 

Charlemagne  Cycle  of  Romances 


118 


LANGUAGE    AND    LITERATURE 


Chrestien  de  Troyes 

Wace 

Roman  de  la  Rose 

Perceval 

Tristram 

Lancelot  of  the  Lake 

Malory 

Grail,  The  Holy 

Merlin 

Chaucer 

Morte  d* Arthur 

Euphues 

Amadis  of  Gaul 

Romance  lacked  characterization 
and  reality.  With  the  appearance  of 
tales  embodying  observation  of  real 
types  and  description  of  manners,  the 
novel  as  it  is  to-day  begins.  The 
origin  is  generally  placed  in  Spain, 
where  the  rise  of  the  picaresque  tale 
marks  the  first  step  in  character  de- 
lineation. The  subsequent  develop- 
ment is  rapid  to  present  conditions, 
when  the  novel  has  become  the  all  em- 
bracing term  for  all  prose  fiction, 
realistic,  romantic,  adventurous,  or  di- 
dactic. See  for  the  writers : 

FKENCH : 

Scudery,  Madeleine  de 

Lafayette,  Marie  Madeleine  de 

Scarron 

Lesage 

Voltaire 

Genlis,  Countess  de 

Prfvost  d'Exiles 

Saint-Pierre 

Stendhal 

Balzac 

Hugo 

Dumas,  the  Elder 

Sue 

Erckmann-Chatrian 

Kock,  Paul  de 


Sand,  George 
Merimce,  P. 
Flaubert 
Goncourt 
Feuillet 
Daudct 
Loti,  Pierre 
Zola 
Bourget 
Margucrittic,  P. 
Prevost,  E.   M. 
France,  Anatole 

ITALIAN  : 
Boccaccio 
Manzoni 
Amicis 

Fogazzaro,  A. 
Verga,  G. 

Annunzio,  Gabriele  d' 
Farina,  S. 
Serao,  Matilda 

SPANISH  : 
Cervantes 
Aleman 

Valera  y  Alcal£  Galiano 
Galdos 

Palacio  Valdes 
Alarcon 
Pereda 
Pardo  Bazan 

GERMAN  : 

Goethe 
Fouque 
Gutzkow 
Eichendorff 
Alexis,  W. 
Hauff 
Laube 
Auerbach 
Reuter,  Frita 
Tieck,  L. 
Freytag 
Storm,  Theodor 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


119 


Scheffel 

Gerstacker 

Spielhagen 

Anzengruber 

Dahn 

Heyse 

Ebers 

Frenssen 

SWEDISH  : 
Rydberg 

Bremer,  Frederika 
Strindberg 

DANISH  : 

Blicher 
Drachmann 

NORWEGIAN  : 
Bjornson 
Lie 

Kielland 

HUNGARIAN  : 
Jokai 
Eotvos 

RUSSIAN  : 

Gontcharov 

Pisemski 

Gogol 

Turgcnev 

Dostoyevsky 

Tolstoy 

Korolenko 

Gorky 

Chekhov 

POLISH  : 
Kraszewski 
Sienkiewicz 
Orzeszkowa 

Defoe  began  the  line  of  great  Eng- 
lish novelists  with  what  is  still  the 
greatest  story  of  adventure  in  our 
literature.  Fielding  then  perfected 
the  form.  Manners  were  acutely 


studied  by  a  succession  of  women 
writers,  who  bridged  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries.  Barren 
practically  of  the  drama,  the  latter 
century  found  expression  in  the  novel 
to  as  fully  great  an  extent  as  in  lyric 
poetry.  See: 

ENGLISH  : 
Behn,  Afra 
Defoe 
Sterne 
Smollett 
Fielding 
Richardson 

Inchbald,  Elizabeth  Simpson 
Godwin 

Burney,  Frances 
Radeliffe,  Ann 
Edgeworth,  Maria 
Scott 

Austen,  Jane 
Porter,  Jane 
Peacock,  Thomas  Love 
Lover,  Samuel 
Borrow 
Lever,  Charles 
Bulwer-Lytton 
Gaskell,  Elizabeth 
James,  G.  P.  R. 
Thackeray 
Marryat,  Frederick 
Dickens 
Readc 
Trollope 

Kingsley,  Charles 
Eliot,  George 

Bronte,   (Charlotte,  Emily,  Anne) 
Collins,  Wilkie 
Blackmore 
Oliphant,  Margaret 
Meredith,  George 
Morris,  William 
Du  Maurier 
Black,  William 


120 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


Hardy,  Thomas 
Stevenson,  Robert  Louis 
Russell,  W.  C. 
Ward,  Mrs.  Humphry 
Moore,  George 
Hawkins,  Anthony  Hope 
Kipling,  Rudyard 
Conrad,  Joseph 
Gissing,  George 
Hewlett,  Maurice 
Quiller-Couch,  A.  T. 
Wells,  H.  G. 
Bennett,   Arnold 
Galsworthy,  John 

The  nineteenth  century  produced  in 
America  in  the  realm  of  fiction  u  mas- 
ter romancer,  Cooper,  two  masters  in 
their  art,  Hawthorne  and  Poe,  and  at 
least  two  talented  exponents  of  mod- 
ern realism,  James  and  Howells.  See: 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden 

Cooper 

Poe 

Hawthorne 

Hale,  E.  E. 

Howells 

Hartc,  Bret 

James,  Henry 

Cable,  George  Washington 

Fawcett,  Edgar 

Grant,  Robert 

Jackson,  H.  H. 

Melville,  Herman 

Tourgec,  A.  W. 

Wilkins,  Mary 

Allen,  James  Lane 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson 

Garland,  Hamlin 

Stockton,  Frank  R. 

Norris,  Frank 

Atherton,  Gertrude 

Wharton,  Edith 


5.  CRITICISM  AND  ESSAY. 

1.  The  principles  underlying  artistic 
endeavor    have    been    discussed    since 
early  Greek  times,  and  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  universal  laws  of 
artistic  expression,  which  have  always 
been  accepted,  and  the  minor  theories, 
more   limited   in    scope    and   applying 
generally     to    individual     arts,  which 
never  have  been  accepted  by  all,  and 
never  will  be.     Plato  first  studied  in  a 
thorough  manner  the  relations  of  art 
to    reality.       Aristotle's    Poetics    laid 
down  the  principles  that  have  under- 
gone no  essential  change  since  his  time. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  blending  of  the 
classic  spirit  with  the  Teutonic,  and  the 
subsequent    rise   of    chivalry    and    ro- 
mance, produced  differences  of  opinion 
regarding  subject,  scope,  and  manner 
that  are  in  full  force  at  the  present 
day.     Sec : 

Criticism 

Realism  and  Naturalism 

Romanticism 

Impressionist  School  of  Painting 

Decadents 

Symbolists 

2.  Criticism  in  the  beginning  found 
expression  in  both  prose  and  verse ;  the 
modern    tendency    has   been    decidedly 
towards    prose,    though    there    is    not 
wanting  a  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism 
to  continue  the  succession  from  Hor- 
ace's Ars  Poetica.      The  usual  form, 
then,  in  which  criticism  at  present  finds 
expression  is  the  Essay.     See:   ESSAY, 
and  for  the  writers : 

GEEEK : 
Plato 
Aristotle 
Plutarch 
Longinufl 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


121 


LATIN  : 

Cicero 

Horace 

Seneca  the  Elder 

Varro 

Pliny 

Quintilian 
FRENCH  : 

Montaigne 

Saint-Evrcrnond 

Corneille 

Boileau 

Voltaire 

Diderot 

Bayle 

Taine 

Cousin 

Lamartine 

Sainte-Beuve 

Michelet 

Sarcey 

France,  Anatole 

Faguet,  Emile 

Brunetierc 

Lemaitre,  Jules 

Gourmont,  Remy  de 

ITALIAN  : 
Dante 
Boccaccio 
Poliziano 
Vida 

Scaliger,  J.  C. 
Carducci,  Giosue 
De  Sanctis,  F. 
Gubernatis,  A. 
Croce,  B. 

GERMAN : 
Reuchlin 
Winckelmann 
Gottsched 
Herder 
Leasing 
Schiller 


Schlegel,  Friedrich 

Grimm 

Scherer,  W. 

Menzel 

Bahr,  Hermann 

Nordau,  Max 

DUTCH: 

Erasmus 

DANISH  : 

Rafn 
Brandes 

RUSSIAN  : 
Belinsky 
Pisarev 

ENGLISH  : 
Ascham 
Sidney 

Bacon,  Francis 
Dryden 
Steele 
Addison 
Swift 
Johnson 
Pope 
Jeffrey 
Coleridge 
Wordsworth 
Lamb 
Hazlitt 
Wilson,  John 
De  Quinccy 
Hunt,  J.  H.  Leigh 
Carlyle 
Ruskin 

Arnold,  Matthew 
Rossctti,  W.  M. 
Stevenson,  Robert  Louis 
Pater,  W. 
Symonds,  J.  A. 
Saintsbury,  George 
Stephen,  Leslie 
Dowden,  Edward 
Archer,  William 


122 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


Gosse,  Edmund 
Shaw,  G.  B. 

AMERICAN  : 
Irving 
Emerson 
Ticknor,  G. 
Lowell 

Fuller,  Sarah  Margaret 
Curtis,  G.  W. 
Whipple 

White,  Richard  Grant 
Hutton,  Laurence 
Mabie,  Hamilton 
Woodberry,  George  Edward 
Winter,  William 

6-  MORALISTS,  SATIRISTS,  AND  HUMOR- 
ISTS. 

The  study  of  human  character  and 
conduct  has  at  all  times  received  the 
attention  of  great  minds,  and  what 
may  be  called  ethical  literature  forms 
a  very  important  part  of  the  literature 
of  the  world.  Near  to  constructive 
moralists,  like  Epictetus  or  Carlyle, 
stands  the  satirist,  whose  mission  it  is 
to  combat  the  evil  of  degenerate  times. 
The  contemplation  of  the  petty  faults 
and  incongruities  of  human  character 
and  action,  so  portrayed  as  to  arouse 
laughter  without  arousing  deep  emo- 
tion of  any  kind,  has  always  been  a 
universal  source  of  amusement.  See : 
GREEK  AND  ROMAN: 

Aristophanes 

Lucian 

Epictetus 

Ennius 

Lucilius 

Horace 

Juvenal 

Martial 

Persius 

Lucan 


Tacitus 
Petronius 
Aurelius,  Marcus 

FRENCH  : 
Rabelais 
Menippee 
La  Bruyere 
La  Rochefoucauld 
Pascal 
Lesuge 
Voltaire 

rhmnfort,   S.   R. 
France,  Anatole 

ITALIAN  : 

Jacopone  da  Todi 
Aretino 

SPANISH  : 

Quevedo  y  Villegas 

GERMAN  : 

Fischart,  Johannes 

Brant 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von 

Epistolae  Obscurorum  Virorum 

Grimmelshausen 

Rabener 

Lichtenberg 

Wieland 

Tieck 

Richter,  Johann  Paul 

Rcuter,  Fritz 

DUTCH  : 

Erasmus 
Marnix 
RUSSIAN  : 
Kantemir 
Shtchedrin 
Nekrasov 

ENGLISH  : 

Langland  (Piers  Plowman) 

Skelton 

Bunyan 

Butler 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


128 


Dryden 

Pope 

Swift 

Junius,  Letters  of 

Arbuthnot 

Byron 

Carlyle 

Smith,  Sydney 

Thackeray 

Dickens 

Calvcrlcy 

Gilbert,  W.  S. 

Mallock,  W.  H. 

Lear,  Edward 

Jerome,  Jerome  K. 

$lm\\,  G.  B. 

SCOTCH : 

Dunbar 

Barclay 
AMERICAN  : 

Ward,  Nathaniel 

Franklin 

Irving 

Lowell 

Holmes 

Smith,  Seba 

Clemens,   S. 

Leland,  C.  G. 

Locke,  1).  R. 

Browne,  C.  F. 

Bunner,  H.  C. 

Shaw,  H.  W. 

Stockton,  F.  R. 

Nyc,  E.  W. 

Dunne,  Finley  Peter 

7.  ORATORY. 

The  art  of  eloquent  persuasion  is 
found  among  all  primitive  peoples 
where  social  bonds  have  become  of  some 
importance.  Oratory  attains  its  full- 
est development  in  the  Greek  democra- 
cies, where  the  citizen  was  called  upon 
to  take  so  considerable  a  share  in  the 


public  life.  The  political  and  juristic 
genius  of  the  Roman  was  likewise  fa- 
vorable to  the  development  of  the  art. 
Pulpit  eloquence  had  some  of  its  great- 
est masters  among  the  early  Fathers  of 
the  Church,  which  has  never  been  want- 
ing in  masterly  exponents  of  its  doc- 
trines. A  great  period  in  the  history  of 
oratory  was  the  age  of  the  French 
Revolution,  when,  contemporaneously 
in  England  too,  a  succession  of  great 
orators  lent  lustre  to  the  reign  of 
George  III.  In  the  United  States,  the 
revolutionary  period,  and  the  period  of 
rapid  national  growth,  produced  a  bril- 
liant series  of  orators,  culminating  in 
the  classic  triad,  Clay,  Webster,  and 
Calhoun.  At  present  oratory  may  be 
considered  a  draining  art,  especially 
as  related  to  secular  affairs;  and, 
though  its  power  over  the  multitude 
may  still  be  felt  in  electoral  campaigns, 
its  influence  in  legislative  bodies  has 
largely  passed  away.  See  ORATORY; 
and,  for  the  great  orators  of  all 
ages: 

GREEK : 
Pericles 
Gorgias 
Isocrates 
Lysias 
Andocides 
Lsaeus 
^Eschines 
Demosthenes 
Athanasius 
Chrysostom 
Basil  the  Great 

ROMAN : 

Cato  of  Utica 
Hortensius 
Cicero 
Ambrose 


124 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


FRENCH  : 
Bossuet 
Bourdaloue 
Massillon 
Fenelon 
Mirabeau 
Barnave 
Vergniaud 
Guadet 
Danton 
Robespierre 
Royer-Collard 
Lamurtine 
Lacordaire 
Thiers 
Gambetta 
Jaures,  J.  L 

ITALIAN  : 

Mazzini 
SPANISH  : 

Castelar 
HUNGARIAN  . 

Kossuth 

ENGLISH  : 

Taylor,  Jeremy 

Baxter,  Richard 

Whitefield 

Mansfield 

Burke 

Pitt,  the  Elder 

Pitt,  the  Younger 

Fox,  C.  J. 

Sheridan,  R.  B. 

Erskine,  Lord 

Canning 

Bright,  John 

Gladstone 

Drummond,  Henry 

Spurgeon,  C.  H. 

IRISH  : 
Curran 
Grattan 


O'Conneil 
Emmet 

AMERICAN  : 
Otis,  James 
Henry,  Patrick 
Lee,  Richard  Henry 
Ames,  Fisher 
Channing,  W.  E. 
Randolph,  John 
Wirt,  William 
Benton 
Clay 
Webster 
Calhoun 
Hayne 
Everett 
Choate,  Rufus 
Seward,  W.  H. 
Sumner,  Charles 
Stephens,  Alexander 
BecchiT,  H.  W. 
Douglas,  Stephen  A. 
Evarts,  W.  M. 
Edmunds,  George 
Conkling,  Roscoe 
Ingersoll,  Robert 
Brooks,  Phillips 
Bryan,  William  Jennings 
Choate,  Joseph  H. 

8.  THE  FABLE. 

Probably  it  was  the  inhabitants  of 
India  who  first  ascribed  human  wisdom 
and  language  to  animals.  From  India 
the  fable  passed  westward,  and,  begin- 
ning with  the  Greek  ^Esop,  we  find 
practically  the  same  scheme  and  con- 
tents in  all  European  fabulists.  See: 
INDIA  : 

Pancatantra 

Bidpai 

ARABIAN  : 
Lokman 


LANGUAGE    AND     LITERATURE 


125 


GREEK : 

JSsop 
LATIN  : 

Phiedrus 

FRENCH  : 
Marot 

La  Fontaine 
Perrault 
Florian 
Laboulaye 

RUSSIAN  : 
Krylov 

GERMAN  : 

Hagedorn 

Gellert 

Leasing 

Grimm 
NORWEGIAN  : 

Asbjornsen 

Moe 
DANISH  : 

Andersen 

ENGLISH  : 
Gay 

9.  PERSONAL  LITERATURE. 

This  name  may  be  applied  to  such 
productions  as  diaries,  memoirs,  letters, 
and  "  confessions  "  of  distinguished 
men  and  women,  or  men  and  women 
whose  experiences  in  life  have  been  ex- 
traordinary. Written,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed, for  the  purpose  of  self-expres- 
sion, they  arc  valuable  indexes  of 
character,  motives,  and  causes.  See: 

Letters  in  Literature 

Aurelius,  Marcus:  Meditations 

Augustine :  Confessions 

Sevigne,  Marquise  de 

Saint-Simon :  Memoires 

Rousseau :  Confessions 

Senancour :  Obermann 


Amiel 

Selden :  Table  Talk 

Pepys 

Evelyn 

Walpole,  Horace 

Chesterfield 

10.  JOURNALISM. 

The  press,  which  must  be  regarded 
as  an  important  element  in  the  literary 
life  of  any  nation,  may  be  studied  un- 
der the  following  heads : 

Periodical   Literature 

Journalism,  College 

Newspaper 

Punch 

Figaro 

Times,  The 

Printing 

A  partial  list  of  noteworthy  names  in 
journalism  is  as  follows : 
About,  Edmond 
Blowitz,  Henri  Georges 
Bonner,  Robert 
Bowles,  Samuel 
Creelman,  James 
Curtis,  W.  E. 
Dana,  C.  A. 
Forbes,  Archibald 
Godkin,  E.  L. 
Grech'y,  Horace 
Halstead,   Murat 
Harden,  Maximilian 
Krnnun,  George 
Labouchorc,  Henry 
Lemon,   Mark 
Norman,  Henry 
Northcliffe,  Lord 
Pulitzer,  Joseph 
Raymond,  H.  J. 
Reid,  Whitelaw 
Rochefort,  Henri 
Russell,  W.  H. 
Sala,  G.  A.  H. 


126 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


Smalley,  G.  W. 
Stanley,  H.  M. 
Stead,  W.  T. 
Steevens,  G.  W. 
Taylor,  Bavard 
Traill,  H.  i). 
Villiers,  F. 
Watterson,  Henry 
Weed,  Thurlow 
White,  Horace 
Wilkinson,  H.  S. 
Young,  J.  R. 

11.    MlSCEI/LANEOUS  TlTLES. 

Manuscript 

Manuscripts,  Illumination  of 


Papyrus 

Palimpsest 

Paleography 

Codex 

Coster 

Gutenberg 

Fust 

Elzevir 

Manutius 

Foulis 

Encyclopaedia 

Dictionary 

Larousse 

Brockhaus 

Copyright 

Literary  Property 


10.    (ftp  3Fttu>  Aria 


THE  study  of  the  fine  arts  may  be  approached  from  one  of  three 
different  points  of  view.  The  first  of  these  is  the  historical,  in 
which  the  student  desires  to  obtain  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
art  of  a  nation  or  of  an  entire  period,  its  general  characteristics 
and  development.  Another  is  the  artistic,  in  which  knowledge  of 
a  particular  art  or  of  some  of  its  aspects  is  desired.  A  third  is  the  biographical, 
in  which  the  interest  centres  about  an  individual  artist.  To  meet  the  first  point 
of  view,  the  New  International  Encyclopaedia  contains  general  articles  treating 
the  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  and  minor  arts  of  certain  nations  and  periods. 
These  general  articles  may  best  be  divided  into  two  groups :  those  treating  the  art 
of  Oriental  nations,  whose  artistic  devlopment  is  remotely  or  not  at  all  concerned 
with  the  general  European  evolution ;  and  those  dealing  with  the  great  periods  of 
artistic  development  participated  in  by  the  Occident  in  general.  This  division 
obviates  the  necessity  for  general  articles  on  the  art  of  separate  European  coun- 
tries, as,  for  instance,  French  art,  which  will  be  found  treated  under  ROMAN- 
ESQUE, GOTHIC,  and  RENAISSANCE  ART,  and  in  the  general  articles  ARCHITEC- 
TURE, SCULPTURE,  PAINTING.  The  artist's  point  of  view  is  represented  by 
general  articles  on  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture,  and  by  articles  on  the 
various  schools,  and  on  technical  terms  and  processes.  The  biographical  side  is 
fully  dealt  with  in  the  lives  of  all  the  principal  artists.  The  art  museums  are 
usually  described  under  the  titles  of  the  cities  in  which  they  are  situated ;  but  a 
few  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  require  separate  articles.  The  principal 
schools  of  design  are  described  in  the  general  article  upon  that  subject  and  in 
special  articles  on  the  more  important  schools.  The  description  of  celebrated 
representations  in  painting  and  sculpture  is  usually  given  in  the  biography  of 
the  artist  who  produced  them.  The  article  MYTHOLOGY  IN  ART  gives  a  general 
treatment  of  such  representations  in  Classic  Art,  which  are  further  treated  under 
the  names  of  the  subjects  represented,  as  JUPITER,  HERCULES,  ACHILLES.  The 
article  ICONOGRAPHY  similarly  treats  Christian  Art,  and  there  arc  special  articles 
on  a  number  of  important  themes  of  artistic  treatment,  such  as  CHRIST  IN  ART  and 
MADONNA. 

A.   <8?tt*ral  Aritrtes 

I.  INTRODUCTORY:  Assyrian  Art 

Art  Jewish  Art 

Art,  Primitive  Phoenician  Art 

^Esthetics  Mohammedan  Art 

Persian  Art 

II.  ORIENTAL  ART:  Indian  Art 

Egyptian  Al*  Chinese  Art 

Babylonian  Art  Japanese  Art 


128 


ARCHITECTURE 


III.  EUEOPEAN  DEVELOPMENT: 

Greek  Art 
Etruria 
Roman  Art 
Christian  Art 
Byzantine  Art 
Monastic  Art 
Romanesque  Art 
Lombard  Art 
Gothic  Art 
Renaissance  Art 


IV.  ART    MUSEUMS,    SOCIETIES,   AND 
SCHOOLS : 

Design,  Schools  of 

Ecole  des  Beaux- Arts 

National  Academy  of  Design 

Society  of  American  Artists 

Royal  Academy  of  Arts 

Saint  Luke,  Academy  of 

British  Museum 

Louvre 

Luxembourg  Palace 

Pitti  Palace 

Uffizi 


B. 


In  its  widest  sense,  Architecture  in- 
cludes any  kind  of  construction ;  but, in 
the  New  International  Encyclopedia, 
the  term  is  usually  restricted  to  build- 
ing which  attains  the  dignity  of  art. 
Purely  technical  and  utilitarian  phases 
of  architecture  are  treated  under 
BUILDING,  FIREPROOF  CONSTRUCTION, 
MASONRY,  and  similar  titles.  (See  the 
chapter  on  Manufactures  and  Engi- 
neering.) The  three  principal  vari- 
eties of  architecture  are  civil,  religious, 
and  military;  and  under  these  heads 
will  be  found  their  chief  subdivisions. 
A  few  of  these  call  for  more  detailed 
treatment  of  the  component  parts, 
and  these  are  best  enumerated  below 
in  connection  with  that  style  under 
which  they  were  principally  devel- 
oped; as,  for  instance,  TEMPLE 
under  Greek  Architecture,  CHURCH 
under  Early  Christian,  MONASTERY 
and  CASTLE  under  Romanesque.  Most 
celebrated  works  of  architecture  are 
treated  in  the  articles  on  those  cities  in 
which  they  are  situated ;  but  a  number 
of  buildings  of  especial  interest  are 


treated  separately,  and  in  the  following 
scheme  of  study,  such  buildings  are 
enumerated  under  the  different  styles  of 
architecture  of  which  they  are  repre- 
sentative. For  example,  PARTHENON, 
ERECHTHEUM,  etc.,  appear  under 
Greek  Architecture,  NOTRE  DAME  DE 
PARIS  and  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY  under 
Gothic. 

I.  CIVIL  ARCHITECTURE  : 

Municipal  Architecture 

Forum 

Palace 

Fountain 

Villa 

Mausoleum 

Theatre 

Amphitheatre 

Circus 

Bath 

Town  Hall 

Arch,  Triumphal 

Aqueduct 

Bridge 

II.  RELIGIOUS  ARCHITECTUEE  : 

Temple 


ARCHITECTURE 


129 


Church 

Cathedral 

Monastery 

Oratory 

Baptistery 

HI.  MILITARY  ARCHITECTURE: 

Acropolis 

Citadel 

Castle 

Camp 

Fortification 

IV.  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 

A  large  number  of  architectural 
terms  deserve  special  treatment.  Some 
of  these,  which  are  general  in  their  ap- 
plication, are  enumerated  below,  while 
others,  the  application  of  which  is  re- 
stricted to  a  particular  style,  arc  enu- 
merated under  that  style ;  as,  for  exam- 
ple, MOSQUE  under  Mohammedan. 
See: 

Arabesque 

Arcade 

Arch 

Balcony 

Balustrade 

Bay  Window 

Belfry 

Ceiling 

Colonnade 

Column 

Cupola 

Dome 

Door 

Doorway 

Fa?ade 

Floor 

Hall 

Molding 

Orders  of  Architecture 

Ornament 

Panel 


Pendentive 

Pilaster 

Pillar 

Porch 

Portal 

Roof 

Spire 

Tower 

Tracery 

Window 

V.  HISTORIC  STYLES  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 

Architecture  is  the  most  ancient  and, 
perhaps,  the  most  important  of  the  fine 
arts.  In  most  artistic  developments, 
both  painting  and  sculpture  have  been 
subordinate  to  it.  Its  historical  treat- 
ment, therefore,  forms  an  extensive  and 
important  part  of  the  general  depart- 
ment of  architecture  in  the  Encyclo- 
pedia. A  general  historical  sketch  of  its 
development,  from  the  most  ancient  times 
to  the  present,  is  given  in  the  article 
ARCHITECTURE.  This  should  be  supple- 
mented \>y  the  copious  articles  on  the 
great  historic  styles,  with  the  biograph- 
ical additions  given  in  the  following1 
list.  Our  treatment  will  outline  the 
salient  features  of  the  different  styles, 
beginning  with  those  Oriental  nations 
whose  architecture  lies  remote  from  the 
European  development — such  as  China, 
India,  and  Japan.  We  then  proceed  to 
those  ancient  nations,  like  Babylonia 
and  Egypt,  which  materially  influenced 
the  Greek  architecture.  From  Greek 
architecture,'  is  descended  the  Roman, 
and  from  the  Roman,  the  Mediaeval  and 
Renaissance  styles,  and  finally  the  ar- 
chitecture of  the  present  day. 

1.  India. 

The  architecture  of  India  begins  with 
the  Buddhist  style  (B.  c.  300-A.  D. 


130 


ARCHITECTURE 


700),  whose  buildings  are  of  three 
classes:  stupa  or  tope  (a  mound  en- 
closing a  relic) ;  rock  temples  (chai- 
ty as );  and  monasteries  (viharas).  The 
Nco-Brahmanic  style  (beginning  A.  D. 
700)  comprises  many  varieties,  includ- 
ing the  so-called  Jaina  and  Dravidian. 
It  developed  the  architectural  detail, 
the  over-rich  ornamentation,  the  pago- 
das and  gopuras  of  the  South.  The 
Mohammedan  architecture  of  India, 
differing  materially  from  these  styles, 
is  best  treated  under  MOHAMMEDAN 
ART.  See : 

Indian  Art 

Tope 

Vihara 

Ellora 

Vijayanagara 

Boro  Buddor 

Elephanta 

Mohammedan  Art 

8.  China  and  Japan. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of 
Chinese  architecture,  which  begins  in 
the  first  century  B.  c.,  after  the  advent 
of  Buddhism,  is  the  tiled  roof  of  tent- 
like  form.  Others  are  the  pagoda,  the 
pail-loo  (a  monumental  gateway),  and 
elaborately  colored  surface  decoration. 
Japanese  architecture,  which  begins 
with  the  seventh  century  A.  D.,  is  even 
less  massive.  It  makes  more  of  timber 
construction,  and  spends  more  upon 
roof  effects  than  the  Chinese.  See  : 

Chinese  Art  * 

Japanese  Art 
Pagoda 

3.  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

The  earliest  dated  architectural  re- 
mains are  those  of  the  Babylonians,  from 
as  far  back  as  u.  c.  6000.  Their  build- 


ing material  was  brick,  and  they  were 
the  first  to  construct  vaults  and  arches. 
Their  most  important  buildings  were 
the  temples,  which  were  stepped  pyra- 
mids of  great  height,  brilliantly  col- 
ored with  glazed  tiles.  Their  city  walls 
were  of  amazing  height  and  thickness. 
Assyrian  architecture  was  derived 
from  the  Babylonian,  but  was  more  sec- 
ular in  character,  the  chief  buildings 
being  the  royal  palaces,  in  which  it  per- 
fected decorative  relief  sculpture  of  a 
high  order.  See : 

(a)     Babylonian  Art 

Babylon 

Babel,  Tower  of 

Nippur 

Ercch 

Ur 
(6)     Assyrian  Art 

Nineveh 

Nirnrud 

Khorsabad 

Koy  un  j  ik 

4.  Persia,  Phccnkia,  Judea. 

The  Baby  Ionian- Assyrian  influence 
was  determinative  for  the  architecture 
of  the  Hittites,  and  for  the  utilitarian 
art  of  the  Phoenicians,  who  built  for 
Solomon  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 
Ancient  Persian  architecture  shows  a 
mingling  of  Babylonian  with  Egyptian 
and  Greek  influences;  but,  under  the 
Parthian  and  Sassanian  dynasties,  it 
reverted  to  purer  Oriental  types.  See: 

Hittites 

Phoenician  Art 

Jewish  Art 

Temple  at  Jerusalem 

Persian  Art 

Ecbatana 

Susa 


ARCHITECTURE 


181 


Pasargadae 
Firuzabad 

5.  Egypt. 

The  architectural  monuments  of  the 
Old  Empire  (B.  c.  4500-2160)  are 
chiefly  sepulchral — pyramids,  masta- 
bas,  and  tomb-temples.  Temple  archi- 
tecture took  on  a  new  development  with 
the  Middle  Empire  (B.  c.  2160-1788), 
and  attained  its  highest  development 
under  the  New  Empire  (B.  c.  1588- 
1150),  which  followed  the  disastrous 
interruption  of  the  Ilyksos  invasion. 
After  a  long  decline,  there  was  a  bril- 
liant revival  under  the  Ptolemies  in  the 
third  century  B.  c.  The  temples  were 
often,  like  the  Ramesseum,  sepulchral ; 
some  were  rock-cut,  as  at  Abu-SimbcI; 
some  partly  hewn  and  partly  con- 
structed, as  at  Deir-el-Bahri.  The 
greatest  temples  are  those  of  Karnak, 
Luxor,  Medinet-IIabu,  Abydos,  the 
Raniusseum,  and  the  Ptolemaee  and  Ro- 
man temples  of  Deriderah,  Philne,  and 
Edfu.  For  descriptions,  consult  the 
section  Architecture,  under  EGYPTIAN 
ART.  Sec : 

Egyptian  Art 

Pyramid 

Mastaba 

Medum 

Luxor 

Thebes 

Karnak 

Edfu 

Elephantine 

Abu-Simbel 

Deir-el-Bahri 

Ramesseum 

Mcdinet  Haou 

Dcndcrah 

Phil® 

Bern-Hassan 


6.  Greece. 

The  Mycenaean  architecture  in  Greek 
lands,  sometimes  known  as  the  JSgean 
style,  is  described  under  ARCHEOLOGY, 
and  in  the  articles  on  the  principal  sites 
of  this  culture.  From  the  main  hall  of 
the  Mycenaean  palace  was  evolved  that 
marvelous  structural  masterpiece,  the 
Greek  Temple,  the  final  type  of  which 
appears  in  the  seventh  century  B.  c. 
For  a  description  of  this  temple,  which 
is  the  central  figure  of  Greek  architec- 
ture, consult  GREEK  ART.  The  origin 
and  development  of  the  two  principal 
styles  of  temple  architecture,  Doric 
and  Ionic,  are  treated  under  ARCHITEC- 
TURE and  ARCHAEOLOGY.  The  earliest 
examples  of  the  Doric  arc  in  Sicily  and 
Southern  Italy,  and  it  attained  perfec- 
tion during  the  fifth  century,  in  build- 
ings like  the  Parthenon  and  Theseum 
at  Athens,  and  in  the  temples  of  Paes- 
tum.  The  Ionic  order  was  increasingly 
used  in  the  fourth  century  B.  c.,  as  at 
Miletus  and  Ephesus,  the  Corinthian 
being  as  yet  used  for  small  monuments 
only.  The  Hellenistic  age  saw  a  great 
development  of  architecture  of  a  pri- 
vate, civil,  and  sepulchral  character, 
like  the  stoa,  propylaea,  theatre,  odooii, 
and  mausoleum. 

(a)  General  Titles : 

Cyclopean  Architecture 

Archaeology 

Greek  Art 

Temple 

Doric  Order 

Ionic  Order 

Corinthian  Order 

Column 

Fluting 

Entablature 

Base 


182 


ARCHITECTURE 


Pediment 

Frieze 

Cornice 

Acanthus 

Paestum 

Agrigcntum 

Selinus 

Segcsta 

Parthenon 

Theseum 

Erectheum 

Phigalia 

Miletus 

Diana,  Temple  of 

Teos 

Magnesia 

(b)  Civil  Architecture: 

Propylaea 

Stoa 

Colonnade 

Stadium 

Theatre 

Mausoleum 

Choragic  Monument 

(c)  Biography : 

Ictinus 

Callicrates 

Mnesicles 

7.  Rome. 

For  a  general  view  of  Roman  archi- 
tecture, the  student  is  referred  to  RO- 
MAN ART.  The  early  architecture  of 
Rome  is  practically  Etruscan,  and  to 
this  people  the  Romans  owe  their  knowl- 
edge of  vaulting  and  the  arch.  At  the 
close  of  the  republican  epoch,  they 
adopted  Greek  orders,  evincing  special 
preference  for  the  Corinthian,  which 
they  developed  into  an  independent  or- 
der, and  from  which  they  evolved  the 
so-called  composite.  These  forms  were 
decoratively  used  as  adjuncts  of  con- 


struction. The  principal  works  of  Ro- 
man architecture  were  great  civil  struc- 
tures, like  the  fora,  triumphal  arches, 
amphitheatres,  thermae,  aqueducts,  be- 
sides many  superb  temples.  The  high- 
est development  was  during  the  first  150 
years  of  the  empire,  after  which  came 
the  decline.  Sec: 

(a)     Etruria  (section  on  Art) 
Cloaca 
Roman  Art 
Aqueduct 
Tabularium 
Forum 

Trajan,  Forum  of 
Basilica 
Pantheon 
Theatre 
Amphitheatre 
Arch,  Triumphal 
Trajan,  Arch  of 
Titus,  Arch  of 
Constantino,  Arch  of 
Septimius  Scverus,  Arch  of 
Antonine  Column 
Caracalla,  Baths  of 
Diocletian,  Baths  of 
Tivoli 
Pompeii 
Herculaneum 
Baalbek 
Palmyra 

(ft)   Biography: 
Apollodorus 

8.  Early  Christian. 

Early  Christian  architecture  is  an 
adaptation  of  the  declining  Roman  to 
the  needs  of  Christian  worship.  The 
requirement  was  a  large  interior  for 
many  worshipers,  resulting  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  basilical  construction, 
which  became  typical  for  church  build- 


ARCHITECTURE 


183 


ing.  The  component  part*  of  the  ba- 
silica are  discussed  in  the  articles  listed 
below  under  Basilical  Construction. 
The  article  CHURCH  gives  the  general 
development  of  the  church  building. 
To  this  is  added  a  list  of  other  tonns 
of  ecclesiastical  architecture. 

(a)   Basilical  Construction : 
Basilica 
Apse 
Transept 
Atrium 
Nave 
Altar 
Choir 
Confessional 

(6)   Church,  etc.: 
Church 
Catacombs 
Chancel 
Chapel 
Crypt 
Font 
Reredos 
Sacristy 

9.  Byzantine. 

In  the  eastern  half  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  Byzantines  developed  the 
domical  construction,  inventing  the 
pendentives  to  support  the  dome.  By- 
zantine architecture  was  also  character- 
ized by  rich  mosaic  decoration.  Its 
great  masterpieces  are  the  Church  of 
Saint  Sophia  at  Constantinople  and 
Saint  Mark's  at  Venice.  It  prevailed 
throughout  the  Eastern  Empire  until 
its  destruction  by  the  Turks ;  in  South- 
ern Italy,  Sicily, Venice, and  Ravenna; 
in  Armenia,  the  Balkans,  and  wherever 
else  the  Greek  Church  prevailed.  Rus- 
sian architecture  is  a  development  of 
the  Byzantine*  See : 

Byzantine  Art 


Mosaic 

Dome 

Pendentive 

Saint  Sophia 

Saint  Mark's  Church 

Anthemius   (of  Tralles) 

10.  Mohammedan. 

Coincident  with  the  Mohamme<lan 
conquests,  a  style  of  architecture  arose 
based  upon  the  Byzantine  and  Persian. 
Its  golden  age  began  with  the  tenth 
century,  and  the  final  types  were  at- 
tained in  the  eleventh.  The  ultimate 
type  of  the  mosque  was  built  on  the 
court-plan,  with  pointed  arches,  highly 
colored  geometrical  ornament,  and  dome 
vaulting.  The  principal  schools*  were 
the  Moorish  (Spain),  Egyptian,  Turk- 
ish, Persian,  and  the  Mohammedan 
styles  that  grew  up  in  India.  All 
these  are  described  in  MOHAMMEDAN 
ART,  besides  which  there  are  articles 
upon  the  most  prominent  features  of 
Mohammedan  architecture.  See: 

Mohammedan   Art 

Mosque 

Minaret 

Tekiye 

Bazar 

Caravanserai 

Alhambra 

Taj  Mahal 

11.  Romanesque   (A.   D.   800-1200). 
In    Middle    and    Western    Europe, 

Early  Christian  architecture  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Romanesque,  which  was 
pre-eminently  the  art  of  the  monastic 
orders  and  of  feudalism.  Among  its 
innovations  were  the  cruciform  plan, 
the  developed  crypt,  and  the  incorpora- 
tion of  bell-towers  with  the  church 
building.  But  the  principal  achieve- 


184 


ARCHITECTURE 


ment  of  Romanesque  architecture  was 
the  perfection  of  vaulting, — the  dome 
and  tunnel  vault  in  Southern  France, 
and  the  groined  vault  in  Lombardy,  the 
Rhinelands,  Normandy,  and  England. 
It  thus  led  the  way  to  the  development 
of  the  pointed  arch  and  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. The  basis  of  the  study  of  Ro- 
manesque architecture  should  be  the 
appropriate  section  of  ROMANESQUE 
ART.  Sec: 

Romanesque  Art 

Lombard  Art 

Norman  Architecture 

Vault 

Crypt 

Bell-Tower 

Castle 

Keep 

Bailey 

Tower 

Bastion 

Barbican 

Wartburg 

Monastery 

Cloister 

Chapter-house 

Dormitory 

12.  Gothic. 

Gothic  architecture  is  the  develop- 
ment of  Romanesque  groined  vaulting. 
By  means  of  the  pointed  arch,  the  most 
characteristic  feature  of  the  system,  the 
vertical  strains  are  concentrated  in 
powerful  piers,  the  horizontal  thrusts 
on  flying  buttresses,  permitting  light 
walls,  huge  windows  and  an  infinite 
wealth  of  statuary  and  tracery.  Gothic 
architecture  originated  in  France  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  there  it  also  at- 
tained its  most  perfect  development  in 
the  thirteenth,  declining  into  the  Flam- 
boyant style  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


Spanish  Gothic  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury is  second  only  to  the  French, 
though  later  debased  by  too  much  orna- 
ment. In  England,  a  peculiarly  na- 
tional style  arose,  which  should  be 
studied  under  the  headings  by  which 
three*  varieties  are  usually  known, 
EARLY  ENGLISH,  DECORATED,  and 
PERPENDICULAR.  At  its  best,  the 
German  Gothic  is  noted  for  its  beauti- 
ful tracery  and  spires.  In  Italy,  the 
Gothic  style  is  purely  decorative,  and 
it  produced  a  charming  style  of  civic 
buildings,  especially  in  Tuscany  and 
Venice.  The  basis  of  study  should  be 
th<*  article,  GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE, 
supplemented  by  the  articles  on  special 
churches,  and  the  descriptions  in  the 
articles  on  the  cities,  a  few  of  which 
arc  appended.  See: 

(a)     Gothic  Architecture 
Vault 

Flamboyant 
Early  English 
Decorated  Style 
Perpendicular 
Fan-Tracery  Vaulting 
Notre  Dame  de  Paris 
Sainte  Chapelle 
Westminster  Abbey 
Santa  Croce 

(6)   Cathedral  Cities: 
Rheims 
Amiens 
Burgos 
Lincoln 
Salisbury 
York 

Canterbury 
Winchester 
Cologne 
Strassburg 
Nuremburg 


ARCHITECTURE 


185 


Freiburg 

Milan 

Florence 

Siena 

Orvieto 

(c)   Biography : 

Montreuil,  Pierre  de 

William  of  Wykeham 

Erwin 

Arnolfo  di  Cambio 

13.  Renaissance. 

(a)  Italy. 

Renaissance  architecture  is  the 
adaptation  of  classical  forms,  as  they 
survived  in  Roman  remains,  to  the 
architectural  needs  of  the  day.  The 
Early  Renaissance  (fifteenth  century) 
originated  in  the  works  of  Brunellcschi 
at  Florence,  whence  it  was  introduced 
into  the  rest  of  Italy.  Its  work  was 
decorative  in  character,  the  construc- 
tive side  being  rather  developed  by  the 
Roman  school,  headed  by  Bramante. 
The  tendency  was  increasingly  towards 
the  formal  classicism  evinced  in  the 
works  of  Palladio  and  Vignola.  As  a 
reaction,  came  the  freer  but  exagger- 
ated Barocco  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  The  basis  of 
study  should  be  the  section  Architec- 
ture, under  RENAISSANCE  ART. 

(i)   Prominent  Buildings: 

Ccrtosa 

Doge's  Palace 

Pitti  Palace 

Lante,  Villa 

\  ilia,  Giulia 

Saint  Peter's  Church 

(ii)  Biography: 

Brunellcschi,  Filippo 
Michelozzi,  Michelozzo 


Alberti,  Leone  Battista 

Giuliano  da  Majano 

Laurana,  Luciano  da 

Sangallo 

Bramante,  Donato  d'Agnolo 

Pcruzzi,  Baldassarc 

Sansovino,  Jacopo 

Michelangelo 

Vignola,  Giacomo  Barozzo  da 

Palladio,  Andrea 

Serlio,  Sebastiano 

Scarnozzi,  Vincenzo 

Fontana,  Domenico 

Maderna,  Carlo 

Bernini,  Giovanni  Lorenzo 

Borromini,  Francesco 

Ammanati,  Bartolommco 

Longhena,  Baldassarc 

(6)  Other  Countries. 

Outside  of  Italy,  the  most  important 
development  of  Renaissance  architec- 
ture was  the  French.  Its  most  original 
type  was  the  mediaeval  castle  trans- 
formed into  the  palace  of  the  Renais- 
sance. There  was  constant  influence 
from  Italy,  but  the  later  French  Ba- 
rocco is  superior  to  the  Italian.  In 
Germany,  the  Gothic  elements  survived 
late,  and  materially  influenced  the  in- 
coming Renaissance.  A  similar  devel- 
opment occurred  in  other  European 
countries.  Spain  made  use  of  much 
elaborate  decorative  detail.  The  Ren- 
aissance appeared  latest  of  all  in  Eng- 
land in  the  seventeenth  century.  A 
kind  of  Palladian  High  Renaissance, 
adopted  by  Inigo  Jones,  and  developed 
by  Wren,  retained  a  purifying  influ- 
ence during  the  eighteenth  century,  un- 
til the  advent  of  classic  revival. 

(i)  France: 
Palace 
Chambigcs,  Martin 


186 


ARCHITECTURE 


Bullant,  Jean 

De  rOrme,  Philibert 

Lescot,  Pierre 

Brosse,  Salomon  de 

Mansart 

Fontainebleau 

Louvre 

Tuileries 

Luxembourg  Palace 

(ii)  Great  Britain : 
Jones,  Inigo 
Wren,  Sir  Christopher 
Van  Brugh,  Sir  John 
Hawksmoor,  Nicholas 
Chambers,  Sir  William 
Nash,  Sir  John 
Dance,  George 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral 
Whitehall 

14.  Nineteenth  Century. 

The  reaction  against  the  exagger- 
ated styles  of  the  eighteenth  century 
was  an  imitation  of  classical  forms.  In 
France,  Roman  forms  were  predomi- 
nant in  the  great  structures  of  the  Re- 
public and  first  Empire;  but,  in  Eng- 
land and  Germany,  Greek  forms  were 
more  closely  followed.  About  1830 
came  the  Gothic  revival,  which  attained 
especial  development  in  England,  in 
such  buildings  as  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment and  numberless  churches.  The 
present  tendency  is  towards  Renais- 
sance forms  and  greater  freedom  from 
tradition. 

The  tasteful  colonial  architecture  of 
the  United  States  followed  English 
models,  but  the  early  republic  adopted 
the  classic  revival  (Capitol).  The 
period  of  the  Civil  War  (till  1870) 
was  singularly  unfruitful ;  but  between 
1870  and  1880  there  was  a  revival  of 
the  artistic  spirit.  The  problem  of 


the  artistic  treatment  of  the  skyscraper 
with  the  steel-frame  construction  is  as 
yet  unsolved ;  but  constant  improvement 
is  being  made.  The  basis  of  study 
should  be  the  section  on  the  Nineteenth 
Century. 

(a)  France: 

Soufflot,  Jacques  Germain 
Pcrcier,  Charles 
Fontaine,  P.  F.  L. 
Viollet-le-Duc 
Visconti,  L.  T.  J. 
Gamier,  J.  L.  C. 

(6)  Germany  and  Austria: 
Gartner,  Friedrich  von 
Schinkel,  Karl  Friedrich 
Klenze,  Leo  von 
Hansen,  Theophilus  von 
Semper,  Gottfried 

(c)  Great  Britain: 

Soane,  Sir  John 
Smirke,  Sir  Robert 
Pugin,  Augustus 
Pugin,  Augustus  N.  M. 
Wyatt,  Sir  Matthew  D. 
Fergusson,  James 
Scott,  Sir  George  Gilbert 
Street,  George  Edmund 
Barry,  Sir  Charles 
Waterhouse,  Alfred 
Paxton,  Sir  Joseph 
Parliament,  Houses  of 

(d)  United  States: 

Latrobe,  Benjamin  Henry 
Bulfinch,  Charles 
Walter,  Thomas  Ustick 
Renwick,  James 
Upjohn,  Richard 
Hunt,  Richard  Morris 
Richardson,  H.  H. 
McKim,  Charles  F. 


II.   3H)e  Jfinc 

(Sculpture  anil  fainting) 


(Read  general  introduction  at  the  opening  of  preceding  chapter.) 

A.   Sculpture 


The  study  of  sculpture  centres  about 
the  general  article  on  that  subject.  IP 
this  article  will  be  found  sections  on 
the  technical  processes  and  materials, 
especially  the  modern,  and  on  the  dif- 
ferent forms  of  sculpture,  and  a  sketch 
of  the  history  of  sculpture,  containing 
a  description  of  the  characteristics  and 
the  development  of  the  different 
schools,  as  revealed  in  their  principal 
artists.  The  study  of  the  technical 
forms  and  processes  of  sculpture  should 
be  supplemented  by  the  special  articles 
enumerated  below,  which  also  contain 
historical  sketches  of  these  subjects; 
that  of  the  history  by  those  on  the 
different  schools  and  epochs  of  art,  and 
above  all  by  the  biographies  of  the  ar- 
tists, some  of  which  arc  enumerated 
below. 

I.  BRANCHES     AND     TECHNIQUE     OF 

SCULPTURE. 
Carving 
('basing 
Founding" 
Relief  Sculpture 
Equestrian  Statue 
Bronze 

Chryselephantine 
Goldsmith's  Work 
Terra  Cotta 
Ivory 

Metal  Work 
Wood-carving* 
Stucco 

II.  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  SCULPTURE. 
The  sculpture  of  Oriental  countries 


is  decorative  in  character,  and  therefore 
best  considered  in  connection  with  their 
architecture,  under  the  titles  of  the  di- 
vision Oriental  Art,  enumerated  in 
Chapter  9,  Section  A.  Among  the 
Greeks,  sculpture  first  attained  the  dig- 
nity of  an  independent  art,  and 
achieved  the  highest  ideal  perfection 
in  the  world's  history.  The  study  of 
the  separate  epochs  of  Greek  sculpture 
should  be  based  upon  the  articles 
ARCHEOLOGY  and  GREEK  ART.  Its 
rude  beginnings  date  from  the  seventh 
century  B.  c\,  and  by  the  end  of  the 
archaic  period  (B.  c.  4-80)  the  eman- 
cipation Has  well  advanced.  The  At- 
tic period  (480-388),  during  which 
the  chief  art  centre  was  at  Athens,  wit- 
nessed the  highest  development  of 
Greek  art.  It  is  ushered  in  by  a  period 
of  transition  (till  about  450),  in  which 
great  progress  uas  made  towards  mas- 
tery of  technique.  Tin1  last  half  of 
the  fifth  century,  the  age  of  Phidias, 
begins  tin-  golden  period  of  Greek  art. 
The  greatest  technical  knowledge  was 
subordinated  to  idealism  and  self- 
restraint,  and  to  the  utmost  nobility  of 
conception.  The  golden  age  continued 
during  the  epoch  of  Praxiteles  and 
Scopas,  which,  though  still  ideal,  was 
more  realistic  and  interested  in  indi- 
vidual traits  and  features.  It  suc- 
ceeded especially  well  in  portraiture, 
and  attained  the  highest  mastery  of 
technique.  During  the  Hellenistic  age 
(823-146),  the  centres  of  art  passed 
from  Greece  to  Asia  and  Egypt,  to 


137 


138 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


Pergumus,  Rhodes,  and  Alexandria. 
Art  came  more  into  the  service  of  indi- 
viduals, and,  notwithstanding  the  high- 
est technical  skill,  it  often  sought  sen- 
sational or  trivial  subjects.  Roman 
sculpture  is,  for  the  most  part,  copied 
from  the  Greek,  and  shows  little  origi- 
nality except  in  a  fine  realistic  rendition 
of  portraiture,  and  in  pictorial  relief- 
sculpture.  See : 

1.  The  Archaic  Period: 

Archaeology 
Greek  Art 
Antenor 

2.  The  Attic  Period: 

^Eginetan  Sculptures 

Calamis 

Pythagoras  of  Rhegium 

Myron 

Discobolus 

Phidias 

Elgin  Marbles 

Polyclitus 

Agoracritus 

Cresilas 

Paeonius 

Cephisodotus 

Praxiteles 

Demetrius 

Scopas 

Mausoleum 

Marsyas 

3.  The  Hellenistic  Period: 

Lysippus 
Pcrgamon 
Zeus  Atricoli 
Apollo  Belvidere 
Venus  of  Milo 
Laocoon 

4.  The  Roman  Sculpture: 

Section  Sculpture  under  Roman 

Art 
Venus  of  Medici 


III.  MEDLEVAL  SCULPTURE. 

The  decorative  sculpture  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  can  best  be  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  the  architecture  of  the  pe- 
riod, under  the  titles  of  the  mediaeval 
epochs  enumerated  in  Chapter  9,  Sec- 
tion A.  The  history  of  modern  sculp- 
ture begins  with  the  Italian  revival  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  Nicola  Pisuno 
found  his  models  in  the  antique,  but  his 
son  Giovanni  reverted  to  the  Gothic, 
and  his  naturalistic,  dramatic  htyle  pre- 
vailed in  Italy.  The  Pisan  School  was 
the  mother  of  those  of  Florence  and 
Siena.  The  former  was  superior  in 
technique  and  composition,  the  latter 
was  rather  picturesque  and  narrative 
in  character.  During  the  entire  Mid- 
dle Ages,  and  to  some  extent  during 
the  Renaissance,  the  usages  of  Church 
worship  furnished  abundant  oppor- 
tunity for  the  sculptor's  art.  See: 

1.  First     licvival     in     Italy     (under 

Sculpture) 

Christian  Art 
Byzantine  Art 
Romanesque  Art 
Gothic  Art 
Antclami,  Bemlctto 
Pisano,  Nicola 
Pisano,  Giovanni 
Pisano,  Andrea 
Arnolfo  di  Cambio 
Andrea  di  Ugolino 
Orcagna,  Andrea 

2.  Ecclesiastical  Sculpture; 

Altar 

Pulpit 

Ambo 

Cross 

Crucifix 

Reliquary 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


189 


Chalice 
Tomb 

IV.  THE  RENAISSANCE. 

The  sources  of  inspiration  during 
the  Renaissance  were  the  study  of  na- 
ture and  of  the  antique,  as  it  survived 
in  ancient  statues.  The  chief  char- 
acteristic of  the  Early  Renaissance  is 
a  healthy  naturalism.  It  attained  a 
high  perfection,  in  relief  as  in  statu- 
ary, and  excelled  equally  in  bronze, 
marble,  and  terra  cotta.  The  centre  of 
the  art  was  Florence,  and  the  dominant 
figure  during  the  fifteenth  century, 
amid  a  brilliant  array  of  artists,  was 
Donatcllo.  The  school  of  Siena  was 
more  sentimental  in  feeling  and  elab- 
orate in  decoration ;  those  of  Loin- 
bardy  and  Venice  were  luxuriant  in 
decoration,  the  former  being  more 
vigorous  in  form.  The  High  Renais- 
sance is  characterized  by  a  deeper 
knowledge  and  greater  influence  of  the 
antique  and  by  a  more  universal  style, 
notably  in  works  of  its  greatest  master, 
Michelangelo ;  but  these  qualities  after- 
ward degenerated  into  a  mannered  imi- 
tation, and  later  into  the  extrava- 
gances of  the  Baroque. 

The  sculpture  of  France  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  was  at  first  influenced 
by  that  of  Flanders,  but  the  native 
style  soon  became  transformed  by  Ital- 
ian grace  and  beauty.  Even  the 
Baroque  of  the  seventeenth  century 
here  exhibits  a  certain  classical  re- 
straint. During  the  eighteenth  exag- 
gerated form  gave  place  to  the  more 
delicate  and  decorative  treatment  of  the 
Rococo,  which  excelled  especially  in 
statuettes.  A  fine,  healthy  realism  ul- 
timately prevailed.  In  Germany, 
Gothic  forms  lingered  throughout  the 


fifteenth  century,  and  when,  during 
the  sixteenth,  the  Italian  influence 
arrived,  it  was  less  important  than  in 
other  countries  and  confined  to  the 
South,  A  native  naturalistic  art  dom- 
inated the  Netherlands  during  the  fif- 
teenth century,  but,  in  the  seventeenth, 
the  Italian  Baroque  entered,  and,  in 
the  eighteenth,  sculpture  declined.  A 
similar  development  occurred  in  Spain, 
where  wood  sculpture  found  great  em- 
ployment in  altars,  retables,  rercdoses. 
Its  apogee  was  a  realistic  reaction  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  with  centre 
at  Seville.  Sec  Section  The  Renais- 
sance, under  SCULPTUKE. 

1.  Italy: 

(a)  Florence: 

Ghiberti,  Lorenzo 

Donatello 

Michelozzi 

Robbia,  Luca  della 

Verrocchio,  Andrea  del 

Pollaiuolo,  Antonio 

Desiderio  da  Settignano 

Rossellini 

Benedetto  da  Maiano 

Mino  da  Fiesole 

Civitale,  Matteo 

Sansovino,  Andrea 

Michelangelo 

Cellini,  Benvenuto 

Boulogne,  Jean 

(b)  Other  Cities: 

Quercia,  Jacopo  della 
Mazzoni,  Guido 
Solari,  Cristoforo 
Lombardi,  Pietro 
Leopardi,  Alessandro 
Sansovino,  Jacopo 
Leoni,  Leone 

Bernini,  Giovanni  Lorenzo 
Algardi,  Alessandro 


140 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


S.  France: 

Colombe,  Michel 
Goujon,  Jean 
Pilon,  Germain 
Puget,  Pierre 
Coyzevox,  Antoine 
Girardon,  Francois 
Pajou,  Augustin 
Pigalle,  Jean  Baptiste 
Falconnet,  Eticnne 
Michel,  Claude  (Clodion) 
Houdon,  Jean  Antoine 

8.  Germany: 

Wohlgemuth,  Michel 
Stoss,  Veit 
Krafft,  Adam 
Vischer,  Peter 
Riemenschneider,  Tilman 
Syrlin,  Jorz 
Schliiter,  Andreas 
Donncr,  Raphael 

4.  Other  European  Countries: 
Sluter,  Olaux 
Duquesnoy,  Francois 
QuelJinus,  Artus 
Berruguete,  Alfonso 
Montanes,  Martinez 
Cano,  Alonzo 
Gibbons,  Grinling 

V.  MODERN  SCULPTURE. 

The  reaction  upon  the  extrava- 
gances of  Baroque  sculpture,  at  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  took 
the  form  of  a  return  to  classic  simplic- 
ity, and  the  antique  was  imitated  more 
closely  than  ever  before.  In  France, 
this  classicism  was  followed  by  a 
Romantic  tendency,  corresponding  to 
a  similar  movement  in  painting,  and  by 
a  more  important  naturalistic  reaction. 
In  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth 


century,  classicism  and  naturalism  ran 
parallel,  with  an  increasing  influence  of 
the  latter,  which  now  prevails.  Eng- 
land had  a  similar  classical  period,  and 
a  subsequent  transition  to  naturalism; 
but  since  1870  a  great  change,  both  in 
conception  and  treatment,  has  come 
over  English  sculpture  chiefly  through 
the  effort  of  great  English  painters 
and  the  French  influence.  The  Ger- 
man reaction  against  classicism  re- 
sulted in  the  historical  school  of  Ber- 
lin, whose  work  tended  toward  natu- 
ralism, and  in  the  romantic  school  of 
Munich ;  not  until  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  did  naturalism  prevail. 
In  other  European  countries  the  de- 
velopment has  been  similar  to  that  gen* 
eral  evolution  described  above.  After 
some  ineffectual  early  attempts,  Amer- 
ica also  had  its  classical  school,  with 
a  number  of  important  artists.  Since 
the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  tendency  has  been  en- 
tirely naturalistic,  and  an  array  of 
talent  has  appeared  which  compares 
favorably  with  that  of  other  countries. 
See: 

1.  France: 

Pradicr,  James 
David  d'Angcrs 
Rudo,  Franpois 
Baryc,  Antoine  Louis 
Chapu,  Henri  Michel 
Dubois,  Paul 
Mercie,  Antonin 
Barrias,  Ernest 
Bartholdi,  Frederic 
Carpctuix,  Jean  Baptiste 
Fremiet,  Emmanuel 
Dalou,  Jules 
Rodin,  Auguste 
Bartholome,  Paul  Albert 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


141 


2.  England: 

Flaxman,  John 
Westmacott,  Richard 
Gibson,  John 
Stevens,  Alfred 
Foley,  John  Henry 
Woolner,  Thomas 
Watts,  George  Frederick 
Thornycroft,  Hamo 
Brock,  Sir  Thomas 
Ford,  Edward  Onslow 
Gilbert,  Alfred 
Frampton,  Sir  George 
Epstein,  Jacob 

3.  Germany: 

Dannccker,  Johann  Heinrich 
Schadow,  Johann  Gottfried 
Ranch,  Christian 
Hahncl,  Ernst 
Rietschcl,  Ernst 
Schilling,  Johannes 
Sch  wan  thaler,  Ludwig 
Begas,  Reinhold 
Stuck,  Franz 
Klinger,  Max 
Zumbusch,  Kaspar 
Tilgner,  Viktor 
Strasser,   Arthur 
Tuaillon,  Louis 

4.  Other  European  Countries: 

Canova,   Antonio 
Thorvaldsen,  Bertel 
Tenerani,  Pietro 
Marchesi,  Ponipeo 
Dupre,  Giovanni 
Ximenes,  Ettorc 
Sergei,  Johan  Tobias 
Binding,  Stefan 
Antokolski,  Mark 
Troubetzkoi,  Prince  Paul 


5,  United  States: 
(a)  Classicists: 

Greenough,  Horatio 
Powers,  Hiram 
Crawford,  Thomas 
Story,  William  Wetmore 
Rogers,  Randolph 
Rogers,  John 
Rinehart,  William  Henry 
Hosmer,  Harriet 

(6)  Early  Naturalists: 

Palmer,  Erastus  Dow 
Mills,  Clark 
Ball,  Thomas 
Brown,  Henry  Kirke 
Ward,  J.  Q.  A. 
Keyser,  Ephraim 

(c)  Naturalism  Under  French  In- 
fluence : 

Warner,  Olin  Levi 
Saint  Gaudens,  Augustus 
French,  Daniel  Chester 
Macmonnies,  Frederick 
Bitter,  Karl 
Niehaus,  Charles  Henry 
Partridge,  William  Ordway 
Dallin,  Cyrus  Edwin 
Proctor,  A.  Phimister 
Kemcys,  Edward 
Bartlott,  Paul 
Barnard,  George  Grey 
Borglum,  Gutzon 
Borglum,  Solon  H. 
Platt,  Bela  Lyon 
Grafly,  Charles 
Calder,  Alexander  S. 
Taft,  Lorado 
Tilden,  Douglas 
Aitkin,  Robert  I. 
Vonnoh,  Bessie  Potter 


142 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


B.  fainting 


A  series  of  special  articles  treats  the 
technical  side  of  painting,  the  different 
varieties,  the  painter's  implements,  and 
the  qualities  by  which  a  picture  should 
be  judged.  The  history  of  the  dif- 
ferent schools  is  comprehensively  de- 
scribed under  PAINTING.  This  article 
should  form  the  basis  of  the  study  of 
any  given  school ;  it  should,  however, 
be  supplemented  by  the  articles  on 
separate  schools  and  tho  biographies  of 
the  artists,  of  which  onlv  the  principal 
are  contained  in  the  following  lists. 

I.  TECHNIQUE  AND  ALLIED  ARTS. 

1.  Varieties: 

Mural    Decoration 
Genre   Painting 
Portraiture 
Landscape 
Still  Life 

2.  Technical  Processes: 

Fresco 

Tempera 

Oil  Painting 

Pastel 

Water-Color  Painting 

Encaustic  Painting 

Stereochromy 

3.  Implements: 

Canvas 

Easel 

Mahlstick 

Ground 

Painters'  Colors 

4.  Technical  Qualities: 

Drawing 
Line 

Perspective 
Chiaroscuro 


Color 

Composition 

Proportion 

5.  Analogous  Arts: 

Mosaic 
Stainod  Glass 
Decorative  Art 
Sgraffito 

II.  GREEK  PAINTING. 

The  decorative  painting  of  Oriental 
countries  is  treated  under  the  different 
titles  of  the  subdivision  Oriental  Art, 
in  the  introductory  section  of  the  pre- 
ceding chapter.  Greek  painting  was 
the  first  to  rise  to  the  dignity  of  an 
independent  art.  The  transition  from 
the  painting  of  Cretan  and  Mycenrran 
decorations,  which  show  considerable 
technical  skill  and  a  high  power  of 
invention,  to  that  of  the  fifth  century 
Ji.  r.  can  be  studied  only  in  vase- 
painting  (see  VASK).  In  the  fifth  and 
fourth  centuries  B.  r.,  Greek  painting 
attained  its  highest  development.  The 
older  Attic  School,  with  Polygnotus  as 
its  founder  and  Athens  as  a  centre, 
brought  the  art  to  a  high  state  of  de- 
velopment in  the  years  following  the 
Persian  wars.  Its  decorative  work  was 
practically  great,  colored,  outline 
drawings,  noble  in  composition  and 
expression.  Perspective  and  shading 
were  discovered  by  Agatharchus  of 
Samos,  a  scene  painter,  and  applied  to 
panel-painting  by  Apollodorus  of 
Athens.  In  the  later  fifth  century 
flourished  the  Ionian  School  of  Zeuxis 
and  Parrhasius,  which  substituted 
realism  for  the  old  idealism  and  excelled 
in  delicate  drawing  and  chiaroscuro. 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


143 


In  the  early  fourth  century,  the  centre 
of  painting  shifted  to  Sicyon,  where 
systematic  drawing  and  chiaroscuro 
were  further  developed,  and  the  process 
of  encaustic  painting  was  invented. 
The  Theban- Attic  School  (second  half 
of  the  fourth  century)  was  devoted  to 
impassioned  subjects,  like  battle  pieces, 
and  even  to  genre,  and  the  highest 
technical  perfection  was  achieved  by 
the  younger  Ionian  School  in  the  per- 
sons of  Apcllcs  and  Protogcnes.  In 
the  Hellenistic  age  painting  increased 
the  range  of  its  expression,  including 
even  the  landscape,  but  it  declined 
in  artistic  quality.  The  decora- 
tive and  less  important  painting  of  the 
Roman  epoch  is  treated  under  ROMAN 
AIIT.  See : 

1.  General  References: 

Section    Painting    under    Greek 

Art  and  Roman  Art 
Vase 

8.  Greek  Painters: 
Polygnotus 
Micon 

Agatharchus 
Apollodorus 
Zcuxis 
Parrhasius 
Pamphilus 
Pausias 
Applies 
Protogcnes 
Aldobrandini  Marriage 

III.  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD. 

The  origins  of  Mediaeval  painting 
were  conditioned  by  the  Mosaic  style, 
as  it  prevailed  in  Early  Christian  and 
Byzantine  art.  Its  growth  was  de- 
pendent upon  the  development  of  archi- 
tecture in  Church  worship,  and  it  con- 


sequently remained  decorative.  At  the 
close  of  the  Gothic  period,  the  eman- 
cipation of  painting  began  in  Italy, 
and  individual  artists  arose.  The 
chief  centres  were  Florence,  where 
Giotto  founded  a  powerful  school  of 
mural  painting,  and  Siena,  which  de- 
veloped panel  painting  under  strong 
Byzantine  influence.  See: 

Mosaic 

Christian  Art 

Byzantine  Art 

Romanesque  Art 

Gothic  Art 

Florentine  School  of  Painting 

Sienese  School  of  Painting 

Cavallini,  Pietro 

Cimabue 

Giotto 

Gaddi,  Taddeo 

Orcagna,  Andrea 

Arctino,  Spinello 

Duccio  di  Boninsegna 

Martini,  Simone 

Lorenzctti 

Gentile  da  Fabriano 

Lorenzo,  Don 

IV.  THE  RENAISSANCE. 

Naturalism  dominated  the  painting 
of  the  Early  Renaissance  in  Italy,  the 
classic  influence  appearing  only  in  the 
decorative  motifs.  Our  study  begins 
with  Florence,  where  the  great  tech- 
nical problems  were  solved  for  future 
painting.  The  High  Renaissance  com- 
bined the  achievements  of  the  Early 
with  a  profounder  knowledge  of  the 
Antique.  The  Florentine  school 
ranked  highest  in  everything  but  color, 
in  which  the  Venetians  excelled,  as  did 
the  Umbrians  in  religious  sentiment. 
In  Northern  Europe  the  Renaissance, 
entirely  naturalistic  in  character,  bu* 


144 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


Gothic  in  sentiment,  first  appeared  in 
Flanders,  whence  its  influence  extended 
to  Holland  and  Germany.  Later  the 
Italian  influence  transformed  for  the 
worse  the  art  of  the  Netherlands,  but 
aided  to  produce  a  national  school  in 
Germany.  See : 

1.  Italy. 

(a)  General  Titles: 
Renaissance  Art 
Section  The  Renaissance  under 

Painting 

Florentine  School  of  Painting 
Umbrian  School  of  Painting 
Bolognesc  School  of  Painting 
Ferrarese  School  of  Painting 
Venetian  School  of  Painting 

(ft)   Biography: 

(i)  Florence: 

Masolino  da  Panicale 
Angelico,  Fra 
Masaccio 
Uccello,  Paolo 
Castagno,  Andrea  del 
Lippi,  Filippo  and  Filippino 
Botticelli,  Sandro 
Gozzoli,  Benozzo 
Pollaiuolo,  Antonio 
Verrocchio,  Andrea 
Ghirlandaio,  Domenico 
Vinci,  Leonardo  da 
Michelangelo 
Bartolommco,  Fra 
Sarto,  Andrea  del 
Bronzino,  Agnolo 

(ii)  Umbria: 

Francesca,  Piero  della 
Melozzo  da  Forli 
Santi,  Giovanni 
Signorelli,  Luca 
Perugino,  Pietro 
Pinturicchio 
Raphael 


(iii)  Northern  Italy: 
Squarcione,  Francesco 
Mantegna,  Andrea 
Tura,  Cosimo 
Costu,  Lorenzo 
Franoia,  Francesco 
Viti,  Timoteo 
Dosso  Dossi 
Garofalo 
Correggio 
Sodoma 
Pisanello 
Foppa,  Vicenzo 
Borgognone 
Predis,  Ambrogio  da 
Solario,  Andrea 
Luini,  Bernardino 
Ferrari,  Gaudcnzio 

(iv)  Venice: 
Vivarini 
Crivelli,  Carlo 
Antonello  da  Messina 
Btellini  (family) 
Carpaccio,  Vittore 
Giorgione 
Titian 

Bonifazio  Veronese 
Lotto,  Lorenzo 
Tintoretto 
Veronese,  Paolo 
Bassano 

Morctto  da  Brescia 
Moroni,  Giambattista 

(v)  Rome: 

Sebastiano  del  Piombo 

Volterra,  Daniele  da 

Pippi,  Giulio  (called  Romano) 

The  Netherlands: 

Netherlands  Schools  of  Painting 
Eyck,  Huybrecht  and  Jan  van 
Weyden,  Rogier  van  der 
Bouts,  Dierick 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


145 


Hugo  van  der  Goes 
Memling,  Hans 
David,  Gerard 
Matsys,  Quinten 
Orley,  Bernaert  van 
Mabuse,  Jan 
Lucas  van  Leyden 
Bosch,  Hicronymus 

8.  Germany: 

Lochner,  Stephan 
Schongauer,  Martin 
Wohlgemuth,  Michel 
Diirer,  Albrccht 
Burcknmir,  Hans 
Cranach,  Lucas 
Holbein  the  Elder 
Holbein  the  Younger 
Griincwuld,  Matthias 
Baldung,  Hans 

4.  France  and  Spain: 
Fouquet,  Jehan 
Clouet 

Cousin,  Jean 
Coello,  Alonzo 
Morales 
Theotocopuli   (called  Kl  Greco) 

V.   SEVENTEENTH    AND    EIGHTKKNTH 
CENTURIES. 

The  seventeenth  century  saw  the  rise 
of  the  Eclectic  and  Naturalist  schools 
in  Italy,  and  of  a  courtly  art,  based 
upon  the  classic,  in  France,  whose  art 
ists  in  Italy  also  perfected  the  classic 
landscape.  It  was  the  golden  age  of 
painting  in  Spain,  Flanders  and  Hol- 
land. Spain  developed  a  great  re- 
ligious art,  combining  Catholic  devo- 
tion with  a  trenchant  realism,  and  a 
marvelous  portraitist  in  Velazquez. 
The  Flemish  School  was  also  realistic, 
but  more  influenced  by  Italy,  and  less 
religious  in  character.  In  Holland,  a 


highly  developed  national  realism,  prac- 
tically uninfluenced  from  without, 
found  expression  in  panels  of  portrait, 
genre,  landscape,  animal,  and  still  life. 
The  eighteenth  century  witnessed  in 
France  the  light,  graceful  and  decora- 
tive painting  of  the  Kococo,  and  the 
rise  in  England  of  a  bourgeoisc  art, 
showing  a  curious  admixture  of  Eclec- 
tic Italian  influence  with  realism,  and 
foreshadowing  that  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  See  Section  Seventeenth  and 
Eighteenth  Centuries  in  the  article  on 
PAINTING, 

1.  Italy: 

Bolognese  School  of  Painting 

Carracci 

Domcnichino 

Heni,  Guido 

Guercino 

Dolci,  Carlo 

Caravaggio 

HOSH,  Salvator 

Giordano,  Luca 

Tiepolo 

Canalctto 

Guard!,  Francesco 

Camera,  Rosalba 

2.  France: 

Poussin,  Nicolas 

Gelee,  Claude  (Claude  Lor  rain) 

Lebrun,  Charles 

Mignard,  Pierre 

Champagne,  Philippe  de 

Watteau,  Antoine 

Fragonard,  Jean  Honore 

Chardin,  Jean  Simeon 

Lancret,  Nicolas 

Boucher,  Fran£ois 

La  Jour,  Maurice 

Quentin 

Greuze,  Jean  Baptiste 

Vigee-Lebrun 


146 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


8*  Spain: 

Herrera  the  Elder 

Ribera,  Jusepe 

Velazquez 

Zurbaran 

Cano,  Alonzo 

Coello,  Claudio 

Murillo 

Goya  y  Lucientes 

4.  Flanders: 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul 
Van  Dyck,  Anthonis 
Jordaens,  Jacob 
Snyders,  Frans 
Fyt,  Jan 

Teniers   the  Younger 
Brouwer,    Adriaen 

5.  Holland: 

(a)  Portraiture   (q.  v.): 
Mierevelt,  Michiel 
Hals,  Frans 
Rembrandt 
Maes,  Nicolas 
Heist,  Bartholomeus  van  der 

(6)   Genre  (q.  v.) : 

Ostade,  Adriaen  van 
Dou,  Gerard 
Steen,  Jan 
Terborch,  Gerard 
Metzu,  Gabriael 
Hooch,  Pieter  de 
Vermeer  van  Delft 

(c)  Landscape   (q.  v.),  etc.: 
Goycn,  Jan  van 
Ruysdael,  Salomon 
Neer,  Aert  van  der 
Ruisdael,  Jacob 
Hobbema,  Meindert 
Potter,  Paulus 
Velde,  Adriaen  van  de 
Cuyp,  Albert 
Backlniygon,  Ludolf 


Velde,     Willem     van     de,     the 

Younger 
Heem,  Jan  de 
Huysum,  Jan  van 
Beyeren,  Abraham  van 
David,  Gerard 
Weenix,  Jan 
Hondecoeter,  Melchior 

6.  England: 

Lely,  Sir  Peter 
Kneller,  Sir  Godfrey 
Hogarth,  William 
Reynolds,  Joshua 
Gainsborough,  Thomas 
Romney,  George 
Wilson,  Richard 
Morland,  George 

VI.  MODERN   PAINTING. 

1.  France. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  the 
hegemony  of  Europe  in  the  fine  arts 
belonged  to  France.  Rococo  art  was 
succeeded  in  the  last  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  by  Classicism,  which 
found  the  chief  beauty  of  painting  in 
form,  as  revealed  in  ancient  sculpture. 
The  reaction  upon  Classicism  was  Ro- 
manticism (from  c.  1830),  which  used 
painting  as  an  expression  of  the  art- 
ist's emotional  nature,  and  placed  the 
chief  emphasis  upon  color  and  natural 
truth.  The  Barbizon  School  represents 
the  emotional  impulse  of  Romanticism, 
as  applied  to  landscape,  animal  paint- 
ing, and  peasant  subjects.  The  third 
great  factor  in  French  painting  is 
Realism,  advocating  the  abolition  of 
academic  law  and  sentiment,  and  the 
exact  presentation  of  natural  truth. 
Then  came  Impressionism  (1874),  so 
called  from  a  tendency  to  render  mo- 
mentary impressions,  but  which  sought, 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


147 


above  all,  to  paint  evanescent  effects  of 
light.  Post  Impressionism  is  a  reac- 
tion on  both  Impressionism  and  Real- 
ism, which  endeavors  to  paint  pure  feel- 
ing in  purely  abstract  form  and  color. 
See: 

(a)  Classicists: 

David,  Jacques  Louis 

Prudhon,  Pierre 

Gros,  Antoine  Jean 

Ingres,  Jean  Auguste  Dominique 

(b)  Romanticists: 

Gericault,  Jean  Louis 
Delacroix,  Eug&ne 
Decamps,  Alexandre  Gabriel 
Fromentin,  Eugene 
Vernet,  Horace 
Couture,  Thomas 
Regnault,   Henri 

(c)  Eclectics: 

Delarochc,  Paul 

Bougucrcau,  Guillaume  Adolphe 

Scheffer,  Ary 

(d)  Barbizon  Painters: 

Corot,  Camille 
Rousseau,  Theodore 
Dupre,  Jules 
Diaz  de  la  Pena 
Daubigny,  Charles  Francois 
Millet,  Jean  Francois 
Troy  on,   Constant 
Jacques,  Charles 
Cazin,  Jean  Charles 

(e)  Realists: 

Cour^ot,  Gustave 
Bonnat,  Leon 
Duran,  Carolus 
Fantin-Latour 
Meissonier,  Ernest 
Neuville,  Alphonse  Marie  de 
Detaille,  Edouard 


(f)  Impressionists,  etc.: 

Impressionist  Painting 
Manet,  Edouard 
Renoir,  August 
Degas,   Hilaire  Germain 
Raffaelli,  Jean  Francis 
Monet,  Claude 
Pissaro,  Camille 
Sisley,  Alfred 
Besnard,  Paul  Albert 

(g)  Post  Impressionists: 

Post  Impressionism 
Cezanne,  Paul 
Gauguin,  Paul 
Matisse,  Henri 
Picasso,  Pablo 
Picabia,  Francis 

(h)  Various  Tendencies: 

Flandrin,  Jean  Hippolyte 
Puvis  dc  Chavanncs 
Moreau,  Gustave 
Geromc,  Jean  Leon 
Vollon,  Antoine 
Bonheur,  Rosa 
Bastien-Lepage 
Dagnan-Bouveret 
Lhermitte,  Leon 

2.  Germany    (including  Austria). 

In  Germany  the  reaction  against 
Classicism  first  took  the  form  of  an 
imitation  of  Italian  masters  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  (Nazarencs).  Ex- 
tensive demand  for  mural  decoration 
at  Munich  produced  the  so-called  car- 
toon (q.  v.)  style,  in  which  color  was 
neglected.  The  Diisseldorf  School  rep- 
resented the  romantic  tendencies  of 
German  artf  chiefly  in  panel-painting. 
About  1850  a  great  change  was  ef- 
fected by  French  and  Belgian  colorists ; 
since  1870  Realism  and  since  1880  Im- 
pressionism have  found  entrance.  The 


148 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


most  recent  tendencies  have  been  very 
radical  (see  SECESSION)  and  decora- 
tive in  character,  especially  in  Vienna. 
See: 

Pre-Raphaelites 

Diisseldorf  School  of  Painting 

Mengs,  Raphael 

Kauffmann,  Angelica 

Overbeck,  Johann  Fricdrich 

Cornelius,  Peter  von 

Kaulbach,  Wilhelm  von 

Rethel,  Alfred 

Schwind,  Moritz  von 

Feuerbach,  Anselm 

Makart,  Hans 

Max,  Gabriel 

Munkacsy,  Michael 

Knaus,  Ludwig 

Dcfregger,  Franz  von 

Griitzncr,  Eduard 

Menzel,  Adolf 

Lenbach,  Franz 

Leibl,  Wilhelm 

Bocklin,  Arnold 

Licbermann,  Max 

Klingcr,  Max 

Thoma,  Hans 

Uhde,  Fritz  von 

Gebhard,  Eduard 

Kampf,  Arthur 

Ziigel,  Hcinrich 

Stuck,  Franz 

8.  Great  Britain. 

The  chief  aim  of  British  art  during 
the  early  nineteenth  century  was  his- 
torical pictures  of  an  academic  order. 
Landscape  painting  culminated  in  Tur- 
ner and  Constable.  A  reaction  against 
the  academic  came  about  through  the 
Pre-Raphaelites  (q.  v.),  who  intro- 
duced spiritual  and  realistic  elements. 
The  chief  influence  in  recent  years  has 
been  French.  See: 


Raeburn,  Sir  Henry 
Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas 
Hoppner,  John 
Haydon,  Benjamin  Robert 
Eastlakc,  Sir  Charles 
Blake,  William 
Wilkie,  David 
Turner,  J.  M.  W. 
Crome,  John 
Constable,  John 
Rossctti,  Dante  Gabriel 
Hunt,  William  Holman 
Burne-Joncs,  Sir  Edward 
Millais,  Sir  John  Everett 
Watts,  George  Frederick 
Herkomer,  Hubert 
Leighton,  Frederick,  Lord 
Alma-Tadcma,  Lawrence 
Orchardson,  W.  Q. 
Lavery,  John 
Hornell,  Edward 
Shannon,  James  J. 

4.  Other  Countries. 

In  other  European  countries  the  de- 
velopment through  the  Classical,  Ro- 
mantic, and  Naturalistic  stages  was  not 
dissimilar  to  those  already  described. 
All  have  profited  by  French  technical 
methods,  and  arc,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  swayed  by  Realistic  and  Im- 
pressionistic tendencies.  See: 

(«)   Belgian  and  Dutch: 
Gallait,  Louis 
Leys,  Baron  Hendrik 
Wiertz,  Antoinc  Joseph 
Stevens,  Alfred 
Lempoels,  Jeff 
Khnopff,  Fernand 
Israels,  Josef 
Mesdag,  Hendrik 
Mauve,  Anton 
Man's,  The  Brothers 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


149 


Gogh,  Vincent  van 
Toorup,  Jan 

(6)   Scandinavian  and  Russian: 
Zorn,  Anders 
Larsson,  Carl 
Liljefors,  Bruno 
Kroyer,  Peter  Severin 
Thaulow,  Frits 
Vereshtchagin,  Vassili 
Repin,  Ilia  Yefimovitch 

(c)  Spanish,  etc.: 

Fortuny,  Mariano 
Sorolla,  Joaquin 
Segantini,  Giovanni 

5.  United  States. 

During  the  Colonial  period  and  im- 
mediately after  the  Revolution,  British 
influences  prevailed  in  the  United 
States,  with  an  inclination  to  follow  tho 
Italians  in  larger  subjects.  An  in- 
digenous art  began  with  the  self-taught 
Hudson  River  School,  about  1825. 
Then  came  the  foreign  influence,  and, 
since  1875,  French  methods  have  been 
quite  generally  adopted,  the  natural 
characteristics  revealing  themselves  in 
choice  of  subject  and  conceptions. 

(a)  Early  Period: 

West,  Benjamin 
Copley,  John  Singleton 
Pealc,  Charles  Wilson 
Trumbull,  John 
Stuart,  Gilbert 
Allston,  Washington 
Peale,  Rembrandt 
Sully,  Thomas 
Jarves,  John  Wesley 

(6)  Middle  Period: 

Hudson  River  School  of  Painting 
Cole,  Thomas 
Durand,  Ashcr  Brown 


Kensett,  John  Frederick 
Church,  Frederick  Edwin 
Bierstadt.  Albert 
Moran,  Thomas 
Harding,  Chester 
Neagle,  John 
Inman,  Henry 
Huntington,  Daniel 
Fuller,  George 
Ryder,  Albert  P. 
Johnson,  Eastman 
Brown,  John  G. 
Mount,  William  Sidney 
Leutze,  Emanuel 
Hicks,  Thomas 
Hunt,  William  Morris 
Homer,  Winslow 
Inncss,  George 
Wyant,  A.  H. 
Martin,  Homer  D. 

(c)   Third,  or  Cosmopolitan,  Period: 

(i)  Figure  and  Portrait: 

Whistler,  James  Abbott  Mc- 
Neil 

Abbey,  Edwin  A. 
Sargent,  John   Singer 
Vedder,  Elihu 
Duvencck,  Frank 
Dielman,  Frederick 
Chase,  William  Mcrrit 
Eaton,  Wyatt 
Weir,  James  Alden 
Thayer,  Abbott 
Brush,   George  Do  Forest 
Tarbell,  Edmund 
Benson,  Frank  Weston 
Dewing,  Thomas  W. 
Blum,  Robert  F. 
Walker,  Horatio 
Remington,  Frederick 
Cousc,  E.  Irving 
Wiles,  Irving 
Alexander,  John  W. 


150 


SCULPTURE  AND  PAINTING 


Decamp,  Joseph  R. 
Eakins,  Thomas 
Beaux,  Cecilia 

Harrison,     (Thomas)     Alex- 
ander 

Melchers,  Gari 
Cassatt,  Mary 

(ii)  Landscape: 

Dewey,  Charles  Melville 
Blakelock,  Ralph 
Dearth,  Henry  Golden 
Wiggins,  Carlton 
Robinson,  Theodore 
Bunce,  William  Gcdney 
Murphy,  John  Francis 
Crane,  Bruce 
Harrison,  (Lovell)  Birge 
Twachtman,  John   Henry 
Dougherty,  Paul 
Hassam,  Childe 
Foster,  Ben 
Schofield,  W.  Elmer 
Redfield,   Edward  Willis 
Symons,  Gardner 
Chapman,  Carlton  T. 
Waugh,  Frederick  Judd 
Carlsen,  Ernil 

(iii)   Mural  Painting  (q.  v.): 
La  Farge,  John 


Cox,  Kenyon 
Blashfield,  Edwin  H. 
Mowbray,  Henry  Siddons 
Rogers,  H.  O. 
Millet,  Frank  D. 
Oakley,  Violet 

(iv)  Recent  Tendencies: 

Henri,  Robert 
Bellows,  George 
Lie,   Jonas 
Lawson,  Ernest 
Mora,  Luis 

Hawthorne,  Charles  W. 
Miller,  Richard  E. 
Frieseckc,  Frederick  Carl 
Dabo,  Leon 

VI.  PASTEL,  WATER-COLOR,  AND  MIN- 
IATURE PAINTING. 

The  basis  of  study  should  be  the 
general  articles  on  these  three  varie- 
ties of  painting,  which  discuss  their 
technique  and  history  and  enumerate 
the  principal  artists.  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  latter  are  treated  as  spe- 
cial titles,  to  which  reference  should 
be  made. 


12. 


HWtuir  Art* 


A.    Engraving 


Engraving  is  the  art  of  producing 
on  a  hard  surface,  such  as  stone,  metal, 
or  wood,  incised  or  relief  designs. 
These  may  be  for  purposes  of  decor- 
ation, as  in  the  case  of  engraved 
bronzes  and  silverware,  or  for  stamping 
a  soft  substance,  as  seal  rings.  But 
engravings  are  usually  made  for  the 
purpose  of  printing  upon  paper,  and 
it  is  this  variety  with  which  we  are 
chiefly  concerned. 

Printing  is  done  cither  from  incised 
designs  to  which  the  ink  is  applied,  or 
from  relief  designs,  which  thus  produce 
the  image.  In  the  first  process,  metal 
plates,  usually  of  copper,  are  used ;  the 
principal  varieties  are  Line-Engraving 
and  Etching,  to  which  may  be  added 
Dry  Point,  Manicre  Criblee,  and  Stip- 
ple. The  chief  form  of  Engraving  in 
relief  is  Wood-Engraving;  and  there 
arc  mixed  processes,  like  Aquatint,  Mez- 
zotint, and  Soft-Ground  Etching.  The 
trial  impressions  upon  paper  are  called 
the  proofs,  and  the  final  result  the  print. 
The  article*  ENGRAVING  contains  a  gen- 
eral sketch  of  the  subject.  See  also: 

Line  Engraving 

Etching 

Dry  Point 

Maniorc  Criblee 

Stipple 

Wood  Engraving 

Aquatint 

Mezzotint 

Soft-Ground  Etching 

Print  Proof 
I.  LINTC  ENGRAVING. 

Line  Engraving  is  done,  with  the 
burin,  usually  upon  a  copper  plate.  It 


originated  simultaneously  in  Italy  and 
Germany  during  the  early  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, probably  with  the  goldsmiths, 
from  the  custom  of  printing  trial  im- 
pressions of  niello  plates.  (See 
NIELLO.)  The  earliest  line-engravings 
arc  mere  outline  drawings  without  light 
or  shade.  In  the  early  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, the  art  culminated  in  the  works  of 
Albrecht  Diirer  in  Germany,  Lucas  van 
Leyden  in  Holland,  and  Marcantonio 
Raimondi  in  Italy.  During  the  seven- 
teenth century,  especially  under  Louis 
XIV,  France  was  predominant.  But 
artists  devoted  themselves  increasingly 
to  the  reproduction  of  great  paintings 
instead  of  original  designs.  For  this 
reason,  the  art  has  gradually  sunk  into 
disuse,  its  place  being  taken  by  photo- 
graphic processes.  See: 

Linc-Engrnving  (basis  of  study) 

Burin 

Niello 

1.  Italy: 

Finigucrra,  Tomaso 
Jacopo  dei  Barbari 
Mantegna,  Andrea 
Raimondi,  Marcantonio 
Carracci,  Agostino 
Piranesi,  Giambattista 
Morghen,  Raffaello 

2.  Germany;  Netherlands: 

Schongauer,  Martin 
Diirer,  Albrecht 
Lucas  van  Leyden 
Beharn,  Hans  Scbai<J 
Beham,  Barthel 
Vorsterman,  Lucas 
Chodowiecki,  Daniel 


151 


152 


THE   MINOR   ARTS 


9.  England: 

Strange,  Sir  Robert 
Vertue,  George 

4.  France: 

Bosse,  Abraham 
Nanteuil,  Robert 
Masson,  Antoine 
Audran,  Gerard 
Cochin,  Charles  Nicolas 
Forster,  Fra^ois 
Henriquel-Dupont,  Louis  Pierre 
Gaillard,  Claude  Ferdinand 

II.  ETCHING. 

In  etching,  the  plate  is  covered  with 
the  ground,  usually  a  varnish,  into 
which  the  design  is  scratched  with  an 
etching-needle*  The  plate  is  then  im- 
mersed in  an  acid,  which  eats  the  design 
into  the  metal.  The  finishing  touches 
are  often  done  by  the  dry-point  process, 
a  simple  scratching  of  the  plate  with- 
out the  use  of  ground  or  acid. 

Etching  upon  steel  armor,  etc.,  was 
practiced  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Durer 
was  one  of  the  first  to  use  etching  for 
printing  purposes,  and  the  art  reached 
its  highest  development  in  Holland  dur- 
ing the  seventeenth  century.  Many 
eminent  painters  practiced  it,  among 
whom  was  the  greatest  etcher  of  all 
times,  Rembrandt.  Next  to  Holland, 
etching  was  principally  cultivated  in 
France,  beginning  with  Claude  Lor- 
rain's  landscapes.  The  art  found  a 
revival  in  the  nineteenth  century,  es- 
pecially in  France,  but  also  in  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  the  United  States. 
The  following  list  cites  only  the  prin- 
cipal etchers  and  a  few  of  the  impor- 
tant painters  who  have  practiced  etch- 
ing. See  Etching  (basis  of  study): 


1.  Netherlands: 

Lucas  van  Lcyden 
Veldc,  Esaias  van  de 
Rembrandt 
Ruisdael,  Jacob 
Potter,  Paul 
Van  Dyck,  Anthonis 

2.  France: 

Gclee,  Claude  (Claude  Lorrain) 
Flameng,  Leopold 
Raj  on,  Paul 
Meryon,  Charles 
Jacquemart,  Jules  Ferdinand 
Legros,  Alphonse 
Helleii,  Paul 

3.  Germany: 

Hollar,  Wenzeslas 
linger,  William 
Klinger,  Max 
Thoina,  Hans 
Liobonnann,  Max 

4.  Spain: 

Goya,  Francisco 

5.  England: 

Geddes,  Andrew 
Wilkie,  Sir  David 
Turner,  J.  M.  W. 
Harncrton,  Philip  Gilbert 
Haden,  Francis  Seymour 
Mcnpes,  Mortimer 
Brangwyn,  Frank 

6.  United  States: 

Whistler,  James  Abbott  McNeil 

Pennell,  Joseph 

Moran 

Parish,  Stephen 

Platt,  Charles  A. 

Webster,  Herman  A. 

III.  WOOD  ENGRAVING. 

In  early  Wood  Engraving,  the  de- 
ing,  and  the  early  wood  engraving  at- 


THE  MINOR  ARTS 


153 


block,  and  all  the  wood  was  cut  away 
except  the  design,  which  remains  in  re- 
lief. The  process  is  of  peculiar  im- 
portance because  it  can  be  used  in  con- 
nection with  printing  from  movable 
types. 

Crude  outline  prints  from  wood-cuts 
were  common  in  Southern  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands  in  the  early  fif- 
teenth century.  The  art  received  an 
impetus  from  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, and  the  early  wood  engraving  at- 
tained its  most  perfect  development 
during  the  early  sixteenth  century  in 
the  works  of  Albrccht  Diirer  and  Hans 
Holbein  in  Germany.  It  was  intro- 
duced by  German  artists  into  Italy; 
but  here  only  the  chiaroscuro  process 
attained  a  high  degree  of  proficiency. 
(See  paragraph  Chiaroscuro  under 
WOOD  ENGRAVING.)  Wood  engraving 
flourished  also  in  the  Netherlands  and 
in  France. 

Modern  wood  engraving  is  done  on 
the  cross-grain  of  boxwood,  and  with 
a  graver  instead  of  the  knife.  The 
design  is  cut  away  instead  of  being  left 
in  relief,  appearing  in  white  lines.  The 
father  of  the  art  was  the  Englishman, 
Yhomas  Bewick  (died  in  1828),  al- 
though his  pupils  achieved  much  as 
hook  illustrators.  The  art  has,  during 
late  years,  succumbed  in  England  to 
the  more  accurate  photographic  proc- 
esses. Present  German  wood  engrav- 
ing is,  generally  speaking,  precise  and 
careful  in  execution;  but  the  French 
school  has  attained  the  highest  artistic 
perfection. 

Before  the  Civil  War,  America  pro- 
duced several  prominent  wood  engrav- 
ers whose  work  resembled  contempo- 
rary British.  But  after  1870,  in  con- 
nection with  the  popular  magazines,  a 


school,  headed  by  Timothy  Cole,  arose 
which  reproduced  the  effect  of  paint- 
ings, drav/ings,  etc.,  with  remarkable 
fidelity,  and  used  the  technical  profi- 
ciency acquired  to  render  portraits  and 
landscapes.  Since  the  perfection  of 
the  photographic  processes,  wood 
engravers  have  returned  to  a  more 
legitimate  practice  of  their  art 
wood  engraving.  See: 

1.  Germany: 

Diirer,  Albrecht 
Burckmair,  Hans 
Schauffelcin,  Hans 
Holbein  the  Younger 
Liitzclburger,  Hans 
Cranach,  Lucas 
Altdorfer,  Albrecht 
Beham,  Hans  Sebald 
Aldegrever,  Heinrich 
Baldung,  Hans 
Menzel,  Adolf 
Richter,  Ludwig 

2.  France: 

Cousin,  Jean 

Charpentier,  Fra^ois 

Bracquemond,  Joseph   Auguste 

Johannot,  Tony 

Grandville 

Gavarni 

Dore,  Gustave 

8.  Italy: 

Carpi,  Ugo  da 
Andreani,  Andrea 

4.  England: 

Bewick,  Thomas 
Blake,  William 
Linton,  William  James 

5.  United  States: 

Anderson,  Alexander 
Smillie,  James  D. 


ise                             MUSIC 

Minnesinger 

Chamber  Music 

Troubadours 

Chant 

Trouvere 

Chorale 

Waits 

Concerto 

Ambrosian  Chant 

Cyclical  Forms 

Gregorian  Chant 

Duet 

Hymnology 

fitude 

National  Hymns 

Fantasia 

Form 

8.  MUSICAL  ORGANIZATIONS,  ETC. 

Fugue 

Guilds,  Musical  (under  Guild) 

Glee 

Conservatory 

Humoreske 

Conductor 

Imitation 

Precentor 

Incidental  Music 

Musical  Festival 

Interlude 

Gescllschaft  der  Musikfreunde 

Intermezzo 

Gewandhaus-Concerte 

Introduction 

Leeds  Musical  Festival 

Legend 

(Choral  Societies 

Leitmotiv 

Handel  and  Haydn  Society 

Lied 

Oratorio  Society 

Musical  Drama 

Singiikadenrie 

Nocturne 

Philharmonic  Societies 

Offertory 

Boston  Symphony  Orchestra 

Overture 

Soci6te  des  Concerts  du  Conser- 

Paraphrase 

vatoire 

Passion 

Sons  of  the  Clergy  Musical  Fes- 

Pasticcio 

tival 

Postlude 

Chicago  Symphony  Orchestra 

Pot-pourri 

Cincinnati  Symphony  Orchestra 

Prelude 

Minneapolis  Symphony  Orches- 

Programme Music 

tra 

Quartet 

Three  Choirs  Festival 

Recitative 

Bethlehem,  Musical  or  Bach  Fes- 

Requiem 

tival 

Rhapsody 

Worcester  Musical  Festival 

Rondo 

Peterboro  Musical  Festival 

Scherzo 

Bayreuth  Musical  Festival 

Serenade 

4.  THE  ART-FORMS. 

Singspiel 
Solo 

Canon 

Sonata 

Cantata 

Song 

Catch 

Suite 

Chaconne 

Symphonic  Poem 

MUSIC 


157 


Symphony 

Trio 

Variation 

5.  DEFINITIONS  AND  DESCRIPTIONS  OF 
TERMS  AND  PKOCESSES  USED  IN 
THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  Music. 

Musical  Dictation 
Beat 

Baton 
Rest 
Tempo 

Temperament 
Rhythm 
Syncopation 
Expression 
Musical  Notation 
Modulation 
,  Intonation 
Fingering 
Position 
Touch 
Phrasing 
Slide 
Swell 
Register 
Augmentation 
Movement 
Passing  Notes 
Tremolo 
Trill 
Treble 


Neumes 

Value 

Clang  Tint,   Explanation  of 

Finger-board 

Clavichord 

Janko  Keyboard 

Harpsichord 

Manual 

Metronome 

Pedal 

String 


Virginal 

Transposing  Instruments 

Valves    in   Musical    Instruments 

(under  Valve) 
Voice 

See  also  PIANO,  ORGAN,  SINGING, 
and  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

6.  MISCELLANEOUS    AND    TECHNICAL 
ARTICLES. 

The  reader  who  has  followed  the 
course  outlined  in  the  earlier  subdi- 
visions, will  find  that  the  following  ar- 
ticles are  mainly  specialized  statements 
of  general  principles  with  which  he  is 
already  familiar: 

HARMONY : 

Antiphony 

Bar 

Cadence 

Cantus  Firmus 

Chord 

Chromatic 

Clef 

Coda 

Consonance 

Degree 

Diatonic  Scale 

Diazeutic  Tone 

Discord 

Dissonance 

Dominant 

Figured  Bass 

Finale 

Flat 

Fundamental  Note 

Grace- notes 

Guidonian  Hand 

Harmonics 

Homophony 

Improvisation 

Instrumentation 

Interval 


158 

MUSIC 

Invention 

Suspension 

Inversion 

Tablature 

Key 

Theme 

Leading  Tone 

Tierce 

Leading  of  Voices 

Tonality 

Leger-Lines 

Torn* 

Major 

Tonic 

Measure 

Tonic  Sol-fa 

Mediant 

Touch 

Melody 

Transcription 

Meloplaste 

Transposition 

Melos 

Triad 

Mensurable  Music 

Triplet 

Metre 

Typical  Phrase 

Minor 

Unison 

Mixed  Cadence 

Variation 

Modes 

Monody 

BIOGRAPHY. 

Motion 
Motive 
Natural 

A  selected  list  of  the  world's  great 
composers  would  include  the  following 

Nuances 

names  : 

Numerical  Notation 
Octave 

Adam,  A.  C. 
Agricola,  M. 

Organ-Point 
Organum 

d'  Albert,  E. 
Allcgri,  G. 
Anerio,  V. 

Part 

Part-music 
Passage 

Animuccia,  G. 
Arcadelt,  J. 
Arno,  T.  A. 

Passing  Notes 

Auber,  D.  F.  E. 

Pitch 

Bach,  J.  S. 

Plain   Chant 

Bach,  K.  P. 

Polyphony 

Balfe,  M.  W. 

Preparation 

Barnby,  J. 

Principal 

Beethoven,  L. 

Progression 

Bellini,  V. 

Reed 

Benedict,  J. 

Relationship 

Bennett,  W,  S* 

Scale 

Berlioz,  H. 

Semitone 

Bizet,  G. 

Sequence 

Boieldieu,  F.  A. 

Sharp 

Bononcini,  G.  B. 

Solmization 

Brahms,  J. 

Subdominant 

Bruneau,  A. 

MUSIC 


159 


Bull,  J. 
Buxtehude,  D. 
Caccini,  G. 
Cambert,  R. 
Carissimi,  G. 
Cavalieri,  E. 
Cherubini,  M.  L. 
Chopin,  F.  F. 
Cimarosa,  D. 
Clcmonti,  M. 
Corelli,  A. 
Cornelius,  P. 
Couperin,  F. 
Cui,  C. 
David,  F.  C. 
Debussy,  C. 
Depres,  J. 
Donizetti,  G. 
Durante,  F. 
Dvorak,  A. 
Klgar,  E. 
Knna,  A. 
Festa,  C. 
Field,   J. 
Flotow,  F. 
Franok,  C. 
Franz,  R. 
Freseobaldi,  G. 
Frobcrger,  J.  J. 
Gabrieli,  A. 
Gabrieli,  G 
Gade,  N.  W 
Gibbons,  O. 
Giordano,  U. 
Glinka,  M.  I. 
Gluck,  C.  W. 
Goldmark,  K. 
Gosscc,  F.  J. 
Goudimcl,  C. 
Gounod,  C.  F. 
Graun,  K.  H. 
Gr£try,  A.  E.  M. 
Grieg,  E. 
Halevy,  J.  F. 


Handel,  G.  F. 

Haydn,  J. 

Harold,  L.  J.  F. 

Killer,  J.  A. 

Hofhaimer,  P. 

Humfrey,  P. 

Hummel,  J.  N. 

Humperdinek,  E. 

d'Indy,  V. 

Ippolitov-Ivanov,  M. 

Isaak,   H. 

Isouard,  N. 

Jommelli,  N. 

Reiser,  R. 

Kiel,  F. 

Lalo,  E. 

Lasso,  Orlando  di 

Leo,  L. 

Leoncavallo,  R. 

Le  Sueur,  J.  F. 

Liszt,  F. 

Logroscino,  N. 

Lortzing,  G.  A. 

Lotti,  A. 

Lully,  J.  B. 

MacDowell,  E.  A. 

Mahler,  G. 

Marschncr,  H. 

Mascagni,  P. 

Massenet,  J.  E.  F. 

Mendelssolm-Bartholdy,  F. 

Meyerbeer,  G. 

Monteverde,  C. 

Morlcy,  T. 

Mozart,  W.  A. 

MussorjrjskjT,  M. 

Nanini,  G.  M. 

Offenbach,  J. 

Okeghem 

Pachelbel,  J. 

Paisiello,  G. 

Pales trina,  G.  P. 

Pcrgolcse,  G.  B. 

Piccini,  N. 


160 


MUSIC 


Ponchielli,  A. 
Porpora,  N.  A. 
Prat  or  i  us,  M. 
Puccini,  G. 
Purcell,  H. 
Raff,  J. 
Rameau,  J.  P. 
Reger,  M. 

Rimski-Korsakov,  N. 
Rossini,  G.  A. 
Rubinstein,  A. 
Sacchini,  A.  M. 
Saint-Saens,  C.  C. 
Scarlatti,  A. 
Schubert,  F. 
Schumann,  R. 
Schiitz,  H. 
Sibelius,  J. 
Binding,  C. 
Smctana,  F. 
Spohr,  L. 
Spontini,  G.  L. 
Strauss,  J. 
Strauss,  R. 
Sullivan,  A.  S. 
Suppe,  F. 
Tchaikovsky,  P.  L 
Thomas,  A. 


Tartini,  G. 
Verdi,  G. 
Viotti,  G.  B. 
Volkmann,  R. 
Wagner,  R. 
Wallace,  W.  V. 
Weber,  K.  M. 
Willacrt,  A. 
Wolf,  H. 
Zingarelli,  N.  A. 

NOTE — The  names  of  famous  operas, 
oratorios,  symphonies,  dances, 
and  national  hymns  have  been 
omitted  from  the  above  classi- 
fication. In  the  majority  of 
cases,  they  will  be  found  under 
their  own  proper  titles,  al- 
though brief  mention  of  them 
would  also  be  found  in  the  gen- 
eral articles  OPERA,  ORATORIO, 
SYMPHONY,  and  NATIONAL 
HYMNS.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  scores  of  musical  instru- 
ments and  musical  directions 
whose  names  will  be  found  un- 
der the  general  articles  ABBRK- 
VIATIONS,  MUSICAL  INSTRU- 
MENTS and  TEMPO. 


Chapter  14.    fHallipmatirs 


R HIGHLY  defined,  mathematics  is  the  science  of  forms  and  number. 
A  few  of  the  definitions  given  by  eminent  mathematicians  are 
found  in  the  general  article  MATHEMATICS,  which  is,  therefore,  a 
suitable  introduction  to  the  subject.  The  article  gives  a  condensed 
history  of  mathematics,  from  earliest  times  to  the  present,  together 
with  a  logical  classification  of  the  various  branches  of  mathematics. 

Mathematical  science  naturally  falls  into  two  main  subdivisions:  Pure 
Mathematics  and  Applied  Mathematics.  With  this  division  as  a  basis,  various 
classifications  have  been  attempted.  The  best  classification  for  the  purpose  of 
systematic  reading  is  the  one  usually  followed  in  the  school  curriculum,  or  in  the 
text-books.  In  accordance  with  this,  we  may  subdivide  Elementary  Mathematics 
into  the  following  branches : 


Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Analytic  Geometry 

Calculus 

1.  ARITHMETIC  involves  three 
phases:  The  conception  of  number, 
the  represent  at  ion  of  number  by  sym- 
bols, and  the  principles  and  methods  of 
computation.  A  general  discussion  of 
these  phases,  together  with  their  his- 
tory, is  given  in  the  article  ARITHME- 
TIC, which,  therefore,  should  be  read  as 
an  introduction  to  this  branch. 

A  more  modern  phase  of  arithmetic 
is  computation  by  calculating  ma- 
chines. This  process  has  already  to  a 
large  extent  replaced  computations  by 
hand,  and  seems  to  bo  destined  to  do 
so  even  more  in  the  future. 

The  general  articles  bearing  on  this 
branch  may  be  conveniently  read  in  the 
following  order: 

(a)  Principles  and  Methods  of  Com 

putation: 
Addition 
Subtraction 
Multiplication 


Division 

Arithmetic  Signs 

Fraction 

Involution  and  Evolution 

Proportion 

Checking  in  Arithmetic 

Calculating  Machines 

Slide  Rule 

(b)  Symbols,      Representation,      and 

Scales : 
Symbols 
Numerals 
Decimal  System 
Scales  of  Notation 

(c)  Theory  of  Numbers: 

Number 

Irrational  Number 

Complex  Number 

The  detailed  history  of  these  topics 
is  given  separately  in  each  article. 

2.  ALGEBRA  is  universal  arithmetic, 
and  has  many  features  in  common  with 
arithmetic.  The  fundamental  opera- 
tions are  the  same,  with  the  exception 
that  algebra  takes  up  the  more  general 
cases.  The  limitations  of  algebra  are 
brought  out  in  the  general  article  AL- 
GEBRA, where  also  a  history  of  this 
branch  is  given.  Since  algebra  and 


161 


162 


MATHEMATICS 


arithmetic  arc  so  closely  related,  the 
fundamental  operations  are  best  treated 
together,  and  so  the  general  articles 
bearing  on  the  fundamental  operations 
in  algebra  have  been  given  under  arith- 
metic. Those  belonging  almost  exclu- 
sively to  algebra  are  best  taken  up  in 
the  following  order: 

Coefficient 

Factor 

Exponent 

Associative  Law 

Polynomial 

Negative  Quantity 

Binomial 

Binomial  Coefficients 

Binomial  Theorem 

Remainder  Theorem 

Equation 

Elimination 

Substitution 

Diophantine  Analysis 

Scries 

False  Position,  Rule  of 

Cubic  Equation 

Biquadratic  Equations 

Permutations  and  Combinations 

Probability 

Determinants 

Logarithms 

Analysis 

3.  GEOMETRY  is  the  science  of  form, 
and  geometric  concepts  arise  from  the 
consideration  of  forms  of  objects  just 
as  numerical  concepts  arise  from  con- 
sidering a  collection  of  objects.  Ge- 
ometry is  independent  of  algebra,  and 
may  be  studied  before  or  after  algebra, 
but  preferably  after.  The  physical 
scientist  considers  only  the  space  we 
live  in,  while  the  mathematician  con- 
siders all  possible  spaces.  Accordingly, 
we  have  many  different  kinds  of  geom- 
etry. A  general  classification  and  dis- 


cussion of  the  several  geometries  is 
given  in  the  article  GEOMETRY.  Al- 
though algebra  and  geometry  are  inde- 
pendent, a  correspondence  may  be  set 
up  between  them.  This  is  brought  out 
in  the  article  CORRESPONDENCE.  The 
general  articles  are  best  read  in  the 
following  order: 

Euclid 

Axiom 

Theorem 

Problem 

Corollary 

Angle 

Arithmetic  and  Geometric  Signs 

Equiangular 

Equilateral 

Congruence 

Duality 

Construction 

Locus 

Triangle 

Circle 

Quadrilateral 

Polygon 

Circumscribed  and  Inscribed  Figures 

Contact 

Perimeter 

Transversal 

Antiparallels 

Concurrence  and  Collinearity 

Maxima  and  Minima 

Similarity 

Symmetry 

Plane 

Octahedron 

Polyhedron 

Projective  Geometry 

Projection 

Homology 

Perspective 

Isoperimetric  Figures 

Engineering  Instruments 

Surveying 


MATHEMATICS 


168 


Flanimeter 
Mensuration 
Protractor 
Vernier 
Quadrature 

Weights*  and  Measures 
Duplication  of  Cube  (under  Cube) 
Quadrature  of  Circle  (under  Quad- 
rature) 
Trisection  of  an  Angle 

4.  TRIGONOMETEY     in     elementary 
mathematics  deals  with  the  study  of 
triangles,  and  the  measurement  of  their 
sides,  angles,  and  areas.     This  is,  how- 
ever, only  a  part  of  the  general  sub- 
ject.     Under   the   article   TAIGONOM- 
ETBT,  almost  a  whole  text-book  treat- 
ment is   given,  together  with  a  short 
history    of   the    subject    from    earliest 
times.      As  an  introduction,   read  the 
article    LOGARITHMS.      An    elementary 
knowledge  of  algebra  and  geometry  is, 
however,  necessary  before  the  study  of 
trigonometry  can  be  taken  up. 

5.  ANALYTIC     GEOMETRY     is     the 
application    of    algebra   to    geometry, 
and  the  combination  of  the  two  is  the 
most  powerful  tool  of  the  modern  math- 
ematician.    More  general  results  may 
be    deduced,    and    better   classification 
effected,  by  means  of  analysis.      In  the 
general     article     ANALYTIC     GEOME- 
TRY,  the  aim  and  general  method  of 
procedure   is   given,   together   with    a 
short  history  of  the  subject.  The  other 
articles  may  be   conveniently   read  in 
the  following  order: 

Coordinates 

Graphic  Method 

Curve 

Analysis 

Cartesians 

Parameter 

Locus 


Contact 

Normal 

Tangent 

Conic  Sections 

Circle 

Pole  and  Polar 

Parabola 

Ellipse 

Hyperbola 

Surface 

Cone 

Conoid 

Spheroid 

Generation 

Higher  Plane  Curves: 

In  these,  are  included  all  transcen- 
dental and  all  algebraic  curves  above 
the  second  order.  As  an  introduction, 
read  the  article  CURVE.  Some  of  the 
most  important  articles  are: 

Cardioid 

Catenary 

Cissoid 

Conchoid 

Curve  of  Sines 

Cycloid 

Logarithmic  Curve 

Spiral 

Lemniscate 

Loxodrome 

Witch 

6.  CALCULUS.  This  term  usually 
refers  to  Differential  and  Integral  Cal- 
culus. Differential  Calculus  deals* 
with  the  relation  between  indefinitely 
small  quantities  or  infinitesimals,  and 
is  of  great  service  when  the  quantities 
under  consideration  are  constantly 
changing.  The  problem  of  Integral 
Calculus  is  the  inverse  of  that  of  Dif- 
ferential Calculus.  Integral  Calculus 
also  deals  with  the  application  of 
calculus  to  mechanics  and  geometry. 


164 


MATHEMATICS 


In  the  general  article  CALCULUS,  the 
methods  and  applications  of  calculus 
are  illustrated  by  the  solution  of  prac- 
tical problems.  As  a  historical  intro- 
duction, read: 

Indivisibles  (under  Cavalieri) 

Fluxions 

The     general      article     CALCULUS, 
should  also  be  preceded  by : 

Analysis 

Limits,  Theory  of 

Infinity  and  the  Infinitesimal 
and  followed  by : 

Maclaurin's  Theorem  (under  Mac- 
laurin ) 

Curve 

Osculation 

Quadrature 

Differential  Equations  (under  Equa- 
tion ) 

7.  HIGHER  MATHEMATICS  is  a  col- 
lective term  for  all  branches  of  mathe- 
matics that  follow  calculus.     Most  of 
these  branches  are  based  on  calculus, 
but  some,  like  the  theory  of  numbers 
and  group  theory,  are  independent  of 
calculus.     The  following  articles  will 
furnish  an  introduction  to  some  of  the 
branches  of  higher  mathematics: 

Forms 

Functions 

Modern  Geometry  (under  Geome- 
try) 

Non-Euclidean  Geometry  (under 
Geometry  ) 

Quaternions 

Substitution 

Theory  of  Numbers  (under  Num- 
ber) 

8.  APPLIED      MATHEMATICS      deals 
with  the  application  of  mathematics  to 
related  sciences,  like  Mechanics,  Astron- 
omy, Physics,  etc.     See  these  depart- 
ments in  this  work. 


9.  BIOGRAPHY.  Mathematical 
knowledge  dates  back  to  the  Egyptian 
and  Babylonian  civilizations,  but  the 
real  development  begins  in  Greece. 
This  was  chiefly  in  the  realms  of  geom- 
etry. Later  it  inclined  toward  arith- 
metic. The  Romans  did  nothing  for 
mathematics,  and  the  Arabs  very  little 
more  than  to  translate  and  preserve  the 
Greek  learning.  Through  them  it  was 
introduced  into  the  cloisters  in  Europe 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  modern 
period  in  the  history  of  mathematics 
begins  with  Descnrtcs's  invention  of  an- 
alytic geometry.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  most  eminent  mathemati- 
cians, arranged  according  to  their 
nationality  or  period: 

(a)  Greek: 

Thales 

Pythagoras 

Aristotle 

Plato 

Euclid 

Archimedes 

Dioclcs 

Nicomedes 

Hippias  of  Elis 

Menelaus 

Apollonius  of  Perga 

Hero  of  Alexandria 

Ptolemy 

Diophantus 

Pappus 

(ft)   Arab: 

Al-Khuwarizmi 
Al-Battani 

(r)  Hindu: 

Aryabhatta 
Brahmagupta 


MATHEMATICS 


165 


Bhaskara 
Mahavir 

(d)  Persian: 

Omar  Khayyam 

(e)  From  the  revival  of  Mathematics 

in  Europe  to  the  middle  of  the 
1  If  ill  century: 

Gcrbcrt  [under  Sylvester  (Pope)] 

Fibonacci 

Jordan us 

Pcuerbaeh 

Rcgiomontanus 

Pacoioli 

Tartaglia 

Cardan 

Viete 

Napier 

Descartes 

(f)  From  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 

tury  to  the  present  time: 

Desarguos 

Cavalieri 

Pascal 

Boscovich 

Fermat 

Wallis 

Barrow,  I. 

Leibnitz 

Newton 

Bernoulli,  Jakob 

Bernoulli,  Johann 


Bernoulli,  Niclaus 

Bernoulli,  Daniel 

Maclaurin 

Taylor 

Eulcr 

D'Alembert 

Monge 

Laplace 

Lag  range 

Legendre 

Fourier 

Gauss 

Poisson 

Poncelet 

Chasles 

Steincr 

C'auchy 

Mob  ins 

Lobachevsky 

Bolyai 

Abe'l 

Dirichlet 

Hamilton 

Jacob i 

Pliicker 

Grassmann 

Galois 

Cayley 

Ei  sen  stein 

Weierstrass 

Ricmann 

Smith,  H.  J.  S. 

Sylvester 

Clebsch 

Lie,  Sophus 

Reye 


.    A0trmunmj 


AiONOMY   is   the   science   which    treats   of   the   heavenly    bodies — 
the   sun   and   moon,   the   planets   and   their   satellites,    comets   and 
meteors,    the    stars    and    nebulae.     Astronomy    is    usually    divided 
into  many  branches ;  these  branches,  however,  are  not  distinct  and 
separate,  but  overlap  in  all  directions,  so  that  no  convenience  as 
regards  treatment  is  gained.     The  arrangement  of  the  articles  in  the  following 
lists  is  not  according  to  branches,  but  in  accordance  with  the  order  in  which  they 
may  be  convenient^  read. 

A  general  history  of  the  progress  of  astronomical  discovery  is  given  in 
the  general  article  ASTRONOMY,  which,  therefore,  forms  a  suitable  introduction  to 
the  subject.  For  a  knowledge  of  a  few  of  the  elementary  terms  used  in 
astronomy,  see  : 


Zenith 

Horizon 

Equator 

Ecliptic 

Pole 

Azimuth 

Altitude 

Declination 

Latitude  and  Longitude 

Parallels 

Meridian 

Diurnal  Motion 

Culmination 

1.    ASTRONOMICAL    OBSERVATIONS. 

Astronomical  observations  are  prin- 
cipally of  two  kinds:  To  determine 
distance,  linear  and  angular;  and  to 
study  the  physical  conditions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

(a)  Instruments: 

Telescope 

Sextant 

Transit  Instrument 

Meridian  Circle 

Equatorial 

Zenith  Telescope 

Micrometer 

Chronograph 


Chronometer 
Spectroscope 

(b)  Corrections  to  Astronomical  Ob- 

servations : 
Depression 
Parallax 
Refraction 
Twilight 
Aberration 

(c)  Time: 

The  determination  of  time  is  one  of 
the  most  important  problems  in  astron- 
omy, and  is  effected  by  observing  the 
time  of  transit  across  the  meridian  of 
some  celestial  object.  For  the  deter- 
mination of  time,  read : 

Transit  Instrument 
Sextant 
Chronometer 
Ephcmeris 
Equation  of  Time 
Various  ways  of  reckoning  time  have 
been  used  in  history.    Some  of  the  prin- 
cipal ways  used  by  the  ancients,  and 
also  those  used  at  present,  are  given  in 
the  following  articles: 
Period 
Chronology 


166 


ASTRONOMY 


167 


Calendar 
Hour 
Week 
Day 

Month 

Year 

International  Date  Line 

Prime  Meridian  Conference 

Time  Signals 

Time,  Standard 

2.  THE  SOLAR  SYSTEM. 

The  solar  system  consists  of  the  sun 
as  a  central  body,  around  which  re- 
volve the  planets  with  their  satellites, 
some  periodic  cornets,  and  meteoric 
swarms.  In  addition  to  these  perma- 
nent members,  the  system  is  occasion- 
ally visited  by  other  comets,  which 
move  in  parabolic  orbits.  As  a  histori- 
cal introduction,  read: 

Ptolemaic  System 

Copornican  System 

Of  the  members  of  the  solar  system, 
the  planetary  system  is  of  most  imme- 
diate interest  to  us,  since  our  earth  is  a 
member  of  this  system.  The  sun  and 
the  planets,  with  their  satellites  and 
their  interrelations,  are  treated  in  the 
following  articles : 

Sun 

Planets 

Solar  System 

Planetoids 

Satellites 

Vulcan 

Mercury 

Venus 

Earth 

Mars 

Jupiter 

Saturn 

Uranus 

Neptune 


Eros 

Moon 

Gravitation 

Parallax 

Lunar  Theory 

Nutation 

Perturbations 

Precession 

Tides 

Latitude,  Variation  of 

Seasons 

Orbit 

Elements 

Eclipse 

COMETS  are  usually  very  small  in 
mass,  though  this  has  great  extent. 
They  move  in  very  eccentric  orbits 
about  the  sun,  and  the  planes  of  their 
orbits  present  a  great  variety.  The 
constituent  parts  and  physical  charac- 
teristics, the  mass,  the  spectra,  the 
rrimbiT,  discoveries,  the  rapture  theory, 
and  origin  of  comets  are  treated  in  the 
article  COMET. 

METEORS  are  masses  of  stone  or  iron, 
which  sometimes  are  seen  to  fall  to  the 
earth  from  the  sky.  The  circumstances 
of  the  fall,  the  meteoric  showers,  the 
probable  cause,  the  matter,  path,  and 
number  of  meteors  are  treated  in  the 
articles : 

Meteors 

Aerolite 

3.  THE  STARS. 

These  bodies  are  usually  called  fixed 
stars,  owing  to  the  idea  of  the  ancients 
that  they  were  without  motion.  The 
fixity  is,  however,  now  disproved,  and 
observations  with  the  spectroscope 
show  that  they  arc  moving  with  veloci* 
ties  comparable  to  those  of  bodies  be- 
longing to  the  solar  system.  Owing  to 


168 


ASTRONOMY 


their  immense  distance,  they  appear, 
however,  to  keep  their  relative  posi- 
tions and  configurations  unchanged. 
This  is  only  apparent,  and  there  are 
stars  whose  displacement  amounts  to 
as  much  as  1"  a  year.  In  magnitude 
and  physical  condition,  the  stars  arc 
comparable  with  our  sun,  and  many  of 
them  greatly  exceed  our  sun  in  bright- 
ness and  magnitude.  The  designation, 
magnitude,  nature,  and  number  of 
stars,  the  constellations,  stellar  paral- 
lax, proper  motion,  spectra,  photome- 
try, variable  stars,  double  and  multiple 
stars,  binary  stars,  etc.,  are  treated  in 
the  following  articles: 

Star 

Constellation 

Culmination 

Pole  Star 

Zodiac 

Galaxy 

Parallax 

Variable  Star 

Astro-Photography 

THE  NEBULAE  arc  faintly  shining 
cloudlike  patches  of  matter  in  the  sky, 
scattered  among  the  stars.  They  arc 
supposed  to  be  stars  under  formation. 
The  nature,  forms,  and  magnitudes  of 
nebulae,  the  spectra,  distribution,  dis- 
tance, etc.,  are  treated  in  the  article 
NEBULAE. 

4.  ASTRONOMICAL  OBSERVATORIES 
are  buildings  where  the  instruments 
and  machinery  necessary  for  the  obser- 
vation of  the  heavenly  bodies  arc  kept. 
The  equipment,  location,  etc.,  together 
with  a  description  of  some  of  the  larg- 
est observatories  in  the  world,  are 
treated  in  the  following  articles: 

Observatory 

Lick  Observatory 


Naval  Observatory 

Pulkova 

Yerkes  Observatory 

Greenwich  Observatory 

Harvard  College  Observatory 

Mount  Wilson  Solar  Observatory 

5.  COSMOGONY  deals  with  the  the- 
ory of  operations  by  which  the  present 
condition  of  the  universe  came  about. 
Various    systems    of   cosmogony   have 
prevailed  at  different  times.    See : 

Cosmogony 
Nebulae 

6.  ASTROLOGY  deals  with  the  sup- 
posed influence  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
upon  human  affairs  and  the  drawing 
of  horoscopes.  Astrology  was  the  fore- 
runner of  astronomy,  and  for  centuries 
astronomical   observations    were    made 
mainly  to  supply  data  for  astrology. 
See  ASTROLOGY. 

7.  BIOGRAPHY. 

Observational  astronomy  dates  back 
to  the  Chinese  and  Chaldaeans,  but  the 
first  real  attempt  to  explain  the  move- 
ments of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  due  to 
the  Greeks.  The  ideas  of  the  Greeks 
held  sway  till  Copernicus  substi- 
tuted a  more  harmonious  system. 
Gravitational  astronomy  begins  with 
Newton,  who  made  it  possible  to  ex- 
plain the  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  while  Galileo's  invention  of  the 
telescope  gave  a  means  of  finding  out 
what  they  are  in  themselves.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  most  prominent 
contributors  to  astronomy: 

Hipparchus 

Ptolemy 

Brahe 

Kepler 

Galileo 


ASTRONOMY  169 


Galileo  Baily 

Newton  Hansen 

Bradley  Struve,  F.  G.  W. 

Halley  Encke 

Roemer  Leverricr 

Cassini,  Jacques  Adams,  J.  C. 

Cassini,  G.  D.  Airy 

Flamsteed  Rossc 

Herschel,  Sir  William  Rutherford 

Hcrschel,   Sir  J.  F.  W.  Struve,  Otto 

Laplace  Gallc 

Bossel  Huggins 

Bode  Lockyer 

Delambre  Gill,  Sir  J3avid 

Olhers  Pickering 

Piazzi  Hale,  G,  E, 
Pond 


(Uhaptrr  16. 


IN  undertaking  systematic  reading  in  any  particular  science,  it  is  well  at 
the  outset  to  realize  the  province  and  limitations  of  that  science,  as  they 
have  been  determined  and  observed  in  the  past  by  its  devotees,  and  what, 
if  there  have  been  changes,  is  the  modern  conception  of  the  scope  of  the 
particular    department    of    knowledge    so    known.     With    this    especial 
object,    the    article    on  PHYSICS    has    been    written,    and    serves    to    introduce 
the  reader  to  the  subject,  as  discussed  in  more  detail  under  the  broad  subdivisions 
of  ACOUSTICS,   ELECTRICITY,   HEAT,   LIGHT,   MECHANICS,   LABORATORY,   MAG- 
NETISM and  HADIOACHVIT\.     Taking  up  thi\si>  subjects  separately,  and  also  the 
article  on  LABORATORY,  we  shall  find  in  each  case  the  general  article  referred 
to,  and  such  minor  articles  as  are  demanded. 


1.  ACOUSTICS. 

Dealing  with  theoretical  questions, 
the  more  important  topics  on  the  na- 
ture and  theory  of  sound  arc  included 
in  the  following  list: 

Acoustics 

Section  Origins  under  Music 

Diatonic  Scale 

Phonetics 

Resonance 

Resonator 

Node 

For  special  purposes  and  investiga- 
tion dealing  with  the  production  and 
propagation  of  sound  waves,  there  has 
been  devised  much  interesting  appa- 
ratus, certain  forms  of  which,  as  the 
telephone,  phonograph,  megaphone, 
etc.,  have  found  their  way  into  univer- 
sal application.  See: 

Siren 

Speaking  Trumpet 

Megaphone 

Ear-Trumpet 
\coumetor 

Phonograph 

Talking  Machine 

Graphophonc 

Telephone 

Tuning-Fork 

Organ 


2.  ELECTRICITY. 

To  supplement  the  general  article 
ELECTRICITY,  and  those  of  a  theoreti- 
cal nature  treating  lonizatioa  and 
Electrons,  it  is  desirable  to  consult 
articles  dealing  with  the  generation  of 
the  current,  as  DYNAMO-ELECTRIC 
MACHINERY,  the  VOLTAIC  CELL,  the 
DRY  PILE,  THERMO-ELECTRICITY,  and 
also  study  the  effects  of  INDUCTION 
and  self-induction.  We  can  learn  how 
the  magnetic  strength  of  a  solenoid  is 
influenced  by  the  number  of  AMPERE 
TURNS.  As  supplemental,  then,  to  the 
article  on  electricity,  the  following  ar- 
ticles may  be  cited: 

(a)  Fundamental  Phenomena: 
Current 
Conductor 
Resistance 
Shunt 

Electrostatics  (under  Electricity) 
Condenser 
Ampere  Turns 
Solenoid 
Induction 

Induced  Electric  Currents   (un- 
der Electricity) 
Foucault  Currents 

(6)  Electrical  Units: 
Electrical  Units 


170 


PHYSICS 


171 


Ampere 

Volt 

Ohm 

Henry 

Farad 

Coulomb 

Watt 

(c)  Electrostatic  Apparatus: 

Electrophorus 

Electrical  Machine 

Electroscope 

Ley  den  Jar  (under  Condenser) 

Barometric  Light 

Brush 

Elmo's  Fire,  Saint 

(d)  Measuring  Instruments: 

Galvanometer 
Ammeter 
Voltmeter 
Voltameter 
Wheatstone's  Bridge 
Electrometer 
Electric  Meters 
Induction  Balance 

(e)  Discharge  in  Gases  or  in  Vacuo: 

Anode 

Discharge   through   Gases    (un- 
der Electricity) 
Geissler's  Tubes 
Crookes  Tube 
X-Rays 

(f )  Electric  Currents: 

Galvanic  Battery 

Voltaic  Cell  or  Battery 

Dry  Pile 

Storage  Battery 

Dynamo  Electric  Machinery 

Thermo-Electricity 

Thomson  Effect 

8.  HEAT. 

Following  the  arrangement  already 
specified  for  the  study  of  heat,  refer- 


ence  should  be  made  to  CALORIACETRY 
to  ascertain  how  the  amount  of  heat 
possessed  by  various  bodies  is  measured, 
and  to  THEEMOMETRY  to  learn  how  the 
temperature  or  degree  of  heat  is  deter- 
mined. THERMODYNAMICS  enables  us 
to  consider  the  relation  between  heat 
and  work.  See: 

Heat 

Calorimetry 

Thermometry 

Diathermancy 

Regelation 

Radiation 

Thermodynamics 

Spheroidal  State 


Of  a  more  practical  character,  are 
those  articles  involving  the  considera- 
tion of  methods  and  apparatus,  such 
as  those  which  discuss  the  LIQUEFAC- 
TION OF  GASES  and  FREEZING  MIX- 
TURES. A  list  of  this  kind  would  in- 
clude: 

Cryophorus 

Freezing  Point 

Freezing-Mixtures 

Liquefaction  of  Gases 

Mel  ting-Point 

Boiling-Point 

Critical  Point 

Refrigeration 

Zero 

Thermometer 

Pyrometer 

Thermoscope 

Microtasimeter 

Radiation 

Radiometer 

Radiation  Pressure 

Bolometer 

Hygrometer 

Safety-Lamp 


172 


PHYSICS 


4.  MAGNETISM. 

Complete  articles  on  MAGNETISM  in 
general  and  on  TERRESTRIAL  MAG- 
NETISM, with  charts,  leave  but  little 
to  be  said  in  addition.  The  instru- 
ments used  in  studying  magnetism,  and 
especially  the  ship's  compass,  with  its 
important  adjustments,  are  also  the 
subjects  of  further  description.  See: 

Magnetism 

Terrestrial  Magnetism 

Diamagnetism 

Compass 

Declination 

Declinometer 

Dipcircle 

Inclination 

Isoclinic 

Isogonic 

Magnetometer 

Magnetic  Elements 

Magnetic  Equator 

Magnetic  Observatory 

Armature 

Alloys,  Magnetic 

Astatic  Needle 

5.  LIGHT. 

In  the  study  of  optics,  there  are 
numerous  opportunities  to  branch  off 
from  a  general  treatment  and  carry  on 
independent  investigation  in  a  particu- 
lar field.  Starting  with  the  motion  of 
the  ether,  known  as  light,  we  arc  able 
to  study  its  VELOCITY  and  also  the 
intensity.  For  the  latter,  photometers 
arc  employed,  and  the  subject  of  PHO- 
TOMETRY presents  a  record  of  many 
different  instruments  and  methods. 
The  useful  application  of  light  is  in- 
cluded under  ILLUMINATION.  By  rea- 
son of  its  wave  motion  when  DIFFRAC- 
TION and  INTERFERENCE  take  place 
FRINGES  are  formed,  and  also  there  re- 


sults the  phenomenon  known  as  colors 
of  thin  plates.  This  principle  of  in- 
terference is  the  basis  of  one  process 
of  COLOR  PHOTOGRAPHY;  several  pro- 
cesses arc  described  under  that  title. 
In  fact,  numerous  other  examples  could 
be  cited,  but  reference  to  the  following 
list  will  clearly  indicate  the  extent  of 
the  range  of  subject^: 
(a)  Light: 

Light 

Velocity  of  Light 

Ether 

Diffraction  and  Diffraction  Grat- 
ings 

Interference 

Fringes 

Colors   of    Thin    Plates    (under 
Light) 

Newton's  Rings 

Photometry 

Reflection 

Caustic 

Refraction 

Polarization 

Prism 

Dispersion 

Color 

Complementary  Colors 

Achromatism 

Rainbow 

Lens 

Foci 

Aberration,  Chromatic 

Aberration,  Spherical 

Spectroscopy 

Fluorescence 

Phosphorescence 

Zeeman  Effect 

Mirage 

Fata  Morgana 
(6)  Optical  Instruments: 

Telescope 

Opera  Glass 


PHYSICS 


178 


Field  Glass 
Object-Glass 
Eyepiece 
Field  of  View 
Microscope 
Solar  Microscope 
Camera  Lucida 
Camera  Obscura 
Aplanatic  Lens 
Spectroscope 
Stereoscope 
Magic  Lantern 
Moving  Pictures 


Dissolving  Views 

Diaphragm 

Pohm'scope 

Nicol  Prism 

Analyzer 

Polar  Clock 

Kaleidoscope 

Chromatrope 

Zoetrope 

Fluoroscopc 

Diaphanoscope 

Cyanomcter 

Dioptomotcr 

Magic  Mirror  of  Japan 

(c)  Photographic  Processes: 
Photography 
Photo-Chemistry 
Negative 
Ambrotypc 

Daguerreotype  Process 
Copying 

Color  Photography 
Photo-Engraving 
Calotype  Proccess 
Cyanotype  Process 
Ferrotype 
Fothergill  Process 
Photolithography      (under     Li- 

thography) 
Gelatin  Process 


6.  MATTER  AND  MECHANICS. 

Under  this  head,  we  may  include  a 
consideration  of  matter,  including  its 
general  properties  and  the  theories  ad- 
vanced to  explain  it,  as  well  as  the 
questions  concerned  with  the  motion  of 
matter,  and  the  methods  and  units  em- 
ployed to  measure  this  motion.  Con- 
sidering the  first  subdivision,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  concern  ourselves  with  the 
following  titles: 

Matter 

Vortex 

Molecules 

Inertia 

Porosity 

Ductility 

Elasticity 

Flexure 

Viscosity 

Gases,  General  Properties  of 

Effusion 

Cohesion 

Adhesion 

The  science  of  mechanics  deals  with 
the  motion  of  matter.  After  reading 
the  fundamental  article  MECHANICS, 
the  reader  will  be  prepared  to  appre- 
ciate the  associated  articles  as  well  as 
those  dealing  with  the  various  stages  of 
applied  mechanics.  Included  in  the 
former  class,  are  the  following: 

Mechanics 

Dynamics 

Kinetics 

Kinematics 

Statics 

Moment 

Momentum 

Velocity 

Acceleration 

Force 

Potential 


174 


PHYSICS 


Central  Forces 
Couple 
Energetics 
Centre  of  Gravity 

"     "    Gyration 

«      "    Inertia 

«      "    Oscillation 

u     **    Percussion 

"     "   Pressure 
Aerostatics 
Aerodynamics 
Pneumatics 
Hydrostatics 
Hydrodynamics 
Vortex 
Waves 
Stability 
Impact 
Gravitation 
Falling  Bodies 
Vector 
Capillarity 
Mechanical  Powers 
Inclined  Plane 
Lever 

Wheel  and  Axle 
Pulley 
Pendulum 
Projectiles,  Motion  of 

In  order  to  measure  motion  and  its 
effect,  there  are  required  systems  of 
units,  and  these  are  usually  arranged 
on  such  a  basis  that  they  are  parts  of 
a  symmetrical  system,  such  as  the  C. 
G.  S.  (Centimeter,  Gramme,  Second) 
system.  This  matter  is  fully  ex- 
plained in  the  following  articles: 

C.  G.  S. 

Mechanical  Units 

Dimensions 

Dyne 

Erg 

Foot-Pound 

Joule 


Watt 

Kilowatt 

Horse-Power 

For  the  measurement  and  study  of 
matter  and  its  motion  and  other  prop- 
erties, numerous  important  pieces  of 
physical  apparatus  have  been  devised. 
Thus,  to  measure  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  or  a  gas,  we  have  the  BAR- 
OMETER  and  the  MANOMETER.  To  re- 
move the  air  from  a  vessel,  the  AIR 
PUMP  is  applied.  For  the  linear  meas- 
ures, we  have  scales  constructed  with 
the  DIVIDING  ENGINE  and  compared 
with  standards  on  the  COMPARATOR. 
Instruments  of  such  nature  are  includ- 
ed in  the  following  list: 

Air  Pump 

Barometer 

Barometer,  Water 

Aneroid 

Manometer 

Magdeburg  Hemispheres 

Specific  Gravity 

Hydrometer 

Jolly  Balance 

Balance 

Spring  Balance 

Weighing  Machine 

Torsion  Balance 

Weights  and  Measures 

Metric  System 

Dividing  Engine 

Comparator 

Atwood's  Machine 

Barker's  Mill 

Hero's  Fountain 

7.  MODERN  THEORIES. 

Modern  Physics  has  many  recent  de- 
velopments to  record  in  the  field  of 
theory  and  many  of  the  ideas  once 
considered  fixed  and  definite  have  been 
put  to  the  test  severely  under  later 


PHYSICS 


175 


conditions.  Even  GRAVITATION,  whose 
laws  were  once  considered  fundamen- 
tal, has  been  considered  in  the  light 
of  modern  thought,  while  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  ELECTRON  and  the  part 
played  by  IONIZATION  has  modified  our 
original  idea  of  ELECTRICITY  and  the 
ETHER.  Furthermore,  we  have  the 
new  conception  of  RELATIVITY.  What- 
ever the  existence  of  matter  and  its 
explanation,  yet  when  electrical  oscil- 
lations take  place  or  material  bodies 
emit  energy,  or  as  it  is  termed,  RADIA- 
TION, a  wide  range  of  phenomena  is 
produced  ranging  from  the  Electro- 
magnetic waves  used  in  WIRELESS 
TELEGRAPHY  and  TELEPHONY  to  the 
waves  of  light.  When  the  radiations 
are  produced  by  the  discharge  of  elec- 
tricity through  a  vacuum  we  have  the 
phenomena  of  the  X-rays,  while  if  the 
radiations  are  furnished  spontaneously, 
as  by  such  radioactive  elements  as  RA- 
DIUM, THORIUM,  etc.,  there  are  af- 
forded the  varied  series  of  phenomena 
that  would  seem  to  indicate  transfor- 
mation of  one  element  to  another  and 
bear  an  important  relation  to  the  the- 
ory and  explanation  of  matter.  Ac- 
cordingly, in  this  connection,  one 
could  read  with  profit  the  articles  on: 

Ether 

Gravitation 

Relativity 

Radiation 

Radiation  Pressure 

Radium 

Radioactivity 

Electricity 

Light 

X-rays 

Waves 

RADIOACTIVITY,    by    reason    of    its 
relation  to  theories  of  matter  and  the 


involved  phenomena,  both  physical  and 
chemical,  is  now  entitled  to  stand  as 
a  distinct  Department  of  Physics,  in  so 
far  as  the  physical  phenomena  are 
concerned. 

The  main  article  on  this  subject 
deals  with  the  theories  which  have  been 
advanced  to  explain  the  many  inter- 
esting phenomena  of  the  Radioactive 
substances.  Accordingly  one  should 
read,  in  addition  to  this  article,  those 
on  the  various  Radioactive  elements, 
such  as : 

Radium 

Uranium 

Actinium    (  particularly  ) 

Thorium 

Polonium 

The  biographievS  of  the  leading 
workers  in  this  field,  such  as  the  Bec- 
querels,  Sir  William  Crookes,  Professor 
and  Madame  Curie,  Ernest  Ruther- 
ford, Frederick  Soddy  and  J.  J. 
Thomson,  and  others  referred  to  in  the 
various  articles,  should  also  be  read. 

8.  BIOGRAPHIES  OF  PHYSICISTS. 

Some  of  the  greatest  achievements 
in  that  branch  of  science  which  is  now 
known  as  Physics  have  been  the  work 
of  philosophers  who  have  also  accom- 
plished much  in  other  fields,  and  con- 
sequently it  is  impossible,  particularly 
in  the  case  of  ancient  and  mediaeval 
scientists,  to  term  them  physicists,  and 
include  them  in  such  a  list.  Also,  in 
modern  times,  the  work  of  the  chemist, 
of  the  engineer,  of  the  meteorologist, 
of  the  astronomer,  and  of  other  scien- 
tific workers,  closely  approaches  or  ac- 
tually transgresses  the  limits  which  the 
physicist  has  set  for  himself.  There- 
fore, the  following  list  does  not  in- 
clude all  the  principal  workers,  but  a 


176 


PHYSICS 


certain  number  who  primarily  are  dis- 
tinguished for  their  work  in  physics. 

Abney,  W.  de  W. 
Amici,  G.  B. 
Amontons,  G. 
Ampere,  A.  M. 
Arago,  D.  F. 
Archimedes 
Atwood,  George 
Bache,  Alex.  D. 
Bacon,  Roger 
Becquerel,  A.  C. 
Becquerel,  A.  E. 
Becquerel,  A.  H. 
Bell,  A.  G. 
Biot,  Jean  B. 
Boyle,  Robert 
Brewster,  Sir  D. 
Bunscn,  R.  W. 
Cailletet,  L.  P. 
Carhart,  H.  S. 
Carnot,  N.  L.  S. 
Cavendish,  H. 
Chladni,  E.  F.  F. 
Clausius,  R.  J.  E. 
Coulomb,  C.  A. 
De  la  Rive,  A.  A. 
Dollond,  John 
Dove,  H.  W. 
Edison,  T.  A. 
Ewing,  J.  A. 
Fahrenheit,  G.  D. 
Faraday,  M, 
Ferrari,  G. 
Fleming,  J.  A. 
Forbes,  J.  D. 
Foucault,  J.  B.  L. 
Fraunhofer,  Joseph  von 
Fresnel,  A.  J. 
Galvani,  L. 
Gauss,  K.  F. 
Gay-Lussac,  J.  L. 
Gcissler,  H. 
Gilbert,  W. 


Glazebrook,  R.  T. 
Gray,  Elisha 
Grove,  Sir  W.  R. 
Guericke,  (X  von 
Haidinger,  W.  von 
Halley,  K. 
Hauksbee,  F. 
Helmholtz,  H.  von 
Henry,  Joseph 
Hero  of  Alexandria 
Herschel,  Sir  W. 
Hertz,  H. 
Hittorf ,  J.  W. 
Holtz,  W. 
Hopkinson,  J. 
Huygens,  C. 
Jenkin,  H.  C.  F. 
Jolly,  P.  von 
Joule,  J.  P. 
Kater,  H. 
Kirchhoff,  G.   R. 
Kohlrausch,  F. 
Kundt,  A. 
Laplace,  P.  S.  de 
Leslie,  Sir  J. 
Lodge,  Sir  O.  J. 
Magnus,  H.  G. 
Malus,  E.  L. 
Mariotte,  E. 
Mascart,  E.  E.  N. 
Maxwell,  J.  C1, 
Mayer,  A.  M. 
Mayer,  J.  R.  von 
Mendenhall,  T.  C. 
Michclson,  A.  A. 
Morse,  S.  F.  B. 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac 
Nichols,  E.  L. 
Oersted,  H.  C. 
Ohm,  G.  S. 
Ostwald,  W. 
Papin,  D. 
Pictet,  R. 
Plateau,  J.  A.  F. 


PHYSICS  177 

Pupin,  M.  I.  Thompson,  S.  P. 

Quincke,  G.  H.  Thomson,  Sir  J.  J. 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.  Thomson,  William  (Lord  Kelvin) 

Rayleigh,  J.  W.  S.  Torricelli,  E. 

Reaumur,  R.  A.  F.  de  Trowbridgc,  J. 

Regnault,  H.  V.  Tyndall,  J. 

Roentgen,  W.  K.  Van't  Hoff,  J.  H. 

Rowland,  H.  A.  Violle,  J. 

Riihmkorff,  H.  D.  Volta,  A. 

Sabine,  Sir  E.  Watt,  J. 

Siemens,  Sir  W.  Weber,  W. 

Somerville,  Mary  Wheatstone,  Sir  Charles 

Stcinheil,  K.  A.  Wicdemann,  (}. 

Stevin,  S.  Wilde,  H. 

Stokes,  Sir  G.  G.  Woodward,  R.  S. 

Tait,  P.  G.  Wroblewski,  Z.  F. 

Tesla,  N.  Young,  T. 


17.   Aeronautics! 


IN  only  a  very  recent  work  of  reference  would  it  be  possible  to  assemble 
a  number  of  articles  dealing  with  the  modern  theory  and  art  of  aerial 
navigation.     Indeed,  the  practice  of  aeronautics  has  been  so  affected 
by  the  great  War  in  Europe  that  the  military  and  naval  aspects  of 
the  matter  have  become  predominant,  and  while  the  mechanical  features 
are  closely  connected,  yet  the  general  reader  at  the  present  time  is  likely  to  be 
more  concerned  with  the  use  of  the  aeroplane  and  dirigible  in  warfare. 

In  the  NEW  INTERNATIONAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA  the  student  will  find  first  a 
general  article  on  AERONAUTICS,  in  which  the  history  of  the  evolution  of  the 
dirigible  or  airship  from  the  balloon  and  of  the  aeroplane,  from  the  earliest 
attempts  at  securing  flight  with  a  machine  heavier  than  the  displaced  air,  is 
traced.  He  will  also  find  in  the  article  on  GASES,  GENERAL  PROPERTIES  OF, 
the  fundamental  theory  involved,  and  in  the  articles  on  MILITARY  and  NAVAL 
AERONAUTICS  the  applications  to  warfare.  In  the  section  on  Aerial  Operations, 
in  the  long  article  on  the  WAR  IN  EUROPE,  will  be  found  a  discussion  of  the 
use  made  of  these  machines  in  reconnaissance  and  combat. 

The  successful  evolution  of  machines  that  could  navigate  air  also  has 
brought  about  legal  problems  and  indicated  changes  both  in  international  law  and 
in  other  statutes  or  principles  of  law  involved  in  the  rules  of  the  road  and  other 
obvious  practices.  Accordingly,  a  list  of  useful  articles  for  one  engaged  in 
research  in  this  field  would  be  the  following : 

Aeronautics  War  in  Europe  (Section  on  Aerial 

Aerodynamics  Operations ) 

Aerostatics  Gases.  General  Properties  of 

Military  Aeronautics  Internal  Combustion  Motors 

Hangar  Military  or  Man-Raising  Kite 

Navigation,  Aerial,  Law  of  Kite 

International  Law 


178 


Chapter  18.   Cfjemisitrp 


THE  importance,  for  practically  everybody,  of  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  chemistry  hardly  needs  to  be  emphasized.  Chemical  facts  and 
principles  are  involved,  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  every  science 
and  in  every  branch  of  industry,  and  chemical  questions  come  up 
often  in  nearly  every  sphere  of  human  activity. 

In  the  NEW  INTERNATIONAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA  the  science  and  applications 
of  chemistry  are  treated  in  a  large  number  of  articles,  many  of  which  were  written 
so  as  to  serve  a  double  purpose:  first,  to  supply  information  on  their  special 
topics,  without  reference  to  chemical  science  as  a  whole,  or  to  any  other  chemical 
topic ;  secondly,  to  form  integral  parts  of  an  exposition  of  chemistry,  for  those 
who  may  desire  to  use  the  Encyclopaedia  for  the  acquisition  of  a  general  acquaint- 
ance with  the  subject.  To  serve  the  second  purpose,  they  were  written  from  a 
single  viewpoint — on  the  whole,  that  of  the  German  school  of  physical  chemistry, 
now  all  but  universally  recognized  as  the  best  founded  and  most  fruitful  mode 
of  viewing  chemical  phenomena.  To  serve  the  first  purpose,  which  is  all-important 
in  a  work  of  reference,  each  article  (with  few  unavoidable  exceptions),  besides 
being  written  in  simple  terms,  is  supplied  with  all  the  information  that  is  nec- 
essary to  an  understanding  of  the  subject  it  treats,  so  that  in  most  of 
the  articles,  no  preliminary  chemical  knowledge  is  pre-supposed.  But  even  in 
those  articles  in  which  the  assumption  of  some  preliminary  knowledge  could 
not,  for  obvious  reasons,  be  avoided,  no  information  was  pre-supposed  beyond 
what  may  be  readily  found  in  the  Encyclopaedia  itself.  Furthermore,  in  most 
of  the  articles  the  more  essential  information  is  concentrated  in  the  opening 
paragraphs,  the  more  technical  and  less  essential  in  later  parts  of  the  article; 
so  that  glancing  over  the  first  paragraph  alone  may  be  sufficient  for  many 
purposes.  If  the  end  in  view  be  the  acquisition  of  some  general  knowledge 
of  chemistry,  the  articles  should  be  read  entirely  and  carefully  and  the  leading 
points  briefly  noted  down,  so  as  to  afford,  at  any  time  of  the  reading,  a  clear 
retrospect  over  the  ground  covered. 

For  purposes  of  systematic  reading,  the  chemical  articles  in  the  Encyclo- 
paedia may  be  grouped  as  follows:  1,  Those  dealing  with  general  fundamental 
principles;  2,  those  dealing  with  the  principal  classes  of  carbon  compounds; 
3,  those  dealing  with  the  theories  of  physical  chemistry;  4»,  those  articles,  or 
sections  of  articles,  dealing  with  the  history  of  chemistry;  6,  articles  on  the 
chemical  elements;  6,  articles  on  the  principal  compounds  occurring  in  the  liv- 
ing organism;  7,  articles  on  other  substances,  inorganic  and  organic,  present- 
ing either  theoretical  or  practical  interest.  In  the  following  chapter  devoted 
to  INTERNATIONAL  CHEMISTRY,  as  well  as  in  the  section  on  Manufactures,  will 
be  found  listed  and  discussed  the  articles  that  deal  with  modern  industrial 
processes  and  their  products. 

The   order   of  this   classification  is     the  general  reader,  of  principles  and 
based  on  the  relative  importance,  to     facts.      Should   the   course   of   syste- 

170 


180 


CHEMISTRY 


matic  reading  be  interrupted  at  some 
stage,  a  knowledge  of  at  least  some 
of  the  principles  of  chemistry  ought 
to  be  much  more  valuable  than  a 
knowledge  of  some  data  concerning 
individual  compounds,  such  as  would 
be  acquired  if,  following  the  usual  or- 
der of  chemical  studies  in  schools,  the 
course  should  be  commenced  by  a  peru- 
sal of  the  descriptive  articles  on  the 
elements  and  their  principal  inorganic 
compounds. 

1.  FUNDAMENTAL     PEINCIPLES     AND 
PHENOMENA. 

Chemistry 

Analysis,  Chemical 

Atomic  Weights 

Avogadro's  Rule 

Molecules 

Periodic  Law 

Spectrum  Analysis 

Reaction,  Chemical 

Decomposition 

Dissociation 

Catalysis 

Nascent  State 

Combustion 

Spontaneous  Combustion 

2.  CARBON  COMPOUNDS. 

The  compounds  of  carbon,  number- 
ing roughly  150,000,  form  the  sub- 
ject of  organic  chemistry,  one  of  the 
most  extensive  and  important  branches 
of  modern  chemical  science.  In  this 
branch  the  atomic  and  other  theories 
have  found  a  field  for  some  of  their 
most  useful  applications;  and  it  is, 
therefore,  advisable  to  acquire  some 
knowledge  of  it  at  any  early  stage  in 
chemical  reading.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  principal  articles  dealing 
with  this  branch ;  to  be  supplemented, 


of  course,  on  the  practical  side  by  those 
dealing  with  industrial  processes  as 
given  in  the  following  chapter: 

Carbon  Compounds 

Stereo-Chemistry 

Alcohols 

Mercaptans 

Ethers 

Aldehydes 

Ketones 

Amines 

Amides 

Ureas 

Valence 

Carbohydrates 

Phenols 

Organo- Metallic  Bodies 

Alkaloids 

3.  PHYSICAL  CHEMISTRY. 

Within  recent  years,  physical  chem- 
istry has  attained  a  degree  of  impor- 
tance which  makes  some  knowledge  of 
it  indispensable. 

It  is  believed  that  this  justified  the 
introduction  in  the  Encyclopaedia  of  a 
somewhat  extensive  treatment  of  the 
subject.  Following  is  a  list  of  the 
principal  articles,  in  the  order  in 
which  it  would  seem  advisable  to  read 
them: 

Avogadro's  Rule 

Boiling-Point 

Freezing-Point 

Melting-Point 

Solution 

Dissociation 

Colloids 

Thermo-Chemistry 

Phase  Rule 

Electro-Chemistry,  General 

Photo-Chemistry 

Critical  Point 

Evaporation 


CHEMISTRY 


181 


Distillation 

Sublimation 

Radioactivity 

4.  HISTORY  OF  CHEMISTRY. 

The  history  of  a  great  science,  if 
studied  after  some  knowledge  of  the 
principles  and  problems  of  the  science 
has  been  acquired,  has  in  itself  a  fas- 
cination for  almost  every  mind.  But, 
in  the  case  of  chemistry,  many  authori- 
ties have  maintained  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  history  is  not  merely  interest- 
ing, but  absolutely  indispensable  to  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  science 
itself.  In  the  Encyclopaedia,  a  simple 
presentation  of  the  development  of 
chemical  thought,  and  the  gradual 
elimination  of  past  errors  of  principle 
and  method,  will  be  found  in  the  gen- 
eral article  CHEMISTRY.  Further  his- 
torical information  will  be  found  in  the 
article  ALCHEMY,  in  the  articles  on 
physical  chemistry,  in  those  describing 
the  elements  and  many  chemical  com- 
pounds, and  especially  in  the  biogra- 
phies of  celebrated  chemists.  Follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  some  of  the  best-known 
names  in  the  history  of  chemistry : 

Helmont,  J.  B.  van 

Becher,  J.  J. 

Stahl,  G.  E. 

Black,  J. 

Priestley,  J. 

Cavendish,  H. 

Lavoisier,  A.  L. 

Klaproth,  M.  H. 

Dalton,  J. 

Wollaston,  W.  H. 

Berzclius,  J.  J. 

Davy,  H. 

Berthollet,  C. 

Avogadro,  A. 

Gay-Lussac,  J.  L. 


Mitscherlich,  E. 

Liebig,  J. 

Wohler,  F. 

Chevreul,  M.  E. 

Dumas,  J.  B. 

Laurent,  A. 

Gerhardt,  K.  F. 

Gmelin,  L. 

Saintc-Claire  Deville,  H.  E. 

Cannizzaro,  S. 

Graham,  T. 

Kolbe,  H. 

Bunsen,  R.  W. 

Roscoe,  H.  E. 

Berthelot,  P.  E.  M. 

Wurtz,  C,  A. 

Hofmann,  A.  W. 

Regnault,  H.  V. 

Pasteur,  L. 

Mendeleeff,  D. 

Schorlemmer,  C. 

Bacycr,  A. 

Fischer,  E. 

Van't  Hoff,  J.  H. 

Ostwald,  W. 

Nernst,  W. 

Arrhenius,  S. 

Curie,  M.   S.  and  P. 

Crookes,  W. 

Ramsay,  W. 

5.  THE  CHEMICAL  ELEMENTS. 

The  articles  on  the  chemical  elements 
will  be  found  to  contain  descriptions, 
not  only  of  the  elements  themselves, 
but  also  of  their  principal  compounds, 
so  that  each  article  forms  a  chapter  of 
inorganic  chemistry.  Following  is  a 
list  of  some  of  the  principal  articles  in 
a  recognized  order  of  arrangement: 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen 

Carbon 


182 


CHEMISTRY 


Chlorine 

Bromine 

Iodine 

Fluorine 

Sodium 

Potassium 

Lithium 

Magnesium 

Calcium 

Strontium 

Barium 

Zinc 

Cadmium 

Mercury 

Boron 

Aluminium 

Silicon 

Tin 

Lead 

Zirconium 

Thorium 

Phosphorus 

Arsenic 

Antimony 

Bismuth 

Sulphur 

Selenium 

Tellurium 

Chromium 

Molybdenum 

Tungsten 

Uranium 

Manganese 

Iron 

Cobalt 

Nickel 

Platinum 

Palladium 

Copper 

Silver 

Gold 

Articles  on  the  rest  of  the  elements, 
including  the  rare  gases  ARGON,  HE- 
LIUM, NEON,  KRYPTON,  and  XENON, 


and  of  the  radioactive  elements,  in* 
eluding  RADIUM,  POLONIUM,  ACTIN- 
IUM, and  THORIUM,  will  be  found  in 
their  proper  places.  In  connection  with 
the  radioactive  elements,  reference 
should  be  made  to  the  article  on  RADIO- 
ACTIVITY. A  list  of  the  elements,  with 
their  chemical  symbols  and  atomic 
weights,  will  be  found  in  the  article 
ATOMIC  WEIGHTS. 

6-  COMPOUNDS  OCCURRING  IN  LIVING 
ORGANISMS. 

Physiological  chemistry  deals  with 
the  individual  compounds  forming  the 
chemical  ingredients  of  the  materials 
of  which  living  organisms  and  their 
products  (e.  g.9  milk)  are  made  up. 
A  knowledge  of  the  chemical  and 
physical  properties  of  those  compounds 
is  indispensable  in  the  study  of  chem- 
ical physiology,  and  hence  of  physi- 
ology in  general.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  more  important  physiologi- 
cal compounds  described  under  their 
names  in  the  Encyclopaedia: 

Albumen 

Allantoi'n 

Carbohydrates 

Cellulose 

Carnin 

Casein 

Cerebrin 

Chitin 

Cystin 

Elastin 

Fats 

Fibrin 

Gelatin 

Globulins 

Glycogen 

Guanin 

Hypoxanthin 

Keratin 


CHEMISTRY 


188 


Kreatin 

Kreatinin 

Legumin 

Leucin 

Ossein 

Proteins 

Starch 

Syntonin 

Taurin 

Urea 

Uric  Acid 

Haematin 

Haemoglobin 

7.  OTHEE    IMPORTANT    ARTICLES    ON 
CHEMICAL  SUBJECTS. 

(a)  Metallic  Alloys: 

Alloy 
Amalgam 
Babbitt  Metal 
Brass 

Britannia  Metal 
Bronze 

Fusible  Metal 
German  Silver 
Phosphor-Bronze 
Pewter 
Pinchbeck 
Platiniridium 
Spence's  Metal 

(b)  Bases: 

The  inorganic  bases,  i.  e.,  metallic 
oxides  and  hydroxides,  are  mostly  de- 
scribed in  connection  with  the  metallic 
elements.  Important  special  articles 
are: 

Ammonia 

Lime 

Soda 

The  articles  on  organic  bases  in- 
clude : 

Amines 

Ethylamine 


Trimethylamine 

Aniline 

Pyridine 

Quinoline 

Alkaloids 

Ptomaines 

The  article  ALKALOIDS  contains  a 
list  of  the  important  members  of  this 
class  of  substances,  with  their  princi- 
pal characteristics.  More  extensive 
descriptions  are  given  in  the  special 
articles  on  all  the  more  important  al- 
kaloids. 

(c)  Acids: 

All  the  more  important  acids  are  de- 
scribed in  special  articles  under  their 
names.  Many  acids  of  secondary  im- 
portance are  mentioned  in  connection 
with  their  characteristic  elements.  Fol- 
lowing is  a  partial  list  of  important  ar- 
ticles on  acids: 

i.  General: 
Acids 
Phenols 

ii.  Inorganic: 

Sulphuric  Acid 
Hydrochloric  Acid 
Nitric   Acid 
Sulphurcted  Hydrogen 
Phosphoric  Acid 
Hydrobrornic  Acid 
Hydriodic  Acid 
Hydrofluoric  Acid 
Chloric   Acid 
Perchloric  Acid 
Hypochlorous  Acid 
Nitrous  Acid 
Hyponitrous  Acid 
Phosphorous  Acid 
Hypophosphorous  Acid 
Manganic      and      Permanganic 
Acids 


184 


CHEMISTRY 


Hi.  Organic: 

Acetic  Acid 

Benzoic  Acid 

Butyric  Acid 

Caproic,    Caprylic,    and    Capric 

Acids 

Carbolic  Acid 
Carbonic- Acid  Gas 
Cinnamic  Acid 
Citric"  Acid 
Cyanic  Acid 
Cyanuric  Acid 
Formic   Acid 

Fumaric  and  Maleic  Acids 
Gallic  Acid 
Glycin 

Hippuric  Acid 
Hydrocyanic   Acid 
Hydrofcrrk'yanic   Acid 
Hydroferrocyanic  Acid 
Lactic  Acid 
Laurie  Acid 
Malic  Acid 
Margaric  Acid 
Meconic  Acid 
Myristic  Acid 
(Enanthylic  Acid 
Oloic  Acid 
Oxalic  Acid 
Palmitic  Acid 
Picric  Acid 
Stearic  Acid 
Succinic  Acid 
Tannic  Acid 
Tartaric  Acid 
Uric  Acid 
Valeric  Acid 

An  important  "homologous  series" 
of  acids,  included  in  this  list,  is  consti- 
tuted by  the  following  so-called  "  fatty 
acids  " : 

Formic 
Acetic 


Butyric 

Valeric 

Caproic 

Cap  ry  lie 

Capric 

Senanthylic 

Laurie 

Myristic 

Palmitic 

Margaric 

Stearic 

Allied  to  the  last-named  is  Oleic 
Acid. 

The  acid  anhydrides  are  mostly 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
metalloid  elements. 

(d)  Salts: 

Salts  are  mostly  described  in  con- 
nection with  either  the  acids  or  the 
bases  combined  in  them.  The  follow- 
ing are  a  few  special  articles  on  salts : 

Alum 

Borax 

Cream  of  Tartar 

Epsom  Salt 

Glauber's  Salt 

Iodides 

Rochelle  Salt 

Ichthyol 

Saltpetre 

Soda 

Bases,  acids,  and  salts  constitute  to- 
gether the  so-called  "  electrolytes." 
Their  peculiar  behavior  in  aqueous 
solutions  has  led  to  the  formulation 
of  the  now  well-known  theory  of  elec- 
trolytic dissociation,  which  may  be 
found  treated  in  the  articles  SOLUTION, 
DISSOCIATION,  and  ACIDS. 

(e)  Hydrocarbons: 

Hydrocarbons 
Methane 


CHEMISTRY 


185 


Ethane 

Propane 

Butane  and  Isobutane 

Ethylene 

Acetylene 

Benzene 

Naphthalene 

Anthracene 

Further  information  concerning  hy- 
drocarbons may  be  found  in  articles 
on  such  products  as  oils  (volatile), 
paraffin,  ozokerite,  petroleum,  benzine, 
rubber,  gutta-percha,  gas  (illuminat- 
ing and  natural),  etc. 

(f)  Other  important  compounds: 

Water 

Hydrogen  Dioxide 

Ozone 

Alcohol 

Methyl  Alcohol 

Glycerin 

Mannitc 

Aldehyde 

Chloral 

Acetone 

Almonds,  Volatile  Oil  of 

Acrolein 

Acetone 

Ether 

Chloroform 

lodoform 

Nitro-Benzene 

Carbides 

Calcium  Carbide 

Carbon  Disulphide 

Carbonic  Oxide 

Cyanogen 

(g)  Pigments,  Dyestuffs,  and  Allied 

Subjects: 

Paints 

Mineral  Colors 
Vegetable  Colors 


Dyeing 

Mordants 

Coal-Tar  Colors 

Tar 

Coal  Tar 

Indigo 

Alizarin 

Purpurin 

Aurin 

Rosolic  Acid 

Archil 

Arnotto 

Carmine 

Cochineal 

Flavin 

Fustic 

Henna 

Indian  Yellow 

Lac  Dye  (under  Lac) 

Litmus 

Madder 

Orcin 

Orcein 

Logwood 

Murexid 

Phenicin 

Quercitron 

Green 

Brunswick  Green 

Turkey  Red 

Cinnabar 

Blue 

Indigo 

Lampblack 

White  Lead 

A  list  of  the  widely  used  coal-tar 
colors  ("aniline  dye-stuffs"),  with 
their  principal  characteristics,  will  be 
found  in  the  article  COAL-TAB  COLORS, 

(h)   Waxes,  Fats,  00$,  and  Soap: 
Waxes 
Beeswax 

Spermaceti 


186 


CHEMISTRY 


Fats 

Palmitin 

Stearin 

Olein 

Oils 

Almonds,  Expressed  Oil  of 

Almonds,  Volatile  Oil  of 

Canada  Balsam 

Castor  Oil 

Cod-Liver  Oil 

Croton  Oil 

Garlic,  Oil  of 

Grass-Oil 

Gurjun  Balsam 

Lemon  Oil 

Menthol 

Petroleum 

Turpentine 

Wintergreen,  Oil  of 

Soap 

All  the  typical  waxes  and  oils  are 
described  in  the  general  articles  under 
these  names.  Paraffin,  which  is  some- 
times spoken  of  as  "paraffin  wax,"  is 
described  in  an  article  under  its  own 
name. 

(i)  Gums  and  Resins: 
Gums 
Resins 
Amber 
Ammoniac 
Anime 
Arabin 
Copal 

Bassora  Gum 
Bdellium 
Catechu 

Dragon's  Blood 
Gambir 
Gamboge 

Gum  Arabic  (under  Guuu) 
Kino 
Mucilage 


Olibanum 

Podophyllin 

Rosin 

Sandarac 

Scammony 

Camphor,  which  is  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  "gum  camphor,"  is  described 
under  its  own  name.  "British  gum,5' 
a  substitute  for  gum  arabic,  is  de- 
scribed under  DEXTRIN. 

(j)  Explosives: 

The  chemistry  of  EXPLOSIVES,  both 
those  employed  for  military  purposes 
and  in  mining  and  other  industries, 
represents  a  field  in  which  the  theoret- 
ical and  technological  advances  have 
been  extraordinary,  and  the  new  com- 
pounds that  the  chemist  has  invented 
have  played  their  part  in  peace  and 
war.  In  no  department  of  chemistry 
have  there  been  more  interesting  devel- 
opments than  in  the  theory  of  Explo- 
sives and  the  various  group?  into 
which  modern  Explosives  are  classified 
all  present  interesting  theoretical  con- 
siderations for  the  chemist. 

Accordingly,  the  student  interested 
in  the  history,  classification  and  theory 
of  Explosives,  and  wishing  to  learn  of 
the  various  explosive  mixtures,  of  the 
nitrates,  of  the  chlorates  and  per- 
chlorates,  and  compounds  derived  by 
nitro-substitution,  and  those  com- 
pounds known  as  nitro-derivatives,  as 
well  as  smokeless  powders,  nitro- 
glycerin,  fulminates  and  amides, 
should  read  the  article  on  EXPLOSIVES, 
which  not  only  discusses  theory,  but 
the  growth  of  the  industry  in  the 
United  States  and  the  use  of  Explo- 
•riveg  in  industry,  such  as  for  blasting 
uid  mining,  and  the  regulations  at- 
tending their  transportation  and  stor- 


CHEMISTRY 


187 


age.  Of  course,  the  older  forms  of 
Explosives  are  discussed  under  gun- 
powder, while  GUNCOTTON,  NITRO- 
GLYCERIN  and  NITRO-CELLULOSE  show 
the  application  of  these  substances  to 
this  branch  of  chemistry.  Dynamite 
is  typical  of  the  articles  on  high  power 
explosives,  while  the  article  on  TRINI- 
TROTOLUENES describes  one  of  the  lat- 
est of  the  powerful  military  explosives. 
An  appropriate  list  for  careful 
reading  in  this  department  would  be 
as  follows: 

Dualine 

Dynamite 

Extralite 

Explosives 

Emmensite 

Nitroglycerin 


Guncotton 

Gunpowder 

Melinite 

Lyddite 

Magazine 

Nitrocellulose 

Pyroxylin 

Stemming 

Trinitrotoluenes 

Waters: 
Water 
Ice 

Distilled  Water 
Aerated  Waters 
Carbonated  or  Acidulous  Waters 
Chalybeate  Waters 
Mineral  Waters 
Selters  Water 
Apollinaris  Water 


Many  of  the  foregoing  articles  are  concerned  either  with  theory  or  with 
the  nature  and  composition  of  various  chemical  elements  or  substances,  apart 
from  their  uses  in  the  arts,  where  the  labors  of  modern  research  chemists  have 
found  wide  and  useful  application.  Accordingly,  the  following  chapter  on 
INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY  will  take  up  some  of  the  more  important  substances 
and  processes  that  enter  into  modern  technology. 


Chapter  19.   3nbttStrial  Cfjemtstrp 


HAVING  mastered  the  underlying  principles  and  more  important 
facts  of  chemistry*  such  as  the  nature  of  the  various  elements,  the 
conditions  under  which  they  exist  and  the  laws  under  which  they 
combine,  and  the  most  generally  and  commonly  employed  chemical 
substances,  the  reader  interested  in  the  practical  applications  of 
this  vast  field  of  theoretical  science  naturally  will  desire  information  as  to  the 
extent  to  which  scientific  chemistry  figures  in  the  arts,  and  some  description 
of  the  various  technological  processes  involved  in  wholesale  production.    Methods 
of  manufacture  representing  theory  reduced  to  practice  often  involve  the  re- 
sults of  the  most  refined  research  and  scientific  investigation,  by  which  every- 
day materials  are  produced  for  general  use  and  the  benefit  of  mankind.     Vast 
industries  involving  both  inorganic  and  organic  chemistry  have  been  built  up 
on  the  labors  of  the  scientist,  and  as  trade  follows  the  flag  so  manufacturing 
prosperity  follows  and  in  large  measure  depends  on  the  labors  of  the  indus- 
trial chemist. 

The  reader  of  this  department  in  THE  NEW  INTERNATIONAL,  ENCYCLO- 
PEDIA, who  first  has  studied  the  leading  articles  of  the  last  chapter,  probably 
would  be  best  served  by  taking  up  first  the  articles  dealing  with  the  various 
processes  of  industrial  chemistry,  noting  especially  how  the  methods  of  the  fac- 
tory differ  from  those  of  the  laboratory. 
Leading  articles  in  this  field  would  be: 


Lixiviation 

Evaporation 

Distillation 

Sublimation 

Filter  and  Filtration 

Filter  Press 

Bleaching 

Calcining 

Refrigeration 

Roasting 

Electro-Chemistry 

FUEL. 

Then,  as  heat  plays  an  important 
part  in  all  industry,  chemical  and 
other,  a  study  of  fuels  would  be  next 
in  order.  Fundamentally  and  gener- 
ally these  are  discussed  in  the  article 
on  FUEL.  There  are  articles  on  the 
various  solid  and  liquid  fuels  to  which 
reference  should  be  made  for  the  im- 


portant by-products  involved,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  coal-tar  colors,  ammonia, 
hydrocarbons  and  other  substances 
from  the  coal  gas  plants  and  coke 
ovens.  These  represent  quite  an  im- 
portant field  of  chemistry.  Therefore, 
it  may  be  suggested  that  the  articles 
be  taken  up  as  follows: 

Solid  Fuels: 
Charcoal 
Coal 

Anthracite 
Bituminous  Coal 
Tar 
Lignite 
Coal  Tar 
Coke 
Peat 

Liquid  Fuels: 
Alcohol 


188 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY 


189 


Petroleum 

Kerosene 

Oil 

Gaseous  Fuels: 

Gas,  Illuminating   and  Fuel 

Acetylene 

Calcium  Carbide 

Gas  Engine 

Internal  Combustion  Engine 

Motor  Vehicle 

WATER. 

The  Industrial  Chemist  after  fuel  is 
next  concerned  with  Water.  It  may 
be  hard  or  soft,  saline  or  alkaline,  suit- 
able or  unsuitable  for  use  in  a  boiler, 
or  having  special  properties  making  it 
desirable  in  the  manufacture  of  such 
beverages  as  beer  and  ale.  Its  puri- 
fication may  require  a  wide  range  of 
special  processes  ranging  from  chlori- 
nation  to  distillation.  Accordingly,  a 
suitable  line  of  reading  would  be 
somewhat  as  follows: 

Waler 

Water  Supply 

Water  Purification 

Water  Works 

Distillation 

Filter  and  Filtration 

Boiler 

Boiling  Point 

Mineral  Waters 

Bottling 

COMMON  CHEMICALS. 

In  Industrial  Chemistry  there  are  a 
number  of  rather  common  chemicals, 
but  with  a  vast  economic  importance, 
for  they  enter  so  largely  into  manu- 
facturing that  they  are  always  in  con- 
stant demand  and  use.  A  few  of  these 
groups  may  be  studied  at  some  length. 
Thus — Sulphur,  whose  mining,  extrac- 


tion and  purification  are  all  problems 
in  chemical  engineering,  has  a  number 
of  important  compounds,  of  which  the 
best  known  industrially  are  found  in 
the  accompanying  list: 

Sulphur 

Sulphurcted  Hydrogen 
Sulphuric  Acid 
Sulphurous  Acid 
Thiosulphuric  Acid 

Found  widely  in  nature,  SALT  is  an 
imporlant  substance  and  common  salt 
or  Sodium  Chloride  is  used  not  only 
for  food,  but  in  the  manufacture  of 
Soda  Ash,  Sodium  Carbonate,  and 
other  substances.  Consequently,  the 
articles 

Sodium 

Salt 

Soda 

should  be  read,  it  being  noted  that 
under  these  a  number  of  Sodium  com- 
pounds are  treated. 

The  Chlorine  industry  involves  the 
preparation  of  substances  used  ex- 
tensively in  the  arts  as  a  bleaching  or 
oxidizing  agent,  and  the  liquid  chlorine 
in  addition  has  been  employed  ex- 
tensively as  an  a&phyxiant  in  the  great 
European  War.  See: 

Chlorine 
Chloric  Acid 
Chlorites 
Chlorimetry 
Hydrochloric  Acid 
Hypochlorous  Acid 
Sal  Ammoniac 
Mercuric  Chloride 
Mercurous  Chloride 
Bleaching  Powder 
Chloridizing 
Chlorination 


190 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY 


The  various  compounds  of  calcium 
supply  to  the  arts  a  large  number  of 
important  materials,  including  MARBLE 
and  other  BUILDING  STONES,  LIME- 
STONE for  iron  and  lead  smelting, 
GYPSUM  or  PLASTER  OF  PARIS  (Lime 
Sulphate),  CEMENT,  in  which  Lime  is 
the  principal  ingredient,  BLEACHING 
POWDER  or  CHLORIDE  OF  LIME,  MOR- 
TAR, in  which  Lime  enters  largely,  and 
so  on  through  an  extensive  list.  In 
practically  all  of  these  purposes  there 
is  work  for  the  industrial  chemist, 
whether  it  involves  the  calcining  of  the 
material  in  a  kiln  to  form  cement  or 
the  study  of  concrete,  now  used  so 
largely  for  structural  work.  Conse- 
quently, the  reader  who  follows 
through  the  various  articles  on  Cal- 
cium and  its  compounds  as  given  be- 
low will  realize  their  industrial  impor- 
tance : 

Lime 

Limestone 

Marble 

Building  Stone 

Marl 

Chalk 

Calcite 

Iceland  Spar 

Gypsum  (Lime  Sulphate) 

Bleaching  Powder   (Lime  Chloride) 

Cement 

Kiln 

Mortar 

Concrete 

Masonry 

Plaster  of  Paris 

Plaster,  Lathing  and  Plastering 

Calcium   Carbide 

Fertilizers 

Manures  and  Manuring 

Iron  and  Steel,  Metallurgy  of 

The  Destructive  Distillation  of  wood 


affords  a  number  of  important  prod- 
ucts, among  which  is  acetic  acid, 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
acetates.  There  are  also  a  number  of 
other  or  related  substances,  so  that  if 
we  examine  a  rather  broad  group  we 
find  a  number  of  valuable  materials  in- 
cluded. These  may  be  embraced  in 
the  following  list: 

Distillation 
Acetic  Acid 
Acetine 

Methyl  Alcohol 
Tar 

The  Destructive  Distillation  and 
other  treatment  of  bones  also  affords 
useful  chemical  products.  The  use  of 
bone  products  as  fertilizers,  the  em- 
ployment of  bone  black  as  a  decoloriz- 
ing agent  in  filtration,  as  in  sugar  re- 
fining, are  specially  important.  The 
connection  tissue  in  skin  and  bones  is 
used  in  making  gelatine,  and  the  bones 
themselves  are  employed  in  making 
glue.  Accordingly,  if  the  articles 
enumerated  below  be  consulted  a  sub- 
stantial idea  of  this  field  of  chemical 
technology  will  be  gained: 

Bone 

Bone  Black 
Bone  Fertilizers 
Gelatin 
Glue 

The  industrial  chemist  has  impor- 
tant work  in  connection  with  the  man- 
ufacture of  various  artificial  fertilizers 
which  modern  intensive  agriculture  de- 
mands. Naturally,  this  branch  is 
closely  connected  with  scientific  agri- 
culture and  agricultural  chemistry. 
Consequently,  one  will  find  in  the  ac- 
companying list  of  articles  much  that 
will  indicate  how  the  chemist  is  assist- 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY 


191 


ing   the   processes    of  nature.      Such 
articles  would  be : 

Manures  and  Manuring 

Bone  Fertilizers 

Peat 

Ashes 

Phosphate 

Potash 

Kelp 

Cyanamid 

INORGANIC  INDUSTRIES. 

In  Industrial  Chemistry  the  great 
division  of  inorganic  and  organic  chem- 
istry can  be  observed  in  considering 
the  products  of  various  industries.  A 
certain  number  containing  various 
groups  have  been  entered  specifically 
on  these  lists,  but  the  main  topics  in- 
volved can  be  indicated  together  and 
then  the  reader  can  pursue  his  inves- 
tigations further,  depending  both  on 
the  list  in  this  Guide  and  on  the  elab- 
orate cross  references  given  with  the 
articles.  Under  Inorganic  Chemistry 
reference  profitably  can  be  made  to  the 
following  main  and  more  prominent 
articles : 

Sulphur 

Sulphuric  Acid 

Salt 

Hydrochloric  Acid 

Soda 

Sodium 

Chlorine 

Nitric  Acid 

Ammonia 

Potash 

Bromide 

Iodine 

Phosphorous 

Boric  Acid 

Arsenic 

Oxygen 


Peroxides 

Sulphates 

Alum 

Cyanides 

Carbon 

Carbon  Bisulphide 

Carbon  Monoxide 

MINERAL  COLORS. 

An  important  series  of  industries  in 
Inorganic  Chemistry  involve  the  man- 
ufacture of  pigments.  The  various 
chemicals  entering  into  the  more  im- 
portant of  the  pigments  are  discussed 
largely  under  MINERAL  COLORS  and 
separately  as  follows: 

White: 

White  Lead 
White  Chalk 
Lithopone 
Gypsum 
China  Clay 

Blue: 

Ultramarine 
Smaltite 
Copper  Indigo 

Green : 

Ultramarine 
Brunswick  Green 
Chrome  Green 
Malachite  Green 
Verdigris 
Paris  Green 

Yellow: 

Chrome  Yellows 

Cadmium 

Litharge 

Gamboge 

Indian  Yellow  or  Purree 

Orange : 

Chrome  Orange 


192 


INDUSTRIAL  CHEMISTRY 


Red: 

Red  Lead 
Chrome  Red 
Red  Ochre 
Vermilion 
Realgar 
Antimony  Red 
Carmine 

Brown : 

Umber 
Sepia 

Black: 

Lampblack 
Bone  Black 
Charcoal 
Graphite 

ORGANIC  INDUSTRIES. 

Industrial  Chemistry  is  so  closely 
connected  with  manufacturing  and 
manufacturing  processes  that  in  any 
classification  such  as  could  be  observed 
in  an  encyclopaedia,  it  is  very  difficult 
to  draw  any  satisfactory  line  of  de- 
markation.  Particularly  is  this  the 
case  in  the  large  number  of  industries 
where  organic  chemistry  plays  an  im- 
portant part  and  underlies  the  vari- 
ous processes  of  manufacture. 

Accordingly,  the  reader  should  refer 
to  the  chapter  on  MANUFACTURES  AND 
ENGINEERING,  where,  under  these  vari- 
ous industries  and  products  often  the 
chemical  technology  is  discussed.  Such 
a  list  of  organic  industries  would  be 
as  follows: 

Distillation 

Gas,  Illuminating  and  Fuel 

Coal  Tar 

Coal-Tar  Colors 

Mineral  Oils 


Petroleum 
Waxes 

Fats 

Oils 

Soap 

Candle 

Glycerine 

Gums 

Resins 

Starch 

Dextrin 

Glucose 

Sugar 

Fermentation 

Distilled  Liquors 

Beer 

Brewing 

Explosives 

Fibres 


Paper 

Leather 

Glue 

MINERAL  OILS. 

The  preparation  and  refining  of 
Mineral  Oils  has  produced  a  wealth  of 
materials  aside  from  the  fuel  oils 
proper,  and  one  interested  in  this  field 
after  reading  the  comprehensive  dis- 
cussion on  PETROLEUM  will  turn  to 
other  articles  dealing  with  allied  topics, 
as  contained  in  the  accompanying  list  : 

Petroleum 

Naphtha 

Paraffin 

Petrolatum 

Vaseline 

Shale  Oil 

Ozokerite 

Mineral  Tallow 

Asphalt 


Cljaptcr  20.  Home  economic^  anb 
Bomtstit  Science 


IT  is  but  natural  that  the  modern  tendency  to  secure  increased  efficiency 
and,  consequently,  increased  comfort  and  convenience  should  be  mani- 
fested in  the  home  through  the  application  of  scientific  management 
and  devices  no  less  than  in  commerce  and  industry.  In  its  latest  aspects 
this  finds  full  expression  in  the  NEW  INTERNATIONAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
Modern  science  has  done  much  for  the  housekeeper,  securing  more  nourishing 
and  more  economical  foods,  as  well  as  as  various  labor-saving  devices — such  as 
SEWING  MACHINES  and  VACUUM  CLEANERS — that  materially  cut  down  the  effort 
necessary  to  maintain  and  operate  a  domestic  establishment.  This  concerns  the 
small  as  well  as  the  large  householder,  for  electric  light,  gas  heating  and 
plumbing  are  all  but  universally  found,  and  economic  methods  have  been  de- 
vised for  the  small  city  apartment  or  the  isolated  farm  whereby  the  maximum 
well-being,  comfort  and  economies  generally  can  be  obtained. 

Modern  home  economics  is  not  concerned  alone  with  Food  and  its  Prep- 
aration. The  intelligent  woman  of  to-day,  managing  a  home,  often  arranges 
for  its  building,  for  the  carpentry,  heating,  plumbing,  wall  paper,  furniture 
and  carpets  and  rugs,  or  for  its  lease  if  a  rented  dwelling,  or  a  portion  of 
an  apartment  house  or  hotel.  If  sufficiently  large,  the  dwelling  may  involve 
electric  heating,  including  electric  cooking,  vacuum  cleaners  or  laundry  ma- 
chines, and  in  many  of  the  modern  homes  may  involve  an  organization  as  com- 
plex as  a  small  business,  and  this  involves  a  number  of  employees — male  and 
female — to  whom  the  principles  of  Master  and  Servant  must  apply.  In  a  large 
part,  however,  Domestic  Science  has  to  do  with  food  and  its  preparation,  for 
it  is  here  that  the  chemistry  of  nutrition  has  been  brought  to  bear,  and  the 
wholesome  and  economical  preparation  of  food  is  one  of  the  main  objects  of 
the  modern  science  of  Household  Chemistry. 

Considering,  therefore,  the  articles  already  suggested  and  others  arranged 
in  a  convenient  list  for  ready  reference,  we  should  have  first  the  following, 
dealing  with  the  home  and  its  material  equipment: 

Mouse  Illumination 

Apartment  House  Vacuum  Cleaner 

Tenement  House  Water  Supply 

Hotel  Filter  and  Filtration 

Building  Laundry  Machinery 

Carpentry  Sewage  Disposal 
Heating  and  Ventilation 

Plumbing  On  the  legal  side,  the  householder 

Electric  Heater  should    know    something    of    the    law 

Electric  Lighting  dealing  with  such  subjects  as: 

Lighting  Deed 

193 


194   HOME  ECONOMICS  AND  DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 


Title 
Lease 
Master  and  Servant 

Supplied  with  a  proper  house  and 
concerned  with  its  management  or  with 
the  management  of  an  institution 
where  features  of  home  life  and  home 
conveniences  must  apply,  one  would  be 
concerned  with  the  articles  on 

Home  Economics 

Management,  Home  and  Institution 
Cooperation 

Marketing     Associations,     Agricul- 
tural 

It  is,  however,  on  food  and  food  sup- 
ply that  intelligent  interest  centers, 
for  it  is  here  that  the  high  cost  of 
living  first  makes  itself  apparent,  not 
to  mention  that  the  appetite  may 
prove  the  shortest  road  to  a  man's  well 
being  if  not  to  his  mind.  One  con- 
cerned with  modern  scientific  food 
studies  realizes  that  chemistry  and 
physiology  figure  actively,  so  that  a 
range  of  articles  are  available  that  are 
indeed  comprehensive. 

Food 

Fish  as  Food 

Diet 

Digestion 

Nutrition 

Infants,  Feeding  of 

Cookery 

Baking 

Baking  Powder 

Fireless  Cooker 

Food  Preservation 


Sterilized  Food 
Packing  Industry 
Slaughterhouse 
Adulteration 
Pure-Food  Law 

Prepared  by  the  preceding  rather 
general  articles  on  Foods  and  Food- 
Stuff,  the  reader  in  this  department 
will  be  ready  to  take  up  specifically  a 
number  of  classes  of  Foods,  or,  in  some 
cases,  definite  food  substances.  Such 
a  list  would  include  the  grains  and 
their  products: 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Rye 

Wheat 

Maize 

Rice 

Flour 

Bread 

There  would  also  be  such  important 
foods  as 

Milk 

Cream 

Butter 

Butter  Color 

Butter  Making 

Oleomargarine 

Cheese 

Eggs 

Meat 

Meat  Extract 

Nuts 

Fruits 

Vegetables 


Cfjaptcr  21.   3ntedor  Becotation  anil 

Bccnratibe 


WITHIN  a  few  years  there  has  developed  in  connection  with, 
yet  at  the  same  time  apart  from,  architecture  and  the  fine 
arts  increased  interest  in  those  aesthetic  forms  of  expression 
that  are  found  in  the  home  or  dwelling.     While  always  rec- 
ognized on  its  artistic  side,  home  decoration  has  now  become 
a  practical  art  requiring  systematic  training  on  the  part  of  those  by  whom  it 
is  practised,  and  having  secured  for  itself  general  public  recognition  as  dis- 
tinct from  architecture  or  mere  trade  activity  in  the  supply  of  the  articles 
necessary  for  the  home. 

With  the  growth  of  civilization  the  decoration  of  the  home,  be  it  a  hut, 
cave,  cottage,  or  palace,  has  always  appealed  directly  to  its  owner  or  occu- 
pants, and  their  taste  has  found  expression  in  combining  beauty  with  utility. 
As  a  result  there  is  to  be  seen  decorative  activity  ranging  from  a  most  humble 
scale  to  securing  the  work  of  the  greatest  artists  of  the  period  for  orna- 
mental purposes.  It  is  only  recently  that  the  proper  and  most  advantageous 
uses  of  articles  of  decorative  value  have  been  recognized,  and  with  the  growth 
of  luxury  and  comfort  there  has  been,  on  the  whole,  a  corresponding  growth 
in  good  taste.  In  large  part,  this  has  been  due  either  to  artist,  craftsmen  of 
rare  talents  or  to  those  who  have  studied  the  various  aesthetic  elements  involved 
in  house  decoration,  recognizing  the  cardinal  principle  that  a  home  is  de- 
signed for  habitability.  From  such  study  encouraged  by  museums  and  col- 
lections there  has  grown  up  a  school  of  decorative  art  known  as  interior 
decoration,  which  aims  to  cultivate  public  taste  to  appreciate  the  artistic  and 
to  make  the  home  conform  to  the  accepted  canons  of  good  taste,  where  the 
work  not  only  of  artists  but  of  skilful  craftsmen  and  artisans  will  be  appreciated. 
This  movement  involves  both  a  general  manifestation  of  progressively 
better  taste  and  the  activities  of  those  trained  professionally  in  schools  of 
fine  arts  or  design  to  practice  the  art  of  interior  decoration  and  to  advise 
persons  who  need  such  assistance.  Just  as  the  ordinary  person  requires  the 
service  of  an  architect  to  design  or  remodel  a  house  or  apartment,  so  when 
its  decoration  and  furnishing  are  involved  there  is  no  less  a  call  for  the  ser- 
vices of  a  trained  interior  decorator,  rather  than  a  mere  painter,  upholsterer 
or  tradesman.  To  this  profession  many  women,  as  well  as  men,  are  now  devot- 
ing themselves  with  marked  success,  and  to  learn  of  their  training  and  their 
work  one  can  turn  to  the  article  on  INTERIOR  DECORATION.  Here  will  be 
found,  also,  a  broad  view  of  the  development  and  scope  of  the  modern  art, 
and  if  read  in  connection  with  the  more  formal  article  on  DECORATIVE  ART, 
with  attention  also  to  ORNAMENT  and  ARCHITECTURE,  a  good  idea  will  be 
gained  of  the  modern  status  of  this  important  field.  Naturally,  there  are 
subsidiary  to  it  a  number  of  subordinate  articles — thus,  FURNITURE  is  an  im- 
portant part  of  Interior  Decoration,  and  in  its  development  may  be  traced  the 

105 


196  INTERIOR  DECORATION  AND  DECORATIVE  ART 

general  progress  of  the  beautiful  with  the  practical,  though  retrogression  in 
taste  unquestionably  is  to  be  noted  with  the  increase  of  mechanical  facility  in 
production  and  otherwise.  Likewise,  in  CARPETS  and  RUGS  decorative  impulse 
finds  expression,  and  floor  coverings  represent  a  wide  diversity  of  artistic  ideas, 
depending  upon  their  service,  from  the  hand  looms  of  the  Orient  to  the  mod- 
ern carpet  factory.  Again,  in  the  decoration  of  the  surfaces  of  walls  from 
the  older  tapestries  to  the  WALL  PAPEE  of  the  day,  a  distinct  artistic  devel- 
opment is  represented.  In  TEXTILE  PRINTING  also  modern  art  has  brought 
about  a  wide  range  of  decorative  material  for  the  modest  householder. 

Therefore,  with  the  citation  of  such  main  titles,  a  consideration  of  a  some- 
what fuller  list  will  show  the  interrelation  of  the  articles  in  this  and  allied 
departments,  and  how  advantageously  they  fit  into  a  comprehensive  reading 
scheme.  The  list  might  be  taken  up  in  the  following  order: 

Interior  Decoration  Veneer 

Decorative  Art  Wall  Paper 

Ornament  Paper  Hanging 

Architecture  Textile  Printing 

Mural  Decoration  Tapestry 

Painting  Gobelin 

Sculpture  Carpet 

Illumination  Hug 

Furniture  Lamp 

Chippendale  Chairs  Lacquer  Work 

Chippendale,  Thomas  Pottery 

Hepplewhite,  George  Armor 

Sheraton,  Thomas  Metal  Work 
Boulle 


Chapter  22. 


GEOLOGY  covers  a  broad  field.     Its  primary  object  is  to  explain  the 
origin  and  development  of  the  earth  and  the  inhabiting  life  forms. 
It  is  concerned  thus  on  the  one  side  with  inorganic  nature — the 
character  of  the  materials  which  constitute  the  earth's  structure, 
the  formation  and  classification  of  rocks,  the  forces  of  uplift  that 
have  produced  mountains  and  continental  landi,  the  agencies  that  work  to  mod- 
ify   surface   features,   the   phenomena    of   earthquakes    and   volcanoes,   and  all 
processes  of  change  operative  from  the  beginning;  in  another  aspect  it  is  allied 
to  the  biologic  sciences  for  which  it  endeavors  to  find  an  explanation  for  the 
present  distribution  of  plants  and  animals  in  thr  evidences  afforded  by  fossils 
which  have  been  preserved  in  the  superficial   layers  of  tho  earth. 

Because  of  its  wide  scope,  geological  science  has  been  separated  into  a 
number  of  departments,  each  with  its  distinct  formations,  but  none  the  less 
closely  related  to  all  the  others.  Of  fundamental  importance  is  Petrology,  the 
branch  which  considers  the  nature  of  rocks  and  the  methods  of  their  origin. 
This  branch  is  one  of  the  last  to  have  attained  a  real  scientific  basis.  The 
arrangement  of  the  rocks  as  they  appear  at  the  surface — often  quite  different 
from  their  original  attitudes — and  the  significance  of  the  arrangement  in  rela- 
tion to  past  events,  constitute  the  subject  matter  of  Structural  Geology.  The 
great  changes  which  have  taken  place  and  arc  still  in  progress  belong  to  the 
field  of  Dynamical  Geology,  which  considers  the  action  of  the  atmosphere, 
water,  igneous  activity  and  crushil  strains  in  modifying  the  earth's  features. 
Its  study  is  essential  to  the  proper  understanding  of  physical  geography,  par- 
ticularly the  modern  development  of  that  subject  known  as  physiography. 
Consequently  the  references  to  physiographic  articles  will  be  included  under  its 
head.  StratigraphicaJ  Geology  has  for  its  particular  province  the  investiga- 
tions of  the  order  and  chronological  classification  of  the  strata  and  the  study 
of  the  geography  of  the  earth  in  past  a^es.  It  has  a  valuable  adjunct  in 
Paleontology,  which  is  the  study  of  fossils  and  their  interpretation  in  the 
light  of  evolution.  Geology  has  many  practical  bearings,  and  its  application 
to  mining,  agriculture  and  engineering  is  considered  under  the  head  of  Eco- 
nomic Geology. 

We  shall  now  guide  the  reader  to  the  articles  relating  to  those  several 
divisions  of  the  subject.  For  the  general  article,  sec  GEOLOGY. 


For    the    more    comprehensive    ar-          Crystallography 
tides  in  this  field,  see:  Rock 

The  various  large  groups  or  classes 

Petrology  of  rocks  are  described  under  the  fol- 

Mineralogy  lowing  titles: 

197 


198 


GEOLOGY 


Igneous  Rocks 
Aqueous  Rocks 
^Eolian  Accumulations 
Clastic  Rocks 
Plutonic  Rocks 
Metamorphic  Rocks 
Crystalline  Rocks 
Arenaceous  Rocks 
Argillaceous  Rocks 
Calcareous  Rocks 

For  the  more  important  specific  kinds 
of  rocks,  see: 

1.  IGNEOUS   (MASSIVE)  ROCKS: 

Granite 

Rhyolite 

Porphyry 

Syenite 

Trachyte 

Phonolite 

Diorite 

Dacite 

Felsite 

Gabbro 

Pyroxenite 

Hornblendite 

Peridotite 

Diabase 

Basalt 

Melaphyrc 

Felsite 

Trap 

Obsidian 

Pitchstone 

Lava 

Tuff 

2.  SEDIMENTARY  (STRATIFIED)  ROCKS. 

(a)  Mechanical  Sediments: 
Sand 
Gravel 
Sandstone 


Conglomerate 

Breccia 

Clay 

Shale 

Silt 

Loess 

Boulder  Clay 

Drift 

(b)  Chemical  Sediments: 
Limestone 
Dolomite 
Travertine 
Gypsum 

Salt 

Geyserite 
Bog-Iron  Ore 
Clay  Ironstone 

(c)  Organic  Sediments: 
Limestone 
Coquina 

Chalk 

Coral 

Marl 

Diatomaceous  Earth 

Phosphate  Rock 

Peat 

Lignite 

Coal 

JJ.  MKTAMORPHIC  (FOLIATED)  ROCKS: 

Marble 

Quartzite 

Slate 

Schist 

Gneiss 

Amphibolite 

Mica  Schist 

Eclogite 

Serpentine 

Talc 

Soapstone 

Chlorite  Schist 


GEOLOGY 


199 


B.    Structural 


The  broader  features  of  geological 
structure  are  described  in  the  articles: 

Bed 

Formation 

Conformity 

Unconformity 

Laccolite 

B'atholite 

Boss 

Dike 

Sill 

Veins 

The  smaller  elements  of  structure 
which  pertain  to  the  above  larger 
forms  are  explained  in  the  articles: 

Joints 


Foliation 
Lamination 
Schistosity 
Stratification 

The  effects  of  uplift  and  disturbance 
upon  rocks  are  described  in  the  ar- 
ticles : 

Continent 

Mountain 

Anticline 

Syncline 

Monocline 

Dip 

Strike 

Fault 

Clinometer 


C.    Bpnamtc  <&eologj>  anb 


The  general  subject  of  dynamic 
agencies  operative  within  the  earth  is 
discussed  in  the  articles: 

Crust  of  the  Earth 

Elevation  and  Subsidence 

Metamorphism 

Cataclysm 

Volcano 

Earthquake 

Geyser 

Refrigeration  of  the  Earth 


For  the  evolution  of  the  topography 
of  the  earth's  surface,  see  : 

Physiography 

Erosion 

Continent 

Island 

River 

Valley 

Plateau 

Lake 

Glacier 

Glacial  Period 


D.    fetratigrapfncal 


The  rocks  composing  the  outer  solid 
structure  of  the  earth  are  separated 
according  to  their  position  and  rela- 
tive age  into  large  divisions  which  are 


designated  as  groups.  Each  group 
represents  a  long  interval  of  time  or 
era  during  which  the  strata  were  ac- 
cumulated. The  different  groups  and 


200 


GEOLOGY 


their  corresponding  eras  are  described 
under : 

Archeozoic  Era 

Protcrozoic  Era 

Paleozoic 

Mesozoic  Era 

Cenozoic 

These  main  divisions  are  further 
subdivided  into  systems,  or,  according 
to  the  time  element,  into  periods.  The 
several  systems  are  described  in  the 
following  articles: 

1.  Archeozoic  and  Proterozoic: 
Pre-Cambrian  Formations 

3.  Paleozoic: 

Cambrian  System 
Ordovician 
Silurian  System 
Devonian  System 
Carboniferous  System 
Permian  System 

3.  Mesozoic: 

Triassic  System 
Jurassic  System 
Cretaceous  System 

4f.  Ccnozoic: 

Tertiary  System 
Quaternary  System 

The  broader  scheme  of  classification 
as  outlined  above  is  of  general  appli- 
cation. Further  subdivision  becomes 
necessary  in  the  study  of  particular 
areas,  for  the  individual  strata  change 
in  character  and  often  in  fossil  con- 
tent, as  they  are  traced  from  place  to 
place.  To  identify  the  minor  units, 
geologists  usually  employ  local  names 


which  have  currency  only  within  a 
single  country  or  among  such  countries 
as  have  very  similar  stratiographic  de- 
velopment. Some  of  the  more  impor- 
tant minor  divisions  in  the  United 
States  are  described  in  the  articles: 

Pre^C  cmbrian: 

Kewoenawan  Series 

Cambrian: 

Potsdam  Sandstone 

Ordovicicm: 
Calciferous 
Trenton 
Hudson  River  Beds 

Silurian  : 

Medina  Scries 
Clinton  Stage 
Niagara  Series 
Salina  Stag- 

Devonian: 
Oriskany 

Lower  Helderberg 
Chemung  Formation 
Cat  skill  Formation 

Carboniferous: 
Millstone  Grit 
Pollsvillc  Conglomerate 
Burlington  Limestone 

Triassic  : 

Newark  Scries 

Jurassic : 
Liassic 
Ooolite 

Cretaceous : 

Potomac  Formation 
Dakota  Stage 
Niobrara  Stage 
Laramie  Stage 


GEOLOGY 


201 


Tertiary: 

Eocene  Epoch 
Oligocene  Epoch 
Miocene  Epoch 
Pliocene  Epoch 


Quaternary : 

Columbia  Series 
Drift 

Glacial  Period 
Recent  Period 


E.    fteleontologtcal  <&eologp 


Paleontology  is  the  study  of  the  na- 
ture and  distribution  of  the  life  forms 
imbedded  in  the  rocks  of  the  earth's 
crust.  Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
biological  science,  it  is  a  part  of  zool- 
ogy and  botany ;  but  it  is  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  study  of  the  rocks 
themselves  that  it  may  properly  be  con- 
sidered a  part  of  geology.  The  gen- 
eral articles  on  the  subject  are: 

Paleontology 
Paleobotany 
Fossil 

Fossiliferous  Rocks 
Contemporaneity 
Homotaxy 
Ichnology 
Fossil  Forests 

From  a  biological  point  of  view,  the 
proper  method  of  classifying  fossil 
forms  would  naturally  follow  the  same 
principles  that  guide  the  classification 
of  living  plants  and  animals.  But  in 
studying  paleontology  as  a  part  of 
geology,  the  geological  classification  is 
preferable;  indeed,  the  two  systems 
would,  to  a  certain  extent,  coincide. 
We  shall,  therefore,  refer  the  reader 
to  the  characteristic  fossils  of  each 
geological  epoch.  Most  of  the  larger 
classes  and  orders  of  fossil  forms  are 
still  represented  by  living  species,  and 
general  discussions  of  these  classes 


will  be  found  in  the  articles  given  in 
the  chapters  on  Botany  and  Zoology. 
1.  The  only  fossils  found  in  the 
Pre-Cambrian  Formation  are  described 
in  the  article  ANTIKOKANIA: 

2.  CAMBRIAN  FOSSILS: 

(a)  Plants: 
Oldhamia 

(fa)  Animals: 

Protospongia 

Dictyonema 

Agnostus 

Paradoxides 

Dikellocephalus 

Olencllus 

Trilobita 

Lingula 

Obolella 

Hyolithes 

Nautiloidea 

3.  ORDOVICIAN  AND  SILURIAN  FOSSILS: 

(a)  Invertebrates: 
Brachiospongia 
Stromatoporr 
Graptolite 
Monograptus 
Favosites 
Olenus 
Chonetes 
Asaphus 
Polyzoa 


202 


GEOLOGY 


Fenestella 

Atrypa 

Orthis 

Spirifcr 

Pcntamerus 

Bellerophon 

Pteropoda 

Orthoceras 

Tentaculites 

Eurypterus 

(6)  Fishes: 
Pteraspis 
Cyathaspis 

4.  DEVONIAN  FOSSILS  : 

(a)  Invertebrates: 

Atrypa 

Cyathophyllum 

Phacops 

Ammonoidea 

Pleurotomaria 

Murchisonia 

Clymenia 

Goniatites 

Bactrites 

Heliophyllum 

(fe)  Fishes: 

Holoptychius 

Osteolepis 

Dipterus 

Coccosteus 

Dinichthys 

Cephalaspis 

Chirolepis 

5.  CARBONIFEROUS  FOSSILS: 
(a)  Plants: 

Neuropteris 
Calamites 
Asterophyllites 
Annularia 


Lepidodendron 

Sigillaria 

Stigmaria 

Cordaites 

Carpolith 

Trigonocarpus 

(6)  Invertebrates: 

Fusulina 

Chonetes 

Productus 

Proetus 

Eurypterus 

(c)  Fishes: 
Megalichthys 
Cestraciont 

(d)  Reptiles: 
Stegocephalia 

6.  PERMIAN  FOSSILS: 

(w)  Fishes: 
Palceoniscus 

(fe)  Reptiles: 

Rhynchoccphalia 

7.  TRIASSIC  FOSSILS: 
(a)  Plants: 

Equisetum 
Cycadaceae 

(6)  Invertebrates: 
Terebratula 
Ceratites 
Ammonites 

(c)  Reptiles: 

Mastodonsaurus 

Theromorpha 

Dinosauria 

Anchisaurus 

Labyrinthodon 

Dicynodon 


GEOLOGY 


208 


(d)  Mammals: 
Microlestes 
Microconodon 

8.  JURASSIC  FOSSILS: 

(a)  Invertebrates: 
Gryph«a 
Trigonia 
Bclemnitcs 

(b)  Fishes: 
Chondrosteus 
Hybodus 

(c)  Reptiles: 
Teleosaurus 
Ichthyosaurus 
Plesiosaurus 
Pterodactyl 
Dimorphodon 
Diplodocus 
Megalosaurus 
Brontosaurus 
Stegosaurus 
Titanosaurus 
Cynognathus 
Baptanodon 
Camptosaurus 
Ceratosaurus 

(d)  Birds: 
Archaeopteryx 

(e)  Mammals: 
Ctcnacodon 

9.  CRETACEOUS  FOSSILS: 
(a)  Invertebrates: 

Foraminifera 

Globigerina 

Ventriculites 

Hippu  rites 

Radiolites 

Inoceramus 

(6)  Reptiles: 
Chelonia 


Iguanodon 
Mosasauria 
Elasmosaurus 
Hadrosaurus 

(c)  Birds: 
Bird,  Fossil 
Hesperornis 
Ichthyornis 

10.  EOCENE  FOSSILS: 
(a)  Invertebrates: 

Nummulites 

(6)  Reptiles: 
Zeuglodon 

(c)  Mammals: 
Coryphodon 
Hyracotherium 
Horse,  Fossil 
Palaeotherium 
Anchitherium 
Anoplotherium 
Lophiodon 
Creodonta 

11.  MIOCENE  FOSSILS: 
(a)  Mammals: 

Mastodon 

Dinotherium 

Helladotherium 

Machserodus 

Elotherium 

Halitherium 

Hyracodon 

Oreodon 

Titanotherium 

12.  PLIOCENE  FOSSILS: 

(a)  Plant: 
Dfemonelix 

(6)  Mammals: 
Sivatherium 


204 


GEOLOGY 


Hipparion 
Sabre-Toothed  Tiger 

18.    QUATERNARY  FOSSILS ! 

(a)  Birds: 
JSpyornis 
Moa 


(6)  Mammal*: 
Elasmotherium 
Megatherium 
Glyptodon 
Diprotodon 
Mammoth 
Mastodon 
Pithecanthropus 


F.    (Economic  <&eo